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Introduction
1.1 Overview:
The structural design of an airplane actually begins with the flight envelope or
V-n diagram, which clearly limits the maximum load factors that the airplane ca
n withstand at any particular flight velocity. However in normal practice the ai
rplane might experience loads that are much higher than the design loads. Some o
f the factors that lead to the structural overload of an airplane are high gust
velocities, sudden movements of the controls, fatigue load in some cases, bird s
trikes or lightning strikes. So to add some inherent ability to withstand these
rare but large loads, a safety factor of 1.5 is provided during the structural d
esign. The two major members that need to be considered for the structural desig
n of an airplane are wings and the fuselage. As far as the wing design is concer
ned, the most significant load is the bending load. So the primary load carrying
member in the wing structure is the spar (the front and rear spars) whose cross
section is an I section. Apart from the spars to take the bending loads, suitable
stringers need to take the shear loads acting on the wings. Unlike the wing, wh
ich is subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for
structural analysis due to its symmetrical crossing and symmetrical loading. The
main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on
the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The stru
ctural design of both wing and fuselage begin with shear force and bending momen
t diagrams for the respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in ea
ch of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen fo
r the respective member.
1
1.2 Outline:
The Structural design involves: Determination of loads acting on aircraft:
V-n d
iagram for the design study
Gust and maneuverability envelopes Schrenks Curve
Cri
tical loading performance and final V-n graph calculation Determination of loads
acting on individual structures Structural design study Theory approach
Load es
timation of wings
Load estimation of fuselage. Material Selection for structural
members Detailed structural layouts
Design of some components of wings, fuselag
e
1.3 Parameters forwarded from ADP 1
Take off Gross Weight,
Maximum Velocity,
Cruise Velocity, Stall Velocity, 2
ct = 5.797 m ( )
( )
4
2. V-n Diagram
2.1 Maneuvering Envelope:
In accelerated flight, the lift becomes much more compared to the weight of the
aircraft. This implies a net force contributing to the acceleration. This force
causes stresses on the aircraft structure. The ratio of the lift experienced to
the weight at any instant is defined as the Load Factor (n).
Using the above formula, we infer that load factor has a quadratic variation wit
h velocity. However, this is true only up to a certain velocity. This velocity i
s determined by simultaneously imposing limiting conditions aerodynamically ((CL
)max) as well as structurally (nmax). This velocity is called the Corner Velocit
y, and is determined using the following formula,
In this section, we estimate the aerodynamic limits on load factor, and attempt
to draw the variation of load factor with velocity, commonly known as the V-n Di
agram. The Vn diagram is drawn for Sea level Standard conditions.
5
At A,
2.2.2 Curve AC:
AC is a line limiting the maximum amount of load that can be withstood by the we
akest structure of the aircraft * + [ ( ) ]
n= 0 For Bombers the load factor can vary from -3 to +6.5 Hence the negative loa
d factor of aircraft is limited to -2
2.2.5 Along EF
The point F corresponds to the velocity VC = VF = 408.32 m/s
2.2.6 Curve OG:
nF= -2 (for a typical bomber aircraft)
Hence along the curve OG,
Hence we get,
Table 2-2: Velocity vs. negative Load factor (n)
Velocity V (m/s) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Load Factor (n) 0 -0.034356779 -0.137427115 -0.309211009 -0.549708461 -0.8589194
7 -1.236844037 -1.683482161 -2.198833843 -2.782899083 -3.43567788 -4.157170234
9
shows that there is outright structural failure when the aircraft is flown beyon
d this value of load factor. n=-2 gives the negative limit load factor and negat
ive ultimate load factor. From the figure, it is clear that for a particular vel
ocity, it is not possible to fly at a value of CL higher than the CLmax correspo
nding to that velocity. If we wish to increase the lift of the airplane to that
value of C Lmax, then we should increase the flying speed of the airplane.
