Running Head: Constructivism, Emerging Theory and the Online Classroom

1
Linking Constructivism, Emerging Theory and
Best Practices in Online Classrooms
Arne P. Hendricksen
Boise State niversity
Constructivism, Emerging Theory and the Online Classroom 2
A!stract
The "ur"ose o# this research "a"er $as to seek out connections !et$een constructivism,
emerging learning theories and !est "ractices in the online classroom. Thos "a"er makes an
e##ort to de#ine and dra$ connections !et$een constructivism, connectivism and transactional
distance. S"eci#ically, the "a"er seeks to ans$er the %uestion, &Ho$ has constructivism
im"acted current learning theory and the online classroom'( )inally, the "a"er takes a !rie# look
at the limitations and negative im"acts constructivist theory in the online classroom.
Constructivism
*n order to e+amine the relationshi"s !et$een constructivist theory, emerging educational
theories and the online classroom, it is critical to #irst e+amine the history and ma,or themes
!ehind constructivism.
The in#luence o# constructivism has occurred %uickly and has !een #ar reaching. -hile it
may !e considered to !e a secondary theory to the "reeminent o!,ectivist theory, constructivist
traits are commonly seen in most classrooms, !rick and mortar and online.
Constructivism can !e considered a !ranch o# cognitivism that develo"ed #rom the $orks
o# Piaget, .ygotsky, /e$ey, 0ontessori, 1ol! and others. -hile the roots o# constructivism
took hold during the late 23445s and into the 26445s, it has seen a recent rise in "o"ularity in the
circles o# educators, "sychologists, theorists and technologists.
Constructivism is a theory o# education that attem"ts to e+"lain ho$ "eo"le learn.
Central to the learning "rocess is that learners construct kno$ledge and meaning o# the outside
$orld through e+"eriences 7Tam, 84449. 1no$ledge is de#ined as something created !y the
Constructivism, Emerging Theory and the Online Classroom 3
learner that only e+ists in the mind o# the learner 70oallem, 84429 Constructivist "edagogy can
!e recogni:ed !y the #act that it "romotes discovery o# kno$ledge through a colla!orative e##ort
that stimulates all students 7Peters, Schmerling and 1arren, 84229. Some current "ractices that
are mani#estations o# the constructivist theory are "ro!lem !ased learning, a""renticeshi"s,
reci"rocal teaching, case !ased lessons and colla!orative teams 71ing and Puntam!ekar, 844;9.
The constructivist theory is more clearly de#ined $hen the o""ositional, o!,ectivist theory
is discussed. O!,ectivism is an alternate theory to constructivism that states kno$ledge is
trans#erred #rom the teacher to the "assive learner. *t contends that kno$ledge is something that
is received !y each student individually, to !e assimilated to the learners !ank o# kno$ledge
7Peters, Schmerling and 1arren, 84229. There#ore, kno$ledge is something that actually e+ists
outside o# the learners mind and is given to the learner through instruction 7 0oallem, 84429.
Colla!oration is a key #eature to the constructivist theory. Learners are encouraged to
$ork together as "eers in the classroom. Ty"ically, the discussion that results #rom colla!oration
allo$s learners to test and re#ine the kno$ledge they have constructed 7Tam, 84449. The #eature
o# colla!oration is a ma,or #ocus o# .ygotsky5s theory o# social constructivism, a variation o#
Piaget5s individualistic constructivism. .ygotsky contended that a student5s a!ility to learn $as
directly related to their social develo"ment, and there#ore, a!ility to colla!orate 7Tam, 84449.
Another key #eature is "ro!lem solving. Constructivism suggests that learning takes
"lace $hen students are #orced to gra""le $ith a "ro!lem that is rich in conte+t and relevant to
the real $orld 71ing and Puntam!ekar, 844;9. Learners are more likely to take o$nershi" o# the
learning "rocess, a""ly their ne$ly #ound kno$ledge and re#ine their e+isting kno$ledge $hen
they are "resented $ith authentic and challenging, yet managea!le "ro!lems 7Tam, 84449.
Constructivism, Emerging Theory and the Online Classroom 4
The #acilitator5s role o# the instructor is one that is essential to the constructivist theory.
