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Roman Spectacle Final

As a daily activity, bathing was an important aspect of Roman life. Baths served a basic
public need. For much of the urban population, the free, imperial bathing complexes or
imperial thermae were their only bathing options as most Romans had little access to bathing
facilities in their own homes. Baths tend to be bracketed off from spectacle studies, but they were
very much a part of the Roman entertainment culture. The daily aspect perhaps made bathing the
most popular entertainment. The role and status of bathing as entertainment developed
drastically from the Republican to Imperial period, and an examination of the bathing complexes
reveals these changes.
The Stabian Baths were the oldest public bath building in Pompeii, first built in the 2
nd

century BCE. The baths were later restored and enlarged 80-70 BCE (the early years of the
Roman colony). The complex offered multiple bathing rooms, separate sections for men and
women, and stucco decoration (which was water- and heat-resistant). The baths provided a
palaestra, establishing the close relationship between bathing and exercise. After exercising in
the palaestra, male visitors first unclothed themselves (or with the help of slaves) in the
designated changing room. To circumvent thievery, wealthier visitors left slaves in the changing
room to watch over their masters belongings. Before entering the actual bathing rooms, men (or
their slaves) scraped off oil, sweat, and grime using curved tools called strigils.
Bathers then proceeded into the tepidarium, or the warm room. The water, floor, and
walls were heated by a hypocaust system. Stacks of tiles raising the floors allowed passage for
the furnaces heat and smoke to warm the floors. The heat would then circulate up into tubes
within the walls, creating an entirely heated environment. Bathers would proceed from the
tepidarium into the caldarium, or the hot room. Located next to the furnaces, the caldarium
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featured the hottest environment in the baths. In this room, bathers needed sandals to protect
their feet from the floors heat. Bathers then traveled back through the changing rooms into the
frigidarium, or the cold room. These temperature-designated rooms the tepidarium, caldarium,
and frigidarium formed the bathing block. The womens sections had similar functions but
were smaller. Women had no separate frigidarium but instead had a cold bath in the changing
room. The limited space reflected the lower status of women in Roman society.
The layout of the Stabian Baths was not symmetrical. The entire structure was an
irregular shape, and rooms radiated out around the central palaestra. The bathing block and
womens sections were all gathered to one side of the Stabian Baths.
The Forum Baths at Pompeii were built with public funds in 80 BCE soon after the
installation of the Roman colony. The complexs design mimics that of the Stabian Baths but
built on a slightly smaller scale. Despite the structures smaller size, the Forum Baths were
strategically located near the Temple of Jupiter. Like the Stabian Baths, the Forum Baths
featured a palaestra, separate bathing blocks for men and women, and an asymmetrical layout
(with the bathing blocks gathered to one side). There was little light in the Baths, a general
characteristic of republican baths. Stucco wall decorations are preserved at the Forum Baths.
Although both the Stabian Baths and Forum Baths feature elegant stucco decorations, these
ornamentations would soon pale in comparison to the lavishness of the imperial thermae.
The Roman bath buildings were sites of great architectural and technological innovations,
such as the hypocaust system invented in the Republican period. These innovations came to
maturation in the Imperial period with the rise of the imperial thermae. These complexes
transcended their original exercise and hygienic purposes to become self-contained cultural
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worlds. Such changes in the Imperial period marked a change in the status of bathing as a
cultural activity of refinement.
The Baths of Agrippa at Rome were the earliest of the Imperial thermae and located in
the Campus Martius. Constructed beginning around 25BCE, the Baths were completed probably
around 19 BCE with the completion of the Aqua Virgo (which supplied the Baths with water).
