Pumps

Principle , Operation and Maintenance

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4.0 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

4.1 WORKING MECHANISM OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:
A centrifugal pump is one of the simplest pieces of equipment
in any process plant. Its purpose is to convert energy of a prime
mover (a electric motor or turbine) first into velocity or kinetic
energy and then into pressure energy of a fluid that is being
pumped. The energy changes occur by virtue of two main parts of
the pump, the impeller and the volute or diffuser. The impeller is
the rotating part that converts driver energy into the kinetic
energy. The volute or diffuser is the stationary part that converts
the kinetic energy into pressure energy.

Generation of Centrifugal Force
The process liquid enters the suction nozzle and then into eye
(center) of a revolving device known as an impeller. When the
impeller rotates, it spins the liquid sitting in the cavities between
the vanes outward and provides centrifugal acceleration. As liquid
leaves the eye of the impeller a low-pressure area is created
causing more liquid to flow toward the inlet. Because the impeller
blades are curved, the fluid is pushed in a tangential and radial
direction by the centrifugal force. This force acting inside the
pump is the same one that keeps liquid inside a bucket that is
rotating at the end of a string. (Figure 4.1) below depicts a side
cross-section of a centrifugal pump indicating the movement of
the liquid.

Figure 4.1: Liquid flow path inside a centrifugal pump.

Conversion of Kinetic Energy to Pressure Energy
The key idea is that the energy created by the centrifugal
force is kinetic energy. The amount of energy given to the liquid
is proportional to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the
impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the
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impeller is, then the higher will be the velocity of the liquid at the
vane tip and the greater the energy imparted to the liquid.

This kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is
harnessed by creating a resistance to the flow. The first
resistance is created by the pump volute (casing) that catches
the liquid and slows it down. In the discharge nozzle, the liquid
further decelerates and its velocity is converted to pressure
according to Bernoullis principle.

This action is shown in (Figure 4.2) below.















Figure 4.2: Action of Impeller

A centrifugal pump therefore takes in energy from the prime
mover, which drives it and converts this energy into pressure
energy within the liquid being pumped.

The pressure developed and the rate of flow of the pumped
liquid will depend upon the design of the impeller (diameter,
width, shape of vanes) and the speed of its rotation.

Thus, greater pressure and flow rates may be achieved by:

Increasing the rotational speed of the impeller.
Increasing the diameter of the impeller.
A combination of the above.

Because identical impellers which rotate at the same speed
transfer equal amounts of energy to the liquid, it follows that the
pressure may be increased by increasing the number of
impellers used (multi-stage pump).

If the required pressure cannot be attained with a single
impeller, then several impellers may be mounted on the same
shaft.

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The liquid passes through each impeller in turn such that the
discharge from the first impeller enters the suction eye of the
second impeller. The discharge from the second impeller enters
the suction eye of the third impeller and so on, so that the
pressure is raised in stages.

Such multi-stage pumps are equivalent to several separate
pumps connected in series, but need only a single prime mover.

4.2 COMPONENTS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:
A centrifugal pump has two main components:

A rotating component comprised of an impeller and a
shaft.

A stationary component comprised of a casing, casing
cover, and bearings.

The general components, both stationary and rotary, are
depicted in (Figure 4.3) the main components are discussed in
brief below. (Figure 4.4) shows these parts on a photograph of a
pump in the field.























Figure 4.3: General Components of Centrifugal Pump

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Figure 4.4: General Components of Centrifugal Pump

Stationary Components
Casing
The casing houses the impeller and provides branches for
suction and delivery pipe connections. The part of the casing
where the periphery (rim) of the impeller is located is named
the volute, which because of its gradually increasing cross-
sectional area, converts the kinetic energy of the liquid
leaving the impeller into pressure energy.

Suction and Discharge Nozzle
The suction and discharge nozzles are part of the casings
itself.

Seal Chamber and Stuffing Box
Seal chamber and Stuffing box both refer to a chamber,
either integral with or separate from the pump case housing
that forms the region between the shaft and casing where
sealing media are installed. When the sealing is achieved by
means of a mechanical seal, the chamber is commonly
referred to as a Seal Chamber. When the sealing is achieved
by means of packing, the chamber is referred to as a Stuffing
Box. Both the seal chamber and the stuffing box have the
primary function of protecting the pump against leakage at the
point where the shaft passes out through the pump pressure
casing. When the pressure at the bottom of the chamber is
below atmospheric, it prevents air leakage into the pump.
When the pressure is above atmospheric, the chambers
prevent liquid leakage out of the pump. The seal chambers
and stuffing boxes are also provided with cooling or heating
arrangement for proper temperature control.
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Bearing housing
The bearing housing encloses the bearings mounted on
the shaft. The bearings keep the shaft or rotor in correct
alignment with the stationary parts under the action of radial
and transverse loads. The bearing house also includes an oil
reservoir for lubrication, constant level oiler, jacket for cooling
by circulating cooling water.

Rotating Components
Impeller:
The impeller whirls the liquid around inside it, causing it to
flow outward at high velocity under the action of centrifugal
force.

Wear Rings:
The impeller wear ring and casing wear ring together
provide sealing to restrict high-pressure liquid in the casing
recirculation back to suction. Wear rings can be replaced
when worn, so avoiding the expense of replacement impellers
or casings.

Shaft:
The shaft transmits power from the prime mover to the
impeller, which is keyed to the shaft and is secured to it by a
nut. The shaft is supported in bearings whose housing may
be either part of the pump casing or a separate unit secured
to the casing by bolts. Shaft must do this job with a deflection
less than the minimum clearance between the rotating and
stationary parts.

Shaft Sleeve:
The sleeve is a tube, having a very hard outside surface,
which is fitted to the shaft in the region of the stuffing box in
order to protect the shaft from wear due to the rubbing action
of the packing. A worn sleeve may be replaced relatively
cheaply compared to the cost of replacing a worn shaft. The
sleeve is keyed to the shaft and so rotates with it without
slipping.

Auxiliary Components
Auxiliary components generally include the following piping
systems for the following services:
Seal flushing , cooling , quenching systems.
Seal drains and vents.
Bearing lubrication , cooling systems.
Seal chamber or stuffing box cooling, heating systems.
Pump pedestal cooling systems.

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Auxiliary piping systems include tubing, piping, isolating
valves, control valves, relief valves, temperature gauges and
thermocouples, pressure gauges, sight flow indicators, orifices,
seal flush coolers, dual seal barrier/buffer fluid reservoirs, and all
related vents and drains.

All auxiliary components shall comply with the requirements
as per standard codes like API 610 (refinery services), API 682
(shaft sealing systems) etc.































Figure 4.5: Construction of Basic Centrifugal Pumps












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4.3 Centrifugal Pump Fundamentals:
Head
The pressure at any point in a liquid can be thought of as
being caused by a vertical column of the liquid which, due to
its weight, exerts a pressure equal to the pressure at the point
in question. The height of this column is called the static head
and is expressed in terms of feet of liquid.

The static head corresponding to any specific pressure is
dependent upon the weight of the liquid according to the
following formula.


A Centrifugal pump imparts velocity to a liquid. This
velocity energy is then transformed largely into pressure
energy as the liquid leaves the pump. Therefore, the head
developed is approximately equal to the velocity energy at the
periphery of the impeller This relationship is expressed by the
following well-known formula:

Where:
H=Total head developed in feet.
v = Velocity at periphery of impeller in feet per sec.
g = 32.2 Feet/Sec
2


The approximate head of any centrifugal pump can be
predicted by calculating the peripheral velocity of the impeller
and substituting into the above formula. A handy formula for
peripheral velocity is:



Where:
D = Impeller diameter in inches
V = Velocity in ft./sec
The above demonstrates why we must always think in
terms of feet of liquid rather than pressure when working with
centrifugal pumps. A given pump with a given impeller
diameter and speed will raise a liquid to a certain height
regardless of the weight of the liquid, as shown in (Figurer
4.6)
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Figure 4.6: Identical Pumps Handling Liquids of Different Specific Gravities.

Suction Lift
Exists when the source of supply is below the center line of
the pump. Thus, the static suction lift is the vertical distance in
feet from the centerline of the pump to the free level of the
liquid to be pumped.

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Figure 4.7: Suction Lift Showing Static Heads in a Pumping System Where the
Pump is Located Above the Suction Tank. (Static Suction Head)



Figure 4.8: Suction Head Showing Static Heads in a Pumping System Where the
Pump is Located Below the Suction Tank. (Static Suction Head)







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Static Discharge Head
It is the vertical distance in feet between the pump
centerline and the point of free discharge or the surface of the
liquid in the discharge tank.

