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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION













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INTRODUCTION
The common causes of the metallurgical failure of the tubes in water tube boiler are due
to tube temperature higher than expected in the original design. A major challenge for the
maintenance activities which are to be performed now a days in industries is not only to learn the
available techniques, but to decide which are suitable for the particular industries. The new
developments include: Decision support tools, such as hazard studies, failure modes and effects
analysis and expert systems, new maintenance techniques, such as condition monitoring and
designing equipment with a much greater emphasis on reliability and maintainability analysis of
the systems in the industries.
The primary problem associated with reliability assessment is the selection and
specification of the most appropriate reliability model. This requires the collection and analysis
of failure and repair data in order to empirically fit the model to the observed failure or repair
process. The derivation of the reliability and maintainability models is an application of the
probability theory, whereas the collection and analysis of the failure and repair data are primarily
an application of descriptive and there are two general approaches to fitting reliability
distributions to failure data. The first and usually preferred method is to fit a theoretical
distribution such as normal, exponential, lognormal and weibull. The second is to derive directly
from directly from the data an empirical reliability function or Probability density function
function. The later method is also called as Distribution Free method and it is very easy to
conduct for the analysis. The objective of this method is to derive directly from the failure and
repair times, the failure and repair times, the failure distribution, reliability function and
Probability density function functions.
Tube temperature increases slowly over many years or rapidly caused either by loss of
internal steam or water flow. Internal oxide scale or deposit formation usually results in long
term overheating that gradually increases the temperature [1]. Although steam temperature
occasionally measured in a boiler, local tube temperature and temperature distribution are rarely
measured and some times impossible due to temperature range which is very high, load
fluctuation and steam side oxide scale growth during operation [2]. However, the remaining life
span of the boiler tubes that installed in a fossil fuelled power station can be predicted if the
stress and average temperature of the tubes are known, together with the way the tubing is
thinned or scarred as a result of erosion and corrosion processes [3]. Arguably, the average tube
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temperature plays a more significant role than stress does in determining the creep life of a boiler
tube. In order to avoid the tube failure, detection of tube temperature distribution is necessary to
take proper action. Therefore, temperature distribution in the tubes in water tube boiler needs to
be analyzed numerically. Therefore, this paper presents the application of finite element method
(FEM) to analyze the tube temperature distribution in a water tube boiler.

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO VISAKHAPATNAM STEEL PLANT:
The Visakhapatnam Steel Plant (VSP) is a 3Mt Integrated Steel Plant under the corporate
entity, Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited (RINL). VSP is the first shore based integrated steel plant
in country. The plant produces steel through the BF BOF route. VSP has the distinction of being
the first integrated steel plant in the country to adopt 100% continuous casting. Currently the
plant is operating at 4.0MT of hot metal, 3.56 MT liquid steel and 3.17 MT of saleable steel
representing capacity utilization of over 115%.
Steel industry being energy intensive in nature from raw material stage to finishing stage.
About 470-480 KWH of electricity is used for every tonne of steel produced and steel industry
requires about 250-260MW of electricity for running various drives in the plant .RINL realized
that electrical energy demand in integrated steel works can be met through installation of captive
power plant and support from grid. RINL has captive power plant of 247.5MW, and an
additional 39MW installed capacity for waste energy recovery to meet energy recovery, to meet
energy requirements in VSP.

1.2 INTRODUCTION ABOUT THERMAL POWER PLANT
Integrated Steel Plants are major consumers of electricity, with specific
consumption of power at around 600-650 MW Hrs/Ton of liquid steel. Power requirement of
VSP is met through captive power plant generation as well as supply from APSEB grid. The
captive capacity of 270MW is sufficient to meet all the plant needs in normal operation time. In
case of partial outage of captive generation capacity due to breakdown, shutdown or other
reasons, the shortfall of power is availed from APSEB grid. Turbo generators of VSP normally
operate in parallel with state grid. Excess generation over and above plant load is exported to
APSEB. The following are the main objectives of Thermal Power Plant of Visakhapatnam Steel
Plant.
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To supply uninterrupted cold blast to Blast Furnace as per furnace requirements.
To supply uninterrupted Power to critical Category-1 loads of Steel Plant.
To supply 13 ata process steam for other process units of Steel Plant.
To supply DM water and soft water to meet both internal and external plant needs.
To supply chilled water to meet both internal and external plant needs.
To reduce dependency on State Power Grid by ensuring maximum internal in-house
Power Generation.
Thermal Power Plant has 5 Boilers each generating of 330 T/Hr steam at 101KSCA and 40
0
C.
the boilers are of BHEL make, capable of firing combination of fuels namely Coal, Coke Oven
Gas, Blast Furnace Gas ands Oil. Crushed coal is conveyed from Raw Material Handling Plant to
TPP through conveyors. The coal is pulverized in Bowl Mills and fired in the furnace. Normally,
4 boilers are kept in full load operation to produce 247.5 MW of power, supply steam to 2 Turbo
Blowers and process needs boilers outlet flue gas as it passes through Electro Static Precipitators
to control air pollution. The Fly ash and bottom ash generated are pumped in slurry form to ash
pond through on ground pipelines. The clarified water is recalculated back to ash system

BOILERS:
Thermal Power plant has 5 Boilers each generating 330 T/hr. steam at 101 KSCA and
540oC. The boilers are of BHPL make, capable of firing combination of fuels namely Coal,
Coke Oven Gas, Blast Furnace Gas and Oil. Crushed coal is conveyed from Raw Material
Handling Plant to TPP through conveyors. The coal is pulverized in Bowl Mills and fired in the
furnace. Normally 4 Boilers are kept in full load operation to produce 247.5 MW of Power,
supply steam 2 turbo Blowers and process steam needs boiler outlet flue gas passes through
electro Static Precipitators to control air pollution. The Fly ash and Bottom Ash Generated are
pumped in slurry form to ash pond through on-ground pipe lines. The clarified water is
recirculate back to ash system.

TURBO GENERATORS:
Thermal power plant has 4 Turbo Generators, three of 60MW capacity each and fourth
67.5 MW. Special features of the turbo sets are: Electro hydraulic turbine Governing System
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controlling extractions at 13 ata and 4 ata for process steam needs in TG1, 2 and 3. Central
admission of steam to reduce axial thrust.

AIR COOLED GENERATORS:
Power is generated and distributed at 11KV for essential loads. Remaining power from
TG-1, 2 and 3 is transferred to plant grid.

TURBO BLOWERS:
VSP has two Blast Furnaces. To meet the blast air requirement 3 Turbo Blowers each
of 6067 NM
3
/Min @ 6.5 Kg/ Cm
2
capacity, are installed at TPP. These Blowers are of axial type
and are the largest blowers installed in India. To meet the varying needs of Blast Furnace, the
blowers are provided with adjustable stator guide blades in the low pressure compression stages.
The Blowers are provided with suction filters, pre- coolers and intercoolers.

AUXILIARIES OF TPP:
These include coal conveyers; cooling towers and pump house No. 4 for cooling water
system; pump house for ash water, ash slurry, fire water and fuel oil and HSD; air compressor
station; emergency Diesel Generators; electric switch gear for power distribution; ventilation
and air conditioning equipment etc.

CHEMICAL WATER TREATMENT PLANT (CWTP):
Chemical Water Treatment Plant located in TPP Zone produces high purity
Demineralised Water and Soft Water. There are six streams of Demineralising units each
capable of producing 125 cubic meters per hour and two softening units of 125 M
3
/Hr each.
DM water is supplied to Chilled Water Plant-I, II and SMS mould cooling. The return
condensate from Thermal Power Plant, chilled water plant no. I and chilled water plant no. II is
polished at CWTP in 2 streams, each of 100 M
3
/hr capacities. All the demineralised water
produced/polished at CWTP is deareated and dosed with Ammonia before pumping for this
purpose.

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CHILLED WATER PLANT:
Chilled Water Plant No.2 located in TPP zone is having nine chillers, each having a chilling
capacity of 337 cu.M of water per hour. The chillers operate on liquid absorption technique
having Lithium Bromide cycle. The chilled water is supplied to TPP, Blast Furnace and sinter
Plant for air conditioning Purpose of 7
0
c. The return water temperature is 16oC. Steam and
cooling water requirements are met by TPP and pump House No.4 respectively.
COKE DRY COOLING PLANT (CDCP) BOILERS:
In VSP, hot Coke produced in the coke Oven Batteries is cooled by circulating Nitrogen in
Coke Dry Cooling Plant. The hot circulating gas is passed through waste Heat Boilers in which
steam is produced at 40 KSCA pressure and 440
0
c temperature. There are four Waste Heat
Recovery Boilers each of 25T/hr capacity in each Coke Dry Cooling Plant. There are three
CDCP for 3 Coke Oven Batteries. These Boilers are forced circulation Boilers. Deaerators and
Boiler feed pumps, serving all the three plants, are located at CDCP-1.
BACK PRESSURE TURBINE CHILLED WATER PLANT:
The 40 KSCP steam generated in CDCP Boilers is utilized for driving 2 Nos. of 7.5 MW
Back Pressure Turbines for generation of power. The 2.5 ata exhaust steam is utilized for
production of Chilled Water in CWP-1. The 7-ata-extraction steam is used for process
requirements of CO7CCP zone. The CWP-1 has 5 chillers installed, each capable of cooling
337m3 of water per hour from18
0
c to 10
o
C. The Chilled Water is supplied to Gas Coolers and
for air conditioning need s of CO&CCP zone. BPTS and CWP-1 are housed in a single building
located near Batters No.3 of CO&CCP zone.





