62 FLUID MECHANICS

FLUID MECHANICS
DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME, SPECIFIC
WEIGHT, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The defnitions of density, specifc volume, specifc weight,
and specifc gravity follow:
m V
W V
g m V g
limit
limit
limit
V
V
V
0
0
0
:
=
=
= =
t
c
c t
D D
D D
D D
"
"
"
D
D
D
also SG = /
w
= /
w
, where
t = density (also mass density),
m = mass of infnitesimal volume,
V = volume of infnitesimal object considered,
= specifc weight,
= g,
W = weight of an infnitesimal volume,
SG = specifc gravity,
w
t = mass density of water at standard conditions
= 1,000 kg/m
3
(62.43 lbm/ft
3
), and

= specific weight of water at standard conditions,

= 9,810 N/m
3
(62.4 lbf/ft
3
), and
= 9,810 kg/(m
2
s
2
).
STRESS, PRESSURE, AND VISCOSITY
Stress is defned as
/ , F A 1 limit where
A 0
= x D D
" D
] g
1 x] g = surface stress vector at point 1,
F = force acting on infnitesimal area A, and
A = infnitesimal area at point 1.

n
= P

t
= (dv/dy) (one-dimensional; i.e., y), where

n
and
t
= the normal and tangential stress components at
point 1,
P = the pressure at point 1,
= absolute dynamic viscosity of the fuid
Ns/m
2
[lbm/(ft-sec)],
dv = differential velocity,
dy = differential distance, normal to boundary.
v = velocity at boundary condition, and
y = normal distance, measured from boundary.
v = /, where
= kinematic viscosity; m
2
/s (ft
2
/sec).
For a thin Newtonian fuid flm and a linear velocity profle,
v(y) = vy/; dv/dy = v/, where
v = velocity of plate on flm and
= thickness of fuid flm.
For a power law (non-Newtonian) fuid

t
= K (dv/dy)
n
, where
K = consistency index, and
n = power law index.
n < 1 pseudo plastic
n > 1 dilatant
SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
Surface tension is the force per unit contact length
= F/L, where
= surface tension, force/length,
F = surface force at the interface, and
L = length of interface.
The capillary rise h is approximated by
h = 4 cos /(d), where
h = the height of the liquid in the vertical tube,
= the surface tension,
= the angle made by the liquid with the wetted tube
wall,
= specifc weight of the liquid, and
d = the diameter of the capillary tube.
THE PRESSURE FIELD IN A STATIC LIQUID

The difference in pressure between two different points is

P
2
P
1
= (z
2
z
1
) = h = gh
For a simple manometer,
P
o
= P
2
+
2
z
2

1
z
1
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gage pressure
reading
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure vacuum gage
pressure reading
Bober, W. & R.A. Kenyon, Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1980. Diagrams reprinted by permission
of William Bober & Richard A. Kenyon.
63 FLUID MECHANICS
FORCES ON SUBMERGED SURFACES AND THE
CENTER OF PRESSURE

The pressure on a point at a distance Z below the surface is

p = p
o
+ Z, for Z 0
If the tank were open to the atmosphere, the effects of p
o
could
be ignored.
The coordinates of the center of pressure (CP) are
y* = (I
y
c

z
c
sin)/(p
c
A) and
z* = (I
y
c
sin )/(p
c
A), where
y* = the y-distance from the centroid (C) of area (A) to the
center of pressure,
z* = the z-distance from the centroid (C) of area (A) to the
center of pressure,
I
y
c
and I
y
c

z
c
= the moment and product of inertia of the area,
p
c
= the pressure at the centroid of area (A), and
Z
c
= the slant distance from the water surface to the
centroid (C) of area (A).