O!,ectivist theory states that the instructor acts as the e+"ert and delivers kno$ledge #or students
to take. Constructivism "ro"oses an alternative role #or the teacher, one in $hich he or she
creates meaning#ul activities #or students to colla!orate and create their o$n kno$ledge through
the e+"erience. This role should not !e con#used $ith !eing a lesser role #or the instructor, !ut
rather a di##erent a""roach.
Connectivism
Connectivism is an emerging learning theory that is a result o# the "roli#eration o#
technology and the e+"losion o# human kno$ledge that occurred over the last 84 years. The
sheer amount o# kno$ledge that e+ists is im"ossi!le #or any one individual to kno$.
Connectivism stresses the reliance o# the learner on technology to seek out critical in#ormation
and link it to other "ieces o# kno$ledge. )urthermore, it contends that kno$ledge is not only
created !y the learner, much like constructivists suggest, !ut it can also !e contained $ithin
technology such as com"uters. Connectivism #ocuses on the connections that learners make $ith
in#ormation, each other and com"uters to make a large net$ork o# accessi!le in#ormation
7Siemens, 844<9. This net$ork is constantly changing and gro$ing, it is critical that learners can
change their understandings and connections as the net$ork changes !ecause the validity and
accuracy o# kno$ledge may come into %uestion 71o" and Hill, 84439. *t is also vital that
learners can di##erentiate !et$een im"ortant and e+traneous in#ormation $hen making
connections 7Siemens, 844<9.
Connectivism shares the ma,or theme o# Constructivism in that learning and kno$ledge
e+ist $ithin and are created !y the learner. )urthermore, there are similarities !et$een the
Constructivism, Emerging Theory and the Online Classroom 5
im"ortance o# colla!oration and social interaction leaners re%uired to created kno$ledge
according to constructivists and the connections !y $ay o# technology needed in connectivism
71o" and Hill, 84439. *t should !e noted though that connectivism does not im"ly kno$ledge is
created !y learners, rather, it is linked !y net$orks to other "ieces o# kno$ledge. *n
constructivism, it is !elieved that learners are actually creating their o$n kno$ledge #rom
e+"eriences. The other ma,or di##erence is that connectivism stresses the use o# technology= in
#act, it $as !orn o# the necessity to incor"orate technological advances into learning theory.
Transactional Distance
Transactional distance is a learning theory develo"ed !y 0ichael 0oore in the 26645s. *t
sought to de#ine the "sychological and communicative s"ace !et$een learners and instructors
$hen learning and teaching is occurring over some distance, s"eci#ically the great distances seen
in learning environments. The distance that learners and teachers #eel is not as much attri!uted
to "hysical distance, !ut rather ga"s in communication and "sychological "resence, $hich can
lead to mutual misunderstanding 70oore, 266;9. 0oore determined there $ere three ma,or
#actors that contri!uted to the transactional distance #elt !y learner and instructor. The #irst
#actor, kno$n as dialogue, is a "ur"ose#ul, constructive and mutually valua!le interaction
!et$een an instructor and student. The amount and %uality o# the dialogue determines the
transactional distance #or each teacher and student. Some #actors that contri!ute to determining
the %uality o# dialogue are "ersonalities o# those "artici"ating, content o# intstruction, the mode
o# communication, the #re%uency o# communication and overall #eelings to$ards distance
learning. /ialogue is also considered critical in the constructivist classroom. -hile the
interaction can occur !et$een teacher and student, in the constructivist classroom "eer to "eer
dialogue is considered essential to kno$ledge creation. The second #actor 0oore linked to
Constructivism, Emerging Theory and the Online Classroom
transactional distance $as structure. This re#ers to ho$ the course is designed !y the instructor.
0oore determined that "rograms $ith small transactional distance "rovided thorough
instructions and guidance, !ut allo$ed #or #le+i!ility in the learning "rocess in order to generate
valua!le dialogue 70oore, 266;9. This is very similar to the constructivist role o# the instructor
as a #acilitator, in $hich students are "rovided enough guidance so that they are challenged
intellectually and #orced to colla!orate to #orm their o$n kno$ledge. The third #actor de#ined
!y 0oore $as learner autonomy. Autonomy is de#ined as the learner5s a!ility to sel#>govern
$ithin the learning environment. 0oore #ound that there is a relationshi" !et$een each student5s
level o# autonomy and the amount o# structure and dialogue $ithin the class. *n other $ords, the
transactional distance due to autonomy is !ased on the interaction o# the class structure the
dialogue and each student5s a!ility to govern their o$n learning. *t $as #ound that students $ith
lo$er levels o# autonomy "re#erred classes that $ere highly structured and rich in dialogue,
$hile students that e+hi!ited higher levels o# autonomy e+celled in courses $ith less structure
and dialogue 70oore, 266;9. 0oore5s #indings are similar to the #indings o# some
constructivists, in that student attri!utes "lay a ma,or role in determining the e##ectiveness o#
instruction. 0oallem 784429 #ound that in a distance learning course student success $as linked
to the coordination o# learning style to the "revailing learning theory, o!,ectivist or
constructivist, a""lied in the course.
Online Classrooms
This section $ill e+"lore some o# the key #eatures #ound in current online classroom
environments and ho$ these #eatures are im"acted !y or relate to the constructivist theory. The
#irst #eature #ound in thriving online classroom is colla!oration !et$een students. The
transactional distance !et$een students can hinder their a!ility to learn !ecause they lose the
Constructivism, Emerging Theory and the Online Classroom !
visual and auditory clues that are critical to social learning= there#ore it is essential that students
have the a!ility to communicate electronically in the online classroom. This communication must
!e "ositive and interactive, rather than ,ust turn !ased. Students must !e thought#ul and
res"onsive to their "eers5 ideas. This ty"e o# colla!oration allo$s meaning and kno$ledge to
!uild and evolve uni%uely #or each learner. Constructivists have identi#ied the "rocesses o#
dialogue, communication and colla!oration as ma,or #eatures that ena!le learners to generate
ne$ kno$ledge that is meaning#ul and long lasting 71no$lton, 84449. -hile connectivism
stresses the technological connections and the net$ork o# learners on the internet, constructivism
"oints to the actual "rocess o# colla!oration !et$een students as !eing res"onsi!le #or
kno$ledge.
1no$lton 784449 stresses the im"ortance o# students !ecoming active "artici"ants and
instructors !ecoming #acilitators in the online classroom. ?ather than acting as the authority that
dis"ense kno$ledge #or students, the teacher acts as a coach or mentor to guide students through
the "rocess so that the kno$ledge they create is genuine and their o$n. This adheres to the
"rinci"les o# constructivism $hich says that kno$ledge is only created in the mind o# the learner
through e+"erience. Learners may not have a genuine e+"erience !y "assively o!serving a
lecture, te+t or method delivered !y an instructor. -ang"i"at$ong 784439 suggests that teachers
should initiate a series o# activities that result in kno$ledge construction
Colla!oration and active "artici"ation #rom students are key #eatures in success#ul online
classrooms and cogs in the theory o# constructivism. *n an online classroom colla!oration and
active "artici"ation are di##icult to generate $ithout #raming the course$ork in authentic,
challenging "ro!lem !ased activities. -ang"i"at$ong 784439 classi#ies these ty"es o# activities
as e+"lorations, $here students must actively seek out ne$ in#ormation and connections to solve
Constructivism, Emerging Theory and the Online Classroom "
some "ro!lem. The develo"ment o# the internet has made e+"loration much easier #or "resent
day students. A similar a""lication o# this $ould !e Barro$5s "ro!lem !ased learning model
$hich seeks to create relevant, real li#e "ro!lems #or learners to e+"lore and eventually create
ne$ kno$ledge 7Schmidt, 266;9. ?ather than #ocusing on the content, constructivism suggests
that instructors must #ocus on the conte+t o# learning $here students must generate their o$n
meaning and discover their o$n $ay to understand the material at hand 71aragiorgi @ Symeou,
844A9. These authentic "ro!lems $ould also drive learners in a connectivist environment to seek
out relevant in#ormation and generate ne$ connections in search o# a solution. *n general, a
student centered online class "ackages learning e+"eriences in authentic, challenging and
relevant "ro!lems.
)inally, the characteristics o# individual students are a key #actor in determining the
success o# an online learning environment. )actors such as gender, autonomy and "roactive
traits e##ect the rates o# success student have in online environments. Peters, Schmerling @
1arren 784229 #ound that $omen $ith "roactive traits had a greater success rate in student
centered classrooms than men. Although, they could not #ind an indicator to "redict the success
o# men in student centered online classes. 0oore 7266;9 #ound that the greater the autonomous
traits in a learner, there $as a deceased amount o# transactional distance and greater chance #or
success in student centered online courses. He also #ound the o""osite to !e true to instructor
centered courses. These studies sho$ that although many !elieve that the student centered online
classroom, in#luenced !y constructivism, is the !est a""roach to take, the rate o# success de"ends
on the traits o# students.