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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY











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LITERATURE SURVEY:

In water tube boilers, water is converted into steam inside the tubes, while hot gases pass
over and around the outside of the tubes. Water tube boilers can operate at higher pressures than
fire tube boilers. The flow of steam and water within a water tube boiler is called circulation.
This circulation is critical in preventing tubes from overheating. When tubes are overheated,
metal softens, weakens and may eventually rupture. In a simple water tube circuit, bubbles of
steam form in the heated tubes or "risers". The resulting steam and water mixture is lighter than
cooler water on the unheated side of the boiler, and rises to a steam drum at the top of the boiler.
Here the bubbles rise to the surface and steam is released. The water then flows from the drum
down through the cooler rubes, or "downcomers", completing and repeating the cycle.
The Metallurgy Department of the Riley Stoker Corp. [1] that has many
experiences for the 25 years period ending in 1980 gives the list of the breakdown between
mechanical and corrosion failure and further classify the various kinds of failures, locations, and
materials. 81% of the boiler tube failure is due to mechanical, consist of high temperature failure
(short time) 65.8%, creep (high temperature/long time) 8.6%, and others 6.6%, while boiler
failures caused by corrosion is 19%. Analysis of the North American Electric Reliability Council
(NERC data) indicates that the coal fired boilers are among the highest economic risk
components in any power plant. By far, the greatest number of forced outages in all types of
boiler is caused by failures [6]. Elimination of boiler tube failure could save the electric power
industry about $5 billion a year [7]. Metallurgists from David N. French, Inc. [1] published data
of the top 10 causes of failures where creep (long-term overheating) is 23.4%, followed by
fatigue (13.9%) (thermal 8.6%, corrosion 5.3%), ash corrosion (12.0%), hydrogen damage
(10.6%), weld failures (9.0%), high temperature (short-term overheating) (8.8%), erosion (6.5%),
oxygen pitting (5.6%), caustic attack (3.5%) and stress corrosion cracking (2.6%). In general,
30% of all tube failures in boilers and reformers are caused by creep [8].
Dillon.AR et.al.,(2003), described that the prevention of the fast fracture damage of the
mechanical equipment important for the safety of nuclear power plant by conducting the
reliability analysis.
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Almeida.A.B and Ramos. H. M (2010) have conducted the diagnosis and reliability
analysis in a pumping system. Weak points in the design and in the operation can then be
detected and future accidents can also be avoided.
Chapman, et.al.,(2010), have conducted the Structural lifetime, reliability and risk analysis
for power plant components and systems.
Deepika Garg et.al.,(2009), have described the reliability of a Pharmaceutical plant using
MAT LAB. The purpose of paper is to compute reliability of a Pharmaceutical plant . A
Pharmaceutical plant consists of nine sub-systems working in series. One subsystem namely
Rotary Compression Machine is supported by stand-by units having perfect switch over devices
and remaining eight subsystems are subjected to major failure only.
Ray et.al., (2003) have conducted assessment of service exposed to boiler tube of the super
heater and preheater made of 2.25 Cr-1 Mo steels in a120MW boiler of thermal power plant.
Husain and habib et.al., (2008) have investigated the steel tubes failure in a super aterboiler
at one of Kuwait electrical and power plants which suffered localized overheating.
Baoyou et.al.,(2006) have analysed a boiler tube rupture through chemical analysis,
scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive spectroscopy.
Chattoraj et.al., (1997) have investigated the corrosive degradation and failures of vertical
furnace wall tubes of a cogeneration boiler.The results showed that under isothermal condition,
the creep damage depends only on the stress.
Caligiuri et.al., (2006) have conducted simulation to identify the effect of thermal
constraint in design of a heat recovery boiler. The finite element model using thermal and
structural analysis was applied, and commercially available finite element software namely
Ansys was used.






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CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION TO BOILERS















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3.1 BOILER :
A steam generator or boilers is usually, a closed vessel made of steel. Its
functions is to transfer the heat produced by combustion fuel (liquids, solid or gaseous) to water
and ultimately to generate steam. The steam produced may be supplied:
To steam engines or turbines (turbo generators)
At low pressures for industrial processes work
For producing hot water which can be used in vapour absorption processes.
In TPP,5 Boilers are installed with a capacity of 330 ton/hr each with 101 ata
and 12 auxiliary waste heat recovery boilers installed capacity 25 ton/hr each 40ata,to supply
steam to turbo generators for power generation and 13 ata,7 ata steam for different processes
throughout the plant.
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS OF BOILER:
Make : BHEL, Tiruchy
Type of unit : Single drum, natural circulation, 3 stages super heated
Balanced draught, multi fuel firing, non reheat
Type of furnace : Fusion welded dry bottom
Type of super heater : Radiant and convection
Type of steam temperature
Control : Spray

AIR / FLUE GAS PATH:
Air used for combustion of lignite or any other fuel applied in power generation, should
be preferably hot. Air pre heaters are arranged in the flue gas ducts for preheating the air,
utilizing the heat in waste gases. FD fans suck atmosphere air and pass it through ducts of rotary
air heaters then temperature of air is raised up to 370 deg C.
FUELS AND FIRING:
A coal fired unit incorporates oil burners also to a firing capacity of 25% of boiler load
for the reason of:
1. To provide necessary ignition energy to light off coal burner
2. To stabilize the coal flame at low boiler / burner loads
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3. As a safe start up fuel and controlled heat input during light off
LIGHT FUEL OIL:
The fuel for the igniter is light fuel oil. Normally LFO is used for cold start ups
and it is sometimes referred as `warm-up fuel. Being a distillate, LFO burns clean ad complete
in a cold furnace without any un burnt oil conveyors. LFO has the advantage of being low
viscous at ambient temperatures requiring no heating, and it can be air atomized.

COKE OVEN GAS:
Coke oven gas is supplied to the boiler from coke oven batteries. This gas can be
used for warming up and for load carrying. This gas gives stable flame normally without any
need for support by igniters. There are totally 32 COG gas spuds arranged in four elevations in
the auxiliary air compartments.

BLAST FURNACE GAS:
This is supplied from Blast furnaces. The calorific value of the gas is low and
hence needs support at low loads when the burnt separately. Also as no reliable flame scanning
can be obtained with this gas flame, an auxiliary firing either oil or coal firing is resorted to
whenever there is need for BFG firing. Also the gas is characterized by its high level of toxicity
and hence utmost care should be taken for handling this gas.

COMBUSTION IN FURNACE:
Furnace is the place where combustion of the pulverized fuel and oil fuel takes place
with the aid of air supplied. We can say that two processes occur in the furnace simultaneously.
One process is that of a chemical reaction exothermic in nature which releases a lot of heat and
the other process is the transfer of this heat to the medium inside the water walls. So the
efficiency of the furnace depends on the utilization of heat energy for evaporation of water and in
reduction of radiation and other losses. In our boilers the furnace is a dry bottom pulverized fuel
furnace having suspension system of firing. Furnace is screened by water walls on all the four
sides. Furnace bottom is hopper shaped and is immersed in water in the slag bath. The maximum
temperature encountered in the furnace is 1250 C to 1300 C. Since the ash function temperature
is 1450 C fly ash collects at the bottom of the furnace in solid state. 15% of ash below in the
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furnace into the slag. They are cooled by the water in the slag bath and removed by two slag
conveyors.

WATER WALL FURNACE:
Furnace volume : 2300cu m
Heat transfer area : 1230sq m
Area of refractory exposed : nil
Tube Outer Dia * thickness : 63.5 * 4.8 sq mm
Tube material : SA 192
Pitch : 76.2 mm
No. of tubes in front and
Rear walls each : 132
No. of tubes in left and right
Side walls each : 92
Design metal temperature : 373 deg C
Design pressure : 121 kg/sq cm

WATER WALL PLATEN:
Number off : 4
Tube OD * thickness : 50.8 * 4.1 sq mm
Heat transfer area : 120 sq.m
Number of tubes/platen : 26
Design metal temperature : 373
o
C
design pressure : 121 kg/sq.cm

FEED WATER SYSTEM:
Requirement of the boiler feed water is met by a DM plant. Feed water is deaerated
and then pumped by a feed Pump into a common header from where the feed water is passed
through two HP heaters. Feed water from HP heaters passes through a common header from
where individual boilers are fed.

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Feed pump:
Number off : 5+2 (stand by)
Type of drive : motor driven through step up gear box
Capacity : 375 m
3
/ hr
Head : 1441 m/c
Temperature of water : 142
o
C
Density : 924.3 kg/m3
Speed : 4305 rpm
Power input : 1680 kw

THE PRESSURE PARTS OF BOILER:
The pressure parts of a boiler are the parts which are most prone to failure due to the
acting of pressure and temperature and other factors such as corrosion due to natural causes
which occur during operation.
The pressure parts of a boiler are the tubing, header, boiler drum, and the pipe work
which contain the steam that are the fundamental operating fluids of the thermodynamic cycle. In
operation, these components are protected by avoiding large temperature differentials through
the walls or gross heating by lack of coolant. The operating temperature plays an important role
in the failure than the operating pressure. In addition to the long term aspects we also face short-
term aspects such as boiler explosion, which take the unit off-load.

BOILER DRUMS:-
The boiler drum is usually the largest single piece of equipment in the boiler. It is also the
most difficult to replace. Drum is basically a thick walled cylinder, made up of rolled plates
welded together, susceptible from thermal shock due to operational error. The detailed inspection
of the supporting structure can be carried out by detailed non-destructive testing.
All inlet and outlet connections to the boiler are welded. In older designs, unfused land
was included from which cracks propagated. A vast majority of these connections have site wells
very close to the drum. If any of these fail, the escaping fluid may corrode the drum. Short term
repairs to a drum are possible, but would require expensive heat treatment, making them
expensive and time consuming.
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The bulk of drum inspection and repairs are concerned with the fitting inside the drum
such as water distribution pipe work, sampling and dosing pipe work, steam separators, driers
and baffles. They are bolted to the drum and there are some flanged connections. All these
connections must be checked for any indications of corrosion and erosion. Failures of a number
of fasteners indicate a fault or undue stress somewhere in the system. The most likely result of a
bolt falling off in the drum is a blockage and tube leaks.
Finally, the drum and its surrounding area must be checked to ensure that it is not being
locally corroded by intermittent spillage from safety valve drains or airlocks.


Fig 3.1

Boiler drum
Headers:
Header creep lives must be assessed by considering temperature, materials and dimensions.
1. Based on the noral station instrument header temperature records, with correction
for operating temperature spread along the header.
2. Based on the actual header temperature, as part of the specific recording exercise
with actual physical dimensions.
3. Physical and NDT inspection of headers.


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TUBE ATTACHMENTS:
Tube attachments are a general description of any device attached to the pressure tubing
of the boiler. Attachment failure and subsequent loss of alignment can lead to tube heating or
soot blower erosion, both leading to subsequent failure. Therefore attachment welding should be
checked.

MAIN PIPE WORK :
The main pipe work of a boiler unit can be classified as the pipes linking the drums and
headers within a boiler. Cole pipe work tends to present a few problems in actual operation of
plant. Hot pipe works is often subject to defect which grow in size in service due to the elevated
temperature of the boiler.

3.2 TYPES OF BOILERS:
This section describes the various types of Boilers:
Fire tube boiler
Water tube boiler
Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler
Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler
Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler
Fire Tube Boiler:
In fire tube boiler, hot gases pass through the tubes and boiler feed water in the shell side
is converted into steam. Fire tube boilers are generally used for relatively small steam capacities
and low to medium steam pressures. As a guideline, fire tube boilers are competitive for steam
rates up to 12,000 kg/hour and pressures up to 18 kg/cm2. Fire tube boilers are available for
operation with oil, gas or solid fuels. For economic reasons, most fire tube boilers are nowadays
of packaged construction (i.e. manufacturers shop erected) for all fuels.