If the free surface is open to the atmosphere, then

p
o
= 0 and p
c
= Z
c
sin.
y* = I
y
c

z
c
/(AZ
c
) and z* = I
y
c
/(AZ
c
)
pp
pp
The force on a rectangular plate can be computed as
F = [p
1
A
v
+ (p
2
p
1
) A
v
/2]i + V
f

f
j, where
F = force on the plate,
p
1
= pressure at the top edge of the plate area,
p
2
= pressure at the bottom edge of the plate area,
A
v
= vertical projection of the plate area,
V
f
= volume of column of fuid above plate, and

f
= specifc weight of the fuid.
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE AND BUOYANCY
1. The buoyant force exerted on a submerged or foating
body is equal to the weight of the fuid displaced by the
body.
2. A foating body displaces a weight of fuid equal to its
own weight; i.e., a foating body is in equilibrium.
The center of buoyancy is located at the centroid of the
displaced fuid volume.
In the case of a body lying at the interface of two immiscible
fuids, the buoyant force equals the sum of the weights of the
fuids displaced by the body.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS
The Continuity Equation
So long as the fow Q is continuous, the continuity equation,
as applied to one-dimensional fows, states that the fow
passing two points (1 and 2) in a stream is equal at each point,
A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2
.
Q = Av
mo = Q = Av, where
Q = volumetric fow rate,
mo = mass fow rate,
A = cross section of area of fow,
v = average fow velocity, and
= the fuid density.
For steady, one-dimensional fow, mo is a constant. If, in
addition, the density is constant, then Q is constant.
Bober, W. & R.A. Kenyon, Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1980. Diagrams reprinted by permission
of William Bober & Richard A. Kenyon.
64 FLUID MECHANICS
The Field Equation is derived when the energy equation is
applied to one-dimensional fows. Assuming no friction losses
and that no pump or turbine exists between sections 1 and 2 in
the system,
or
, where
g
z
g
z
g g
2 2
2 2
v v
2 2
2
2
1 1
2
1
2 2
2
2
1 1
2
1
P P
P
z
P
z
v v
+ + = + +
+ + = + +
c c
t t
P
1
, P
2
= pressure at sections 1 and 2,
v
1
, v
2
= average velocity of the fuid at the sections,
z
1
, z
2
= the vertical distance from a datum to the sections
(the potential energy),
= the specifc weight of the fuid (g), and
g = the acceleration of gravity.
FLUID FLOW
The velocity distribution for laminar fow in circular tubes
or between planes is
, r
R
r
1 v v where
max
2
= -
] b g l
= G
r = the distance (m) from the centerline,
R = the radius (m) of the tube or half the distance between
the parallel planes,
v = the local velocity (m/s) at r, and
v
max
= the velocity (m/s) at the centerline of the duct.
v
max
= 1.18v, for fully turbulent fow
v
max
= 2v, for circular tubes in laminar fow and
v
max
= 1.5v, for parallel planes in laminar fow, where
v = the average velocity (m/s) in the duct.
The shear stress distribution is
,
R
r
where
w
=
x
x
and
w
are the shear stresses at radii r and R respectively.
The drag force F
D
on objects immersed in a large body of
fowing fuid or objects moving through a stagnant fuid is
, F
C A
2
v
where
D
D
2
=
t
C
D
= the drag coeffcient,
v = the velocity (m/s) of the fowing fuid or moving
object, and
A = the projected area (m
2
) of blunt objects such as
spheres, ellipsoids, disks, and plates, cylinders,
ellipses, and air foils with axes perpendicular to the
fow.
For fat plates placed parallel with the fow
C
D
= 1.33/Re
0.5
(10
4
< Re < 5 10
5
)
C
D
= 0.031/Re
1/7
(10
6
< Re < 10
9
)
The characteristic length in the Reynolds Number (Re) is the
length of the plate parallel with the fow. For blunt objects, the
characteristic length is the largest linear dimension (diameter
of cylinder, sphere, disk, etc.) which is perpendicular to the
fow.
AERODYNAMICS
Airfoil Theory
The lift force on an airfoil is given by
F
C A
2
v
L
L P
2
=
t
C
L
= the lift coeffcient
v = velocity (m/s) of the undisturbed fuid and
A
P
= the projected area of the airfoil as seen from above
(plan area). This same area is used in defning the drag
coeffcient for an airfoil.
The lift coeffcient can be approximated by the equation
C
L
= 2k
1
sin( + ) which is valid for small values of
and .
k
1
= a constant of proportionality
= angle of attack (angle between chord of airfoil and
direction of fow)
= negative of angle of attack for zero lift.
The drag coeffcient may be approximated by
C C
AR
C
D D
L
2
= +
r
3
C
D
= infnite span drag coeffcient
AR
A
b
c
A
p
p
2
2
= =
The aerodynamic moment is given by
M
C A c
2
v
M p
2
=
t
where the moment is taken about the front quarter point of the
airfoil.
C
M
= moment coeffcient
A
p
= plan area
c = chord length
CHORD