Maneuvering Envelope
7 6 5 4 Load Factor
PIAA
2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 0
LSL
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
NIAA
Velocity
Figure 2-5: Maneuvering Envelope
12
HSL
3
Maneuvering Envelope
7 6 5 4 Load Factor 3 2 1 0A 0 -1 -2 -3
C
D
E
B H
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
G
Velocity
F
Figure 2-6: Maneuvering Envelope
Maneuvering Envelope with coordinates
7 6 5 4 Load Factor 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 0
173.77, 6.41152
408.32, 6.41152 416.66, 4.80864
68.630 2,1
50 68.63, -0.4046 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
416.66 , 0 450
159.5944,-2
Velocity
408.32,-2
Figure 2-7: Maneuvering envelope with coordinates
Hence for the strategic bomber aircraft we get, Safety Factor = 1.5
13
Caution Speed = 325 m/s Corner Velocity = 173.77 m/s Stall speed = 59.669 m/s Sa
fety load factor limit i.e., indications given to pilot n = -2/ 1.5 = -1.3333 n
= 6.41152/ 1.5 = 4.2743 Dive Velocity = 416.66 m/s
14
Figure 2-8: V-n diagram with safety factor or safety limit consideration
15
3. Gust Envelope
3.1 Description:
Gust is a sudden, brief increase in the speed of the wind. Generally, winds are
least gusty over large water surfaces and most gusty over rough land and near hi
gh buildings. With respect to aircraft turbulence, a sharp change in wind speed
relative to the aircraft; a sudden increase in airspeed due to fluctuations in t
he airflow, resulting in increased structural stresses upon the aircraft. Sharpedged gust (u) is a wind gust that results in an instantaneous change in directi
on or speed. Derived gust velocity (U or Umax) is the maximum velocity of a shar
p-edged gust that would produce a given acceleration on a particular airplane fl
own in level flight at the design cruising speed of the aircraft and at a given
air density. As a result a 25% increase is seen in lift for a longitudinally dis
turbing gust. The effect of turbulence gust is to produce a short time change in
the effective angle of attack. These changes produce a variation in lift and th
ereby load factor For velocities up to Vmax, cruise, a gust velocity of 15 m/s a
t sea level is assumed. For Vdiv, a gust velocity of 10 m/s is assumed. Effectiv
e gust velocity: The vertical component of the velocity of a sharpedged gust tha
t would produce a given acceleration on a particular airplane flown in level fli
ght at the design cruising speed of the aircraft and at a given air density. Ref
erence Gust Velocity (Uref ) at sea level 15m/s. Design Gust Velocity (Uds) Uref
X K
16
12 10 8 6 Load factor 4 2 0 0 -2 -4 50
Variation in aerodynamic limits
Normal Stall curve
Gust stall curve
Normal neg stall curve Gust neg stall curve
100 150 200 250
Flaps Retracted
Velocity -6 Figure 3-1: Variation in Aerodynamic limits due to gust
3.2 Construction
The increase in the load factor due to the gust can be calculated by For curve a
bove V-axis:
Where K
Gust Alleviation Factor U max
Maximum derived Gust Velocity a
Slope for wing For curve below V-axis: 17
Lift Curve
Chord at tip cr Ch
a= 6.9528829 /radian for a =0.15/ degree where a is lift curve slope for the chose
n airfoil NACA 65(3) 418 a
lift curve slope for airfoil Sweep angle at leading Ed
ge of Wing
( )
Table 3-1: Equivalent air speed and corresponding Derived Gust Velocity
For Velocity at points
Equivalent air speed Derived Gust Velocity V (m/s) Umax (m/s) 15 10 5
B,G C,F D,E
173.77 408.32 416.66
19
By using the equations and for various speeds of Umax we get the following gust
lines
Gust Lines
4 U=15m/s U=0m/s U=-15m/s U=10m/s U=-5m/s U=5m/s U=-10./s
3
2
Load factor
1
Level
0 0 50 100 150 200 250
Design speed 277.77 m/s 350 300
400
450
-1
Velocity -2
Figure 3-2: Gust Lines
20
The positive load factor along the curve OB is given by the equation
Hence along the curve OA,
But also
Equating the above two equations we get an intersecting point B where velocity i
s VB = 73.1379 m/s Since the velocities and load factors at C, D, E and F are kn
own and straight lines are used to join these points in sequence
3.2.1 Line FG:
It is found that negative gust line of U= -15 m/s intersects the positive high a
ngle of attack condition at G.
22
Equating the above equation with the OA curve equation we get the point G where
VG = 51.52026m/s
Gust Envelope
3 2.5 2 1.5 Load factor 1
C
D B
G
0.5 0 0
O
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
-0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 Velocity (m/s)
E
450
F
Figure3-4: Gust Envelope
23
4. Schrenks Curve
4.1 Description
Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length, angle of a
ttack and sweep along the span. Schrenks curve defines this lift distribution ove
r the wing span of an aircraft, also called simply as Lift Distribution Curve. S
chrenks Curve is given by
Where y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1 y2 is
Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2
a = 44.8285 m
25
Figure 4-1: Wing geometry showing sweep angle and semi span along the root.
4.2 Linear Lift Distribution:
Lift at root
Lroot = 90978.038 N/m Lift at tip
Ltip = 45492.942 N/m By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we ca
n get the equation for the wing.
26
For the Schrenks curve we only consider half of the linear distribution of lift a
nd hence we derive y1/2
4.3 Elliptic Lift Distribution:
Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required
to overcome weight Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get
Where b1 is Actual lift at root And a is wing semi span Lift at tip
28
29
Schrenk s Curve
Thousands 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Wing span loaction (
m) L L1 L2
Figure 4-6: Schrenks curve with linear and elliptic lift distribution
Replacing x by x for port wing we can get lift distribution for entire span.
Lift per meter span (N/m)
Schrenk s Curve
Thousands 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -60 -40 -20 0 Wing span loaction (m) 20 4
0 60 L
Figure 4-7: Schrenks curve
Lift per meter span (N/m)
31
5.3 Shear force and bending moment diagram due to load along tranvere direct
ion at cruie condition:
Lift Force given by Schrenk Curve:
Linear lift ditribution (trapezium):
Elliptic lift ditribution (quarter ellipe)
Linear lift ditribution (y1/2)
50000 45000 Lift per unit length (N/m) 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000
5000 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Span wie location (m)
Figure 5-1: Lift ditribution (linear)
33
pan 34 ( ))
When we integrate from x=0 (root location) to x=b (tip location) we get the net
weight of port wing. ( ( )
)
Subtituting variou value of x in the above equation we get the elf-weight of
the wing.