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WATER TUBE BOILER:
In water tube boiler, boiler feed water flows through the tubes and enters the boiler
drum. The circulated water is heated by the combustion gases and converted into steam at the
vapor space in the drum. These boilers are selected when the steam demand as well as steam
pressure requirements are high as in the case of process cum power boiler / power boilers. Most
modern water boiler tube designs are within the capacity range 4,500 120,000 kg/hour of
steam, at very high pressures. Many water tube boilers nowadays are of packaged construction
if oil and /or gas are to be used as fuel. Solid fuel fired water tube designs are available but
packaged designs are less common.
The features of water tube boilers are:
Forced, induced and balanced draft provisions help to improve combustion efficiency.
Less tolerance for water quality calls for water treatment plant.
Higher thermal efficiency levels are possible
Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) Boiler:
Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) has emerged as a viable alternative and has
significant advantages over conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits compact
boiler design, fuel flexibility, higher combustion efficiency and reduced emission of noxious
pollutants such as SOx and NOx. The fuels burnt in these boilers include coal, washery rejects,
rice husk, bagasse & other agricultural wastes. The fluidized bed boilers have a wide capacity
range- 0.5 T/hr to over 100 T/hr.
3.3 BOILER TUBE FAILURES CAUSES AND REMEDIES:
The causes of failures of boiler tubes, while most of the causes of failures are attributed to
operational mistakes and malfunctions of boiler, a few can be attributed to defective design,
material of workmanship. The details various causes of failures and the remedial measures to be
adopted to avoid such failures are.
The main causes of tube failure are:
1. Overheating
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2. Erosion
3. Corrosion
4. Material
5. Other defects

1.OVERHEATING:
Overheating can be localized, extensive, prolonged or of short duration. Metallographic
analysis indicates the approximate temperature to which the tube was subjected before failure
occurred. Observation of the grain growth and microstructure of failed tube material also
indicates if the overheating was of prolonged or short duration. Water-wall tube failure results in
a burst with a fish mouth opening. Occasionally cracks will also appear up to lengths of 2
meters on either side of the burst. Bursting occurs due to excessive reactive force caused by
change of state from water to steam. In the case of super heaters, tube failures take the form of a
narrow opening with multiple satellite cracks. The reasons for overheating of waterfall or
superheated tube are:
a) Starvation due to
(i) Improper circulation (ii) Insufficient flow
b) Flame impingement
c) Secondary burning of fuel
d) Excessive air
a) Starvation
i) Due to improper circulation:
Insufficient circulation in the water walls may lead to departure from onset of nucleate
boiling and may lead to overheating, which in turn will result in tube failures. Where the failures
are traced to improper circulation, the same can be improved in that region of water wall by
providing additional down comers/spider tubes to the existing down comers.
ii) Due to insufficient flow:
Starvation can occur in super heater tubes due to an insufficient flow resulting in
overheating. This is generally observed in the binder tubes of the platen super heater. These
binder coils have a number of bents, and are longer in length than the other coils in the platen.
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The flow through these binder coils is, therefore inadequate. The prolonged overheating in such
tubes results in creep failure.
Such failures can be avoided by replacing the long binder tube with shorter tubes which
in turn increases internal flow and prevents overheating Overheating can also be avoided by
changing the material. The materials of the bottom portion of the outermost coils of platen can
also be replaced by stainless steel to enhance their life since the bottom most portion faces direct
radiation from the furnace.
b) Flame impingement:
Water wall failures occur mostly near the burners. This is due to the flame impingement
from burners, which get distorted in service. To avoid such failures new burner nozzles such as
the honeycomb type which resist distortion are now used.
c) Secondary burning of fuel:
In certain cases oil from the oil gun may flash on to the tubes. Even in coal fired boilers,
the unburned fuel particles may catch at the top of the furnace or in the second pass cause in
secondary combustion, explosion, or over heating of the tubes.
This can be avoided by proper controlled of the atomization of oil, coal particle size and
the firing rate.
d) Excessive air:

Too much of excess air leads to higher furnace temperature resulting in higher radiation,
heat absorption and slagging problems. In oilfired boilers, too much of excess air is favorable to
the formation of SO
3
due to the increased availability of O
2
, thereby promoting a higher rate of
low temperature corrosion.
To avoid such failure the O
2
content in flue gases should be measured periodically during
operation and adjustments made to achieve design values as closely as possible. Further, to avoid
condensation, the flue gas temperature in different zones should be closely monitored and kept
within the design limits.
2. EROSION:
Erosion is the second major cause of tube failures. The tube wall thickness gets reduced
due to erosion and when the thickness is not sufficient to withstand the operating pressure and
temperature of the tube, the tube will fail.
Erosion of the super heater and economizer tubes may be due to the following reasons:
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i) Flue gas erosion
ii) Erosion due to steam or water
i) Flue gas erosion:
Since the rate of erosion is proportional to the cube of velocity, erosion may occur on the
super heater and economizer tubes due to the high abrasive ash content of Indian coals if the
velocity of the gases in the narrow gaps is high. Such insufficient gaps may occur between coils
and walls, and super heater coils and ash hoppers blow them. Boilers, therefore, have to be
designed with gas velocities limited to values below critical.

ii) Erosion due to steam or water:
Whenever there is a tube failure the water or steam from the faulty tube escapes in the
form of a high velocity jet and when it impinges on the adjacent tubes they get eroded. If the
boiler is not shut down immediately after detection of the failure and allowed to operate for a
protracted period the damage due to steam or water erosion will be considerable.
3. CORROSION:
Corrosion is another cause of the tube failure. Corrosion can be on the gas side of the tubes the
steam side. The gas side corrosion occurs in oil fired boilers. High temperature corrosion occurs
due to the presence in oil of sodium and vanadium, the oxides of which form flux with the
protective oxide of the material, thereby causing further attack on the material by the gas. This
can be prevented by using low vanadium content oil or by employing certain additives like MgO
powder in the oil. The MgO powder can be sprayed through a separate nozzle into the furnace or
magnesium wires can be burnt in the furnace.
21


Fig 3.2 Damage of boiler tube due to corrosion
Low temperature or dew point corrosion occurs in oil fired boilers in the air heater
or economizer if the flue gas temperature approaches the dew point temperature. Sulphur in the
oil transforms to SO3 in the furnace and then to Sulphuric acid with the water vapour in the flue
gas at low temperatures and causes corrosion. Low temperature corrosion can be avoided by
controlling the inlet temperature of the feed water to the economizer.
If the feed water contains dissolved oxygen or Carbon Dioxide, these gases will
react with the tube material and cause corrosion inside the water wall or super heater tubes
Water-side corrosion
It is of the following three types:-
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
Symptoms: Failures from SCC are characterized by a thick wall, brittle-type crack
May be found at locations of higher external stresses, such as near attachments.
Causes: SCC most commonly is associated with austenitic (stainless steel) Super heater materials
and can lead to either transgranular or intergranular crack propagation in the tube wall. It occurs
where a combination of high-tensile stresses and a corrosive fluid are present. The dame results
from cracks that propagate from the ID. The source of corrosive fluid may be carryover into the
super heater from the steam drum or from contamination during boiler acid cleaning if the super
heater is not properly protected.


22


Hydrogen Damage:
Symptoms: Inter granular micro-cracking. Loss of ductility or embrittlement of the tube material
leading to brittle catastrophic rupture.









Fig 3.3 hydrogen damage
Causes: Hydrogen damage is most commonly associated with excessive Deposition on ID tube
surfaces, coupled with a boiler water low pH excursion. Water chemistry is upset, such as what
can occur from condenser leaks, particularly with salt water cooling medium, and leads to acidic
(low pH) contaminants that can be concentrated in the deposit. Under-deposit corrosion releases
atomic hydrogen which migrates into the tube wall metal, reacts with carbon in the steel
(decarburization) and causes inter granular separation.
Fire Side Corrosion:

Fig 3.4 Fire side corrosion
Tubes develop a series of cracks that initiate on the outside diameter surface and
propagate into the tube walls. Since the damage develops over longer periods, tube surface tends
23

to develop appearance known as iron hide, or craze cracking. Most commonly seen a s a series of
circumferential cracks. Usually found on furnace wall tubes of coal- fired once- through boiler
designs, but also has occurred to tubes in drum type boilers.
Damage initiation and propagation results from corrosion in combination with thermal
fatigue. Tube outer diameter experiences thermal fatigue stress cycle, which can occur from
normal shedding of slag, soot blowing or from cyclic operation of boiler.
It is mainly due to the following reasons:-

(i) Low temperature
(ii) Water wall
(iii) Coal ash
Water side Corrosion Fatigue:
Symptoms: ID initiated, wide trans granular cracks which typically occur
Adjacent to external attachments.
Causes: Tube damage occurs due to the combination of thermal fatigue and Corrosion. Corrosion
fatigue is influenced by boiler design, water chemistry, boiler water oxygen content and boiler
operation. A combination of these effects leads to the breakdown of the protective magnetite on
the ID surface of the boiler tube. The loss of this protective scale exposes tube to corrosion. The
locations of attachments and external weldments, such as buck stay attachments, seal plates and
scallop bars, are most susceptible. The problem is most likely to progress during boiler start-up
cycles.

4.MATERIAL DEFECTS:
High-temperature Oxidation:
Similar in appearance and often confused with fireside ash corrosion, high-
temperature oxidation can occur locally in areas that have the highest outside surface
temperature relative to the oxidation limit of the tube material. Determining the actual root cause
between the mechanisms of ash corrosion or high-temperature oxidation is best done by tube
analysis and evaluation of Both ID and OD scale and deposits.


24

Drum Cracking:
The durability of steam drums, relative to other boiler components, cannot be
attributed to stable, low-stress operations: They operate in a very dynamic mode, especially
during major transients. Aging, combined with cyclic duty, is beginning to take its tollthe
incidence of cracking is increasing for units 30 years and older.












Fig 3.5 Drum Cracking
Grinding and localized weld repair can address initial cracking problems, but
extensive drum cracking poses a threat to the structural integrity and continued safe and reliable
operation of the unit. Pressure stresses and the environmental influence of corrosion fatigue play
the dominant role in drum cracking for both types of boilers.









25









CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION TO FAILURE MODE
EFFECTS AND CRITICALITY ANALYSIS









26

INTRODUCTION TO FAILURE MODE EFFECTS AND CRITICALITY ANALYSIS
CONDUCT FMECA :
The next step is to conduct FMECA analysis on each boiler tubes of the thermal power
plat, which can be done as follows:
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is a simple analysis method to reveal
possible failures and to predict the failure effects on the system as a whole..If we describe or
rank the criticality of the various failures in the FMEA, the analysis is often referred to as an
FMECA (Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis). The criticality is a function of the
failure effect and the frequency/probability as seen below. To ensure a systematic study of the
system, a specific FMEA form is used. The FMEA form may for example include the following
columns:
IDENTIFICATION:
Here the specific component is identified by a description and/or number. It is also
common to refer to a system drawing or a functional diagram. The function of the component,
i.e. its working tasks in the system, is briefly described. The state of the component when the
system is in normal operation, is described.
FAILURE ZONES:
All the possible ways the components can fail to perform its function are listed in
this column. Only the failure modes that can be observed from outside are included. The
internal failure modes are to be considered as failure causes.
Effect on other units in the system:In those cases where the specific failure mode affects
other components in the system, this is stated in this column. Emphasis should be given to
identification of failure propagation, which does not follow the functional chains of the
functional diagrams.
EFFECT ON SYSTEM:
In this column, we describe how the system is influenced by the specific failure
mode. The operational state of the system as a result of failure is to be expressed, for example,
whether the system is in the operational state, changed to another operational mode, or not in an
operational state.