V
AERODYNAMIC MOMENT CENTER
CAMBER LINE
c
4
c
65 FLUID MECHANICS
Reynolds Number
/ /
,
Re D D
K
n
n
D
4
3 1
8
v v
Re
v
where
n
n
n n
1
2
= =
=
+
t n y
t
-
-
l
b
^
^
l
h
h
= the mass density,
D = the diameter of the pipe, dimension of the fuid
streamline, or characteristic length.
= the dynamic viscosity,
y = the kinematic viscosity,
Re = the Reynolds number (Newtonian fuid),
Re = the Reynolds number (Power law fuid), and
K and n are defned in the Stress, Pressure, and Viscosity
section.
The critical Reynolds number (Re)
c
is defned to be the
minimum Reynolds number at which a fow will turn
turbulent.
Flow through a pipe is generally characterized as laminar
for Re < 2,100 and fully turbulent for Re > 10,000, and
transitional fow for 2,100 < Re < 10,000.
Hydraulic Gradient (Grade Line)
The hydraulic gradient (grade line) is defned as an imaginary
line above a pipe so that the vertical distance from the pipe
axis to the line represents the pressure head at that point. If a
row of piezometers were placed at intervals along the pipe, the
grade line would join the water levels in the piezometer water
columns.
Energy Line (Bernoulli Equation)
The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the pressure,
velocity, and elevation heads is constant. The energy line is
this sum or the total head line above a horizontal datum. The
difference between the hydraulic grade line and the energy
line is the v
2
/2g term.
STEADY, INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN CONDUITS
AND PIPES
The energy equation for incompressible fow is
z
g
z
g
h
g
z
g g
z
g
h
2 2
2 2
v v
or
v v
f
f
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
p p
p p
+ + = + + +
+ + = + + +
c c
t t
h
f
= the head loss, considered a friction effect, and all
remaining terms are defned above.
If the cross-sectional area and the elevation of the pipe are the
same at both sections (1 and 2), then z
1
= z
2
and v
1
= v
2
.
The pressure drop p
1
p
2
is given by the following:
p
1
p
2
= h
f
= gh
f
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
See MECHANICAL ENGINEERING section.
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is
, h f
D
L
g 2
v
where
f
2
=
f = f(Re, e/D), the Moody or Darcy friction factor,
D = diameter of the pipe,
L = length over which the pressure drop occurs,
e = roughness factor for the pipe, and all other symbols
are defned as before.
An alternative formulation employed by chemical engineers is
D g
L
Dg
L
f
f
2
4
v
v
Fanning friction factor,
Fanning
Fanning
f
2
2
Fanning
h f
f
4
2
= =
=
` j
A chart that gives f versus Re for various values of e/D, known
as a Moody or Stanton diagram, is available at the end of this
section.
Friction Factor for Laminar Flow
The equation for Q in terms of the pressure drop p
f
is the
Hagen-Poiseuille equation. This relation is valid only for fow
in the laminar region.
Q
L
R p
L
D p
8 128
f f
4 4
= =
n
r
n
r D D
Flow in Noncircular Conduits
Analysis of fow in conduits having a noncircular cross section
uses the hydraulic diameter D
H
, or the hydraulic radius R
H
, as
follows
R
D
4 wetted perimeter
cross sectional area
H
H -
= =
Minor Losses in Pipe Fittings, Contractions, and
Expansions
Head losses also occur as the fuid fows through pipe
fttings (i.e., elbows, valves, couplings, etc.) and sudden pipe
contractions and expansions.
,
, and
p
z
g
p
z
g
h h
g
p
z
g g
p
z
g
h h
h C
g g
2 2
2 2
2 2
1
v v
v v
where
v v
velocity head
,
,
,
f f
f f
f
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
fitting
fitting
fitting
+ + = + + + +
+ + = + + + +
= =
c c
t t
Specifc fttings have characteristic values of C, which will
be provided in the problem statement. A generally accepted
nominal value for head loss in well-streamlined gradual
contractions is
h
f, ftting
= 0.04 v
2
/ 2g
66 FLUID MECHANICS
The head loss at either an entrance or exit of a pipe from or to
a reservoir is also given by the h
f, ftting
equation. Values for C
for various cases are shown as follows.

PUMP POWER EQUATION

/ / , W Q h Q gh where = = c h t h
o
Q = volumetric fow (m
3
/s or cfs),
h = head (m or ft) the fuid has to be lifted,
= effciency, and
W
o
= power (watts or ft-lbf/sec).
For additonal information on pumps refer to the
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING section of this handbook.
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
See the MECHANICAL ENGINEERING section
for compressible fow and machinery associated with
compressible fow (compressors, turbines, fans).
THE IMPULSE-MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE
The resultant force in a given direction acting on the fuid
equals the rate of change of momentum of the fuid.
F = Q
2

2
v
2
Q
1

1
v
1
, where
F = the resultant of all external forces acting on the
control volume,
Q
1

1
v
1
= the rate of momentum of the fuid fow entering the
control volume in the same direction of the force,
and
Q
2

2
v
2
= the rate of momentum of the fuid fow leaving the
control volume in the same direction of the force.
Pipe Bends, Enlargements, and Contractions
The force exerted by a fowing fuid on a bend, enlargement,
or contraction in a pipe line may be computed using the
impulse-momentum principle.

p
1
A
1
p
2
A
2
cos Fx = Q (v
2
cos v
1
)
F
y
W p
2
A
2
sin = Q (v
2
sin 0), where
F = the force exerted by the bend on the fuid (the force
exerted by the fuid on the bend is equal in magnitude and
opposite in sign), F
x
and F
y
are the x-component and
y-component of the force,
v
v
v
v
v v
v
v
v
v
v v
p = the internal pressure in the pipe line,
A = the cross-sectional area of the pipe line,
W = the weight of the fuid,
v = the velocity of the fuid fow,
= the angle the pipe bend makes with the horizontal,
= the density of the fuid, and
Q = the quantity of fuid fow.
Jet Propulsion

F = Q(v
2
0)
F = 2hA
2
, where
F = the propulsive force,
= the specifc weight of the fuid,
h = the height of the fuid above the outlet,
A
2
= the area of the nozzle tip,
Q = A
2
gh 2 , and
v
2
= gh 2 .
Defectors and Blades
Fixed Blade

F
x
= Q(v
2
cos v
1
)
F
y
= Q(v
2
sin 0)
Moving Blade

F
x
= Q(v
2x
v
1x
)
= Q(v
1
v)(1 cos )
F
y
= Q(v
2y
v
1y
)
= + Q(v
1
v) sin , where
v = the velocity of the blade.
Bober, W. & R.A. Kenyon, Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1980. Diagram
reprinted by permission of William Bober & Richard A. Kenyon.
Vennard, J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., J.K. Vennard, 1954.
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v v
v
v
v
v
v v
v
v v
v
v v
v
v
v v v
v
v v
v
v
v v
v
v v
v
v
v v v
v
v v
v
v
67 FLUID MECHANICS
Impulse Turbine

,
/
,
/ /
cos
cos
W Q
W
W Q
W Q Q g
1
4 1
180
2 2
v v v where
power of the turbine.
v
When
v v
max
max
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
c
= - -
=
= -
=
= =
t a
t a
a
t c
o
o
o
o
^
^
` ^
` `
h
h
j h
j j
MULTIPATH PIPELINE PROBLEMS

The same head loss occurs in each branch as in the

combination of the two. The following equations may be
solved simultaneously for v
A
and v
B
:
/ / /
h f
D g
f
D g
D D D
2 2
4 4 4
v v
v v v
L A
A
A A
B
B
B B
A A B B
2 2
2 2 2
L L
= =
= + r r r
_
` `
i
j j
The fow Q can be divided into Q
A
and Q
B
when the pipe
characteristics are known.
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW AND/OR PIPE FLOW
Mannings Equation
v = (k/n)R
2/3
S
1/2
, where
k = 1 for SI units,
k = 1.486 for USCS units,
v = velocity (m/s, ft/sec),
n = roughness coeffcient,
R = hydraulic radius (m, ft), and
S = slope of energy grade line (m/m, ft/ft).
Also see Hydraulic Elements Graph for Circular Sewers in the
CIVIL ENGINEERING section.