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa oversaw construction, and the structure was left to the Roman
peoples free use following Agrippas death. Little of the baths are visible today. The Baths of
Agrippa were lavish, offering large pools and garden settings. The lush garden landscapes
included an artifical lake (the Stagnum) and an open canal (the Euripus). Such lavishness marked
the beginning of another imperial bathing trend luxury trumps utilitarianism. In contrast to the
republican baths, much more elaborate ornamentations decorated the Baths of Agrippa. Pliny
provides written evidence that hundreds of statues adorned the garden landscape and the famous
Apoxyomenos of Lyssipus stood at the front of the Baths. The Baths of Agrippa incorporated not
only exercise and bathing, but also visual displays much like art museums. Unlike successive
Imperial baths, the layout of the Baths of Agrippa does not yet appear fully symmetrical. The
finances and material required for the upkeep of Imperial thermae (i.e. wood, water, cleaning,
fire maintenance) meant emperors were the only ones with enough resources to establish and
maintain Imperial thermae.
The Baths of Nero were also located in the Campus Martius. First built in the 60s CE, the
building burned shortly after in 62 CE. The baths were reopened and rededicated for the games
of Nero in 65 AD. The short construction time emphasized that only emperors could achieve
such building feats. In 227 CE Alexander Severus rebuilt the baths again on a massive scale.
This is the first time the grand size of imperial thermae can be seen from the remains. The Baths
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of Nero were much larger than the Baths of Agrippa, following the one-upmanship culture in
Roman construction. The Baths also served as part of the crowded entertainment center of the
Campus Martius, standing in between the Stadium of Domitian and the Pantheon.
The plan was symmetrical, and all baths following the Baths of Nero follow this rigid
symmetry. Two symmetrical palaestrae become the standard suite. The structure employed
intersecting groin vaults, and the bathing block proper was likely on the central axis. The
centrality of the bathing block became the standard in Imperial thermae. The successive, linear
order of the bathing block frigidiarium, tepidarium, and caldarium contrasted with
Republican baths and became the common layout in imperial thermae. The Baths featured an
open-air pool, or natatio, and large niches in the front of the structure. The use of these niches is
not absolutely clear, but the niches could have served as libraries, fountains, or grand statue
displays. These possibilities underline the shift of imperial thermae to becoming self-contained
cultural centers.
No matter the exact purpose of the niches, the Baths of Nero mark a new scale of
lavishness. The Baths boasted columns made of white marble, grey granite, and pavonazzetto
(colorful marble). A basin was cut from a single block of red granite from Egypt. As materials
and resources were drawn from all over the Roman Empire, the Baths were a demonstration of
Imperial control over the land.
Although many Romans enjoyed and welcomed the new luxuriousness of the Baths of
Nero, others expressed anxiety of this luxury in written sources. Senecas letter, written during
the time of Nero, included complaints that bathing was no longer just about cleansing. The
traditional, Roman ideal of hardy and course men was under threat as the luxuriousness of the
Baths feminized and pampered men.
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These literary sources also reveal the elite discourse and views. The elite, which included
Seneca, had access to these luxuries, and anxieties rose when these luxuries were made available
to everyone. Baths were places where one could come in close physical contact with various
classes. The very act of taking off clothes meant removing emblems of social status (the toga).
The fact that these anxieties come out around the time of the Baths of Nero suggests that these
Baths moved the progress of Imperial thermae farther than ever before.
The Baths of Titus were constructed by Titus next to the Coliseum. The Baths served as
part of the downtown entertainment center in conjunction with the Coliseum. Titus probably
built the Baths very quickly to coincide with the Coliseums opening. The south side of the baths
featured a wide flight of steps leading down to a paved area around Coliseum. Traces of a portico
in this area may have been part of the approach to the baths from the Coliseum. This connection
underlines the recreational and entertainment functions of the Imperial thermae.
The Flavians attempted to offer alternatives from everything associated with Nero, and
the baths were probably an important component of this movement. The Baths of Titus were on
the same axis as Neros Domus Aurea and were also probably a repurposing of Neros bath
wing. This repurposing symbolized the Flavians returning Neros private playground back to
the people. Very little remains of the complex. What is known has been drawn from a plan
drawn by Palladio. The Baths of Titus were quite small but still exhibited symmetry with the
main bath block running down the middle.
