EXPERIMENT A MECHANICS OF MACHINE

TITLE FRICTION ON INCLINED PLANE

DURATION 2 HOURS

EXPERIMENT OUTCOME
At the end of this experiment students should be able:
1. To determine the friction coefficient () between various materials (copper, aluminium,
plastic, steel)
2. To study the relationship between friction coefficient () with force (F) by practical and
theoretically method.
THEORY
We encounter friction at almost all times during the day. Friction between our foot and the
floor helps us walk. In spite of its importance, friction is still not well understood. However, empirical
laws describe the friction between two surfaces. Friction is a resisting force that acts along the
tangent to two surfaces in contact when one body slides or attempts to slide across another.
Normal force is the force that each body exerts on the other body, and it acts perpendicular
to each surface. The friction forces are directly proportional to the normal force. Static friction
occurs when two surfaces are still at rest with respect to each other, but an attempt is being made
to cause on of them to slide over the other one.
The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter , is
a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies
and the force pressing them together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for
example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high
coefficient of friction. Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one.
For surfaces at rest relative to each other , where is the coefficient of static
friction. This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart.
For surfaces in relative motion , where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The
Coulomb friction is equal to , and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the direction
opposite to its motion relative to the other surface.
Arthur Morin introduced the term and demonstrated the utility of the coefficient of
friction. The coefficient of friction is an empirical measurement it has to be
measured experimentally, and cannot be found through calculations. Rougher surfaces tend to have
higher effective values. Both static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces
in contact; for a given pair of surfaces, the coefficient of static friction is usually larger than that of
kinetic friction; in some sets the two coefficients are equal, such as Teflon-on-Teflon.
Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6.
Values outside this range are rarer, but Teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A
value of zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property even magnetic
levitation vehicles have drag. Rubber in contact with other surfaces can yield friction coefficients
from 1 to 2. Occasionally it is maintained that is always < 1, but this is not true. While in most
relevant applications < 1, a value above 1 merely implies that the force required to slide an object
along the surface is greater than the normal force of the surface on the object. For example, silicone
rubber or acrylic rubber-coated surfaces have a coefficient of friction that can be substantially larger
than 1.
While it is often stated that the COF is a "material property," it is better categorized as a
"system property." Unlike true material properties (such as conductivity, dielectric constant, yield
strength), the COF for any two materials depends on system variables
like temperature, velocity, atmosphere and also what are now popularly described as aging and
dealing times; as well as on geometric properties of the interface between the materials. For
example, a copper pin sliding against a thick copper plate can have a COF that varies from 0.6 at low
speeds (metal sliding against metal) to below 0.2 at high speeds when the copper surface begins to
melt due to frictional heating. The latter speed, of course, does not determine the COF uniquely; if
the pin diameter is increased so that the frictional heating is removed rapidly, the temperature
drops, the pin remains solid and the COF rises to that of a 'low speed' test.

Figure 1.1 Friction on horizontal plane

Where:
F = force f = friction
T = tension (rope) f = N, where: = coefficient of friction
W = weight (w=mxg) N = normal reaction


Coefficient of friction is a measure of the amount of resistance that a surface exerts on or
substances moving over it, equal to the ratio between the maximal frictional force that the surface
exerts and the force pushing the object toward the surface. The coefficient of friction is not always
the same for objects that are motionless and objects that are in motion; motionless objects often
experience more friction than moving ones, requiring more force to put them in motion than to
sustain them in motion. The static coefficient of friction is the coefficient of friction that applies to
objects that are motionless. The kinetic or sliding coefficient of friction is the coefficient of friction
that applies to objects that are in motion.





Figure 1.2 Friction on inclined plane

Where:


Upward motion
+ Fx = 0
T- W sin f = 0
T = W sin + f

Downward motion
+ Fx = 0
T- W sin + f = 0
T = W sin - f
SAFETY PRECAUTION
1. Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the laboratory.
2. Never walk alone in the laboratory. No student may work in the laboratory without the
presence of the instructor.
3. When first entering the laboratory, do not touch any equipment or other material in the
laboratory area until you are instructed to do so.
4. Always work in well-ventilated area.
5. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the laboratory.

APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT
1. Inclined plane




2. String


3. Hook




4. Block


Plastic



Steel





Aluminium



Copper


5. Weight





PROCEDURES








1. The string was connected with the hook and the copper block.
2. The inclined plane was positioned to 30.
3. The inclined plane was setup as in figure.
4. Copper block were positioned on an inclined plane and the string were connected with the
copper block and the hook.
5. 1N weight was added to the hook gradually until the copper block moved upward, the total
weight obtain was recorded on upward column data.
6. The operation was repeated and the average value was calculated. Weight represents the
tension force (F).
7. At the same arrangement, the weight was reduced gradually until the block starts to slip
down on the plane, the total weight obtained was recorded on downward column data.
8. The steps were repeated (b) for Aluminium block, Steel block and Plastic block. The average
value was calculated.















DATA COLLECTION AND RESULT

Material
Types
Tension Force (F) - Practical Friction Coefficient
Average Average
Upward Downward Upward Downward
Copper 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 2 2 2 2
Aluminium 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 2 1.5 1.5 1.67
Steel 8.5 7.0 7.5 7.67 1.5 2.5 2.5 2.17
Plastic 8.5 9.0 9.5 9 1.5 1 1 1.27

Table 1.1 friction coefficient ()




Material Types Tension Force (F) - Theory
Upward Downward
Copper
= 0.20
Aluminium
= 0.25
Steel
= 0.15
Plastic (Polypropylene)
= 0.30
Table 1.2 Tension Force

















REFERENCES
1. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/coefficient+of+friction
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction#Coefficient_of_friction
3. http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Tribology/co_of_frict.htm
4. http://www.engineershandbook.com/Tables/frictioncoefficients.htm
5. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/friction-coefficients-d_778.html
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction