Biology: DIGESTION

Ingestion:
Intake of food into the body.
Digestion:
The process in which large co!ple" food !olec#les are
broken down to s!aller si!ple sol#le and di$#sable
!olec#les so that they can be absorbed into the
bloodstrea!.
%bsorption:
The passage of digested food !aterials thro#gh the walls of
the s!all intestine s#ch that they can be carried to li&ing
cells in all parts of the body thro#gh the bloodstrea!.
%ssi!ilation:
The process whereby so!e of the absorbed food !aterials
are con&erted into new protoplas! or #sed to pro&ide
energy.
Egestion:
The passing o#t of #ndigested food as faeces.
Side Notes:
'a!!als feed by ingesting co!ple" insol#ble organic
n#trients in their food which they digest into s!aller sol#ble
s#bstances.
Digestion is necessary so that s!aller sol#ble !olec#les of
food can be absorbed into the bloodstrea!. This is called
(olo)oic n#trition and it occ#rs o#tside of cells
*e"tracell#lar+.
The %li!entary ,anal:
Is co!prised of:
-'o#th and B#ccal ,a&ity *where the teeth are located+
- .haryn" *throat+
-Oesophag#s *g#llet+
- Sto!ach
-S!all intestine *D#oden#! /e0#ne! Ile#!+
-,aec#! and %ppendi"
-1arge Intestine *,olon and 2ect#!+
-%n#s
The %li!entary ,anal coils to for! a folded t#be to 3t in into
the body
% long canal allows !ore ti!e for food to be digested and
absorbed into the body.
The %li!entary canal is s#spended fro! the wall of the
abdo!inal ca&ity by to#gh connecti&e tiss#e called
'esentery which carries blood &essels ner&es and
ly!phatics.
.E2IST%1SIS:
There are two layers of s!ooth !#scles in the wall of the
g#t..
They ca#se rhyth!ic wa&e-like contractions to help !o&e
food along the g#t
4hen one contracts the other rela"es *antagonistic !#scle
action+
4hen ,irc#lar *Inner+ !#scle contracts 1ogit#dinal !#scle
*o#ter+ rela"es. This ca#ses the g#t to constrict beco!ing
narrower and longer. This s5#ee)es food forward.
4hen ,irc#lar !#scle rela"es and 1ogit#dinal !#scle
contracts the g#t dilates beco!ing wider and shorter. This
widens the g#lllet for food to pass thro#gh.
.(6SI,%1 %ND ,(E'I,%1 DIGESTION:
MOUTH AND BUCCAL CAVITY:
- B#ccal ,a&ity contains tong#e 3"ed #pper !o&able lower
0aws incisors canines pre!olars and !olar teeth.
- 7 pairs of sali&ary glands open into the b#ccal ca&ity &ia
d#cts.
- 8ood is broken into s!aller pieces by grinding of teeth
*!astication+
- 'astication is a physical digestion as it breaks #p food
!echanically
- This increases the s#rface area on which the en)y!es act
and facilitates swallowing
- The tong#e rolls the food into s!all slippery spherical
!asses or boli *bol#s+
- 8ood in the !o#th sti!#late the sali&ary glands to secret
sali&a
-Sali&a contains : !#c#s to l#bricate sali&ary a!ylase to
catalyse the hydrolysis of cooked starch to !altose and
lyso)y!es which red#ces bacterial conta!ination.
PHARYNX:
- 1eads fro! the !o#th to the oesophag#s *g#llet+ and to
the trachea *windpipe+ thro#gh the laryn" *&oice-bo"+
- To pre&ent food fro! entering the trachea:
9. The laryn" !o&es #p
:. The opening into the trachea *glottis+ is part closed by a
contraction of ring !#scles
7. % ;ap of cartilage *epiglottis+ co&ers the glottis
OESOPHAGUS:
- Straight narrow thick-walled !#sc#lar t#be that leads
fro! pharyn" to sto!ach
- ,opio#s a!o#nts of !#c#s is secreted into the l#!en
l#bricating the l#!en and facilitating passage into the l#!en
of the bol#s
- .eristalsis faciliates the !o&e!ent of the bol#s down the
g#llet
STOMACH:
- Distensible !#sc#lar bag with well-de&eloped !#sc#lar
walls
- 1ies beneath the diaphrag! on the left side of the
abdo!inal ca&ity.
- 1ining of the sto!ach *!#co#s coat+ has n#!ero#s pits
walls of which are lined with gastric glands that prod#ce
gastric 0#ice.
- .yloric Sphincter *circ#lar band of !#scle at lower end of
sto!ach+ stops solid pieces of food fro! passing thro#gh+
- 8ood in the sto!ach sti!#lates gastric glands to secret
gastric 0#ice.
- Gastric 0#ice contains hydrochloric acid pepsin and rennin.
- 8#nctions of dil#te (,1
-Stops sali&ary a!ylase *ptyalin+
- <ills ger!s and potential parasites
- Initiates con&ersion of pepsinogen to pepsin prorennin to rennin
- .ro&ides an acidic !edi#! for action of gastric en)y!es.
- .epsin digests proteins hydrolysing the! into short
polypeptides or peptides.
- 2ennin co!!ences the digestion of !ilk proteins by
con&erting caseinogen *sol#ble+ into casein *insol#ble+
clotting or c#rdling !ilk proteins.
- The insol#ble casein is then left to be digested by the
pepsin into the sto!ach.
- '#c#s secreted by the glands in the pits of the sto!ach
walls protect the wall fro! self-digestion *a#tolysis+ fro! the
pepsin and the (,1 which !ay lead to sto!ach #lcers.
- The peristaltic !o&e!ents of the sto!ach breaks #p the
food particles !i"es the food and the gastric 0#ice into a
se!i-;#id known as chy!e. This is released in s!all
5#antities to the d#oden#! when the pyloric sphincter
rela"es and opens.
SMALL INTESTINE:
- Two !ain regions the d#oden#! *start+ and the Ile#!
*end+. (#!ans ha&e a )one in between called the 0e0#n#!.
- The d#oden#! recei&es bile fro! the gall bladder and
pancreatic 0#ice fro! the pancreas.
- The pancreas secrets pancreatic 0#ice which passes
thro#gh the pancreatic d#ct into the d#oden#!. This 0#ice
contains sodi#! hydrogen carbonate *partly ne#trali)ing the
acidic chy!e released fro! the sto!ach+. It also contains
eny)y!es s#ch as pancreatic a!ylase pancreatic lipase and
trypsin *protease+.
- The !icro&illi of the epithelial cells line the &illi of the s!all
intestines. En)y!es s#ch as enterokinase erepsin s#crase
!altase and lactase are bo#nd to the !icro&illi. These are
called br#sh border eny)y!es.
- ,ells in the intestinal crypts secrete an intestinal 0#ice a
slightly alkaline ;#id that contains water and !#c#s with no
en)y!es.
- Gall Bladder releases bile which passes thro#gh the bile
d#ct into the d#oden#!.
- .ancreatic 0#ice and bile are alkaline ne#trali)ing chy!e
to pro&ide a s#itable !edi#! for pancreatic and intestinal
en)y!es to work.
Digestions in the s!all intestine:
1. Carbohydra!":
-Starts fro! the !o#th *sali&ary a!ylase ptyalin+ &ery
little starch into !altose.
-4hen ,arbohydrates enter the re!aining starch is
hydrolysed by pancreatic a!ylases into !altose.
-'altose is then hydrolysed into gl#cose by 'altase
-1actose is then hydrolysed into gl#cose and galactose by
lactase
-S#crose is then hydrolysed into gl#cose and fr#ctose by
s#crase
The end prod#ct of the digestion of carbohydrates in the
s!all intestine are si!ple s#gars *gl#cose fr#ctose and
galactose+
#. $a":
-Bile is transported fro! the gall bladder to the d#oden#!
&ia bile d#ct. No en)y!es are contained in it green color
d#e to bile pig!ents for!ed d#e to breakdown of
hae!oglobin in li&er.
-Bile instead contains bile salts which e!#lsify fats *break
the! down into s!all fat glob#les that geatly enlarge the
s#rface area of fats to speed #p digestion by pancreatic
lipase.
-.ancreatic lipase digests fats into fatty acids and glycerol
*end prod#cts+
%. Pro!&'":
-Begins in sto!ach
-1arger polypeptides *ca#sed by protein digestion of pepsin
in the sto!ach+ that reach the s!all intestine are con&erted
by trypsin into s!aller polypeptides.
-Trypsin is originally prod#ced as inacti&e trypsinogen b#t
acti&ated by enterokinase after the attached enterokinase
en)y!es are released into the l#!en when epithelial cells
are slo#ghed away *disintergrate+
-These s!aller polypeptides are f#rther digested to a!ino
acids *end prod#ct+ by erepsin
%BSO2.TION:
-.rod#cts of digested n#trients *si!ple s#gars -= gl#cose
fr#ctose galactose fatty acids > glycerol a!ino acids+.
-To absorb these n#trients s!all intestine has these
adaptations:
9. 8airly long pro&ides s#?cient ti!e and a large total
s#rface area to the digested n#trients.
:. S#rface area to &ol#!e ratio greatly increased by
n#!ero#s trans&erse folds bearing tho#sands of tiny 3nger
like pro0ections called @illi *@ill#s+
7. Epithelial lining is only 9 celll thick facilitating 5#ick
di$#sion by shortening di$#sion distance. Each epithelial
cells has !icro&illi to increase s#rface area to &ol ratio of 9
epithelial cell.
