CIRUIT ANALYSIS

CIRUIT ANALYSIS
USINGTHEOREMS
USINGTHEOREMS

AGENDA
Introduction
Kennellys Star-Delta conversions
superposition theorem
Thevenins Theorem
Nortons Theorem
Reciprocity Theorem
Compensation Theorem
Maximum Power Transer Theorem
Telle!ens Theorem
Millmans Theorem
Duals and Duality
Reerences

INTRODUCTION
"nalysin! the circuits #ehaviour when it is ener!ised #y more than one
power source $volta!e or current%is tedious &To overcome this'en!ineers
have introduced some standard theorems to handle such a circuits&They are
explained #elow&(ach theorem handles the circuit to its own&
They are'
)&Kennellys Star-Delta transormation
*&superposition theorem
+&Thevenins Theorem
,&Nortons Theorem
-&Reciprocity Theorem
.&Compensation Theorem
/&Maximum Power Transer Theorem
0&Telle!ens Theorem
1&Duals and Duality
)2&Millmans Theorem
Kennellys Delta - Wye Conversions
In some circuits you may ind that you have a 3T3 $or 343% coni!uration'
#ut the circuit would #e easier to analy5e i you had a 3P3 $or 3Delta3%
coni!uration or vice versa&
NOTE: The position o R!" R#" R$" RA" R%" an& RC 'ith respe(t to the
ter)inals )ar*e& a" +" an& ( is +ase& on the or),las -iven +elo'. It is very
i)portant to (orre(tly i&entiy these resistors.

Figure 1 - "T" or "Y" Circuit configuration

/i-,re # - 00 or 0Delta0 Cir(,it (oni-,ration
6nce the circuit coni!uration and the resistors have #een identiied' the
conversion is airly simple& "pply the ormulas #elow to ind their values in
the other circuit coni!uration&
To chan!e rom Delta to 7ye apply the ollowin! ormulas8
to Y: R
1
= RB * RC
RA + RB + RC
R
2
= RA * RC
RA + RB + RC
R
3
= RA * RB
RA + RB + RC
To change from Wye to e!ta a""!y the fo!!o#ing formu!a$%
Y to : R
A
= R1*R2 + R2*R3 + R3*R1
R1
R
B
= R1*R2 + R2*R3 + R3*R1
R2
R
C
= R1*R2 + R2*R3 + R3*R1
R3
(xample8
9et:s loo; at an example in which Delta to 7ye transormations are used
/i-,re $ - E1a)ple 2ro+le) #
In this example' we can convert the delta to a 343' #ut this will only !ive us the current
throu!h the *-7 and the .27 resistors& "ter we have those values' we can use
either K<9 or KC9 to ind the remainin! currents in the circuit&
=y applyin! the ormulas a#ove to chan!e the Delta to a 343 we:ll ind that each o the
343 resistors $R)' R*' and R+% will #e )27& The new circuit is shown #elow8
Figure & - '(am"!e )ro*!em 1% Tran$forme+ Circuit
7e can now use another analysis method on this simpliied circuit to ind
the currents throu!h the *-7 and .27 resistors& I:ll use nodal analysis8
,o+e '-. /0-11123/24+112 + 0311 + /0-11123/51+112 = 1
/0-1112334 + 0311 + /0-1112361 = 1
7u!ti"!y *y 61 2*/0-1112 + 6*0 + /0-1112 = 1
20-211 + 60 + 0-111 = 1
110 = 311
0 = 318
=y applyin! 6hm:s 9aw we see that this volta!e causes )" throu!h the
.27' and *" throu!h the *-7 resistors&

/i-,re 3 - E1a)ple 2ro+le) !: C,rrents in Ori-inal Cir(,it
To ind the remainin! currents we could use Kirchho:s Current or
<olta!e 9aw& The ollowin! dia!ram shows the volta!e across all
components&

/i-,re 4 - E1a)ple 2ro+le) !: 5olta-es in Ori-inal Cir(,it
Superposition Theory
Superposition Theorem
This section introduces Superposition - a novel method or analy5in! circuits with
multiple sources
>In a linear networ; with multiple volta!e sources' the current in any #ranch is the sum o
the currents which would low in that #ranch due to each volta!e source actin! alone with
all other volta!e sources replaced #y their internal impedances?
S,perposition Theory:
The current through, or the voltage across, a circuit element, is equal to the
algebraic sum of those currents (or voltages) produced by each source
independently.
9n "ractice: thi$ mean$ that #e can re"!ace each $ource #ith it;$ interna!
re$i$tance /or im"e+ance2 to +etermine the effect$ of each $ource
in+e"en+ent!y. <nce #e fin+ the current through /or 8o!tage acro$$2 each
e!ement +ue to each $ource: #e can a++ the$e current$ /or 8o!tage$2 to fin+ the
actua! current for that e!ement #hen a!! $ource$ are acti8e. For e(am"!e%
Figure 1 - Superposition: Example 1
Step 1 The irst step in Superposition is to replace all #ut one source with it:s ideal
internal resistance& @or a volta!e source this would #e 27 $or a short circuit%&
/i-,re # - S,perposition: E! repla(e& 'ith i&eal internal resistan(e
Step # Fin+ the current through /or 8o!tage acro$$2 each circuit
e!ement cau$e+
*y the remaining $ource.
9n thi$ circuit: '2 "$ee$" a 5W re$i$tor in $erie$ #ith the com*ination of a 12W
an+ a 5W re$i$tor in "ara!!e!. The tota! re$i$tance: a$ $een *y '2: #ou!+ then *e%
12 an+ 5 in "ara!!e! Re- = /12*523/12+52
Re- = 6231= = &
& an+ 5 in $erie$ Rt = 5 + & = 11
The current through the fir$t 5 re$i$tor #ou!+ *e%
<hm;$ >a# 9t = '23Rt
9t = 31311
9t = 3A
An+: *y the current +i8i+er ru!e: the current through the other t#o re$i$tor$ #ou!+
*e%
Current i8i+er% 9
12
= /9t * 523/5 + 122
9
12
= /3 * 523/5 + 122
9
12
= 1A
Current i8i+er% 9
5
= /9t * 1223/5 + 122
9
5
= /3 * 1223/5 + 122
9
5
= 2A
The$e current$ are $ho#n in Figure 3 *e!o#%
/i-,re $ - S,perposition: C,rrents (a,se& +y E#
,o# #e mu$t fin+ the current$ cau$e+ *y the 8o!tage $ource !a*e!e+ '1: $o #e
re"!ace '2 #ith it;$ i&eal internal resistan(e " an+ ana!y?e the circuit #ith '1
a""!ie+.
/i-,re 6 - S,perposition: E# repla(e& 'ith i&eal internal resistan(e
9n thi$ circuit: '1 "$ee$" a 12W re$i$tor in $erie$ #ith the com*ination of
t#o 5W re$i$tor$ in "ara!!e!. The tota! re$i$tance #ou!+ then *e%
5 an+ 5 in "ara!!e! Re- = /5*523/5+52
Re- = 35312 = 3
12 an+ 3 in $erie$ Rt = 3 + 12 = 14
The current through the 12 re$i$tor #ou!+ *e%
<hm;$ >a# 9t = '23Rt
9t = 31314
9t = 2A
"nd' #y the current divider rule' the current throu!h the two .7
resistors would #e8
Current i8i+er% 9
5
= /9t * 523/5 + 52
9
5
= /2 * 523/5 + 52
9
5
= 1A
Current i8i+er% 9
5
= /9t * 523/5 + 52
9
5
= /3 * 523/5 + 52
9
5
= 1A
Becau$e of '1 #e ha8e the fo!!o#ing current$%
Figure 5 - Superposition: Currents caused by E1
The al!e#raic sum o these currents would then #e the actual current
throu!h each circuit element when #oth sources were applied&
/i-,re 4 - S,perposition: C,rrents (a,se& +y +oth volta-e so,r(es
A0A,TA@'
A$ing thi$ ana!y$i$ #e can ca!cu!ate any 8o!tage acro$$ or current "a$$ing through the t#o
termina!.
9BA0A,TA@'
9t i$ not a""!ica*!e for ca!cu!ating any "o#er con$ume+ *et#een the t#o termina!$.
Thevenin's Theorem
Thevenin's Theorem states that any two terminal circuit can be replaced by a resistance, equal
to the resistance measured across the two terminals, in series with a voltage source, equal to the
open circuit voltage across the two terminals.
The *a$ic "remi$e *ehin+ the The8enin circuit ana!y$i$ i$ that any com"!e( circuit that can *e
re"!ace+ *y a The8enin e-ui8a!ent.i.e.: the The8enin '-ui8a!ent Circuit con$i$t$ of $ing!e 8o!tage
$ource an+ a $ing!e $erie$ re$i$tor.
/i-,re ! - Ori-inal Cir(,it
To fin+ the The8enin '-ui8a!ent Circuit you mu$t fin+ the o"en circuit 8o!tage *et#een
termina!$ A an+ B: an+ the e-ui8a!ent re$i$tance "!ooCing into" termina!$ A an+ B.
Step !: Fin+ The8enin;$ 0o!tage /the o"en circuit 8o!tage *et#een termina!$ A an+
B2%
Becau$e the termina!$ are o"en: there #i!! *e no current f!o#ing through
the & re$i$tor: an+ therefore: no 8o!tage +ro" acro$$ it. Bo: the o"en
circuit 8o!tage /0
TD
2 #i!! e-ua! the 8o!tage acro$$ the 11 re$i$tor. By the
8o!tage +i8i+er ru!e: 5
T7
8 !9v.
Step #: Fin+ The8enin;$ Re$i$tance /the re$i$tance $een !ooCing into termina!$ A
an+ B2%
Fir$t: #e mu$t re"!ace the 8o!tage $ource #ith it$ 9+ea! 9nterna! Re$i$tance
/$ho#n *e!o#2.
/i-,re # - /in&in- Thevenin:s Resistan(e
9n thi$ circuit: the ohmmeter #ou!+ mea$ure 11 /the & re$i$tor i$ in $erie$ #ith the "ara!!e!
com*ination of the 11 an+ 14 re$i$tor$2
R
TD
= E/11*1423/11+142 + &F
R
TD
= E/14123/242 + &F
R
TD
= E5 + &F
R
TD
= 11
Bte" 3% ra# the The8enin '-ui8a!ent Circuit /$ho#n *e!o#2%
/i-,re $ - Thevenin:s E;,ivalent Cir(,it
,o# that #e ha8e the The8enin '-ui8a!ent Circuit: #e can u$e it to fin+ ho# com"onent$ #ou!+
react *et#een the termina!$: in *oth the The8enin Circuit or the origina! circuit. For e(am"!e: if #e
"!ace a 11 re$i$tor *et#een the termina!$ of the The8enin Circuit: it #ou!+ ha8e 48 acro$$ it.
Therefore: if #e "!ace a 11 re$i$tor *et#een the termina!$ in the origina! circuit: it $hou!+ a!$o ha8e
48 acro$$ it /$ee *e!o#2.
/i-,re 6 - Ori-inal Cir(,it 'ith a !9 loa&
9;!! u$e ,o+a! Ana!y$i$ to $o!8e for 02.
,o+e 1% /01-242314 + 01311 + /01-0223& = 1
7u!ti"!y *y 51 &/01-242 + 501 + 14/01-022 = 1
&01 - 111 + 501 + 1401 - 1402 = 1
2401 - 1402 = 111
,o+e 2% /02-0123& + 02311 = 1
7u!ti"!y *y 21 4/02-012 + 202 = 1
4/02-012 + 202 = 1
4/02-012 + 202 = 1
-401 + 602 = 1
7u!ti"!y *y 4 -2401 + 3402 = 1
A++ to" e-uation +2401 - 1402 = 111
Re$u!t
2102 = 111
02 = 48


The8enin;$ Theorem can *e e(treme!y u$efu! in fin+ing ho# com"onent$ react in a gi8en circuit.
For another e(am"!e% What if #e #ante+ to fin+ the RC time con$tant for a ca"acitor connecte+
*et#een termina!$ A an+ B of that origina! circuit of Figure 1G The ea$ie$t metho+ #ou!+ *e to u$e
the The8enin Circuit of Figure 3 /$ee *e!o#2.
/i-,re 3 - Thevenin:s E;,ivalent Cir(,it 'ith a (apa(itive loa&
The8enin;$ Circuit te!!$ u$ that a 11F+ ca"acitor "!ace+ *et#een termina!$ A an+ B in the
origina! circuit /or in The8enin;$2 that the RC time con$tant /2 #ou!+ *e%

= RC
= R
TD
C
= 11 10F+
= 111B
Another a""!ication of Thevenin's Theorem i$ the Maximum ower Transfer Theorem. Thi$
theorem $tate$ that the ma(imum "o#er #i!! *e tran$ferre+ to a !oa+ i the !oa+ re$i$tance i$ e-ua! to
The8enin;$ Re$i$tance.
NOTES:-
To apply Thevenins theore) to any net'or*"the ollo'in- points are to +e ollo'e&"
1.9+entify the !ocation of the !oa+ re$i$tor or the out"ut termina!$ /going to connect
the!oa+2 Becau$e the termina! acro$$ that on!y the 8o!tage #i!! *e +e8e!o"e+ *y the
e-ui8a!ent circuit.
2.Then ca!cu!ate the 8o!tage +e8e!o"e+ acro$$ the out"ut termina!$/or the termina!$
containing the !oa+2 #hich i$ "ara!!e! to that.An+ thi$ 8o!tage on!y taCen a$ The8enin
8o!tage 0TD.
3.After fin+ing that the e-ui8a!ent re$i$tance ha8e to *e ca!cu!ate+ a$ re"!acing any
8o!tage $ource *y $hort circuiting or if any current $ource re"!ace it *y o"en circuit.
&. Then !ooC the net#orC from the out"ut termina!$ an+ ca!cu!ate the e-ui8a!ent
re$i$tance for the net#orC #hich i$ the The8enin$ e-ui8a!ent re$i$tance RTh for the
net#orC.