Self Weight
0 0 WEight of empty wing (N/m) -5000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
-10000
-15000
-20000
-25000
Span wie location (m)
Figure 5-3: Self weight of wing
Power plant weight: Power plant i aumed to be a point load,
35
Acting at x= 8 m and x= 14 m from the root. Fuel weight: Thi deign ha fuel in
the wing o we have to conider the weight of the fuel in the wing.
Again by uing general formula for traight line y=mx + c we get,
Fuel ditribution
0 -2000 -4000 Fuel weight (N/m) -6000 -8000 -10000 -12000 -14000 -16000 -18000 20000 Span wie location (m) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Figure 5-4: Fuel Ditribution
36
Load ditribution
60000 40000 20000 0 0 -20000 -40000 -60000 -80000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Load acting on wing (N/m)
Span wie location (m)
Figure 5-5: Overall Load ditribution Table 5-1: Load implified a point load
Curve / component
Area encloed / tructural Centroid (from wing root) weight (N)
y1/2 y2/2 Wing Fuel Power plant
1529447.31 1245953.75 313917 365752.803 66708
19.923 m 3.510534 m 16.8107 m 16.4606 m 14 m, 8 m
37
38
( ( ) )
By uing the correponding value of x in appropriate equation we get the plot
of hear force Note: Shear force i a dicrete function along y axi o in order
to make it continuou we introduce traight line.
39
Shear Force
Thouand 1000 500
Shear Force (N)
0 -44.8285 -34.8285 -24.8285 -14.8285 -4.8285 -500 -1000 -1500 -2000 -2500
5.1715
15.1715 25.1715 35.1715
-3000 Location in wing (m)
Figure 5-7: Shear force diagram - dicrete
Shear Force (Actual)
Thouand 1000 500
Shear Force (N)
0 -44.8285 -34.8285 -24.8285 -14.8285 -4.8285 -500 -1000 -1500 -2000 -2500
5.1715
15.1715 25.1715 35.1715
-3000 Location in wing (m)
Figure 5-8: Shear force diagram- continuou
40
( ( ( ( ))
)
)
By ubtituting the value of x for the above equation of bending moment obtai
ned we can get a continuou bending moment curve for the port wing. Note: if we
replace the x by -x in each term we get the ditribution of tarboard wing
41
Bending Moment
Million
Bending Moment (Nm) -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50
Location in wing (m)
Figure 5-9: Bending moment diagram
5.4 Shear force and bending moment diagram due to load along chordwie directi
on at cruie condition:
Aerodynamic center- Thi i a point on the chord of an airfoil ection where the
bending moment due to the component of reultant aerodynamic force (Lift and D
rag) i contant irrepective of the angle of attack. Hence the force are tran
ferred to thi point for obtaining contant Ma.c Shear center- Thi i a point o
n the airfoil ection where if a force act, it produce only bending and no twi
ting. Hence the force i tranferred to thi point and the torque i found. Cru
ie CL=0.204908 @ V= 250 m/ Cruie CD= 0.0055 Angle of attack= -0.811439 (obtain
ed from the lift curve lope) Angle of attack @ zero lift= -3o 42
Wing lift curve lope (a)= 0.1213507 /degree Co-efficient of moment about aerody
namic centre= -0.0543 Location of aerodynamic centre:
Location of hear centre:
Lift and drag are the component of reultant aerodynamic force acting normal to
and along the direction of relative wind repectively. A a reult, component
of them act in the chordwie direction alo which produce a bending moment about
the normal (z) axi.
Figure 5-10: Normal and chord wie coefficient
Co-efficient of force along the normal direction,
43
1400 Load along chord wie direction (N) 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 5
Load along Chordwie direction
10
15
20
25
30
35
Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-11: Load along chordwie direction
To find fixing moment and the reaction force,
5.4.1 Shear Force:
45
Shear Force
Thouand 0 0 -5 -10 Shear Force (N) -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-12: Shear force
5.4.2 Bending Moment:
Bending Moment
Thouand 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-13: Bending moment
Bending moment (Nm)
46
Torque due to normal force and contant pitching moment at cruie condition:
Figure 5-14: Moment about aerodynamic center
The lift and drag force produce a moment on the urface of croection of the
wing, otherwie called a torque, about the hear center. Moment about the aerody
namic center get tranferred to the hear center. The powerplant alo produce
a torque about the hear center on the chord under which it i located.
Figure 5-15:Torque due to normal force and moment
47
49
Thouand
70 60 50
Torque due to Powerplant
Torque (Nm)
40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-18: Torque due to powerplant
Then the different torque component are brought together in a ame graph to mak
e a comparion
Torque comparion
Thouand 2000 1000 0 -1000 Torque (Nm) -2000 -3000 -4000 -5000 -6000 -7000 -800
0 Spanwie location (m) 0 10 20 30 40
Torque due to Normal Force Torque due to moment Torque due to powerplant
Figure 5-19: Torque comparion
51
The net torque will be um of all the above torque i.e. torque due to normal fo
rce, chordwie force, powerplant and aerodynamic moment
Torque
Million 0 0 -1 -2 Torque (Nm) -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-20: Net torque
52
The aim i to find the hear force and bending moment due to normal force in
critical flight condition. There are three primary load acting on a wing truct
ure in tranvere direction which can caue coniderable hear force and bendin
g moment on it. They are a follow: Lift force (given by Schrenk curve)
Self-w
eight of the wing
Weight of the power plant
Weight of the fuel in the wing Now,
the proportionality contant influence the lift force alone and other factor r
emain unaffected.
Table 5-4: Load implified a point load at critical flight condition
Curve / component
Area encloed / tructural Centroid (from wing root) weight (N)
y1/2 y2/2 Wing Fuel Power plant
1529447.316.41152 1245953.75 6.41152 313917 365752.803 66708
19.923 m 3.510534 m 16.8107 m 16.4606 m 14 m, 8 m
56
58
( ( ( ( ))) )
By uing the correponding value of x in appropriate equation we get the plot
of hear force
59
( ( ( ( ))) )
(
)
By ubtituting the value of x for the above equation of bending moment obtai
ned we can get a continuou bending moment curve for the port wing.
61
Bending Moment
Thouand 180000 160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 0 5 10 15
20 25 30 35 Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-32: Chordwie Bending moment diagram at critical condition
Torque due to normal force and contant pitching moment at cruie condition:
Figure 5-33: Determination of variou component of torque
Bending moment (Nm)
66
68
Thouand
70 60 50
Torque due to Powerplant
Torque (Nm)
40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Spanwie location (m)
Figure 5-37: Torque due to powerplant at critical condition unchanged
Then the different torque component are brought together in a ame graph to mak
e a comparion The net torque will be um of all the above torque i.e. torque d
ue to normal force, chordwie force, powerplant and aerodynamic moment
70
Torque comparion
Thouand Torque (Nm) 12000 10000 8000 6000 Torque due to Normal Force 4000 200
0 0 0 -2000 -4000 Spanwie location (m) 10 20 30 40 Torque due to moment Torque
due to powerplant
Figure 5-38: Torque comparion at critical condition
Torque
Million Torque (Nm) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Spanwie lo
cation (m)
Figure 5-39: Net torque at critical condition
71
6. Material Selection:
6.1 Decription:
Aircraft tructure are baically unidirectional. Thi mean that one dimenion,
the length, i much larger than the other - width or height. For example, the
pan of the wing and tail par i much longer than their width and depth; the r
ib have a much larger chord length than height and/or width; a whole wing ha a
pan that i larger than it chord or thickne; and the fuelage i much long
er than it i wide or high. Even a propeller ha a diameter much larger than it
blade width and thickne, etc.... For thi imple reaon, a deigner chooe t
o ue unidirectional material when deigning for an efficient trength to weight
tructure. Unidirectional material are baically compoed of thin, relatively
flexible, long fiber which are very trong in tenion (like a thread, a rope, a
tranded teel wire cable, etc.) An aircraft tructure i alo very cloe to a
ymmetrical tructure. That mean the up and down load are almot equal to each
other. The tail load may be down or up depending on the pilot raiing or dippi
ng the noe of the aircraft by pulling or puhing the pitch control; the rudder
may be deflected to the right a well a to the left (ide load on the fuelage
). The gut hitting the wing may be poitive or negative, giving the up or down
load which the occupant experience by being puhed down in the eat ... or ha
nging in the belt. Becaue of thee factor, the deigner ha to ue a 73
tructural material that can withtand both tenion and compreion. Unidirectio
nal fiber may be excellent in tenion, but due to their mall cro ection, th
ey have very little inertia (we will explain inertia another time) and cannot ta
ke much compreion. They will ecape the load by bucking away. A in the illut
ration, you cannot load a tring, or wire, or chain in compreion. In order to
make thin fiber trong in compreion, they are "glued together" with ome kind
of an "embedding". In thi way we can take advantage of their tenion trength
and are no longer penalized by their individual compreion weakne becaue, a
a whole, they become compreion reitant a they help each other to not buckl
e away. The embedding i uually a lighter, ofter "rein" holding the fiber to
gether and enabling them to take the required compreion load. Thi i a very
good tructural material. WOOD Hitorically, wood ha been ued a the firt uni
directional tructural raw material. They have to be tall and traight and their
wood mut be trong and light. The dark band (late wood) contain many fiber,
wherea the light band (early wood) contain much more "rein". Thu the wider t
he dark band, the tronger and heavier the wood. If the dark band are very nar
row and the light band quite wide, the wood i light but not very trong. To ge
t the mot efficient trength to weight ratio for wood we need a definite number
of band per inch. Some of our aircraft tructure are two-dimenional (length
and width are large with repect to thickne). Plywood i often ued for uch
tructure. Several thin board (foil) are glued together o that the fiber of
the variou layer cro over at different angle (uually 90 degree today yea
r back you could get 74
them at 30 and 45 degree a well). Plywood make excellent "hear web" if the
deigner know how to ue plywood efficiently. (We will learn the bai of tre
analyi ometime later.) Today good aircraft wood i very hard to come by. In
tead of uing one good board for our par, we have to ue lamination becaue
large piece of wood are practically unavailable, and we no longer can trut the
wood quality. From an availability point of view, we imply need a ubtitute f
or what nature ha upplied u with until now. ALUMINUM ALLOYS So, ince wood ma
y not be a available a it wa before, we look at another material which i tr
ong, light and eaily available at a reaonable price (there no point in dicu
ing Titanium - it imply too expenive). Aluminum alloy are certainly one a
nwer. We will dicu the propertie of thoe alloy which are ued in light pl
ane contruction in more detail later. For the time being we will look at alumin
um a a contruction material. Extruded Aluminum Alloy: Due to the manufacturin
g proce for aluminum we get a unidirectional material quite a bit tronger in
the lengthwie direction than acro. And even better, it i not only trong in
tenion but alo in compreion. Comparing extruion to wood, the tenion and c
ompreion characteritic are practically the ame for aluminum alloy o that
the linear tre analyi applie. Wood, on the other hand, ha a tenile tren
gth about twice a great a it compreion trength; accordingly, pecial tre
analyi method mut be ued and a good undertanding of wood under tre i
eential if tre concentration are to be avoided! Aluminum alloy, in thin
heet (.016 to .125 of an inch) provide an excellent two dimenional material u
ed extenively a hear web - with or without
75
aerodynamic hape or deired look. It mut be noted that thi method involve tw
o technique: teel work and fabric covering. We will be dicuing tube and we
lded teel tructure in more detail later and go now to "artificial wood" or co
mpoite tructure. COMPOSITE MATERIALS The deigner of compoite aircraft impl
y ue fiber in the deired direction exactly where and in the amount required.