Total Static Head
It is the vertical distance in feet between the free level of
the source of supply and the point of free discharge or the
free surface of the discharge liquid.

Friction Head (h
f
)
It is the head required to overcome the resistance to flow in
the pipe and fittings. It is dependent upon the size, condition
and type of pipe, number and type of pipe fittings, flow rate,
and nature of the liquid.
g 2
V
h
2
V
=

Where:
V = Liquid velocity in ft /sec
g = 32.2 ft
2
/sec

The velocity head is usually insignificant and can be
ignored in most high head systems. However, it can be a
large factor and must be considered in low head systems.

Pressure Head
It must be considered when a pumping system either
begins or terminates in a tank, which is under some pressure
other than atmospheric. The pressure in such a tank must
first be converted to feet of liquid. A vacuum in the suction
tank or a positive pressure in the discharge tank must be
added to the system head, whereas a positive pressure in the
suction tank or vacuum in the discharge tank would be
subtracted. The following is a handy formula for converting
inches of mercury vacuum into feet of liquid.



The above forms of head, namely static, friction, velocity,
and pressure, are combined to make up the total system
head at any particular flow rate. Following are definitions of
these combined or "Dynamic" head terms as they apply to the
pump.



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Total Dynamic Suction Lift (h
s
)
It is the static suction lift minus the velocity head at the
pump suction flange plus the total friction head in the suction
line. The total dynamic suction lift, as determined on pump
test, is the reading of a gauge on the suction flange,
converted to feet of liquid and corrected to the pump
centerline, minus the velocity head at the point of gauge
attachment.

Total Dynamic Suction Head (h
s
)
It is the static suction head plus the velocity head at the
pump suction flange minus the total friction head in the
suction line. The total dynamic suction head, as determined
on pump test, is the reading of the gauge on the suction
flange, converted to feet of liquid and corrected to the pump
centerline, plus the velocity head at the point of gauge
attachment.

Total Dynamic Discharge Head (h
d
)
It is the static discharge head plus the velocity head at the
pump discharge flange plus the total friction head in the
discharge line. The total dynamic discharge head, as
determined on pump test, is the reading of a gauge at the
discharge flange, converted to feet of liquid and corrected to
the pump centerline, plus the velocity head at the point of
gauge attachment.

Total Head (H) or Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
It is the total dynamic discharge head minus the total
dynamic suction head or
TDH = h
d
+ h
s
(with a suction lift)
TDH = h
d
- h
s
(with a suction head)

Capacity
Capacity (Q) is normally expressed in gallons per minute
(gpm). Since liquids are essentially incompressible, there is a
direct relationship between the capacity in a pipe and the
velocity of flow. This relationship is as follows:


Where
A = area of pipe or conduit in square feet.
V = velocity of flow in feet per second.
Q = Capacity in gallons per minute.

NOTE: On vertical pumps the correction should be made to
the eye of the suction or lowest impeller.
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Power and Efficiency
The work performed by a pump is a function of the total
head and the weight of the liquid pumped in a given time
period. The pump capacity in gpm and the liquid specific
gravity are normally used in the formulas rather than the
actual weight of the liquid pumped.

Pump input or brake horsepower (bhp) is the actual
horsepower delivered to the pump shaft. Pump output or
hydraulic horsepower (whp) is the liquid horsepower delivered
by the pump. These two terms are defined by the following
formulas.





The constant 3960 is obtained by dividing the number or
foot pounds for one horsepower (33,000) by the weight of one
gallon of water (8.33 pounds.)

The brake horsepower or input to a pump is greater than
the hydraulic horsepower or output due to the mechanical and
hydraulic losses incurred in the pump. Therefore the pump
efficiency is the ratio of these two values.




Vapor Lock:
Vapor lock is caused by large quantities of vapor separating
from the liquid and filling the volute. The trapped vapor prevents
any further liquid from entering the pump and the flow through
the pump ceases until the vapor lock is cleared. This may
sometimes be done by opening a vent valve at the top of the
pump casing whilst the pump is still running.

Efficiency:
Efficiency is a measure of how much of the mechanical
energy supplied to a pump by the driving unit is converted into
pressure energy within the pumped liquid.
The efficiency of a pump will depend upon many aspects of its
design, but for any given pump the efficiency will change with
the flow rate.