W
v
v v
v
v
v
v
v v
v

W
v
v v
v
v
v
v
v v
v
L
L
v
v v
p
p
L
L
v
v v
p
p
Hazen-Williams Equation
v = k
1
CR
0.63
S
0.54
, where
C = roughness coeffcient,
k
1
= 0.849 for SI units, and
k
1
= 1.318 for USCS units.
Other terms defned as above.
WEIR FORMULAS
See the CIVIL ENGINEERING section.
FLOW THROUGH A PACKED BED
A porous, fxed bed of solid particles can be characterized by
L = length of particle bed (m)
D
p
= average particle diameter (m)

s
= sphericity of particles, dimensionless (01)
= porosity or void fraction of the particle bed,
dimensionless (01)
The Ergun equation can be used to estimate pressure loss
through a packed bed under laminar and turbulent fow
conditions.
.
L
p
D
150 1
1 75 1
v
s p
o
s p
o
2 2 3
2
3
2
D
v
=
-
+
- n f
f
t f
D
U f U
^
^
h
h
p = pressure loss across packed bed (Pa)
v
o
= superfcial (fow through empty vessel)
fuid velocity
s
m
b l
= fuid density
m
kg
3
d n
= fuid viscosity
m s
kg
:
c m

FLUID MEASUREMENTS
The Pitot Tube From the stagnation pressure equation for
an incompressible fuid,
/ , p p g p p 2 2 v where
s s 0 0
= - = - t c _ _ _ i i i
v = the velocity of the fuid,
p
0
= the stagnation pressure, and
p
s
= the static pressure of the fuid at the elevation where
the measurement is taken.

For a compressible fuid, use the above incompressible fuid

equation if the Mach number 0.3.
Vennard, J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., J.K. Vennard, 1954.
V
2g
2
p
s
p V,
s
p
o
V
2g
2
p
s
p V,
s
p
o
68 FLUID MECHANICS
MANOMETERS

For a simple manometer,

p
0
= p
2
+
2
h
2

1
h
1
= p
2
+ g (
2
h
2

1
h
1
)
If h
1
= h
2
= h
p
0
= p
2
+ (
2

1
)h = p
2
+ (
2

1
)gh
Note that the difference between the two densities is used.
Another device that works on the same principle as the
manometer is the simple barometer.
p
atm
= p
A
= p
v
+ h = p
B
+ h = p
B
+ gh

p
v
= vapor pressure of the barometer fuid
Venturi Meters
/
, Q
A A
C A
g
p
z
p
z
1
2 where
2 1
2
2 1
1
2
2
v
=
-
+ - -
c c
^
d
h
n
C
v
= the coeffcient of velocity, and
= g.
The above equation is for incompressible fuids.

p
p
p
p
p
p
}
A
1 A
2
{
}
A
1 A
2
{
Orifces The cross-sectional area at the vena contracta A
2
is
characterized by a coeffcient of contraction C
c
and given by
C
c
A.

Q CA g
p
z
p
z 2
0
1
1
2
2
= + - -
c c
d n
where C, the coeffcient of the meter (orifce coeffcient), is
given by
C
C A A
C C
1
c
c
2
0 1
2
v
=
- _ i

For incompressible fow through a horizontal orifce meter

installation
Q CA 2
0
1 2
p p = - t_ i
Submerged Orifce operating under steady-fow conditions:

Q A C C A g h h
CA g h h
2
2
v
c 2 2 1 2
1 2
v
= = -
= -
^
^
h
h
in which the product of C
c
and C
v
is defned as the coeffcient
of discharge of the orifce.
Bober, W. & R.A. Kenyon, Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1980. Diagram
reprinted by permission of William Bober & Richard A. Kenyon.
Vennard, J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., J.K. Vennard, 1954.
00
69 FLUID MECHANICS
Orifce Discharging Freely into Atmosphere