The fiber are embedded in rein to hold them in place and provide the required
upport againt buckling. Intead of plywood or heet metal which allow ingle
curvature only, the compoite deigner ue cloth where the fiber are laid in
two direction .(the woven thread and weft) alo embedded in rein. Thi ha the
advantage of freedom of hape in double curvature a required by optimum aerody
namic hape and for very appealing look (importance of ethetic). Today fibe
r (gla, nylon, Kevlar, carbon, whiker or ingle crytal fiber of variou c
hemical compoition) are very trong, thu the tructure become very light. Th
e drawback i very little tiffne. The tructure need tiffening which i ach
ieved either by the uual dicreet tiffener, -or more elegantly with a andwic
h tructure: two layer of thin uni- or bi-directional fiber are held apart by
a lightweight core (foam or "honeycomb"). Thi allow the deigner to achieve th
e required inertia or tiffne. From an engineering tandpoint, thi method i
very attractive and upported by many authoritie becaue it allow new developm
ent which are required in cae of war. But thi method alo ha it drawback f
or homebuilding: A mold i needed, and very trict quality control i a mut for
the right amount of fiber and rein and for good adheion between both to prev
ent too "dry" or "wet" a tructure. Alo the curing of the rein i quite enit
ive to temperature,
77
humidity and preure. Finally, the rein are active chemical which will not o
nly produce the well-known allergie but alo the chemical that attack our body
(epecially the eye and lung) and they have the unfortunate property of being
cumulatively damaging and the reult (in particular deterioration of the eye)
how up only year after initial contact. Another diadvantage of the rein i
their limited helf life, i.e., if the rein i not ued within the pecified ti
me lape after manufacturing, the reult may be unatifactory and unafe. HEAV
Y AIRCRAFT RAW MATERIALS The focu of our article i our Table which give typic
al value for a variety of raw material. Column 1 lit the tandard material
which are eaily available at a reaonable cot. Some of the material that fall
along the borderline between practical and impractical are: Magneium: An expen
ive material. Cating are the only readily available form. Special precaution
mut be taken when machining magneium becaue thi metal burn when hot. Titan
ium: A very expenive material. Very tough and difficult to machine. Carbon Fibe
r: Still very expenive material. Kevlar Fiber: Very expenive and alo criti
cal to work with becaue it i hard to "oak" in the rein. When thi technique
i matered, the reulting tructure i very trong, but it alo lack in tiffn
e. Column 2 through 6:
Column 2 through 6 lit the relevant material propertie in metric unit. Colum
n 2, the denity (d), i the weight divided by the volume. 78
Table 6-1: Material property table Material 1 Wood Spruce Poplar Oregon Pine Fi
bergla (70% Gla) Matte Woven Unidirectio nal Alum. Alloy 5052-H34 8086-H34
6061 -T6 6351 -T6 6063-T6 7075-T3 Steel AISI 1026 4130 N (4140) Lead Magneium A
lloy Titanium d 2 .45 .43 .56 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.8 7.8 7.8 11.3 1
.8 4.5 fy 3 16 22 24 25 17 25 25 42 20 50 fu 4 e 5 E/10 6 1.4 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 3.