The much larger Baths of Trajan were constructed right next to the Baths of Titus. Built
from 104-109 CE, the Baths of Trajan took a very short time to complete in relation to its
massive size (320 x 340 m). Once again, the record construction time highlighted the emperors
power and resources. Apollodoros of Damascus, Trajans military architect who helped build the
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bridge over the Danube, and the Forum and Markets of Trajan, designed the Baths of Trajan. A
fire in 104 CE burned down remains of the Domus Aurea. This was the impetus for construction
of the Baths of Trajan. The Baths were built directly on top of Neros Domus Aurea, though not
on the same axis.
Although only some sections of the building are preserved, various sources and plans (i.e.
the Severan Marble Plan) fill in the archaeological gaps. The Baths of Trajan embodied the
maturation of the imperial thermaes architectural development. Several architectural innovations
describe this maturation. In the center of the bath block was the frigidarium a large,
rectangular, triple cross-vaulted room. This established a strong cross axis. The two palaestrae
flanked the frigidarium, thus were integrated into the body of the bath block. The natatio was
also incorporated onto the central axis on the opposite side from the caldarium. Spaces of
varying functions lecture halls, libraries, club rooms, exercise rooms, etc. surrounded the
bath block on three sides. Gardens filled the open areas between these peripheral spaces. Some
of these architectural innovations originated in thermal architecture of the past, but the Baths of
Trajan featured these elements in a highly formalized design.
The Baths provided spaces for a wide-range of activities and interests. The
aforementioned lecture halls and libraries brought an academic aspect to the Baths. The complex
also featured a theatrical area with open seating, bringing dramatic entertainment to visitors. In
addition to hygienic and exercise purposes, the complex was a center of recreation and
intellectualism. The Baths of Trajan were truly self-contained cultural worlds.
The Baths of Trajan continued to build on the luxuriousness of Imperial thermae. An
abundance of glass and tall windows contrasted with the limited natural light in Republican
baths. White Corinthian capitals topped rows of marble and granite columns. Polished bronze
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and silver ornaments gleamed against marble surfaces. Furthermore, the high, vaulted spaces in
brick-covered concrete embodied the peak of Roman structural engineering.
The massive size of the Baths required more water, which the Sette Sale cistern helped
provide. The two-storied, multi-chambered, vaulted structure served as a container for water.
Standing 153 x 121 feet, the cistern had a capacity of 1.5 million gallons. Similar to the aqueduct
system, the cisterns higher elevation in comparison to the baths allowed gravity to bring the
water to the baths. The popularity and needs of the imperial thermae brought about great
technological innovations.
Following the Baths of Trajan, the Baths of Caracalla were the second of the monumental
Imperial thermae. Built from 211-216 CE, the Baths are the best preserved and best studied of
the Roman baths. The Circus Maximus was down the street from the Baths, and the Via Appia
was also near. The location of the Baths at the citys periphery reveals the ever-expanding
population of Rome.
The building process of the baths was a monumental task. Due to the sloping surface,
workers needed to create an artificial terrace on which the complex could sit. This terrace was
over 300 m
2
. Laborers then laid foundations 6.5 m deep using 15 million bricks. Workers built
up towering walls of brick-faced concrete. Finally, laborers installed the lavish decoration
ranging from marble to moving statuary to granite facing. The construction force is estimated at
9000 laborers a day for five years, a workforce only an emperor could marshal. Moreover, the
construction time of five years is a feat only the emperor could achieve. The imperial thermae
functioned as public works projects, putting huge numbers of Romans to work.
One of Romes Seven Wonders in the fifth century, the Baths of Caracalla boasted a truly
incredible size. Covering an area of 30 acres, the complex featured a bath block separated from
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fortification walls, becoming its own freestanding unit in the center of the complex. Gardens
filled the open areas around the bath block. The outer wall included a pair of apses, one on the
east side and the other on the west side. Each apse contains three highly decorated units that
perhaps served as fountain hall entrances into meeting and statuary spaces. The southern side of
the outer wall provided seats supported on top of the cistern that supplied the baths with water.
With a capacity of over 2 million gallons, the cistern supported spectators watching athletic
games or the reflection of the sunset in large, arched windows. The outer wall also featured
libraries complete with niches for books.
