ZOOLOGY

Chapter 2
Spontaneous Generation of Life
Jean Baptiste (1648) mie to !heat
Louis "asteur (1861) #i$in% or%anisms
&o not arise from non #i$in% or%anisms
'#e(an&er Oparin (1)2*) #ife
ori%inate& after a +a,io%eni
mo#eu#ar e$o#ution-
L.C' Last #i$in% ommon anestor
/ater 0 Life
6*12)*1 in most #i$in% or%anisms
"roperties3
45&ro%en ,on&s that form ,et6
'&7aent !ater mo#eu#es
4i%h spei8 heat apait5 (1
a#orie) !ater9s hi%h therma#
apait5 %reat#5 mo&erates
en$ironmenta# temperature
han%es thus protetin% #i$in%
or%anisms from e(treme
therma# :utuation ((ept
ammonia)
4i%h heat of $apori;ation (<**
a#ories)
.ni=ue &ensit5 ,eha$ior &urin%
han%es of temperature
4i%h surfae tension ((ept
merur5)
Lo! $isosit5 a##o!in% ,#oo&
mo$ement throu%h minute
api##aries
>(e##ent so#$ent
"artiipates in man5 hemia#
reations
o 45&ro#5sis ompoun&s
are sp#it into sma## piees
,5 the a&&ition of !ater
o Con&ensation ?eations
#ar%er ompoun&s ma5
,e s5nthesi;e& from the
sma##er omponents ,5
the re$erse of h5&ro#5sis
p4 Sa#e =uanti8es the &e%ree to
!hih a so#ution is ai&i or ,asi6
'i& 45&ro%en (66* ( 1*
hi%her than !ater)
Base 45&ro(i&e (86* ( 1*
#o!er than !ater)
Bu@er a &isso#$e& su,stane that
auses a so#ution to resist han%es in
p46
Or%ani Ao#eu#ar Struture of Li$in%
S5stems
Or%ani ompoun&s that ontain
ar,on6 (Car,on has a %reat a,i#it5 to
,on& !ith other ar,on atoms)
Car,oh5&rates
Compoun&s of ar,onB
h5&ro%en an& o(5%en6
Strutura# e#ements
Soure of hemia# ener%5
(G#uose)
're %roupe& into three #asses3
o Aonosahari&es (simp#e
su%ar) ha$e a sin%#e
ar,on hain6 Contain a
free su%ar %roup in !hih
the &ou,#e2,on&e& O
ma5 ,e attahe& to the
termina# or non2termina#
ar,ons of a hain6
(G#uose)
o Cisahari&es (&ou,#e
su%ar) forme& ,5
,on&in% t!o simp#e
su%ars6 (Aa#tose)
o "o#5sahari&es (omp#e(
su%ar) ontain man5
mo#eu#es of simp#e
su%ars6 (Starh)
Chitin an important strutura#
po#5sahari&e in the e(osDe#eton of
insets an& other anthropo&s6
G#5o%en important po#5mer for
storin% su%ar in anima#s6 (Store& in
#i$erEmus#e e##s)
Ce##u#ose prinipa# strutura#
ar,oh5&rate of p#ants6
Lipi&s
Fats an& fat#iDe su,stanes
Ao#eu#es of #o! po#arit5
Girtua##5 inso#u,#e in !ater ,ut
so#u,#e in or%ani so#$ents
(aetoneEether)
Hhree prinipa# %roups of Lipi&s
o Hri%#5eri&es (Ieutra#E
Hrue Fats)
Aa7or fue#s of
anima#s
O(i&i;e& an&
re#ease& into the
,#oo&stream as
nee&e& to meet
tissue &eman&s
Contain
%#5ero#B ether an&
ai&6
Saturate&
(45&ro%en atoms)
o "hospho#ipi&s
Jmportant
omponents of
tissues 0
mem,ranes
?esem,#es
tri%#5eri&es e(ept
one of the three
fatt5 ai&s is
rep#ae& ,5
phosphori an& an
or%ani ,ase
Char%e& an&
po#ar ,ut non2po#ar
on the other en&
So#u,#e in
!ater
Can ,ri&%e
t!o en$ironments