5 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.2 21.0 21.0 4.5 11.0
3
E/d 7
Root of N/d 8
2
Root of E/d 9 22.0 22.0 22.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 3.5 3.5 9.0 5.0
3
fu/d 10 (15) (15) (15) 7 16 27 11 11 11 11 11 14 5 7 16 18
3.5/11 30/12 220 70 0 220 70 0 220 70 0 700 17 900 20 150 27 0 260 30 0 260 30 0 260 30 0 260
30 0 260 30 0 260 30 0 270 18 0 270 18 0 4.0/13 15 35 60 24 31 26 28 21 41 38 63 30 80 4 5 9 9 9 1 2 1 5 1 0 250 37 0 240 23 0
Unit for above to obtain: multiply by:
kg/d 3 m
3
kg/m 2 m
kg/m 2 m KSI 1420
% kg/m 2 m % KSI 1420
km
kg m
2
kg m
2/3
1/3
km
lb/cu KSI .0357 1420
79
Column 3, the yield tre (fy), i the tre (load per area) at which there wi
ll be a permanent deformation after unloading (the material ha yielded, given w
ay ... )
Column 4, the ultimate tre (fu), i the tre (load per area) at which it ca
nnot carry a further load increae. It i the maximum load before failure. Colum
n 5, the elongation at ultimate tre (e), in percentage give an indication of
the Toughne" of the material. Column 6 lit the Yong Modular or Modulu of
Elaticity (E), which i the teepne of the tre/train diagram a hown in
Figure 1. Important Note: For wood, the tenion i much greater (2 to 3 time)
than the compreion. Both value are given in the Table. For fibergla, the a
me applie, but the yield i o dependent on the manufacturing proce that we c
annot even give Iypical value .
Figure 6-1: Stre train curve for different material
Column 7 to 10: Column 7 to 10 are value which allow the comparion of materi
al from a weight tandpoint (the above referenced text by Timohenko will alo
how you why we ue thoe "funny" looking value). Column 7 give the tiffne
of a andwich contruction. The higher the value, the tiffer the contruction.
From the Table, we ee that metal are high wood come
80
cloe, but fibergla i low: which mean fibergla will be heavier for the am
e tiffne.
Figure 6-2: Stre train curve
Column 8 how the column buckling reitance for the ame geometric hape. Thi
time, wood i better than the light alloy, coming before teel and fibergla
. (Surpriingly, the uual welded teel tube fuelage i not very weight efficie
nt.) Column 9 give the plate buckling tiffne, which i alo a hear trength
meaure. Here again, wood (plywood) i in a very good poition before aluminum
and fibergla, with teel not very good. Column 10 provide a crude way of mea
uring the trength to weight ratio of material becaue it doe not take into ac
count the variou way the material i ued in "light tructure". According to
thi primitive way of looking, unidirectional fiber are very good, followed by
high trength (2024) aluminum and wood, then the more common aluminum alloy and
finally teel. From jut thi imple table, we find there i not one material t
hat provide an overwhelming olution to all the factor that mut be conidered
in deigning a light aircraft. Each material ha ome advantage omewhere. The
deigner choice (no preconceived idea) will make a good aircraft tructure ...
if the choice i good!
81
h1
Each flange of the par i made of two angle ection. For the front par, the l
ength of the angle i 6t, angle height i 5t with angle thickne t. Area for ea
ch angle of front par i found to be 0.1799507 m2 and hence value of t i found
to be
Length of the front angle ection:
Height of the front angle ection:
For the rear par, the length of the angle i 8t, angle height i 3.5t with vert
ical thickne t and horizontal thickne t/2. Area for each angle of rear par
i found to be 0.164486 m2 and hence value of t i found to be.
Length of the rear angle ection:
Height of the rear angle ection:
Now to determine the thickne of the web portion, the ultimate hear tre of
7075 Al Alloy i 317.1588MPa. The maximum hear force at root of the wing 84
for high angle of attack condition i 17480623.2 N. The wing chord i aumed to
be a imply upported beam upported at the two par. The maximum hear force
act at the centre of preure which can be located by uing the formula,
Figure 7-1: Reaction force determination at par
Conidering force and moment equilibrium for the given imply upported configu
ration, the reactive hear force at the par upport are found to be
We know that,
V
85
FOS = 1.5 z i the centroidal ditance of the area = h/2 Thu the thicknee of
the web portion are,
0.43806
0.670
0.02346
0.0763
0.13414
1.00128
Rear par All dimenion are in m
0.1251
0.8048 Front Spar
It become neceary to check whether the hear tre due to thi thickne i
le than the allowable of the material.
86
( ) For the web, the dimenion of a and b will be a = 1.6186 m ( rib pacing) a
nd b = par height. The value of k i obtained uing a/b from the given plot in
figure, k i obtained and thu the actual hear tre in each web
Figure 7-2: Shear buckling coefficient fro plate a a ratio of a and b for hin
ged and clamped edge
Both thee value are le than 211.4392 GPa. Thu, the web doe not fail due to
hear buckling. 87
The econd, third and fourth equation are obtained from the condition that the
cell twit i zero.
Solving thee equation, we get hear flow value due to torque alone.
The hear flow due to bending i given by the formula, * + * +
Vx = 1012394.13 N (hear force due to chordwie force) Vy = 17480623.2 N (hear
force due to normal force)
89
Spar F_U_1 F_U_2 F_L_1 F_L_2 R_U_1 R_U_2 R_L_1 R_L_2 Sum
q Ixy Iyy Ixx y_c x_c y bar x_bar A*y A*x Area 1.20998E+11 5.70659E+11 -2.58137E
+11 -1485868 808.058 -1775.38 808.058 1702.52 179935.396 306343610.4 145398236.2
2.7965E+11 -1.80122E+11 -1964438 1.20998E+11 808.058 -1238.82 808.058 2239.08 1
79935.396 402889746.5 145398236.2 87527120181 421804.49 17015324658 5.70659E+11
-273.99 -1775.38 -273.99 1702.52 179935.396 306343610.4 -49300499.2 61074444357
555765.26 2.7965E+11 17015324658 -273.99 -1238.82 -273.99 2239.08 179935.396 402
889746.5 -49300499.2 4.52912E+11 607569.23 88696143051 2.38684E+12 723.243 3807.