Q CA gh 2
0
=
in which h is measured from the liquid surface to the centroid
of the orifce opening.
DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY AND
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Equations that are in a form that do not depend on the
fundamental units of measurement are called dimensionally
homogeneous equations. A special form of the dimensionally
homogeneous equation is one that involves only dimensionless
groups of terms.
Buckinghams Theorem: The number of independent
dimensionless groups that may be employed to describe a
phenomenon known to involve n variables is equal to the
number (n rr ), where rr is the number of basic dimensions
(i.e., M, L, T) needed to express the variables dimensionally.
Vennard, J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., J.K. Vennard, 1954.
0
Atm
0
Atm
SIMILITUDE
In order to use a model to simulate the conditions of the
prototype, the model must be geometrically, kinematically,
and dynamically similar to the prototype system.
To obtain dynamic similarity between two fow pictures, all
independent force ratios that can be written must be the same
in both the model and the prototype. Thus, dynamic similarity
between two fow pictures (when all possible forces are
acting) is expressed in the fve simultaneous equations below.
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
m p
m p m
T
I
p
T
I
m p
m
v
p
v
m
E
I
p
E
I
m p
m p m
G
I
p
G
I
m p
m p m
V
I
p
V
I
m p
m
p
I
p
p
I
lv lv
F
F
F
F
E
v
E
v
F
F
F
F
g
v
g
v
F
F
F
F
vl vl
F
F
F
F
p
v
p
v
F
F
F
F
We We
Ca Ca
Fr Fr
Re Re
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
= =

= =
= =

= =
= = = = =
= =

= =

= =
l l
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
where
the subscripts p and m stand for prototype and model
respectively, and
F
I
= inertia force,
F
P
= pressure force,
F
V
= viscous force,
F
G
= gravity force,
F
E
= elastic force,
F
T
= surface tension force,
Re = Reynolds number,
We = Weber number,
Ca = Cauchy number,
Fr = Froude number,
l = characteristic length,
v = velocity,
= density,
= surface tension,
E
v
= bulk modulus,
= dynamic viscosity,
p = pressure, and
g = acceleration of gravity.
70 FLUID MECHANICS
PROPERTIES OF WATER (SI METRIC UNITS)
f
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

C
S
p
e
c
i
f
i
c

W
e
i
g
h
t
a
,

,

k
N
/
m
3
D
e
n
s
i
t
y
a
,

,
k
g
/
m
3
A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

D
y
n
a
m
i
c

V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

,

a
P
a

s
K
i
n
e
m
a
t
i
c

V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

,

a
m
2
/
s
V
a
p
o
r

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
e
,
p
v
,

k
P
a

0 9.805 999.8 0.001781 0.000001785 0.61
5 9.807 1000.0 0.001518 0.000001518 0.87
10 9.804 999.7 0.001307 0.000001306 1.23
15 9.798 999.1 0.001139 0.000001139 1.70
20 9.789 998.2 0.001002 0.000001003 2.34
25 9.777 997.0 0.000890 0.000000893 3.17
30 9.764 995.7 0.000798 0.000000800 4.24
40 9.730 992.2 0.000653 0.000000658 7.38
50 9.689 988.0 0.000547 0.000000553 12.33
60 9.642 983.2 0.000466 0.000000474 19.92
70 9.589 977.8 0.000404 0.000000413 31.16
80 9.530 971.8 0.000354 0.000000364 47.34
90 9.466 965.3 0.000315 0.000000326 70.10
100 9.399 958.4 0.000282 0.000000294 101.33

PROPERTIES OF WATER (ENGLISH UNITS)