an& ,in& !ater2
so#u,#e mo#eu#es
("roteins)
'mphi#i ompoun&s that are po#ar
an& !ater so#u,#e on one en& an&
nonpo#ar on the other en&6 4a$e a
ten&en5 to assem,#e themse#$es into
semipermea,#e mem,ranes6
o Steroi&s
Comp#e( a#oho#s
Strutura##5 un#iDe
fatsB ha$e fat#iDe
properties
4a$e #o! po#arit5
Cho#estero#B Git6 CKB
hormones
"roteins
Comp#e( mo#eu#es ompose&
of 2* Din&s of amino ai&s
(#inDe& ,5 pepti&e ,on&s to
form hain#iDe po#5mers)
Bui#&in% ,#oDsB stora%e
pro&utsB en;5mes
4i%h#5 or%ani;e& mo#eu#e
Four #e$e#s of protein
or%ani;ation
o "rimar5 the se=uene of
amino ai&s omposin%
the po#5pepti&e hain6
(?eurrin% strutura#
pattern)
o Seon&ar5 a#pha2he#i(
(he#ia# turns in a
#oD!ise &iretion)
45&ro%en ,on&s sta,i#i;e
the spira#s of the hain
o Hertiar5 h5&ro%en
,on&sB ioni ,on&sB an&
h5&ropho,i ,on&s
sta,i#i;e the struture
o Luaternar5 ontain
more than one
po#5pepti&e hain6
(4emo%#o,in)
Form the strutura# frame!orD
of protop#asm an& man5 e##u#ar
omponents6
>n;5mes
#o!er the ener%5 re=uire& for
spei8 reations
>na,#e #ife proesses to
proee& at mo&erate
temperatures
Contro# the reations ,5 !hih
foo& is &i%este&B meta,o#i;e&B
s5nthesi;e&6
"romote the s5nthesis of
strutura# materia#s for %ro!th
an& rep#ae those #ost ,5 !ear
Cetermine the re#ease of
ener%5 use& in respirationB
%ro!thB mus#e ontrationB
ph5sia# an& menta# ati$ities
"rion is an infetious protein parti#e
in !hih a protein of the host
or%anism is ontorte& into an
a,norma# KC struture6 ("eop#e2DuruM
GoatEsheep2srapie)
Iu#ei 'i&
Comp#e( po#5meri mo#eu#es
>no&es the %eneti information
for ,io#o%ia# inheritane
Store &iretions for the
s5nthesis of en;5mesEproteins
Can rep#iate themse#$es
"o#5mers of repeate& units
a##e& nu#eoti&es (ontains
su%arB nitro%enous ,aseB
phosphate %roup)
H!o Din&s of nu#ei ai& in
e##s3
o Ceo(5ri,onu#ei (CI')
o ?i,onu#ei (?I')
Chemia# >$o#ution
?e&ue& Compoun&s ten& to &onate
e#etrons to other ompoun&s6
45&rotherma# $ents su,marine hot
sprin%s
Go#ani 4eat heate&
.#tra$io#et Li%ht so#ar ra&iation
>#etria# Cishar%e #i%htnin%
Cata#5ti ?I' (ri,osomes)
Can me&iate proessin% of
messan%er ?I'
Can ata#5;e formation of
pepti&e ,on&s
>ar#iest en;5mesB se#f2
rep#iatin% mo#eu#es
Ori%in of Aeta,o#ism
'utotrophs or%anisms that an
s5nthesi;e their foo& from inor%ani
soures usin% #i%ht or another soure
of ener%5
4eterotrophs 2 or%anisms #aDin%
a,i#it5 must o,tain their foo& supp#ies
from the en$ironment
"rimar5 heterotrophs ear#iest
postu#ate& miroor%anisms that re#ie&
on en$ironmenta# soures for their
foo&6 ('naero,i or%anisms simi#ar to
%enus C#ostri&ium)
45&ro%en atoms !ere &eri$e& from
h5&ro%en su#8&e or h5&ro%en %as6
C5ano,ateria !ater2,ase&
photos5nthesis
O(i&ati$e (aero,i) meta,o#ism ,5
usin% o(5%en as a termina# e#etron
aeptorB muh of the ,on& ener%5
store& ,5 photos5nthesis ou#& ,e
reo$ere&6
'tmosphere N81 mo#eu#ar nitro%enB
211 free o(5%enB 11 ar%onB *6*K1
ar,on &io(i&e
"ream,rian Life
<24 to 6** mi##ion 5ears B"
Aost ma7or anima# ph5#a
appeare&
+Cam,rian >(p#osion-
Fossi# &eposits are most#5
&e$oi& of an5 or%anisms more
omp#e( than sin%#e2e##e&
,ateria
Iu#eoi& nu#ear re%ion
"roDar5otes
Bateria 0 'rhaea
+Before the nu#eus-
Contain a sin%#eB #ar%e mo#eu#e
of CI'
LaD mem,ranous or%ane##es
(mitohon&riaB p#asti&sB %o#%i
apparatusB en&op#asmi
retiu#um)
LaD the hromosoma#
or%ani;ation an& hromosoma#
(mitoti) &i$ision foun& in
anima#sB p#antsB fun%i
'rhae,ateria $s Bateria (true
,ateria)
Biohemia##5 &istint
' &i@er fun&amenta##5 from B in
e##u#ar meta,o#ism
' #aD murami ai&
B ha$e murami ai& !hih is
present on its e## !a##s
' &i@ers in the se=uene of
,ases in ri,osoma# ?I'
>uDar5otes
Hrue nu#eus
4a$e e##s !ith mem,rane2
,oun& nu#ei ontainin%
hromosomes ompose& of
hromatin
4istones onstituents of euDar5oti
hromatin in#u&e proteins
Genera##5 #ar%er
Contains more CI'
Aitosis
'nima#sB p#antsB protistB fun%i
Ceri$e& from s5m,iosis (#ife
to%ether) of t!o or more t5pes
of ,ateria
>n&os5m,ioti Hheor5 proposes that
a popu#ation anestra# to euDar5oti
e##sB &eri$e& from an& resem,#in%
anaero,i ,ateriaB e$o#$e& a nu#eus
an& other intrae##u#ar mem,rane from
info#&in%s of the e## mem,rane6
'naero,i #aDin% o(i&ati$e
meta,o#ism
>n&os5m,ioti 'ero,i Bateria
4a$e meta,o#i;e& o(5%en !hih
to(i to for their anaero,i host
Jts host e## !ou#& ha$e %i$en
its aero,i resi&ents foo& an&
ph5sia# protetion
Gia&ria Jntestina#is human parasite
Chapter K
Ce##s as .nits of Life
Ce## theor5
Sh!annB Sh#ei&enB Girho!
Ie! e##s arise from pre2
e(istin% e##s
'## #i$in% or%anisms are
ompose& of e##s
>ner%5 is re=uire& to support #ife9s
ati$ities
Chemia# ,on& ener%5 a form of
potentia# ener%5 that an ,e re#ease&
!hen a ,on& is ,roDen an& use& to
perform e#etria#B mehania#B
osmoti tasDs in the e##6
Seon& La! of Hhermo&5namis
nature proee&s to!ar& a state
of %reater mo#eu#ar &isor&erB or
entrop56
Hhe hi%h &e%ree of mo#eu#ar
or%ani;ation in #i$in% e##s is
attaine& an& maintaine& on#5 as
#on% as ener%5 fue#s the
or%ani;ation6
Ce##s
Fa,ri of #ife
Comp#e( strutures that form
the ,asi units of a## #i$in%
or%anisms
?epresents the ,asi strutura#
an& funtiona# unit of #ife
Sma## an& in$isi,#e
1
st
3 ,a%s of thiD soup
ontainin% a nu#eus
Later3 ompose& of numerous
e##u#ar or%ane##es !ithin a
net!orD of mem,ranes
>%% e##s #ar%est e##s in $o#ume
?o,ert 4ooDe +#itt#e ,o(es or e##s-
'nton Gan Lee!enhoeD &esription
of numerous or%anisms
Aatthias Sh#ei&en a## p#ant tissues