Limitations to Constructivism
Constructivism, Emerging Theory and the Online Classroom #
-hile constructivism a""ears to !e the most $idely acce"ted a""roach to online
instruction, it is not "er#ect and it has detractors 70athe$s, 266;9. -indschitl 726669 claims that
many teachers !elieve that a student centered, constructivist classroom can !e created !y sim"ly
stringing together a num!er o# a""ro"riate activities and getting out o# students5 $ay. This is
incorrect, a truly constructivist and student centered classroom can only occur that creating a
classroom culture that "romotes dialogue, student autonomy, colla!oration and "ro!lem solving.
)or many, this is di##icult, !ut the challenge is #ar greater in the online setting $here the
transactional distance #or learners is too great to esta!lish such a culture. Colla!oration can only
occur i# students are $illing "artici"ants. Some students $ill choose not to "artici"ate in the
colla!oration o# dialogue= these students $ill miss the o""ortunity to learn and negatively im"act
the overall a!ility o# the entire class to learn !ecause colla!oration and dialogue hinges on
student "artici"ation 7-indschitl, 26669. Lastly, as the instructor takes a role as a #acilitator and
moves a$ay #rom delivering content there is a chance that learners can generate the $rong
kno$ledge #rom a learning activity. Because they are not e+"erts yet, they may !e una!le to
discern !et$een accurate and inaccurate in#ormation 7-indschitl, 26669. This is a concern that
is shared $ith detractors o# connectivism. *ne+"erienced learners may not yet !e a!le to discern
!et$een %uality connections and "oor connections and as a result dra$ incorrect conclusions.
-hile there are detractors o# constructivism, the su""orting research #or constructivist
methodology in the online classroom is $ides"read.
Conclusion
Constructivism is a learning theory that has gro$n in "o"ularity and evolved over the
last 244 years to !ecome one o# the most $idely acce"ted models #or learning today. -ith the
e+"ansion o# the learning environment to include e learning and the online classroom, the
Constructivism, Emerging Theory and the Online Classroom 1$
"resence o# constructivism has gro$n larger in the landsca"e o# education. *t has in#luenced the
emerging theories, transitional distance and connectivism, that attem"t to e+"lain ho$ learning
occurs in the "resence technology. 0any o# the !est "ractices on online education have roots
that lie in the tenets o# constructivism. -hile there $ill al$ays educators, theorists, "sychologist
and technologists that are ske"tical o# the theory, it is $ide acce"ted and commonly used in
designing online education.
Constructivism, Emerging Theory and the Online Classroom 11
?e#erences
1aragiorgi, B., @ Symeou, L. 7844A9. Translating Constructivism into *nstructional /esignC
Potential and Limitations. Educational Technology & Society, 8729, 2D>8D.
1ing, )., @ Puntam!ekar, S. 7844;9. Asynchronously conducted "ro,ect>!ased learningC Partners
$ith technology. International Journal on E-learning, 2789, <E>A<.
1no$lton, /. S. 784449. A Theoretical )rame$ork #or the Online ClassroomC A /e#ense and
/elineation o# a Student%Centered Pedagogy. New Directions for Teaching and Learning,
200073<9, A>2<.
1o", ?ita, and Adrian Hill. FConnectivismC Learning theory o# the #uture or vestige o# the
"ast'.F The International e!iew of esearch in "#en and Distance Learning 6.; 784439.
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$e!>!ased courseC *m"lications #or "ractice. Educational Technology & Society, $7;9,
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0oore, 0. G. 7266;9. 8 Theory o# transactional distance. Theoretical #rinci#les of distance
education, 88.
Peters, L., Shmerling, S., @ 1arren, ?. 784229. Constructivist Pedagogy in Asynchronous Online
EducationC E+amining Proactive Behavior and the *m"act on Student Engagement
Levels. International Journal on E-Learning, %07;9, ;22>;;4.
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&edical education, 2'7A9, <88><;8.
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Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2729, ;>24.
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