27

Corrective measures:
Here we describe what has been done or what can be done to correct the failure,
or possibly to reduce the consequences of the failure. We may also list measures that are aimed
at reducing the probability that the failure will occur.

FAILURE EFFECT RANKING:
The failure is ranked according to its effect with respect to reliability and
safety, the possibilities of mitigating the failure, the length of the repair time, the production loss,
etc. We might for example use the following grouping of failure effects:
Level C: A failure that does not reduce the functional ability of the system more than normally is
accepted.
Level B: A failure that reduces the functional ability of the system beyond the acceptable level,
but the consequences can be corrected and controlled.
Level A: A failure that reduces the functional ability of the system beyond the acceptable level
and which creates an unacceptable condition, either operational or with respect to safety.
Remarks: Here we state, for example, assumptions and suppositions. By combining the failure
frequency (probability) and the failure effect (consequence), the criticality of the specific failure
mode is determined.
4.1 FMECA FOR BOILER-1 TUBES:
Boiler tubes are used to convert water into steam.It is havig we have conduct the
FMECA and results are shown table
Table 4.1 FMECA for Boiler-1 Tubes
S.NO Failure
zone
Level of
probability
occurrence
Failure
cause
Failure
effect
Remedies
1 Near LHS
water wall
screen tube
B Overheating
of boilers
Hazardous
problem
Hard facing
done and
tubechanged
2 RHS
economizer

B

Due to
Fuction of
economizer
Replacement
tubes
28

upper bank
lower tubes
corrosion decreases
3 Failure of
water wall
at 39 mtrs
height

A

Continuous
overheating

Decreases
efficiency
Replacement
with new
tubes
4 Economizer
lower bank
lower side
C
Due to
erosion
steam
temperature
decreases
Economizer
coil bends
are changed
After conducting the FMECA for boiler-1 tubes we found that the main causes to failure
of tubes are water wall tubes and economizer tubes and remedies are shown in table 4.1.
4.2 FMECA FOR BOILER-2 TUBES:
Boiler tubes are supply water to the boiler and converts steam.As like above we have
conduct the FMECA and results are shown table
Table 4.2 FMECA for Boiler-2 Tubes
S.NO Failure
zone
Level of
probability
occurrence
Failure
cause
Failure
effect
Remedies
1 Water wall
screen tube

C
Overheating
of boilers
Steam
temperature
increases
Water wall
screen tubes
are replced
2 Furnace
area

A

Due to
overheating

Boiler may
stops
Hard facing
done
3 Economizer
lower bank

C
Continuous
overheating
Economizer
may stops
Replacement
with new
tubes
4 Super
heater
upper zone

C
Due to
erosion
Super
heater may
stops
Replaced
with new
tubes
29


After conducting the FMECA for boiler-2 tubes we found that the main causes to
failure of tubes are water wall tubes and economizer tubes and remedies are shown in table 4.2.

4.3 FMECA FOR BOILER-3 TUBES:
Boiler tubes supplies high temperature steam to superheater.As like above we have
conduct the FMECA and results are shown table
Table 4.3 FMECA for Boiler-3 Tubes
S.NO Failure
zone
Level of
probability
occurrence
Failure
cause
Failure
effect
Remedies
1 Wall soot
blower
C Pin holes
developed
Leakage of
flue gases
Welding is
done
2
Economizer

A

Due to
erosion

Parts
damaged

New tubes
are placed
3 Water wall
buck stays

B
Due to
high
pressure
Temperature
decreases
Pad welding
done
4 Super
heater
lower bank

B
Due to
erosion
Temperature
of steam
reduces
Tubes were
replaced
After conducting the FMECA for boiler-3 tubes we found that the main causes to failure
of tubes and remedies are shown in table 4.3







30

4.4 FMECA FOR BOILER-4 TUBES:
Boiler tubes are supply water to the boiler and converts steam.As like above we
have conduct the FMECA and results are shown table
Table 4.4 FMECA for Boiler-4 Tubes
S.NO Failure
zone
Level of
probability
occurrence
Failure
cause
Failure
effect
Remedies
1 Tube
leakages

A
Due to
hydrogen
damage
Boiler
functions
decreases
Replacement
of tubes
2 Water wall
screen
tubes fails

B
Due to
erosion
Temperature
of steam
decreases

Window
welding to
failed tubes
3 LHS super
heater
upper coil

A

Overheating
of steam
Tube
efficiency
decreases
Tubes and
coils was
chaged

After conducting the FMECA for boiler-4 tubes we found that the main causes to
failure of tubes and remedies are shown in table 4.4










31

4.5 FMECA FOR BOILER-5 TUBES:
Boiler tubes are supply water to the boiler and converts steam.As like above we
have conduct the FMECA and results are shown table
Table 4.5 FMECA for Boiler-5 Tubes
S.NO Failure
zone
Level of
probability
occurrence
Failure
cause
Failure
effect
Remedies
1 Corner-4
water wall
Area

A
Due to
power
disturbance
Boiler
stops
Power
disturbance
rectified
2 Corner-4
steam
cooled
waterwall
header area

B

Due to high
temperature

Steam
temperature
increases


Bend
replaced
3 Economizer
inlet header

A
More
supply of
steam
Tubes
efficiency
decreases
All 3 tubes
replaced
4 Water wall
sootblower
failure

C
Due to
high
temperature
Reduces
steam
temperature
Window
welding
done

After conducting the FMECA for boiler-5 tubes we found that the main causes
to failure of tubes are water wall tubes and economizer tubes and remedies are shown in table
4.5




32

4.6 RESULTS FROM FMECA:
After conducting FMECA analysis, the following failure modes have been found as
critical and needs immediate action:
1) In boiler-1 tubes have more failures has been found in water wall screen tubes due
corrosion remedies for this problem is regularly check the boiler thoroughly and maintain
constant temperature.
2) In boiler-2 tubes the main failures are boiler tubes due to high temperature for this have
to maintain the temperature.
3) In boiler-3 tubes mostly failures occurs at super heater tubes and economizer tubes due
corrosion and erosion of the parts the remedies for this problem replace the tubes.
4) In boiler-4 tubes failures obtained due overheating of boilers and so the steam
temperature increases then the leakages are raised. The remedy for this is the
maintenance of boiler tubes the required temperature.
5) In boiler-5 tubes water wall tubes are failed due to corrosion, erosion and scale formation
remedy for this check water walls regularly.











33









CHAPTER 5
RELIABILITY EVALUATION OF
BOILER TUBES









34

RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF BOILER TUBES:
In the present chapter, reliability analysis has been performed for boiler tubes. In this
work two methods namely empirical or non parametric and Weibull or parametric methods are
employed. In this work, first empirical method is used for reliability assessment process.

INTRODUCTION:
The primary problem associated with reliability assessment is the selection and
specification of the most appropriate reliability model. This requires the collection and analysis
of failure and repair data in order to empirically fit the model to the observed failure or repair
process. The derivation of the reliability and maintainability models is an application of the
probability theory, whereas the collection and analysis of the failure and repair data are primarily
an application of descriptive and there are two general approaches to fitting reliability
distributions to failure data. The first and usually preferred method is to fit a theoretical
distribution such as normal, exponential, lognormal and weibull. The second is to derive directly
from directly from the data an empirical reliability function or Probability density function
function. The later method is also called as Distribution Free method and it is very easy to
conduct for the analysis. The objective of this method is to derive directly from the failure and
repair times, the failure and repair times, the failure distribution, reliability function and
Probability density function functions.

5.1 Reliability analysis using empirical method:
In the present study, initially the empirical method has been considered for the reliability
assessment of the boiler tubes as follows:
The generation or the observation of failure (or repair) times can be represented by
t1,t2,t3,tn where ti represents the time of failure of the i
th
unit. It is assumed that each failure
represents an independent sample from the same population. The population is the distribution of
all possible failure time and may be represented by f(t),R(t),F(t) or (t).The basic problem is to
determine the best failure distribution implied by the n failure times comprised in the sample. In
all cases the sample is assumed to be a simple random(or probability) sample. A simple random
sample is one in which the failure or repair rates are independent observations from a common
population. If f(t) is the probability density function of the underlying population then f(ti) is the
35

probability density function of the i
th
sample value. Therefore, if the sample consists of
nindependent values, the joint probability distribution of the sample is the product of n identical
and independent probability distributions, or
ft1,t2,tn(t1,t2,.tn)=f(t1)f(t2)f(tn)
Empirical methods of analysis are also referred to as nonparametric methods or
distribution free methods. The objective is to derive directly from failure times, the failure
distribution, reliability function and Probability density function function. Generally the
parametric approach consisting of fitting a theoretical distribution is preferred. This method
however is used in case when no theoretical distribution adequately fits the data. The data here is
Grouped Complete Data.
Grouped Complete Data:
Failure times that have been placed into time intervals, their original values no longer
available, let n1,n2,nk be the no. of units having survived at the ordered times t1,t2,..tk
respectively. Then a logical estimate for R(t) is
R(ti)=ni/n i=1,2,k
When n is the no. of units at risk at the start of the test. Because of the larger sample size
of the grouped data, it is generally unnecessary to obtain more precise estimates by considering
plotting positions.
Following are the terms associated with empirical method and data collection:
(1) RELIABILITY: It is defined to be the probability that a component or system will
perform a desired function for a given period of time when used under stated operating
conditions. It is denoted by symbol R(t). and is expressed by the formula: R(ti)=ni/n
(2) FAILURE DENSITY: The cumulative failure distribution or the probability density
function of the failure of the component at that particular instant of time. It is denoted by
symbol f(t) and is expressed by the formula: f(t)=(ni-ni+1)/{(ti+1-ti)*n}
(3) PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION FUNCTION: It is also known as instantaneous
Probability density function function or failure rate function. It is denoted by (t) and
provides an alternative way of describing the failure distribution. It is expressed by the
formula:
36

(t)=(ni-ni+1)/{(ti+1-ti)*ni}
Data Collection And Analysis:
In the present study, the data regarding failure rates of the boiler tubes in the processing
industry has been collected from the maintenance log books. The failure rates have been
analyzed both theoretically and graphically as follows:
By using the above formulas and steps of empirical method, the reliability modeling and
analysis using empirical method has been performed and results are shown as below.
MODEL CALCULATIONS:
Sample calculations for the BOILER-1 tubes have been conducted using formulas as follows:
Reliability R(ti) = ni/n
Failure density f(t) = (ni-ni+1)/(ti+1-ti).n
Probability density function (t) = f(t)/R(t) = (ni-ni+1)/(ti+1-ti).ni
Where ni (i= 1,2,..k) =no.of.units survived at time ti (i=1,2,.k)
n = no.of.units at risk at the start of the test.
Reliability R(3) = n
i
/n= 17/20 = 0.85
Failure density f(3) = (ni-ni+1)/(ti+1-ti).n = (17-12)/(18-12).20 = 0.041666667
Probability density function (3) = f(t)/R(t)= 0.04166667/0.85 = 0.049019608

5.2 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF BOILER-1 TUBE:
The boiler tubes are used to allow water to flow and by supplying heat outside of tubes
the water converted into steam. The calculations of reliability, failure rate, probability density
functions are listed in below table and graphs for variation of reliability, failure rate and f(t) are
shown with respect to time as shown in table 5.1

Table 5.1 Reliability analysis for boiler-1 tube

Time
No. of
failures
No. of
survivals

Reliability

Failure rate

Probability
density
function
0 0 11 1 0.0075 0.0075
12 1 10 0.9 0.0303 0.0336
37

24 4 6 0.54 0.015 0.027
36 2 4 0.36 0.0075 0.0208
48 1 3 0.27 0.0075 0.0277

After calculation of reliability, failure rate and f(t) for boiler-1 tubes, results are plotted.
Reliabilty Graph:

Fig 5.1:Reliabilty Graph for boiler tubes
Fig 5.1 shows that the reliability of boiler-1 tube decreases with time.
Failure Rate Graph:

Fig 5.2: Failure rate graph of boiler-1 tube
Fig 5.2 shows that the failure rate is increasing with time upto some time after that it decreases.



0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 12 24 36 48
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
t
y

Time(months)
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0 12 24 36 48
f
a
i
l
u
r
e

r
a
t
e

Time in months
38

Probability Density Function Graph:

Fig 5.3: Probability density function graph for boiler-1 tube
Fig 5.3 shows the variation of Probability density function with respect to time. Probability
density function increases with time.
5.3 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF BOILER-2 TUBES:
Here we use water tube boilers it is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated
externally by the fire. Fuel is burned inside the furnace, creating hot gas which heats water in the
steam-generating tubes. In smaller boilers, additional generating tubes are separate in the
furnace, while larger utility boilers rely on the water-filled tubes that make up the walls of the
furnace to generates steam. The calculations of reliability, failure rate, probability density
functions are listed in below table and graphs for variation of reliability, failure rate and f(t) are
shown with respect to time as shown below.
Table 5.2: Reliability analysis for boiler-2 tube
Time No.of
failures
No.of
Survivals

Reliability

Failure rate

Probability
density
function
0 0 15 1 0.0222 0.0222
12 4 11 0.73 0.0277 0.0379
24 5 6 0.4 0.00606 0.01515
36 1 5 0.33 0.00606 0.0183
48 1 4 0.26 0.0166 0.0638
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0 12 24 36 48
f
(
t
)

Time in months
39

After calculation of reliability, failure rate and f(t) ,Probability density function for boiler-2 tubes
results are plotted in graph.
Reliabilty Graph:

Fig 5.4: Reliabilty Graph for boiler-2 tube
From fig 4.4 we found that reliability for boiler-2 tube decreases with time.

Failure Rate Graph:

Fig 5.5: Failure rate graph for boiler tube-2
From Fig 5.5 we observe that failure rate increases for some time after that it decreases with
time.



0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 12 24 36 48
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time(months)
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0 12 24 36 48
F
a
i
l
u
r
e

r
a
t
e

Time in months
40


Probability Density Function Graph:

Fig 5.6: Failure density graph for Boiler-2 Tube
Above figure shows that Probability density function increases with time.

5.4 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF BOILER-3 TUBES:
Table 5.3: Reliability analysis for Boiler-3 tube
Time No.of
Failures
No.of
survivals

Reliability

Failure rate

Probability
density
function
0 0 6 1 0.0277 0.0277
12 2 4 0.666 0.0138 0.0207
24 1 3 0.5 0.0138 0.0276
36 1 2 0.333 0.0138 0.0414
48 1 1 0.166 0.0138 0.0828

After calculation of reliability, failure rate and f(t) ,Probability density function for boiler-3 tubes
results are plotted



0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0 12 24 36 48
f
(
t
)

Time in months
41



Reliabilty Graph :

Fig 5.7: Reliabilty Graph for boiler 3 tube
From fig 5.7 we found that reliability for boiler tube decreases with time.
Failure Rate Graph:

Fig 5.8: Failure rate graph for Boiler-3 tube
From fig 5.8 we found that failure rate for boiler tube decreases with time for some time period
after that it is constant.



0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 12 24 36 48
R
E
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time(months)
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0 12 24 36 48
f
a
i
l
u
r
e

r
a
t
e

Time
42


Probability Density Function Graph:

Fig 5.9: Probability density function graph for Boiler-3 tube
From fig 5.9 shows variations in rhe Probability density function with time and it is increases
with time.

5.5 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF BOILER-4 TUBES:
Table 5.4 Reliability analysis for boiler-4 tube
Time No. of
failures
No. of
survivals
Reliability Failure rate Probability
density
function
0 0 11 1 0.0075 0.0075
12 1 10 0.909 0.0151 0.0166
24 2 8 0.727 0.0151 0.0207
36 2 6 0.545 0.0378 0.0693
48 5 1 0.0909 0.0075 0.0833

After calculation of reliability, failure rate and f(t) ,Probability density function for
boiler-4 tubes results are plotted in graphs.



0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0 12 24 36 48
f
(
t
)

Time in months
43


Reliabilty Graph:

Fig 5.10: Reliabilty Graph for boiler-4 tube
From fig 5.10 we found that Reliability for boiler tube decreases with time.

Failure Rate Graph:

Fig 5.11: Failure rate graph for boiler-4 tube
From the fig 5.11 it is found that the failure rates are increases for some time period and after
that it decreases.




0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 12 24 36 48
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time(months)
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0 12 24 36 48
F
a
i
l
u
r
e

r
a
t
e

Time in months
44

Probability Density Function Graph:

Fig 5.12: Probability density function graph for Boiler-4 tube
From the fig 5.12 it is found that the failure rate increases with time.

5.6 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF BOILER-5 TUBES:
Table 5.5: Reliability analysis for Boiler-5 tube
Time No. of
failures
No.of
survivals
Reliability Failure rate Probability
density
function
0 0 10 1 0.016 0.016
12 2 8 0.8 0.025 0.031
24 3 5 0.5 0.025 0.05
36 3 2 0.2 0.0083 0.041
48 1 1 0.1 0.0083 0.083

After calculation of reliability, failure rate and f(t) ,Probability density function for
boiler-5 tubes results are plotted in graphs.





0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0 12 24 36 48
f
(
t
)

Time in months
45



Reliabilty Graph:

Fig 5.13: Reliabilty Graph for boiler -5 tube
From fig 5.13 we found that Reliability for boiler tubes decreases with time.

Failure Rate Graph:

Fig 5.14: Failure rate graph for boiler-5 tube
From the fig 5.14 it is found that the failure rate increases with time for some period and after
that it decreases.




0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 12 24 36 48
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
t
y

Time(months)
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0 12 24 36 48
F
a
i
l
u
r
e

r
a
t
e

Time in months
46

Probability Density Function Graph:


Fig 5.15: Probability density function graph for boiler-5 tube
Fig 5.15 shows the variation of Probability density function with respect to time and it is
increases with time.

5.7 SYSTEM RELIABILITY USING EMPERICAL METHOD:
System Availability is calculated by modeling the system as an interconnection of parts
in series and parallel. The following rules are used to decide if components should be placed in
series or parallel:
If failure of a part leads to the combination becoming inoperable, the two parts are
considered to be operating in series
If failure of a part leads to the other part taking over the operations of the failed part, the
two parts are considered to be operating in parallel.
(1) Reliability in Series

As stated above, two parts X and Y are considered to be operating in series if failure of either of
the parts results in failure of the combination. The combined system is operational only if both
Part X and Part Y are available. From this it follows that the combined reliability is a product of
the reliability of the two parts. The combined reliability is shown by the equation below:
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0 12 24 36 48
f
(
t
)

Time in months
47


(2) Reliability in Parallel:

Two parts are considered to be operating in parallel if the combination is considered
failed when both parts fail. The combined system is operational if either is available. From this
it follows that the combined reliability is 1 - (both parts are unavailable). The combined
reliability is shown by the equation

Combined series parallel Operation :
In such systems where failure of a component leads to some users loosing service, system
reliability has to be defined by considering the percentage of users affected by the failure. The
reliability for this system can be computed by calculating A(p,q) as specified below:
A(p,q) = C(q,p) * A^(q-p) * (1-A)^p
Here p is the number of failed units and q is the total number of units.
The present system is system of combined series and parallel systems and the Reliability Block
Diagram for the present processing industry is as follows:
Fig 5.13 Reliability Block Diagram for WATER TUBE BOILERS IN TPP using empirical
method.


48

BOILER-1 BOILER-2 BOILER-3 BOILER-4

BOILER-5
Fig 5.16: boilers in series
E1 = The event that component 1 does not fail
E2 = The event that component 2 does not fail
Then P(E1)=R1 and P(E2)=R2
Where R1= The reliability of component 1
Where R2= The reliability of component 2
Therefore Rs = P(E1E2) = P(E1) P(E2) =R1 R2 assuming that the two components are
independent.
Generalizing to n mutually independent components in series, then
Rs(T) = R1(t)*R2(t)**Rn(t) < min {R1(t),R2(t),,Rn(t)}
Generalizing to n mutually independent components in parallel, then
Rs=P(E1UE2) = 1- P(E1UE2)
c
= 1-P((E1
c
UE2
c
) = 1-P((E1
c
)P(E2
c
)) = 1-(1-R1)(1-R2)
For combined series and parallel systems both these formulas are used.
The System Reliability is calculated as follows:
For boiler-1 tube:
R(1)=0.614
For boiler-2 tube:
R(2)= 0.5464
For boiler-3 tube:
R(3)= 0.533
For boiler-4 tube:
R(4)= 0.654
For boiler-5 tube:
R(5)= 0.5234
49

The complete system is now in combined series and parallel combination system. So, the system
reliability is given as:
R(s)= [R(1)R(5)]* [R(2)R(5)]*[R(3)R(5)]*[R(4)R(5)]
=[1-(1-R(1))(1-R(5)]*[1-(1-R(2)(1-R(5)]*[1-(1-R(3))(1-R(5)]*[1-(1-R(4)(1-R(5)]
=0.816*0.783*0.777*0.835 = 0.4113
It is found from the above analysis by using empirical method the system reliability is 0.4113.






















50










CHAPTER 6
RELIABILITY EVALUATION BY
PARAMETRIC METHOD












51


6.1 INTRODUCTION TO PARAMETRIC METHOD:
In this work the next step is to evaluate the system reliability using parametric method.
In parametric method there are four types of distributions which are explained as follows.
1) Normal Distribution
2) Lognormal Distribution
3) Exponential Distribution
4) Weibull method
6.1.1 Introduction to Normal Distribution:
In probability theory, the normal (or Gaussian) distribution is a continuous
probability distribution that has a bell-shaped probability density function, known as the
Gaussian function or informally the bell curve.

Where parameter is the mean or expectation (location of the peak) and is the variance.
is known as the standard deviation. The distribution with = 0 and 2 = 1 is called the
standard normal distribution or the unit normal distribution. A normal distribution is often used
as a first approximation to describe real-valued random variables that cluster around a single
mean value. The normal distribution is considered the most prominent probability distribution in
statistics. There are several reasons for this:[1] First, the normal distribution is very tractable
analytically, that is, a large number of results involving this distribution can be derived in
explicit form. Second, the normal distribution arises as the outcome of the central limit theorem,
which states that under mild conditions the sum of a large number of random variables is
distributed approximately normally. Finally, the "bell" shape of the normal distribution makes it
a convenient choice for modelling a large variety of random variables.
The probability density function (pdf) of a random variable describes the relative frequencies of
different values for that random variable. The pdf of the normal distribution is given by the
formula explained in detail in the previous section:

52

This is a proper function only when the variance 2 is not equal to zero. In that case this
is a continuous smooth function, defined on the entire real line, and which is called the
"Gaussian function".
Properties:
Function f(x) is uni modal and symmetric around the point x = , which is at the same
time the mode, the median and the mean of the distribution.
The inflection points of the curve occur one standard deviation away from the mean (i.e., at x =
and x = + ).
Function f(x) is log-concave.
The standard normal density (x) is an Eigen function of the Fourier transform.
The function is super smooth of order 2, implying that it is infinitely differentiable. The first
derivative of (x) is (x) = x(x); the second derivative is (x) = (x
2
1)(x). More
generally, the n
th
derivative is given by (n)(x) = (1)
n
H
n
(x)(x), where Hn is the Hermite
polynomial of order n

6.1.2 Introduction to Lognormal Distribution:
In probability theory, a log-normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution of
a random variable whose logarithm is normally distributed. If X is a random variable with a
normal distribution, then Y = exp(X) has a log-normal distribution; likewise, if Y is log-normally
distributed, then X = log(Y) is normally distributed. (This is true regardless of the base of the
logarithmic function: if log(Y) is normally distributed, then so is logb(Y), for any two positive
numbers a, b 1.)Log-normal is also written log normal or lognormal. It is occasionally referred
53

astheGaltondistributionor,Galton'sdistribution.


6.1.3 Introduction to Exponential Distribution:
In probability theory and statistics, the exponential distribution (a.k.a. negative
exponential distribution) is a family of continuous probability distributions. It describes the time
between events in a Poisson process, i.e. a process in which events occur continuously and
independently at a constant average rate.

Note that the exponential distribution is not the same as the class of exponential families of
distributions, which is a large class of probability distributions that includes the exponential
distribution as one of its members, but also includes the normal distribution, binomial
distribution, gamma distribution, Poisson, and many others.
54



6.1.4 Introduction to Weibull method:
In probability theory and statistics, the Weibull distribution is a continuous probability
distribution. It is named after WaloddiWeibull, who described it in detail in 1951, although it
was first identified by Frchet (1927) and first applied by Rosin &Rammler (1933) to describe
the size distribution of particles.
The probability density function of a Weibull random variable x is:


where k > 0 is the shape parameter and > 0 is the scale parameter of the distribution. Its
complementary cumulative distribution function is a stretched exponential function. The Weibull
distribution is related to a number of other probability distributions; in particular, it interpolates
between the exponential distribution (k = 1) and the Rayleigh distribution (k = 2).
55

If the quantity x is a "time-to-failure", the Weibull distribution gives a distribution for
which the failure rate is proportional to a power of time. The shape parameter, k, is that power
plus one, and so this parameter can be interpreted directly as follows:
A value of k<1 indicates that the failure rate decreases over time. This happens if there is
significant "infant mortality", or defective items failing early and the failure rate decreasing over
time as the defective items are weeded out of the population.
A value of k=1 indicates that the failure rate is constant over time. This might suggest
random external events are causing mortality, or failure.
A value of k>1 indicates that the failure rate increases with time. This happens if there is
an "aging" process, or parts that are more likely to fail as time goes on.
In the field of materials science, the shape parameter k of a distribution of strengths is
known as the Weibull modulus.
Reliability: R(t)= exp-(t/)


failure rate function, (T), is given by: (T)=/(t/)
-1

Failure density f(t)=/(t/)
-1
exp-(t/)


6.2 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS OF BOILER-1 TUBES:
In this work, the number failures of boiler tubes in five years have been collected from
the maintenance log book of the thermal power plant. To obtain distributions of the following
data, an available statistical software has been used and it has been identified that the number of
failures are best fitted to Weibull distribution as shown in figure.6.1.







56


Fig 6.1 :Probability Distribution fitting curve for boiler-1 tube
The parameters obtained from the above figure are =0.5342, =2.0123by using
these parameters reliability, failure rate and f(t) have been calculated according to Weibull
distribution. And results have been shown in table.
Table 6.1: Reliability of boiler-1 tube
time number of
failures
reliability failure rate f(t)
0 0 1 0.265 0.265
12 1 0.873 0.100 0.115
24 4 0.43 0.035 0.083
36 2 0.32 0.022 0.069
48 1 0.15 0.009 0.060

By using the obtained results the graphs have been plotted for reliability, failure rate and
probability distribution with respect to time.






57

Reliability Graph:

Fig 6.2: Reliabilty Graph for boiler tube using Parametric method
Here from fig we can observe that reliability decreases with increase of time.

Failure Rate Graph:
We take the values from table and drawn the graph between failure rate and time.

Fig 6.3 Failure rate graph for boiler tube using parametric method
From figure 6.3 we can say that failure rate decreases with time increases.





0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 12 24 36 48
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time in months
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0 12 24 36 48
f
a
i
l
u
r
e

r
a
t
e

Time in months

58


Probability Density Function Graph:

Fig 6.4: Probability density function graph for boiler-1 tube using Parametric
method
From the above figure graphical analysis it is observed that reliability is decreases as the
time increase.

6.3 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS OF BOILER-2 TUBES:

Fig 6.5 :Probability Distribution fitting curve for boiler-2 tube
The parameters obtained from the above figure are =0.4982, =2.6322 by using
these parameters reliability, failure rate and f(t) have been calculated according to Weibull
distribution. And results have been shown in table.

0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0 12 24 36 48
f
(
t
)

Time in months
59


Table 6.2 reliability analysis of boiler-2 tube using parametric method
time number of
failures
reliability failure rate f(t)
0 0 1 0.1891 0.1891
12 3 0.75 0.0666 0.0883
24 4 0.45 0.0280 0.0623
36 2 0.35 0.0177 0.0508
48 1 0.28 0.0123 0.0440

By using the obtained results the graphs have been plotted for reliability, failure rate and
probability distribution with respect to time.

Reliability Graph:

Fig 6.6 Reliabilty Graph for boiler-2 tube using parametric method
Fig 6.6 shows the reliability decreases with increases in time.






0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 12 24 36 48
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time in months
60


Failure Rate Graph:

Fig6.7 Failure rate graph for boiler-2 tube using parametric method
Here observe that failure rate decreases with time increases.

Probability Density Function Graph:
From table 6.2 drawn the graph between Probability density function and time in months.

Fig 6.8: Probability density function graph for boiler-2 tube using Parametric method
From the above graphical analysis it is observed that Probability density function is
decreases as the time increase.




0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0 12 24 36 48
F
a
i
l
u
r
e

r
a
t
e

Time in months
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0 12 24 36 48
f
(
t
)

Time in months
61

6.4 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS OF BOILER-3 TUBES:

Fig 6.9 :Probability Distribution fitting curve for boiler-3 tube
The parameters obtained from the above figure are =0.6598, =1.1129 by using these
parameters reliability, failure rate and f(t) have been calculated according to Weibull distribution.
And results have been shown in table.
Table 6.3 reliability analysis of boiler-3 tube using parametric method
Time number of
failures
reliability failure rate

f(t)
0 0 1 0.5921 0.5921
12 2 0.69 0.1815 0.2631
24 3 0.55 0.1142 0.2077
36 2 0.37 0.0664 0.1809
48 1 0.24 0.0328 0.1640

By using the obtained results the graphs have been plotted for reliability, failure rate and
Probability density function with respect to time.





62


Reliabilty Graph:

Fig 6.10 Reliabilty Graph for boiler-3 tube using parametric method
Here the reliability is decreases with time.

Failure Rate Graph:

Fig 6.11 Failure graph for boiler-3 tube using Parametric method
Here failure rate decreases with time.






0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 12 24 36 48
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time in months
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0 12 24 36 48
F
a
i
l
u
r
e

r
a
t
e

Time in months
63



Probability Density Function:

Fig 6.12 Probability density function graph for boiler-3 tube using parametric method
Here Probability density function decreases with increase in time.

6.5 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS OF BOILER-4 TUBES:


Fig 6.13 :Probability Distribution fitting curve for boiler-4 tube
The parameters obtained from the above figure are =0.5354, =1.947 by using these
parameters reliability, failure rate and f(t) have been calculated according to Weibull distribution.
And results have been shown in table.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0 12 24 36 48
f
(
t
)

Time in months
64


Table 6.4: Reliability analysis of boiler-4 tube
time number of
failures
Reliability failure rate f(t)
0 0 1 0.274 0.2741
12 2 0.925 0.108 0.1178
24 3 0.752 0.064 0.0854
36 2 0.602 0.042 0.0707
48 1 0.152 0.009 0.0619

Reliabilty Graph:

Fig 6.14 Reliabilty Graph for boiler-4 tube using parametric method
Fig 6.14 shows the reliability decreases with time
Failure Rate Graph :

0
0.5
1
1.5
0 12 24 36 48
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
t
y

Time in months
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0 12 24 36 48
F
a
i
l
u
r
e

r
a
t
e

Time in months
65

Fig 6.15 Reliabilty Graph for boiler-4 tube using parametric method
Fig 6.15 shows failure rate decreases with time
Probability Density Function Graph:

Fig 6.16 Probability density function Graph for boiler-4 tube using parametric method
Fig 6.16 shows the Probability density function decreases with time

6.5 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS OF BOILER-5 TUBES:


Fig 6.17:Probability Distribution fitting curve for boiler-5 tube
The parameters obtained from the above figure are =0.5536, =1.8559 by using these
parameters reliability, failure rate and f(t) have been calculated according to Weibull distribution.
And results have been shown in table.
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0 12 24 36 48
f
(
t
)

time in months
66


Table 6.4 Reliability of boiler-5 tube using parametric method
Time Number of
failures
Reliability Failure rate Probability
density function
0 0 1 0.298 0.298
12 2 0.87 0.112 0.129
24 3 0.62 0.058 0.094
36 3 0.26 0.020 0.079
48 1 0.12 0.088 0.689
From the table we have drawn the graphs between time and reliability,failure rate, hazard rate

Reliabilty Graph:

Fig6.18 Reliabilty Graph for boiler-5 tube using parametric method
Here reliability decreases with time.
Failure Rate Graph:

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 12 24 36 48
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time in months
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0 12 24 36 48
F
a
i
l
u
r
e

r
a
t
e

Time in months
67

Fig 6.19 failure rate Graph for boiler-5 tube using parametric method
Here failure rate decreases with increase of time
Probability Density Function Graph:

Fig 6.20 Probability density function Graph for boiler-5 tube using parametric method
Here Probability density function decreases and then increases with increase of time

6.10 SYSTEM RELIABILITY USING PARAMETRIC METHOD:
E1 = The event that component 1 does not fail
E2 = The event that component 2 does not fail
Then P(E1)=R1 and P(E2)=R2
Where R1=the reliability of component 1
Where R2=the reliability of component 2
Therefore Rs = P(E1E2) = P(E1) P(E2) =R1 R2 assuming that the two components are
independent.
Generalizing to n mutually independent components in series, then
Rs(T) = R1(t)*R2(t)**Rn(t) < min {R1(t),R2(t),,Rn(t)}
Generalizing to n mutually independent components in parallel, then
Rs=P(E1UE2) = 1- P(E1UE2)
c
= 1-P((E1
c
UE2
c
= 1-P((E1
c
)P(E2
c
)) = 1-(1-R1)(1-R2)
For combined series and parallel systems both these formulas are used.
The System Reliability is calculated as follows:
For boiler-1 tubes
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0 12 24 36 48
f
(
t
)

Time in months
68

R(1)= 0.3905

For boiler-2 tubes
R(2)=0.4059

For boiler-3 tubes
R(3)=0.375

For boiler-4 tubes
R(4)=0.389
Total system reliability R(s) = [R(1)R(5)]* [R(2)R(5)]*[R(3)R(5)]*[R(4)R(5)]
=[1-(1-R(1))(1-R(5)]*[1-(1-R(2)(1-R(5)]*[1-(1-R(3))(1-R(5)]*
[1-(1-R(4)(1-R(5)]
=0.472

6.12 COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN EMPIRICAL AND PARAMETRIC
METHODS:
In this work a comparative analysis have been performed between empirical method and
parametric method to identify which method is best suitable and all the machines reliabilities
which are calculated as earlier are shown below.
Comparison of reliability:
Table 6.6 Comparison of Reliability by Empirical and Parametric methods


S.NO
NUMBER OF
BOILER TUBES
RELIABILITY BY
EMPIRICAL
METHOD
RELIABILITY BY
PARAMETRIC
METHOD
1 BOILER-1 TUBE 0.614 0.564
2 BOILER-2 TUBE 0.5464 0.567
3 BOILER-3 TUBE 0.5334 0.562
4 BOILER-4 TUBE 0.654 0.686
5 BOILER-5 TUBE 0.528 0.588




69



Boiler tube-1:

Fig 6.21 Comparison of reliability for boiler-1 tube
Figure shows the reliability of boiler-1 tube. Here reliability by the empirical method is more
than the reliability by parametric method.

Boiler-2 tube:

Fig 6.22 Comparison of reliability for boiler-2 tube
Figure shows the reliability of boiler-2 tube. Here reliability by the parametric method is more
empirical than the reliability by method.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 20 40 60
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time in months
emprical method
parametric
method
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 20 40 60
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time in months
emprical method
parametric method
70




Boiler-3 Tube:

Fig 6.23 Comparison of reliability for boiler-3 tube
Figure shows the reliability of boiler-2 tube. Here reliability by the parametric method is more
empirical than the reliability by method.

Boiler-4 Tube:

Fig 6.24 Comparison of reliability for boiler-1 tube
Figure shows the reliability of boiler-2 tube. Here reliability by the parametric method is more
empirical than the reliability by method.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 20 40 60
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time in months
emprical method
parametric
method
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 20 40 60
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time in months
emprical method
parametric
method
71



Boiler-5 Tube:

Fig 6.25 Comparison of reliability for boiler-1 tube
Figure shows the reliability of boiler-2 tube. Here reliability by the parametric method is more
empirical than the reliability by method.

Comparison of failure rates:
Table 6.7 Comparison of Failure rates by Empirical and Parametric methods
S.NO NUMBER OF THE
BOILER TUBES
FAILURE RATE BY
EMPIRICAL
METHOD
FAILURE RATE BY
PARAMETRIC
METHOD
1 BOILER-1 TUBE 0.01646 0.0552
2 BOILER-2 TUBE 0.01663 0.0409
3 BOILER-3 TUBE 0.0829 0.1188
4 BOILER-4 TUBE 0.01662 0.05605
5 BOILER-5 TUBE 0.01653 0.06158

Table shows the failure rates of boiler tube by empirical and parametric methods and failure
rates values more by the parametric method.


0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 20 40 60
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Time in months
emprical
method
parametric
method
72




Comparison of Probability density functions:

Table 6.8 Comparison of Probability density functions Empirical and Parametric methods
S.NO NUMBER OF THE
BOILERS TUBES
f(t) BY
EMPIRICAL
METHOD
f(t)
BY PARAMETRIC
METHOD
1 BOILER-1 TUBE 0.01534 0.1186
2 BOILER-2 TUBE 0.06478 0.0869
3 BOILER-3 TUBE
0.04004
0.28156
4 BOILER-4 TUBE
0.04109
0.1218
5 BOILER-5 TUBE
0.04424
0.276

Table shows the Probability density functions of boiler tube by using both empirical and
parametric methods and it shows the values are high in parametric method.

System reliability:
Table 6.9 System reliability of boilers
RELIABILITY ANALYSIS SYSTEM RELIABILITY
Using Empirical method 0.4114
Using parametric method 0.4722

Table 6.9. shows that the system reliability of boiler tubes is more by the parametric method and
from this it can conclude that the parametric method is the best method when compared to
empirical method for system reliability evaluation process.




73












CHAPTER 7
INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS










74

ANSYS:
ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite
Element Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very small
pieces (of user-designated size) called elements. The software Implements equations that govern
the behavior of these elements and solves them all; creating a comprehensive explanation of how
the system acts as a whole. These results then can be presented in tabulated or graphical forms.
This type of analysis is typically used for the design and optimization of a system far too complex
to analyze by hand. Systems that may fit into this category are too complex due to their geometry,
scale, or governing equations.
This enables a reduction in the level of risk, and in the cost of ineffective designs.
The multifaceted nature of ANSYS also provides a means to ensure that users are able to see the
effect of a design on the whole behavior of the product, be it electromagnetic, thermal,
mechanical etc.
7.1 GENERIC STEPS TO SOLVING ANY PROBLEM IN ANSYS:
Like solving any problem analytically, you need to define
(1) Your solution domain,
(2) The physical model,
(3) Boundary conditions and
(4) the physical properties.
You then solve the problem and present the results. In numerical methods, the main
difference is an extra step called mesh generation. This is the step that divides the complex model
into small elements that become solvable in an otherwise too complex situation. Below describes
the processes in terminology slightly more attune to the software.

BUILD GEOMETRY:
Construct a two or three dimensional representation of the object to be modeled and
tested using the work plane coordinates system within ANSYS.




75

DEFINE MATERIAL PROPERTIES:
Now that the part exists, define a library of the necessary materials that compose the
object (or project) being modeled. This includes thermal and mechanical properties.
GENERATE MESH :
At this point ANSYS understands the makeup of the part. Now define how the
Modeled system should be broken down into finite pieces.
APPLY LOADS:
Once the system is fully designed, the last task is to burden the system with constraints,
such as physical loadings or boundary conditions.
OBTAIN SOLUTION:
This is actually a step, because ANSYS needs to understand within what state (steady
state, transient etc.) the problem must be solved.
PRESENT THE RESULTS:
After the solution has been obtained, there are many ways to present ANSYS results,
choose from many options such as tables, graphs, and contour plots.
7.2 SPECIFIC CAPABILITIES OF ANSYS:
1) Structural Analysis:
Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element
method as it implies bridges and buildings, naval, aeronautical, and mechanical structures such
as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and machine housings, as well as mechanical components such as
pistons, machine parts, and tools.
2) Static Analysis:
Used to determine displacements, stresses, etc. under static loading conditions.
ANSYS can compute both linear and nonlinear static analyses. Nonlinearities can include
Plasticity, stress stiffening, large deflection, large strain, hyper elasticity, contact surfaces, and
creep.
3) Transient Dynamic Analysis:
Used to determine the response of a structure to arbitrarily time-varying loads. All
nonlinearities mentioned under Static Analysis above are allowed.


76

4) Buckling:
Analysis Used to calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling mode shape.
Both linear (eigenvalue) buckling and nonlinear buckling analyses are possible. In addition to the
above analysis types, several special-purpose features are available such as Fracture mechanics,
Composite material analysis, Fatigue, and both p-Method and Beam analyses.
5) Thermal analysis:
ANSYS is capable of both steady state and transient analysis of any solid with thermal
boundary conditions. Steady-state thermal analyses calculate the effects of steady thermal loads
on a system or component. Users often perform a steady-state analysis before doing a transient
thermal analysis, to help establish initial conditions. A steady-state analysis also can be The last
step of a transient thermal analysis; performed after all transient effects have diminished.
ANSYS can be used to determine temperatures, thermal gradients, heat flow rates, and heat
fluxes in an object that are caused by thermal loads that do not vary over time. Such loads
include the following:
a) Convection
b) Radiation
c) Heat flow rates
d) Heat fluxes (heat flow per unit area)
e) Heat generation rates (heat flow per unit volume)
f) Constant temperature boundaries
A steady-state thermal analysis may be either linear, with constant material properties;
or nonlinear, with material properties that depend on temperature. The thermal properties of most
material vary with temperature. This temperature dependency being appreciable, the analysis
becomes nonlinear. Radiation boundary conditions also make the analysis nonlinear. Transient
calculations are time dependent and ANSYS can both solve distributions as well as create video
for time incremental displays of models.



77






CHAPTER 8

TUBE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
ANALYSIS IN WATER TUBE BOILERS
- A Parametric Study by
Finite Element Method









78

8.1 BOILER FAILURE ANALYSIS:
Internal pressurized tubes are critical component in water tube boiler and steam super
heater element. Tubes in such application are vulnerable to temperature excursions, as a
consequence the material may enter the creep regime, and creep deformation and even fracture
may occur. Therefore, boiler tubes in power plants have finite life because of prolong exposure
to high temperature, stress, aggressive environment, corrosive degradation, etc. However, uses of
safe boiler tube material in thermal power plants is required to make sure that these materials are
safely used under higher temperatures and pressures for long periods of operation.

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF BOILER TUBE FAILURE:
Finite element analysis is considered to apply because it is a powerful tool for the
numerical solution of a wide range of engineering problems such as; deformation and stress
analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, and other problems. Some examples of commercial finite
element softwares are; Abaqus, SDRC-Ideas, Rasna and MCS/Nastran. The other commercially
available softwares to conduct finite element analysis are Algor, Ansys, Cosmos/M,Stardyne,
and Image-3D. Hagihara and Miyazaki conducted simulation using Abaqus to analyze creep
failure of coolant pipe in light water reactor due to local heating. The results showed that under
isothermal condition, the creep damage depends only on the stress. Since the stress is higher in
the inside of the wall, the creep damage is also higher in the inside of the wall. In the distribution
of the damage variable, higher damage is accumulated at the inside than at the outside of the
wall. On the other hand, under the non-isothermal condition, the damage variable is affected not
only by the stress but also by the temperature. It is found that the stress is higher in the lower
temperature region. In the higher temperature region, the stress becomes lower due to the larger
stress relaxation caused by larger creep rate. In the distribution of the damage variable, higher
damage is clearly higher at the outside than at the inside in the higher temperature region.

FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION
The element conductance matrix [k ] for the heat transfer problem can be written as
[k ] =

[B ]
T
[D][B]dV +

h [N ]
T
[N ]dS
(1)
79

V s
3


where the first and second integral in equation (1) are the contributions of conduction and
convection, respectively. The elements thermal load matrix is expressed as
[ f ] =

[N ]
T
Q dV +

[N ]
T
qdS +

[N ]
T
h T

dS (2)
v s
2
s
3


The first term in equation (2) is the heat source{ f
Q
} , the second term is the heat flux { f
q
} , and
the third term is convection heat transfer{ f
h
} which is equivalent to hT

. The terms s
2
and s
3

are separate surface areas over which heat flow (flux) q and convection heat transfer are
specified. The global conductance matrix can be obtained using the direct stiffness method; that
is,

[K ]= N [k
(e)
]
(3)

e=1

The global thermal load matrix is the sum of all element heat source and is given by


{F }= N{f
(e)
}
(4)

e=1

The global equation is then



[K ]{T}= [K ]
(or)
(5)


{T }= [K ]
1
{F }


(6)

where
{
T

}


=



unknown nodal temperature

[K ]
1

= inverse of global conductance matrix

80

{F }
= global thermal load matrix


8.2 TUBE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN WATER TUBE BOILER
- A PARAMETRIC STUDY BY FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:

Geometrical Modeling:
The model of the boiler tube is divided into three regions consist of steam region,
scale region, and steel region. Steam flows inside the tube, while flue gas flows outside the tube.
The overall tube section is 20.00 mm long with an inside diameter of 42.60 mm and an outside
diameter of 50.80 mm. In order to complete the model, internal scale thickness of 0.5 mm with
20 mm length is placed inside of tube wall. Figure 2 shows a 2-D model of boiler tube.

Fig 8.1 Model of two dimensional axisymmetric boiler tube with inside scale

8.3 PROCEDURE FOR SIMULATION AND THERMAL ANALYSIS OF
BOILER TUBE IN ANSYS:
Step1: Select the Thermal analysis in preferences.
Step 2: Select the Preprocessor> Element type> add/edit/delete> solid >Quad4node
Step 3: Select the material properties and enter the material properties.
Density : 7850 kg/m
3
81

Thermal conductivity (k) : 30.9 W/m C
Specific heat :468 KJ/Kg.
o
C
Step 4: Select the modeling in it create key points as per dimensions then make lines with these
key points. After that create area with these lines.
Step 5: Divide the lines in to number of elements and mesh the area.
Step 6: Apply loads on the boundary conditions and solve it.
Step 7: Select the postprocessor in it select contour plot and click on the degree of freedom and
temperature to get the temperature distribution in the boiler tube.

8.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The temperature distribution in the boiler tube is affected by many variables
such as; with out scale, steam inlet temperature, and scale thickness. Therefore, those
variables are considered to be applied in this analysis.

8.4.1 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION AT ANALYSIS DIFFERENT STEAM INLET
TEMPERATURE OF CARBON STEEL BOILER TUBES WITH OUT SCALE :
The steam inlet temperature affects the thermal efficiency of a thermal power
plant. The higher steam inlet temperature increases thermal efficiency. In contrast,
operating boiler with higher temperature have some disadvantages, i.e., to make steam
inlet temperature higher, more time is required, and also strength of tube materials should
be considered because higher temperature will degrade the strength of material and also
thermal conductivity. Higher operating temperature also can increase scale growing.
Therefore, it is required to conduct simulation on the effect of steam inlet temperature to
the temperature distribution in the boiler tube. From this figure it shows that the
temperature is decreasing from outer side to inner side of boiler and there is significant
variation in the temperature in the boiler walls.
From fig 8.2 it show the temperature distribution in boilers tube made by the carbon steel
at steam temperature of 330
o
C. Here the maximum temperature 1100
o
C is induced in the
out side of the boiler tube. Minimum temperature is induced in the inner side of the boiler
tube.
82


Fig 8.2 Temprature variation along the boiler walls at steam temperature 330
o
C
Fig 8.3 shows the temperature distribution of boiler at 430
o
C. Here the maximum
temperature is 1100
o
C at outside of tube and minimum of 430
o
C in inner side of tube.

Fig 8.3 Temprature variation along the boiler walls at steam temperature 430
o
C
Fig 8.4 shows the temperature distribution at steam temperature of 530
o
C. Here maximum
temperature is 1100
o
C and minimum of 530
o
C at inside of boiler tube.
83


Fig 8.4 Temperature variation along the boiler walls at steam temperature 530
o
C
Temperature Distribution Graph:

Fig 8.5 Temperature variation along walls of boiler tube
Fig 8.5 shows the temperature distribution in boilers at steam temperature of 330
0
C, 430
o
C,
530
o
C. Here the temperature variation is more if the steam temperature is 530
o
C and more
thermal stresses will induced so the probability of failure is more in this case when this case and
less thermal stresses will induces when the steam temperature is 330
o
C so the probability of
failure is less.

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
21 22 23 24 25 26
t
e
m
p
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n

o
C


distance from x in mm
inlet 330
inlet 430
inlet 530
84

8.4.2 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION AT DIFFERENT STEAM INLET
TEMPERATURE WITH SCALE:
If the scale is formed inside the boiler tube then it reduces the heat transfer rate at that
position and develops the thermal stresses in that places and it is not uniform over the tube walls.

Fig 8.6 :Temperature variation along the boiler walls at steam temperature 330
o
C with scale
From fig 8.2 and fig 8.6 the temperature of inner wall of tube is 330
o
C and the
inner wall is subjected to a maximum temperature of 757.778
o
C respectively.

Fig 8.7:Temperature variation along the boiler walls at steam temperature 430
o
C with scale
From fig 8.3 and fig 8.7 the temperature of inner wall of tube is 430
o
C and the inner
85

wall is subjected to a maximum temperature 802.222
o
C respectively.

Fig 8.8 Temperature variation along the boiler walls at steam temperature 530
o
C with
scale.
From fig 8.4 and fig 8.8 the temperature of inner wall of tube is 530
o
C and the inner
wall is subjected to a maximum temperature of 846.667
o
C respectively.
Temperature Distribution Graph:

Fig 7.9: Temperature variation along the boiler tube with scale
From the fig 7.9. the temperature of the inside of tube is 396.43
o
C where the scale is
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
21 22 23 24 25 26
t
e
m
p
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n

o
C


distance from x in mm
inlet 430
inlet 530
inlet 330
86

formed and it increases gradually along the scale to 757.778
o
C when steam temperature is
maintained at 330
o
C. The temperature distribution is not uniform along the inner wall which will
induce thermal stresses. By comparing for the steam temperatures 330
o
C, 430
o
C and 530
o
C more
thermal stresses are induced in case of 530
o
C as inner wall is subjected to minimum temperature
of 593
o
C and varied to a maximum of 846.667
o
C. The probability of failure of boiler tube is
more when steam temperature is 530
o
C.

8.4.3 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION OF BOILER TUBE WITH DIFFERENT
SCALE THICKNESSES :
Existence of scale reduces heat transfer rate from flue gas to steam in the boiler tube
because thermal conductivity of scale is lower than the tube material. As the scale thickness
increases, the temperature of steam decreases. As a consequence, energy transferred from steam
decreases. In order to make equilibrium condition, temperature of flue gas has to be increased.
However, increasing the temperature of flue gas needs time and combustion of additional fuel.
The disadvantages of increasing the temperature of the flue gas is decreasing rupture strength of
material. The temperature distribution of boiler tube by keeping scale thicknesses 0.5mm,1 mm,
and 1.5mm is observed.

Fig 8.10:Temperature variation along the boiler walls at steam temperature 330
o
C with 0.5 mm
scale
87


Fig 8.11 Temperature variation along the boiler walls at steam temperature 330
o
C with 1.0 mm
scale

Fig 8.12 Temperature variation along the boiler walls at steam temperature 330
o
C with 1.5 mm
scale
For 0.5 mm thickness scale, the minimum and maximum temperatures at inner wall are
330
o
C and 672.22
o
C. For 1 mm scale thickness, the minimum and maximum
temperatures at inner wall are 330
o
C and 780.23
o
C. For 1.5 mm scale thickness, the
88

minimum and maximum temperatures at inner wall are 330
o
C and 843.33
o
C. From this the
temperature difference between the maximum and minimum temperature is increasing for
increase in scale thickness, which will induce more thermal stresses. These stresses will
makes boiler tube to fail.
Temperature Distribution Graph:

Fig 8.13 Temperature variation along boiler tube wall with different scale thicknesses
From fig 8.13 it shows the temperature variation in boiler tube for different
thicknesses scale and steam temperature is 330
o
C. It shows the if the scale is more then the
more thermal stresses will induce and the boiler will fail.









0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
21 22 23 24 25 26
t
e
m
p
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n

o
C


distance from x in mm
0.5 mm
1 mm
1.5 mm
89










CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSIONS










90

CONCLUSIONS

In this work, Reliability analysis of boiler tubes of a process industry which undergo
repairs and failures due to various factors such as corrosion, flue erosion temperature have been
performed. A thermal power plant has been taken as a case study in this work.
In this work, Reliability analysis has been performed for all the boiler tubes using
empirical and Parametric methods and a comparison between empirical and Weibull methods has
been performed and it has been observed that Weibull method gives more accurate and efficient
results than empirical method. In this work failure mode effective and critical analysis(FMECA)
also have been performed to identify the critical boiler system among the all other boiler
systems. In this various boilers with different modes and their effects with remedies have been
analyzed in this work.
Two-dimensional (2-D) heat transfer mathematical model for axi-symmetric problem
using finite element have been developed in order to determine temperature distribution in the
water tube boiler. Commercially available finite element software namely Ansys is used in this
study. The analysis of the temperature distribution for every location inside the domain is
conducted by setting constant heat fluxes and varying parameters such as material properties of
the tube, scale thickness, steam temperature etc. The results show that temperature distribution in
the boiler tube is influenced by those parameters. Although, all parameters affect the temperature
distribution in the boiler tube, but existence of scale is very significant which decreases the
temperature of tube wall, hence to make heat balance in the equilibrium condition, temperature
of the flue gas must be increased. The disadvantage of increasing temperature of flue gas is
increasing scale growing, and decreasing rupture strength of material. Therefore, existence of
scale must be eliminated.
In this way, Reliability evaluation and parametric study by finite element method of
the temperature distribution for water tube boilers in thermal power plant which is performed in
this work is very essential to evaluate the performance and efficiency of boilers. This type of
study and analysis of boilers is very useful for managers, engineers etc, in thermal power plants


91

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nd
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