!as ompose& of e##s
Hheo&or Sh!ann anima#s e##s are
simi#ar to p#ant e##s
?u&o#f Girho! a## e##s ame from
pree(istin% e##s
J6 "urDin7e protop#asm
"rotop#asm
Granu#arB %e#2#iDe mi(ture !ith
speia# an& e#usi$e #ife
properties of its o!n
4o! Ce##s are Stu&ie&
Li%ht Airosope
>#etron Airosope use
ma%nets to &iret a ,eam of
e#etrons throu%h or at the
surfae of o,7ets e(amine&
Components of >uDar5oti Ce##s
"#asma Aem,rane se#eti$e#5
permea,#e
Iu#eus
Iu#ear >n$e#ope
o Contain #ess
ho#estero# an& omp#e(
protein pores
C5top#asm e##u#ar materia#
#oate& ,et!een the e##
mem,rane an& nu#ear
en$e#ope
o Aitohon&ria
po!erhouse of e##s
Cristae
8n%er#iDe pro7etions
o Centrio#es
o >n&op#asmi retiu#um
F#ui&2mosai mo&e# aepte&
onept of &esri,in% p#asma
mem,rane struture
Iu#ei
o Contain #inear
hromosomes suspen&e& in
nu#eop#asm
Chromosomes
norma##5 #oose#5
on&ense&B :e(i,#e
stran&s of hromatin
Chromati
n ompose&
of omp#e(
CI'B CI'
,in&in% proteins
Iu#eo#us ompose& of
speia#i;e& parts of ertain
hromosomes that stain in a
harateristia##5 &arD manner6
Iu#eo#i arr5 mu#tip#e
opies of CI' information to
s5nthesi;e ri,osoma# ?I'6
o ?i,osomes sites of
po#5pepti&e or protein
s5nthesis
>n&omem,rane S5stem
o >n&op#asmi
?etiu#um 2 manufaturin%
po#5pepti&es &estine& for
the p#asma mem,rane B for
#5sosomesB or for e(port
from the e##6
?ou%h
o$ere& !ith
ri,osomes
(po#5pepti&e
s5nthesis)
Smooth
!ithout ri,osomes
(s5nthesis of #ipi&s 0
phospho#ipi&sB
&eto(i8ation site of
the e##)
o Go#%i
Comp#e(E'pparatus
ompose& of mem,ranous
isternae that funtion in
mo&i8ation an& paDa%in%
of po#5pepti&es an& protein
pro&uts pro&ue& ,5 rou%h
>?
Cis formin%
fae
Hrans
maturin% fae
o L5sosomes &estro5
in7ure& e##s (#oosenin%
,o&5)
Foo&
Gauo#eEpha%osome
foo& parti#e
"hospho#ipi& Bi#a5er
o /ater2so#u,#e (45&rophi#i)
o Fat2so#u,#e (45&ropho,i)
o F#ui&#iDe
C5tosDe#eton
s5stem of tu,u#es an& 8#aments
"ro$i&e support an& maintain
the form of e##s
"ro$i&e means of #oomotion
an& mo$ement of
maromo#eu#es an& or%ane##es
!ithin the e##
Compose& of3
Airo8#aments fai#itate
e##u#ar #oomotion (ma&e of
protein a##e& atin) #inear thin
strutures
Airotu,u#es ho##o!B tu,u#ar
strutures (ompose& of a
protein a##e& tu,u#in)
Jnterme&iate 8#aments resist
e## strethin%B an& he#p to ho#&
a&7aent e##s to%ether
Surfaes of Ce##s 0 their
Speia#i;ations
>pithe#ia# e##s e##s that o$er
the surfae of a struture or #ine
a tu,e of a$it5
Ci#ia e## si%na#in%B ,oth &urin%
&e$e#opment an& in a&u#t
or%anism
F#a%e##a #oomotion for ma#e
repro&uti$e e##s
OOHhese are moti#e e(tensions of the
e## surfae that ma5 ,e use& to
s!eep materia#s past the e##
O4a$e &i@erent ,eatin% patterns ,ut
the interna# is the same
OCompose& of a #on% 5#in&er of )