Temperature
(F)
Specific Weight

(lb/ft
3
)
Mass Density

(lb sec
2
/ft
4
)
Absolute Dynamic Viscosity

( 10
5
lb sec/ft
2
)
Kinematic Viscosity

( 10
5
ft
2
/sec)
Vapor Pressure
p
v
(psi)
9 0 . 0 1 3 9 . 1 6 4 7 . 3 0 4 9 . 1 2 4 . 2 6 2 3
2 1 . 0 4 6 6 . 1 9 2 2 . 3 0 4 9 . 1 3 4 . 2 6 0 4
8 1 . 0 0 1 4 . 1 5 3 7 . 2 0 4 9 . 1 1 4 . 2 6 0 5
6 2 . 0 7 1 2 . 1 9 5 3 . 2 8 3 9 . 1 7 3 . 2 6 0 6
6 3 . 0 9 5 0 . 1 0 5 0 . 2 6 3 9 . 1 0 3 . 2 6 0 7
1 5 . 0 0 3 9 . 0 9 9 7 . 1 4 3 9 . 1 2 2 . 2 6 0 8
0 7 . 0 6 2 8 . 0 5 9 5 . 1 1 3 9 . 1 1 1 . 2 6 0 9
5 9 . 0 9 3 7 . 0 4 2 4 . 1 7 2 9 . 1 0 0 . 2 6 0 0 1
4 2 . 1 7 6 6 . 0 4 8 2 . 1 3 2 9 . 1 6 8 . 1 6 0 1 1
9 6 . 1 9 0 6 . 0 8 6 1 . 1 8 1 9 . 1 1 7 . 1 6 0 2 1
2 2 . 2 8 5 5 . 0 9 6 0 . 1 3 1 9 . 1 5 5 . 1 6 0 3 1
9 8 . 2 4 1 5 . 0 1 8 9 . 0 8 0 9 . 1 8 3 . 1 6 0 4 1
2 7 . 3 6 7 4 . 0 5 0 9 . 0 2 0 9 . 1 0 2 . 1 6 0 5 1
4 7 . 4 2 4 4 . 0 8 3 8 . 0 6 9 8 . 1 0 0 . 1 6 0 6 1
9 9 . 5 3 1 4 . 0 0 8 7 . 0 0 9 8 . 1 0 8 . 0 6 0 7 1
1 5 . 7 5 8 3 . 0 6 2 7 . 0 3 8 8 . 1 8 5 . 0 6 0 8 1
4 3 . 9 2 6 3 . 0 8 7 6 . 0 6 7 8 . 1 6 3 . 0 6 0 9 1
2 5 . 1 1 1 4 3 . 0 7 3 6 . 0 8 6 8 . 1 2 1 . 0 6 0 0 2
70 . 4 1 9 1 3 . 0 3 9 5 . 0 0 6 8 . 1 3 8 . 9 5 2 1 2
a
From "Hydraulic Models,"ASCE Manual of Engineering Practice, No. 25, ASCE, 1942.
e
From J.H. Keenan and F.G. Keyes, Thermodynamic Properties of Steam, John Wiley & Sons, 1936.
f
Compiled from many sources including those indicated: Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 54th ed.,
The CRC Press, 1973, and Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering Science, The Chemical Rubber Co., 1970.
Vennard, J.K. and Robert L. Street, Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., Wiley, New York, 1982.

71 FLUID MECHANICS
MOODY (STANTON) DIAGRAM
Material e (ft) e (mm)
Riveted steel 10.0030.03 0.99.0
Concrete 0.0010.01 0.33.0
Cast iron 0.00085 0.25
Galvanized iron 0.0005 0.15
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.00015 0.046
Drawn tubing 0.000005 0.0015
=
REYNOLDS NUMBER, Re =
Dv

M
O
O
D
Y

(
S
T
A
N
T
O
N
)

F
R
I
C
T
I
O
N

F
A
C
T
O
R
,

f
From ASHRAE (The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.)
72 FLUID MECHANICS

1
0
R
e
R
e
2
4
,
C
D
2 F D
v
2
A
C
D
D
v

=
<

D
R
A
G

C
O
E
F
F
I
C
I
E
N
T
S

F
O
R

S
P
H
E
R
E
S
,

D
I
S
K
S
,

A
N
D

C
Y
L
I
N
D
E
R
S
N
o
t
e
:

I
n
t
e
r
m
e
d
i
a
t
e

d
i
v
i
s
i
o
n
s

a
r
e

2
,

4
,

6
,

a
n
d

8
.