23 723.243 7285.13 1198278353 118961011.2 164482.769 5.12469E+11 549369.11 88696
143051 3.05509E+12 723.243 4307.87 723.243 7785.77 1280625007 118961011.2 164482
.769 13406073270 2.38684E+12 -1.60076E+11 -265631.1 7285.13 -255.621 3807.23 -25
5.621 1198278353 -42045249.8 164482.769 -233830 13406073270 3.05509E+12 -1.81125
E+11 7785.77 -255.621 4307.87 -255.621 1280625007 -42045249.8 164482.769 3.34521
E+11 4.8023E+11 1.25845E+13 6376273434 346026996.8 1377672.66
Figure 7-3: Shear flow in par
90
A*y 1702.52 1702.52 808.058 -1775.38 808.058 -273.99 -1775.38 -273.99 x_bar y ba
r x_c y_c Ixx 145398236.2 -49300499.2 118961011.2 -42045249.8 173013498.4 7785.7
7 7785.77 2239.08 2239.08 7285.13 7285.13 808.058 -273.99 723.243 -255.621 -1238
.82 808.058 -1238.82 -273.99 3807.23 723.243 3807.23 -255.621 723.243 4307.87 72
3.243 -255.621 4307.87 -255.621
Area
A*x
Iyy 1.20998E+11 17015324658 5.70659E+11 5.70659E+11
Ixy
q -2.58137E+11 -1485868 87527120181 421804.49 -1064063
Spar Cell 1 F_U_1 F_L_1
179935.396 179935.396
306343610.4 145398236.2 306343610.4 -49300499.2 612687220.8 96097737.07
Cell 2 F_U_2 F_L_2 R_U_1 R_L_1
179935.396 179935.396 164482.769 164482.769
402889746.5 402889746.5 1198278353 1198278353 2396556707
1.20998E+11 17015324658 88696143051 13406073270
2.7965E+11 2.7965E+11 2.38684E+12 2.38684E+12
-1.80122E+11 -1964438 61074444357 555765.26 4.52912E+11 607569.23 -1.60076E+11 265631.1 -1066735 88696143051 13406073270 3.05509E+12 3.05509E+12 5.12469E+11 54
9369.11 -233830 -1.81125E+11 315539.12
Cell 3 R_U_2 R_L_2
164482.769 164482.769
1280625007 118961011.2 1280625007 -42045249.8 2561250014 76915761.31
( ) For the web, the dimenion of a and b will be a = 1.6186 m9rib pacing and
b =5.6214 (length of the cell containing critical hear flow) KS =32; cr is found
in erms of 2 Using relaion, cr = qcr/ The value of ks is obained using a/b
from he given plo in figure, ks is obained and hus he hickness of he skin
wihou using sringer will be
7.2 Sringer design:
The hickness of he skin deermined above is oo high for he skin of an aircra
f. Therefore in order o reduce skin hickness and redisribue he shear flow
in he wing skin, sringers are added. The number of sringers can be deermined
by evaluaing he amoun by which he skin hickness should be reduced. Roughly
36 sringers can be added o he wing, 18 on he upper surface of he airfoil a
nd 18 on he lower surface of he airfoil. The sringer cross secion is chose f
rom he sandard cross secions available in Analysis of Aircraf srucures Bru
hn. The Z cross secion is chosen and scaled up or down deermining he criical
sress in each sringer and ieraing if i is less han he criical buckling
sress of he sringer cross secion.
91
35 36
10000 10000
111993602 114525411
-154167 -13414
6232.6 6485.8
-267.1 -253
-7.793 -7.492
1.14E+09 1.06E+09
NACA 653-418
2000 y (mm) 1000 0 0 -1000 2000 4000 6000 x (mm) 8000 10000 12000 14000
-2000
Stringer deign ratio:
5t
6t
t
5t
The critical hear flow i found to be 162206.0558N/m acting between the upper f
lange of front par and tringer 5. Uing the formula, ( ) where a = 1.6186 m, (
rib pacing), b = 0.526 m, kb i obtained from following plot for given a/b a 4
0
94
Figure 7-4: Shear- buckling coefficient for hinged and clamped plate
Thu kin thickne after uing tringer i found to be t = 10.953 mm
95
8. Fuelage deign
8.1 Decription
Fuelage contribute very little to lift and produce more drag but it i an imp
ortant tructural member/component. It i the connecting member to all load prod
ucing component uch a wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc.