The bathing block is similar in design to the Baths of Trajans bathing block, but on a
grander scale. A row of four heated halls stood on either side of the caldarium. Their lower
elevation allowed bathers a wide view over the garden landscape. Along with the slightly varied
warmth in each of the heated halls, the garden view encouraged bathers to leisurely progress to
the caldarium. The caldarium was a massive, round room featuring hot pools in seven of the
eight radiating niches. An expansive concrete dome towered above the space, while arched
windows provided plenty of light in the caldarium. The equally monumental frigidarium stood
34 m high and featured a perfected, complex system of vaulting and buttressing. These
architectural innovations underlined the important role of imperial thermae in the wider Roman
architectural development. The decoration and ornamentation also reached new levels of
lavishness. Multiple tiers of colonnades covering marble-veneered walls, elaborately decorated
vaulted ceilings, and intricate mosaic floors are just some examples of the luxury offered at these
baths.
The architecture and human labor implemented to sustain the maintenance of the baths were
immense. With a capacity of 10,000, the Baths of Caracalla required a complex, underground
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system of furnaces, mills (for bread), and laundry facilities to support the heat, food, and towel
needs of the many patrons. People of all professions including doctors, masseuses, guards,
slaves, and trainers were needed to provide all the activities and lavish comfort visitors wanted.
Every aspect of the imperial thermae was heightened to grand scales.
The Baths of Diocletian, constructed from 298305/306 CE, were one of the last of the great
imperial thermae within the city. Although mostly preserved in the street plan of Rome, the
frigidarium has survived and been reused as the nave of Santa Maria degli Angeli. The baths
followed a similar layout to the Baths of Trajan and Caracalla on an even larger and grander
scale. These baths were the epitome of the Roman one-upmanship culture between successive
emperors. With the ever-increasing size of the imperial thermae, these bathing complexes were
easily the largest structures in the city.
The architectural development of imperial thermae was meant to serve and create a
certain social context. As free, public spaces, Roman baths were accessible to a large cross-
section of people. They served as luxurious places for social gatherings where eating, drinking,
and sex took place alongside the bathing. Friends met at the baths before dinner, while some
used the baths as opportunities to gain dinner invitations. The bathing environment was noisy
and crowded. They were spaces where Romans went to watch and be watched.
Through the imperial contribution of luxuriousness, the elegant environments that the
elite lived in were offered for a short period of time to lower classes even slaves. In other
words, the imperial thermae provided the experience of living in a villa to a large cross-section
of the urban populace.
As discussed before, there was an elite anxiety over the imperial thermaes lavishness.
Not only were baths feminine and in opposition to virtus (the Roman ideal of
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courage/manliness), there was also the equalizing aspect. The removal of status symbols (i.e.
togas) made the task of maintaining status much harder. As depicted in mosaics, there were ways
to maintain status in the imperial thermae. Elite women could be differentiated by their hairstyles
and jewelry. Wealthy bathers travelled to baths with large numbers of attendants and slaves.
People constantly being attended to in baths (i.e. dried and clothed by slaves) exhibited their
higher status. Although the imperial thermae did not completely equalize status, baths proved to
be a social institution at odds with the Roman insistence of class.
To the urban population, the baths served as escapes from the mundane, crowded, and
often-miserable daily existence. For the emperor, the baths acted as safety valves for the well-
being and happiness of the populace. If the people were distracted from their dissatisfactory
lives, the chances of protest and rebellion against the rulers decreased. This form of cheap
distraction characterized all forms of imperial spectacle entertainment, including gladiatorial
games and chariot racing. The emperors donated these hugely expensive benefactions not only as
displays of their power and wealth, but also to maintain their power over the state and people.
From the Republican period to the Imperial period, Roman bathing and baths developed
into symbols of Roman-ness. They were an essential part of the civilizing process and were
tools of exporting Roman civilization to the far reaches of the empire. Numbering in the
thousands throughout the empire, Roman baths became a defining marker of the Roman Empire
both in Rome and all over the world.