A. Dense network of blood capillaries and a
lactealBly!phatic capillary in each &ill#s to transport
absorbed n#trients 5#ickly. This !aintains a steep di$#sion
gradient of n#trients into the!.
-N#trients are absorbed fro! the l#!en into the blood
capillaries and lacteal thro#gh the epitheli#!
-: !odes of transport
- .assi&e Di$#sion down the concentration gradient fro!
the l#!en to the s!all intestine into the epithelial cells for
fr#ctose glycerol and fatty acids
- %cti&e Transport against a concentration gradient for
gl#cose a!ino acids &ita!ins and !inerals.
( Ab"or)&o' o* "&+),! "-.ar" a'd a+&'o a/&d":
- Si!ple s#gars and a!ino acids enter blood capillaries
and are carried away fro! the &illi
- ,apillaries 0oin #p to for! &eins &eins 0oin #p to for! the
hepatic portal &ein leading directly to the li&er. 1i&er plays an
i!portant role in reg#lating a!o#nt of n#trients in blood
especially gl#cose.
( Ab"or)&o' a'd ra'")or o* *ay a/&d" a'd
.,y/!ro,.
- So!e fatty acids and glycerol enter blood capillaries. B#t
a large proportion of the! !ay reco!bine to for! fats again
in the epithelial cells.
- These fats are then !i"ed with cholesterol and coated
with proteins to for! lipoproteins *called chylo!icrons+. They
pass into the lacteal which contain a colorless ;#id called
1y!ph. T(e chylo!icrons and the ly!ph !i" to for! chyle a
!ilk ;#id.
- The ly!phatic &essels con&erge into larger &essels which
then discharge the chyle into the bloodstrea!.
( Lar.! I'!"&'!.
- 1arge intestine !ainly has water #ndigested !atter
cell#lose &egetable 3bres !#c#s and dead cells.
- 'ineral salts and water are absorbed fro! these
#ndigested prod#cts.
- Cndigested prod#cts are te!porarily stored int he rect#!
before it is passed o#t as faeces.
%ssi!ilation:
- The gl#cose a!ino acids and fats are #sed.
- Gl#cose is o"idi)ed to ,O: and water d#ring respiration
- 8or!s %T. !olec#les which pro&ide energy for
anabolis! !#scle contraction and ner&o#s trans!ission
- %!ino acids enter cells as proteins
- 8ats for! part of the cell !e!brane e"cess fats stored in
adipose tiss#es beneath skin aro#nd heart kidneys
!esenteries binding the intestines.
1I@E2:
- 'ade #p of D lobes
-7 !ain organs hepatic portal &ein *brings food s#bstances
fro! the g#t+ hepatic artery *brings o"ygenated blood and
n#trients fro! heart+ hepatic &ein *bring deo"ygenated
blood back to heart+
8CN,TIONS O8 1I@E2:
( R!.-,a! B,ood G,-/o"! L!0!,
-%fter !eals gl#cose le&el in blood !ay rise.
-Ins#lin in the li&er con&erts e"cess gl#cose to insol#ble
glycogen and stored.
EThe process !ay be re&ersed when gl#cose is not
eno#gh. *sti!#lated by gl#cagon+
-If blood le&el rises abo&e 9FG!gB9GGc!H7 of blood
gl#cose will be e"creted by kidneys. If blood gl#cose le&el
falls below AG!gB9GGc!H7 of blood brain cells will be
a$ected co!a will occ#r shortly after.
(L&0!r /!,," )rod-/! b&,! 1h&/h &" "or!d &' .a,,
b,add!r
( $a M!abo,&"+
- ,on&erts e"cess carbohydrates into fats
- 2e!o&es cholesterol fro! blood
- Breakdown of fats into fatty acids and glycerol which !ay
be con&erted to gl#cose *by gl#cagon+
( D!a'&+a&o' o* !2/!"" a+&'o a/&d"
- eg. Nitrogen containing part is re!o&ed for!ing
a!!onia to be e"creted by kidneys
- ,arbon containing part is re!o&ed con&erted back to
gl#cose in the li&er !ay be stored as glycogen.
( Br!a3do1' o* Ha!+o.,ob&' a'd "ora.! o* &ro'
- 2ed Blood cells broken down in the li&er and spleen
releasing hae!oglobin
- 8#rther breakdown in hae!oglobin res#lts in hae! and
globin
- Globin is a protein broken down into a!ino acids
- Iron is re!o&ed fro! (ae! to be stored in li&er.
2e!aining part of (ae! is #sed to for! bile pig!ents.
( Ma'-*a/-r! o* ),a"+a )ro!&'"
( D!o2&4/a&o'
- (ar!f#l che!icals are con&erted to non har!f#l ones in
the li&er to then be secreted by the kidney
- %lcohol is o"idi)ed into water and ,O:
- %lcohol can lead to cirrhosis of li&er where li&er cells are
da!aged and replaced with 3bro#s tiss#e.
( Sora.! o* V&a+&'"
- 8at Sol#ble &ita!ins % and D are stored in li&er.
( Hor+o'! Br!a3do1'
- (owe&er Testosterone broken down !ore rapidly then
ins#lin gl#cagon and fe!ale se" hor!ones.
( H!a )rod-/&o'5 +a&'a&' body !+)!ra-r!.
Biology: 2ES.I2%TION
Energy 2e5#ire!ents:
- B#ilding proteins fro! a!ino acids
- Starch fro! gl#cose
- ,ontractions of !#scles
- Electrical i!p#lses of ner&e cells
- 8or!ation of cell walls *plants+
- B#ilding #p of protoplas!
- ,ell Di&ision
- %cti&e Transport
AEROBIC RESPIRATION -= ,o!plete breakdown of gl#cose
in the prescence of o"ygen to release a large a!o#nt of
energy in the for! of %T. !olec#les. ,O: and 4ater as
waste prod#cts.
,F(9:OF *Gl#cose+ > FO: -= F ,O: > F (:O > Energy
*1arge a!o#nt+
Gl#cose > O"ygen -= ,arbon Dio"ide > 4ater > Energy
*1arge a!o#nt+
Each s!all step is catalysed by their own en)y!es which
occ#r in the !itochondria
9. Glycolysis occ#rs in the cytosol -= : %T.
:. <rebs ,ycle and Electron Transport ,hains are located in
the !itochondria -= 7F %T.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION -= Breakdown of gl#cose &ia a
process that does not #se o"ygen to release a s!all a!o#nt
of energy in the for! of %T. !olec#les. ,O: is a waste
prod#ct
(#!ans: Gl#cose -enzymes---> .yr#&ic %cid -enzymes +
oxygen---> ,O: and 4ater
6east: Gl#cose -= %lcohol > ,O: > Energy *s!all a!o#nt+
.erson pants to re!o&e ,O: and take in O: at a higher rate
to bring o"ygen to the !#scles faster *th#s heart beats
faster+
%fter li!its on rate of breathing and heartbeat is reached
o"ygen !ay not be deli&ered to the !#scle cells fast eno#gh
to !eet de!ands of aerobic respiration
.yr#&ic acid is con&erted to lactic acid when pyr#&ic acid
b#ild#p e"ceeds its o"idation to ,O: and water #sing o"ygen
*basically it cannot be re!o&ed fast eno#gh pyr#&ic acid is
re!o&ed &ia o"idation to ,O: and water+
1actic acid di$#ses fro! !#scles to li&er
1i&er con&erts lactic acid back to pyr#&ic acid
So!e .yr#&ic acid o"idi)ed to for! ,O: and 4ater releasing
energy in the for! of %T. !olec#les.
These %T. !olec#les are #sed to con&ert re!aining pyr#&ic
acid to gl#cose.
%cc#!#lation of lactic acid which is later re!o&ed to said to
create an o"ygen debt. (igh concentrations of lactic acid
!ay res#lt in !#sc#lar fatig#e.
(C'%N G%S EI,(%NGE S6STE'
Nasal .assage
.haryn"
1aryn"
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
1#ngs
.2O,ESS:
- %ir enters nasal passage thro#gh nostrils which bears a
fringe of hairs. Nostrils lead to nasal passages which are
lined with a !oist !#co#s !e!brane.
- D#st and foregin particles incl#ding bacteria are trapped
by nostril hairs and !#co#s in the !e!brane. %ir is war!ed
and !oisened. (ar!f#l che!icals are detected by sensory
cells in the !#co#s !e!brane.
- Nasal .assages lead to pharyn"
- %ir passes into the laryn" fro! the pharyn" then into the
trachea thro#gh the glottis *an opening+.
- 1ower end of trachea e"tends into : t#bes *bronchi+ one
for each l#ng. 2ight bronch#s di&ides into 7 bronchial t#bes
left bronch#s di&ides into :.
- 'ain bronch#s will f#rther di&ide into bronchioles *which
are not s#pported by cartilage+
- The trachea and bronchi are s#pported by c shaped rings
of cartilage.
- The epitheli#! inside the trachea bronchi and bronchioles
contain: 9. gland cells to secrete !#c#s to trap d#st particles
and bacteria :. cilliated cells to sweep the particles #p the
bronchi #p the trachea and into the pharyn".
- Each bronchiole ends in a cl#ster of air sacs or %l&eoli.
%l&eolar walls are thin !oist and well-s#pplied with blood
capillaries. Gaseo#s e"change occ#rs thro#gh the al&eolar
walls. Tho#sands of s!all al&eoli are fo#nd in each l#ng
pro&iding a large s#rface area for gaseo#s e"change.
OT(E2 .%2TS O8 T(E 2ES.I2%TION S6STE':
- ,hest wall s#pported by ribs
- '#sc#les fo#nd in between ribs e"ternal and internal
intercostal !#sc#les.
- Thora" is separated by a diaphrag!
IN(%1%TION:
- E"ternal Intercostal '#scles contract internal !#scles
rela" cage is p#lled #p and o#t diaphrag! contracts and
;attens.
- @ol#!e of air in thoracic ca&ity increased air press#re in
l#ngs is red#ced below the at!ospheric press#re.
- This ca#ses air to enter the l#ngs in;ating the al&eoli #ntil
the air press#re in the l#ngs E air press#re of at!osphere.
EI(%1%TION:
- E"ternal Intercostal '#scles rela" internal !#scles
contract cage is p#lled down and inwards diaphrag!
rela"es and arches #p.
- @ol#!e of air in thoracic ca&ity decreased air press#re in
l#ngs is increased to abo&e the at!ospheric press#re.
- This ca#ses air to e"it the l#ngs #ntil the air press#re in the
l#ngs E air press#re of at!osphere.
INS.I2ED @S EI.I2ED %I2
O: - :9J - 9F.AJ
,O: - G.G7J - AJ
N: - KLJ - KLJ
4%TE2 @%.OC2 - @aries - Sat#rated
TE'. - @aries - %bo#t 7K,
D#st .articles - @aries - 1ittle if any.
OI6GEN T2%NS.O2T
O"ygen co!bines with hae!oglobin in the red blood cells to
for! o"yhae!oglobin. 9 !olec#le of hae!oglobin can carry
#p to A o"ygen !olec#les. 4(en blood passes thro#gh
o"ygen poor tiss#es o"ygen is released. It is then di$#sed
thro#gh the walls of the blood capillaries.
,%2BON DIOIIDE T2%NS.O2T
,O: prod#ced di$#ses into bloodstrea! and passes into red
blood cells. It co!bines with water to for! carbonic acid.
,atalysed by en)y!e carbonic anhydrase fo#nd in red blood
cells.
,o: > (:O M-= (:,O7 M-= (> > (,O7-
So!e of the ,arbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen and
hydrogencarbonate ions. (> ions displace o"ygen in
o"yhae!oglobin to for! ((b
(ydrogencarbonate ions for!ed in the red blood cells di$#se
o#t into the plas!a along a concentration gradient and
co!bine with the sodi#! to for! sodi#!
hydrogencarbonate. The loss of negati&ely charged
hydrogencarbonate ions in the red blood cells is balanced by
chloride ions di$#sing into the red blood cells fro! plas!a
*chloride shift+
4hen red blood cells reach the l#ngs the re&erse process
occ#rs and ,O: is released.
G%SEOCS EI,(%NGE IN 1CNGS
% di$#sion gradient in the l#ngs with an o"ygen
concentration higher in al&eolar air than in blood and a ,O:
concentration higher in blood than in al&eolar air can be
!aintined thro#gh:
contin#o#s ;ow of blood
breathing in and o#t
%l&eoli pro&ides a large total s#rface area for gaseo#s
e"change
Distance for di$#sion of gases has to be short th#s epithelial
walls of al&eol#s is 9 layer of cells endotheli#! is only 9
layer of cells th#s only : cells are separating air in the
al&eoli fro! blood in the capillaries. .ro&ides short di$#sion
distance for faster di$#sion
2ich s#pply of blood capiillaries aro#nd the al&eol#s. They
transport o"ygen away fro! l#ngs and ,O: to l#ng to
!aintain a constant large di$erence in concentrations of
gases between blood and al&eol#s !aining steep di$#sion
gradient for gases.
Inner s#rface of al&eoli is coated with 3l! of !oist#re in
which o"ygen dissol&es facilitating di$#sion. So!e of the
!oist#re e&aporates into the al&eoli and sat#rates air with
water &apo#r th#s e"haled air contains !ore water &apo#r
Epithelial cells of the al&eoli secret s#rfactants that disr#pt
the cohesi&e forces between water !olec#les lowering
s#rface tension of the ;#id lining the al&eoli that increase
the resistance of the l#ng to stretch.
S'O<ING:
Nicotine:
-,a#ses increased heart rate and blood press#re
-,a#ses blood to clot easily increase risk of blood clots
blocking blood &essels
,arbon 'ono"ide:
- Binds with high a?nity to ((b for!ing
,arbo"yhae!oglobin th#s red#cing red blood cells e?ciency
to transport o"ygen
- Increases rate at which fatty s#bstances are deposited on
inner wall of artery
- Sti!#lates attach!ents of blood platelets to s#rface of
endotheli#! ca#sing blood clotting
Tar:
- ,ontains carcinogenic che!icals which ind#ce epithelial
cells of the l#ngs to di&ide #ncontrollably to for! l#!ps of
tiss#e that block o$ air sacs
- Sti!#lates e"cess !#c#s prod#ction and stops cillia fro!
beating pre&enting re!o&al of d#st particles and res#lting in
blockage of bronchioles.
-2es#lts in chronic bronchitis d#e to in;a!!ation of the
lining of air passages
- ,illia will be paralysed
NCT2ITION
T(E2E %2E D T6.ES O8 NCT2IENTS:
- ,arbohydrates *'acron#trients re5#ired in large
5#antities. They s#pply energy to !ake new protoplas!+
- 8ats *'acron#trient+
- .roteins *'acron#trient+
- 'inerals *'icron#trient. They are needed in s!all
5#antities and are only #sed to !aintain nor!al
!etabolis!.+
-@ita!ins *'icron#trient+
( Carbohydra!"6S-.ar"
- 'ade #p of ,arbon (ydrogen and O"ygen
- 7 !ain gro#ps 'onosaccharides Disaccharides and
.olysaccharides
( MONOSACCHARIDES
- ST2C,TC2E
- S#gars ith 7DF carbon ato!s
-General 8or!#la *,(:O+n
- Gl#cose 8r#ctose and Galactose all ha&e the for!#la
,F(9:OF with di$ering ato!ic arrange!ents within the
!olec#le.
- 8CN,TIONS
- ,hief so#rce of energy in the for! of %T. !olec#les
- 8or!ation of n#cleic acids
- N%TC2%1 SOC2,E
- Gl#cose and 8r#ctose are !ainly in fr#its
- Galactose is a co!ponent of lactose
( DISACCHARIDES
- ST2C,TC2E
- Each !olec#le is !ade #p of : si!ple s#gar !olec#les.
- This is d#e to a condensation process in&ol&ing loss of
water res#lting in a co&alent bond.
- Eg Gl#cose > 8r#ctose --= s#crose > water
Gl#cose > Gl#cose --= 'altose > water
Gl#cose > Galactose --= 1actose > water
General 8or!#la: ,n(:!O! *( and O ato!s ha&e ::9 ratio+
- S#crose 'altose and 1actose all ha&e ,9:(::O99 for!#la
b#t in di$ering ato!ic arrange!ent.
- 8CN,TIONS
- So#rce of energy only when hydrolysed into itNs
co!ponents *si!ple s#gars+
- Breakdown of Disaccharides to : !onosaccharides is
called a hydrolytic reaction beca#se it adds water
- N%TC2%1 SOC2,E
- S#crose is cane s#gar
- 1actose is !ilk s#gar
- 'altose occ#rs in !alted cereals and ger!inating seeds
*!alt s#gar+
( POLYSACCHARIDES
- ST2C,TC2E
- 'ade #p of !any !onosaccharides.
- The process of the! 0oining together is called
poly!erisation
- Starch is !ade #p of a &ery large n#!ber of gl#cose
!olec#les condensed to for! a !i"t#re of straight and
branched chain of gl#cose #nits
- Glycogen is highly co!pact !olec#les containing chains of
gl#cose #nits
- ,ell#lose consists of gl#cose !olec#les 0oined together to
for! a straight chain
- 8CN,TIONS
- Starch is a for! of storing carbohydrates in plants. It is a
so#rce of energy when starch is hydrolysed to release
gl#cose.
Starch --= 'altose --= Gl#cose
- Glycogen is a co!pact storage for! of carbohydrates in
ani!als and f#ngi
-Both glycogen and starch are insol#ble in water th#s not
changing os!otic press#re in cell
-Both G and S are large !olec#les and th#s #nable to di$#se
o#t of the cell
-,an be hydrolysed to break down to gl#cose
-,o!pact so they take #p less space
-,ell#lose !olec#les when arranged parallel to each other
are a !a0or co!penent of to#gh cell walls of a plant.
( $ATS
- 'ade #p of ,arbon (ydrogen and O"ygen b#t contains
less o"ygen than hydrogen when co!pared to carbohydrates
- % fat !olec#le is !ade #p of A !oelc#les
- 9 is glycerol
- other 7 is fatty acids
- Th#s when fats are hydrolysed they ret#rn the original
co!ponents glycerol and fatty acids
- 8at 'olec#le > 7 water !olec#les --lipase--= Glycerol and
7 fatty acid !olec#les
- 8ats *solid at rtp+ and oils *li5#id at rtp+ are called lipids
- 8CN,TIONS
- 8or!s part of the phospholipid bilayer of the cell s#rface
!e!brane
- E?cient so#rce of energy as they can be o"idised in
respiration liberating !ore %T. than of carbohydrates
- 'eans of long ter! energy storage in adipose tiss#e #nder
skin and &ital organs
- Ins#lating !aterial
- Sol&ent for fat sol#ble &ita!ins *% and D+ and se"
hor!ones
- S#rro#nd and protect &ital organs
- Seb#! the oily secretion by sebaceos glands in skin for!s
thin layer of s#rface restricting water loss
- N%TC2%1 SOC2,E
- %ni!al fats are in !eat !ilk cheese b#tter and egg-yolk
*sat#rated fats+
- .lant fats are in oils in fr#its*eg pal! oil+ and seeds
*s#n;ower seed oil+. *#nsat#rated fats+
( Pro!&'"
- ,ontains carbon hydrogen o"ygen and nitrogen
so!eti!es s#lph#r or phosphor#s
- .rotein !olec#le !ade #p of a!ino acids
- General 8or!#la for %!ino %cids
2
N(: --- , --- ,OO(
(
- 4hen two a!ino acids 0oin they re!o&e 9 !olec#le of
water.
- This is called condensation and they for! a peptide bond
- If 7 or !ore a!ino acids bond together a polypeptide or a
peptone is for!ed
- 8CN,TIONS
- %!ino acids can be #sed to b#ild #p di$erent types of
proteins
- .roteins that are part of protoplas! of cells and worn o#t
cells *repairing the!+
- En)y!es
- 'e!brane proteins in phospholipid bilayer
- %ctin and 'yosin in !#scles
- <eratin in hair and nails
- (ae!oglobin in blood
- .eptide hor!ones eg Ins#lin
- %ntibodies
- N%TC2%1 SOC2,E
- 1ean !eat 3sh eggs !ilk and cheese *ani!al proteins+
( MINERALS
- Inorganic salts
- ,annot pro&ide energy
- Still needed for nor!al healthy growth
- 'inerals that are needed in large a!o#nts incl#de calci#!
phosphor#s sodi#! chlorine potassi#! and iron
- 'inerals needed in s!all a!o#nts *trace ele!ents+ incl#de
Iodine )inc and !anganese
- ,%1,IC'
- Deposited in bones and teeth
- .resent in blood plas!a and essential in blood clotting
- ,alci#! is needed for che!ical changes which !akes
!#scles contract and trans!ission of ner&e i!p#lses
- So#rces: 'ilk ,heese S!all 8ish *wth bones+ cereals
soya beans and &egetables.
- Needs &ita!in D to be able to be absorbed in the s!all
intestine.
- I2ON
- ,ontains pig!ent hae!oglobin
- Iron is a str#ct#ral co!ponent of !yoglobin which is a
!#scle protein that stores o"ygen
- Needed in !#sc#les and for en)y!e syste!s
- So#rces: 1i&er <idney Egg yolk bread and green
&egetables
- Iron de3ciency !ay res#lt in %nae!ia which !eans not
eno#gh hae!oglobin is !ade and o"ygen carrying capacity
in blood is red#ced. *breathlessness and tiredness+
( VITAMINS
- ,annot be digested or broken down for energy
- %re not b#ilt into body str#ct#res
- Essential in s!all 5#antities for nor!al health
- Needed for che!ical reactions
8%T SO1CB1E @IT%'INS: % D E < *,an be stored in body+
4%TE2 SO1CB1E: B %ND , *Needs daily intake+
- @IT%'IN , *%BSO2BI, %,ID+
- 8#nctions:
-8or! connecti&e tiss#es
-Needed to !aintain healthy epithelial tiss#es
-%cts as an antio"idant
- So#rces:
-,itr#s fr#its To!atoes and green &egetables
- De3ciency of @ita!in , will res#lt in sc#r&y
- E"cess @ita!in , is e"creted thro#gh #rine
- @IT%'IN D *,%1,I8E2O1+
- 8#nctions:
- .ro!otes absorption of calci#! and phosphor#s
co!po#nds fro! intestines.
- (elps to deposit calci#! salts in bones and teeth
- So#rces:
-8ish li&er oil b#tter !ilk cheese egg-yolk. Nat#ral fats in
skin are con&erted to a for! of &ita!in D by s#nlight
- De3ciency of @ita!in D !ay res#lt in tooth decay rickets
*soft and defor!ed bones in children+ osteo!alacia
*softened bones in ad#lts+
- E"cessi&e @ita!in D res#lts in calci3cation of soft tiss#e
incl#ding kidneys.
( DIETARY $IBRES
- (#!an body cannot digest cell#lose
- Cndigested part of diet is called 3bre of ro#ghage.
- 8#nctions:
- .re&ents constipation
- 8ibre and bacteria feeding on it adds b#lk to the contents
of the colon helping it retain water. Softens faeces and
red#ces ti!e needed for #ndigested resid#es to pass o#t of
the body
- (elps peristalsis as harder less digestible food like 3bre in
the ali!entary canal. This sti!#lates the !#scles in the
canal to contract ca#sing peristalsis.
- So#rces:
- 2ich so#rces of 3bre are fresh fr#its and &egetables bran
whole!eal bread and #npolished rice.
( 7ATER
- %bo#t KGJ of !ost tiss#e contains water essential
co!ponent of cytoplas!
- 8#nctions:
- 4ater is the best sol&ent for inorganic salts and !any
organic co!po#nds.
- 4ater is a !edi#! for che!ical reactions of an organis!
to occ#r eg. (ydrolytic reactions
- Transporter of digested food salts &ita!ins hor!ones
e"cess sallt and #rea
- 'a0or co!ponent of body ;#ids blood ly!ph and tiss#e
;#id
- 2eg#lates body te!p e"cess head is re!o&ed by
e&aporation of sweat
- Essential reactant in the photosynthetic process in plants
( BALANCED DIET 7HICH LENA 8OH
SEEMS TO NOT HAVE
- '#st contain right a!o#nts of carbo fats proteins
&ita!ins !inerals water and ro#ghage to !eet daily
re5#ire!ents of body
- ,arbo and 8ats to !eet energy needs
- 2ight proteins to pro&ide a!ino acids to !ake new cells
and tiss#e or repair broken ones.
- @ita!ins and !ineral salts water and ro#ghage
( ENERGY RE9UIREMENTS
- 9 gra! of carbo --= 9Fk/ when b#rnt
- 9 gra! of fat--= 7Kk/ when b#rnt
- 9 gra! of protein --= 9Kk/ when b#rnt
- %!o#nt of energy needed to carry o#t &ital life processes
*when body is in rest+ is known as basal !etabolis!
- %!o#nt of energy a person at rest #ses per #nit ti!e is
called basal !etabolic rate
- Energy intake !#st be s#?cient for
9. Basal 'etabolis! to take place
:. 'eet needs of work and physical acti&ities
7. O$set energy lost as heat
The total energy energy e"pendit#re is the total a!o#nt of
energy #sed #p
- Energy intake and energy e"pendit#re !#st be balanced.
8actors a$ecting a!o#nt of energy intake:
9. ,1I'%TE: 'ore energy is needed in colder cli!ates to
!aintain body te!perat#re. Basal !etabolic rate is higher.
:. BOD6 SIOE: S!aller the ani!al the higher the !etabolic
rate as the greater s#rface area to &ol ratio !eans a greater
loss of heat to the s#rro#ndings and needs !ore energy to
!aintain body te!p
7. %GE: Growing children ha&e higher basal !etabolic rates
than ad#lts to !ake new tiss#es and bones
A. GENDE2: 'en #se #p !ore energy than wo!en as !en
ha&e higher heat prod#ction d#e to !ore !#scle which
b#rns !ore energy than fatty tiss#e.
D. (E%1T( ,ONDITIONS: Cnderacti&e thyroid gland res#lts in
a lower !etabolic rate re5#iring less energy. O&eracting
thyroid gland re5#ires !ore energy. Thyroid gland releases a
hor!one thyro"ine that increases !etabolic rate.
F. %,TI@IT6BO,,C.%TION: %cti&e person needs !ore energy
as he needs !ore energy in the for! of %T. !olec#les
( MALNUTRITION
- Star&ation
- Cses #p energy reser&es in glycogen then protein to !ake
#p for lack of energy
- 4astes away !#scles
- .rotein de3ciency ca#ses a disease called <washiorkor
- 1ack of 3bre ca#ses constipation
- Too !#ch s#gar res#lts in tooth decay
- Too !#ch sat#rated fats and cholesterol res#lts in
for!ation of fatty plag#es or lining of cholesterol in the lining
of the arteries. This hinders passage of o"ygen to the heart
and !ay lead to a coronary heart attack. NOTE: #nsat#rated
fats fro! plants are #nlikely to ca#se fatty deposits in
arteries.
( $OOD TESTS:
2EDC,ING SCG%2
.o#r an e5#al a!o#nt of BenedictNs sol#tion to the sa!ple.
.lace the t#be in a boiling water bath. Green --= Trace
a!o#nts Brick 2ed --= (igh %!o#nts
8or disaccharides eg s#crose they !#st be boiled in water
with (,l and cooled and then added with sodi#!
hydrogencarbonate to hydrolyse the disaccharides into
red#cing s#gars to be able to do the benedictNs sol#tion test
on the!.
.2OTEINS
%dd an e5#al a!o#nt of dil#te NaO( sol#tion to the sa!ple
followed by a few drops of 9J copper *II+ s#lphae sol#tion
then shake it. % p#rple &iolet colo#ration indicates proteins
8%TS
% &ol#!e of absol#te ethanol sho#ld be added to the dry
food sa!ple and shaked then water has to be added then
shaked again. 4hen a white clo#dy e!#lsion appears fats
are present.
O2
2#b the food sa!ple on 3lter paper. Dry the paper if a
transl#cent !ark is obser&ed. If the !ark re!ains after
drying fats are present.
@IT%'IN ,
.lace a s!all &ol#!e of D,.I. into a test t#be then add the
sa!ple to the D,.I. drop by drop and see if there is any
change in color. @ita!in , is present if the D,.I. sol#tion
beco!es colo#rless.