and thu reditribute the load. It alo erve the purpoe of houing or accom
modating practically all equipment, acceorie and ytem in addition to carry
ing the payload. Becaue of large amount of equipment inide the fuelage, it i
neceary to provide ufficient number of cutout in the fuelage for acce an
d inpection purpoe. Thee cutout and dicontinuitie reult in fuelage dei
gn being more complicated, le precie and often le efficient in deign. A a
common member to which other component are attached, thereby tranmitting the
load, fuelage can be conidered a a long hollow beam. The reaction produced
by the wing, tail or landing gear may be conidered a concentrated load at the
repective attachment point. The balancing reaction are provided by the inert
ia force contributed by the weight of the fuelage tructure and the variou co
mponent inide the fuelage. Thee reaction force are ditributed all along th
e length of the fuelage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing, which i
ubjected to mainly unymmetrical load, the fuelage i much impler for truc
tural analyi due to it ymmetrical cro-ection and ymmetrical loading. The
main load in the cae of fuelage i the hear load becaue the load acting on
the wing i tranferred to the fuelage kin in the form of hear only. The tru
ctural deign of both wing and fuelage begin with hear force and bending momen
t diagram for the repective member. The maximum bending tre produced in ea
ch of them i checked to be le than the yield tre of the material choen fo
r the repective member.
97
Bending Moment
Thouand Shear Force(N) 30000 20000 10000 0 0 -10000 -20000 -30000 -40000 -5000
0 Ditance from noe cone(m) 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 8-3: Bending moment on the fuelage (free-free beam with one reaction at
it centre) at fully loaded condition
101
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
252 258 264 270 276 282 288 294 300 306 312 318 324 330 336 342 348 354
0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0
269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269 0.0269
-0.0291 -0.0196 -0.0099 -1E-05 0.0098 0.0196 0.0291 0.0383 0.0471 0.0553 0.063 0
.07 0.0762 0.0816 0.086 0.0896 0.0921 0.0937
-0.0896 -0.0921 -0.0937 -0.0942 -0.0937 -0.0921 -0.0896 -0.086 -0.0816 -0.0762 0.07 -0.063 -0.0554 -0.0471 -0.0383 -0.0291 -0.0196 -0.0099 8.7E-06
-0.822 -0.8416 -0.8514 -0.8514 -0.8416 -0.822 -0.7929 -0.7547 -0.7076 -0.6522 -0
.5892 -0.5193 -0.4431 -0.3615 -0.2755 -0.1859 -0.0938 -0.0002
1.1315 1.03938 0.94573 0.85155 0.75789 0.66577 0.5762 0.49016 0.40859 0.3324 0.2
624 0.19937 0.144 0.0969 0.05858 0.02947 0.00987 8.7E-06
-1E+10 -9.6E+09 -8.7E+09 -7.8E+09 -7E+09 -6.1E+09 -5.3E+09 -4.5E+09 -3.8E+09 -3.
1E+09 -2.4E+09 -1.8E+09 -1.3E+09 -8.9E+08 -5.4E+08 -2.7E+08 -9.1E+07 -80333 -5E+
11
-3.811E+09 -3.501E+09 -3.186E+09 -2.868E+09 -2.553E+09 -2.243E+09 -1.941E+09 -1.
651E+09 -1.376E+09 -1.12E+09 -883868023 -671567406 -485066999 -326410021 -197334
648 -99254973 -33245515 -29443.594 -1.816E+11
-2.14E+09 -1.29E+09 -4.34E+08 4.32E+08 1.29E+09 2.14E+09 2.96E+09 3.75E+09 4.5E+
09 5.2E+09 5.85E+09 6.43E+09 6.93E+09 7.37E+09 7.72E+09 7.99E+09 8.17E+09 8.26E+
09
106
35
34 33 32
31
28 30 29
27
Figure 9-2: Shear flow ditribution along fuelage, View 16 th tringer i at th
e bottom and 46 th tringer at the top
The critical hear flow i found to occur in element between 1 and 60, 30 and 3
1. The critical hear flow value i 82577258021 N/m. We know that, ( ) Where, E
= 7.17e10 N/m2, 107
Considering he maximum of he wo, we ge = 7.4833 mm The above value of skin
hickness is well wihin he sandard limis. Therefore, he above design is ac
cepable.
109
Conclusion
The Concepual Design phase of an aircraf is probably he mos ineresing and
inriguing phase of aircraf design. I is a clear indicaion of he compromise
ha has o be made beween various divisions of an Aircraf design cener, and
ye saisfy an incredible number of real-world consrains and design specifica
ions. Aircraf design involves a variey of he field of Aerospace engineering l
ike srucures, performance, aerodynamics, sabiliy ec. Among his we wen hr
ough he srucure par in his projec which has enabled us o ge a ase of w
ha i is o design a real aircraf. The fanasies of he flying world seem o b
e much more han wha we hough. Wih his design projec as he base, we will
srive o progress in he field of airplane design and mainenance. We convey ou
r hearfel graiude o all of hem who have provided heir helping hand in he
compleion of his projec.
116
Reference
Books:
Analysis of Aircraf srucures Bruhn
Aircraf Srucures for engineering
sudens T.H.G Megson
Aircraf srucures Peery
Airplane design Jan Roskam
amenals of Aerodynamics - Anderson J D Websies:
www.wikipedia.org
www.joeclark
sblog.com
hp://www.docsoc.com/ hp://www.flighsimaviaion.com/
www.c.gc.ca
hp://www.risingup.com/
hp://www.aerospacemeals.com/conac-aerospace-meal
s.hml
hp://www.aerospaceweb.org/ www.faa.gov/regulaions_policies/faa_regula
ions/
117
Fun