pairs of mirotu,u#es en#osin% a
entra# pair6 't eah ,ase is a ,asa#
,o&5 (Dinetosome)
O'me,oi& mo$ement usin%
pseu&opo&ia
Hi%ht Juntions fuse&
mem,ranes that are forme&
from transmem,rane proteins
that ,in& ti%ht#5 ,et!een
a&7aent e##s6 Jt sea#s to
pre$ent the passa%e of
mo#eu#es ,et!een e##s from
one si&e of a #a5er of e##s to
another
'&hesion Juntion
(Communiatin% Juntions)
ho#& the e##s to%ether as the
heart ,eats throu%hout the #ife
of an or%anism (ar&ia mus#e
e##s) (,eneath ti%ht 7untions)
o Cesmosomes +spot2
!e#&s- inrease the
stren%th of the tissue
o 4emi&emosomes our
at the ,ase of the e##s
an& anhor them to
un&er#5in% onneti$e
tissue #a5ers
Gap Juntions ser$in% points
of attahmentB pro$i&e means
of intrae##u#ar ommuniation
(our ,et!een e##s of
epithe#ia#6 Ier$ousB mus#e
tissues)
Aem,rane Funtion
"#asma Aem,rane ("#asma#emma)
K "rinipa# /a5s
16 Ci@usion mo$ement of
parti#es from an area of hi%her
onentration to #o!er
onentrationB ten&in% to
e=ua#i;e the onentration
a6 GasesB ureaB #ipi&2so#u,#e
so#utes easi#5 &i@use
aross mem,ranes
Chemia##52%ate& ion
hanne#s ,in&in% site on
the transmem,rane
protein
Go#ta%e2%ate& ion
hanne#s p#asma
mem,rane han%es
Aehania##52%ate& ion
hanne#s p#asma
mem,rane &istorte&
'=uaporins !ater
hanne#s
Osmosis &i@usion of !ater mo#eu#es
aross a mem,rane
Osmoti "ressure the pressure
that resists the :o! of !ater
into the 5top#asm
Osmore%u#ation maintain a
so#ute onentration in their
,#oo&
o 45potoni ,#oat
o 45pertoni shrinD
o Jsotoni no han%es
16 Carrier2me&iate& Hransport
Hransporters ena,#e so#ute
mo#eu#es to ross the
phospho#ipi& ,i#a5ers
o Spei8B reo%ni;in% an&
transportin% on#5 #imite&
%roup of hemia#
su,stanes
Sho! a saturation e@et (the
rate of in:u( has no further
e@et)
H!o t5pes of Carrier2me&iate&
Hransport3
o Fai#itate&
Ci@usionEHransport a
transporter assists a
mo#eu#e to &i@use
throu%h a mem,rane that
it annot other!ise
penetrate (Co!nhi##
&iretionB no ener%5
re=uire&)
o 'ti$e Hransport ener%5
from the 'H" is supp#ie&
to the transporter s5stem
to transport mo#eu#es in
the &iretion opposite to
the onentration
%ra&ient6 Jt mo$es
a%ainst the fores of
passi$e &i@usion6 (Iee&s
ener%5 ,eause materia#s
are transporte& a%ainst
the onentration
%ra&ient)
So&ium2"otassium "ump 1*124*1 of
a## ener%5 pro&ue& ,5 e##s are
onsume&
16 >n&o5tosis in%estion of
materia# ,5 e##s6 '## re=uire
ener%5B forms of ati$e
transport (,u#D2phase
en&o5tosis)
a6 "ha%o5tosis (e## eatin%)
metho& of fee&in%
amon% unie##u#ar forms3
spon%esB ni&arianB
:at!orms6
,6 "ino5tosis intaDe some
$itaminsB hormonesB
%ro!th fators6
i6 Ca$eo#ae
in$a%inate& pits 0
$esi#es
ii6 Hrans5tosis the
ontents of
a$eo#ae are
unhan%e&
6 ?eeptor2me&iate&
en&o5tosis ,rin%in%
#ar%e mo#eu#es !ithin
the e##
i6 Li%an&s
partiu#ar
mo#eu#es
ii6 C#athrin2oate&
pits 5top#asmi
si&e of a
mem,rane !ith
protein
iii6 C#athrin protein
>(o5tosis
e(tru&e its ontents to the
surroun&in% me&ium
to remo$e un&i%esti,#e resi&ues
to serete su,stanes #iDe
hormones
to re5#e mem,rane 0
reeptors
to transport a su,stane
omp#ete#5 aross a e##u#ar
,arrier (trans5tosis)
Aitosis an& Ce## Ci$ision
Z5%ote sin%#e e##B pro&ut of
ferti#i;ation
Somati Ce##sEBo&5 e##s
Ce## Ci$ision pro$i&es the ,asis for
%ro!th in mu#tie##u#ar or%anismsB
transmission of here&itar5 information
Aitosis
Iu#ear Ci$ision
>nsures e=ua#it5 of %eneti
potentia#
Aeiosis
?e&utiona# &i$ision
Struture of Chromosomes
Chrosmosomes (o#or ,o&ies)
hromatin is or%ani;e& into a
num,er of &isrete #inear ,o&ies
(46 in humans)
Centromere2 #oation of the
DinetohoreB position of
onstrition
Pinetohore &is of proteins
that ,in&s !ith mirotu,u#es of
the spin&#e that forms &urin%
mitosis
Chromosoma# Con&ensation ena,#e a
e## to &istri,ute hromosoma#
materia# eQient#5 an& e=ua##5 to
&au%hter e##s &urin% e## &i$ision
H!o Sta%es of e## &i$ision3
16Aitosis
Iu#ear &i$ision of hromosomes
Chromosoma# se%re%ation
26C5toDinesis
Ci$ision of 5top#asm
Fo##o!s mitosis
Au#tinu#eate resu#tin% mass of
protop#asm ontainin% man5 nu#ei
S5n5tium arran%ement forme& ,5
e## fusion
"hases in Aitosis
16 "rophase
Centrosomes rep#iate
Iu#ear en$e#ope
&isinte%rates
H!o entrosomes
mi%rate to the opposite
po#es
Airotu,u#es are
manufature& (Spin&#e) an&
other mirotu,u#es ra&iate
out!ar& from eah
entrosome to form asters6
Gisi,#e hromosomes (
2 sister hromati&s)
Airotu,u#es retrat
an& e(ten& to!ar& the
entrosome
Pinetohore
Airotu,u#es eases
e(ten&in% 0 retratin%
26 Aetaphase
Hhe on&ense& sister
hromati&s are mo$e& to the
mi&&#e of the nu#ear re%ion
(metaphase p#ate)
K6 'naphase
Chromati&s at the
entromere is no! remo$e&
(separate&)
Chromosomes mo$e
to their respeti$e po#es
e#on%ate& e##
46 He#ophase
Spin&#e 8,ers
&isappear
Iu#ear mem,ranes
reappear aroun& the t!o
&au%hter nu#ei
Ce## C5#e
Jnter$a# ,et!een one e##
&i$ision an& the ne(t
S phase 2 ?ep#iation of CI'
G1 preparator5 sta%eB transfer of
?I'B ri,osomesB messen%er ?I' 0
en;5mes are s5nthesi;e& (#on%er)
G2 spin&#e an& aster proteins are
s5nthesi;e& in preparation for
hromosome separation &urin% mitosis
G* nonpro#iferati$eE=uiesent phaseB
&i$i&e no further
C5#ins re%u#ator5 protein su,units
that ati$ate them
C5#in2&epen&ent Dinases en;5mes
that me&iate &urin% e## 5#e
transitions
Pinases en;5mes that a&& phosphate
%roups to other proteins to
ati$ateEinati$ate
'poptosis pro%ramme& e## &eath
16 ShrinD
26 Cisinte%rate
K6 Components are a,sor,e& ,5
surroun&in% e##s