aximum !o"er Trans#er Theory
7a(imum )o#er Tran$fer Theorem $tate$ that"When the impedance of a load
connected to a power source is varied from open-circuit to short-circuit, the power
absorbed by the load has a maximum value at a load impedance which is dependent
on the impedance of the power source!.
,ote that "o#er i$ ?ero for an o"en-circuit /?ero current2 an+ for a $hort-circuit /?ero 8o!tage2.
"oltage #ource
When a !oa+ re$i$tance R
T
i$ connecte+ to a 8o!tage $ource E
S
#ith $erie$ re$i$tance R
S
:
ma(imum "o#er tran$fer to the !oa+ occur$ #hen R
T
i$ e-ua! to R
S
.
An+er ma(imum "o#er tran$fer con+ition$: the !oa+ re$i$tance R
T
: !oa+ 8o!tage 5
T
: !oa+ current
I
T
an+ !oa+ "o#er 2
T
are%
R
T
8 R
S
5
T
8 E
S
< #
I
T
8 5
T
< R
T
8 E
S
< #R
S
2
T
8 5
T
#
< R
T
8 E
S
#
< 6R
S

$urrent #ource
When a !oa+ con+uctance =
T
i$ connecte+ to a current $ource I
S
#ith $hunt con+uctance =
S
:
ma(imum "o#er tran$fer to the !oa+ occur$ #hen =
T
i$ e-ua! to =
S
.
An+er ma(imum "o#er tran$fer con+ition$: the !oa+ con+uctance =
T
: !oa+ current I
T
: !oa+ 8o!tage
5
T
an+ !oa+ "o#er 2
T
are%
=
T
8 =
S
I
T
8 I
S
< #
5
T
8 I
T
< =
T
8 I
S
< #=
S
2
T
8 I
T
#
< =
T
8 I
S
#
< 6=
S

Con$i+er the fo!!o#ing circuit:here #e are going to fin+ at #hat !oa+ re$i$tance R>:the circuit can
+e!i8er the ma(imum "o#er to the !oa+%
/i-,re 4 - Ori-inal Cir(,it >#

9f #e #ante+ to Cno# #hat 8a!ue re$i$tor to u$e for R
>
to maCe $ure it recei8e+ the
ma(imum "o#er +e!i8ere+ to it: #e mu$t fin+ R
TD
an+ $et R
>
= R
TD
. A$ $een *e!o# /Figure 62
R
TD
#ou!+ *e e-ua! to the t#o 111 re$i$tor$ in "ara!!e!: in $erie$ #ith the t#o &1 re$i$tor$ in
"ara!!e!
/i-,re 4 - Ori-inal Cir(,it >#
R
TD
= E/111*11123/111+1112 + /&1*&123/&1+&12F
R
TD
= E/1111123/2112 + /15123/=12F
R
TD
= 41 + 21
R
TD
= 61
9f: therefore: R> = 61 : it #ou!+ ha8e the ma(imum "o#er tran$ferre+ to it.

Norton:s Theore)
$orton's Theorem states that any t"o terminal circuit can be replaced by a
resistance% e&ual to the resistance measured across the t"o terminals% in parallel
"ith a current source% e&ual to the short circuit current through the t"o terminalsm&

/i-,re ! - Ori-inal Cir(,it

To fin+ the ,orton '-ui8a!ent Circuit you mu$t fin+ the $hort circuit current through
termina!$ A an+ B: an+ the e-ui8a!ent re$i$tance "!ooCing into" termina!$ A an+ B.

/i-,re # - /in&in- Norton:s C,rrent
Step !: Fin+ ,orton;$ Current /the $hort circuit current through termina!$ A an+
B2%
Becau$e the termina!$ are a "$hort circuit" /the Ammeter i$ "re$ent Hu$t to
!et you Cno# #here ,orton;$ current i$2: the 11 re$i$tor$ are in "ara!!e!:
an+ therefore: each #i!! ha8e the $ame amount of current f!o#ing through
them. The t#o 11 re$i$tor$ are in $erie$ #ith the 14: maCing a tota! of
21 in the circuit.
By <hm;$ >a# 9 = 03R
9 = &1321
9 = 2A
By Current i8i+er 9
,
= 9 * R
e-
3R
9
,
= 2A * 4311
9
,
= 1A
Step #: Fin+ ,orton;$ Re$i$tance /the re$i$tance $een !ooCing into termina!$ A an+ B2%
Fir$t: #e mu$t re"!ace the 8o!tage $ource #ith it$ 9+ea! 9nterna! Re$i$tance
/$ho#n *e!o#2.

/i-,re $ - /in&in- Norton:s Resistan(e
9n thi$ circuit: the ohmmeter #ou!+ mea$ure 15 /the 11 re$i$tor i$ in $erie$ #ith the
"ara!!e! com*ination of the 11 an+ 14 re$i$tor$2
R
TD
= E/11*1423/11+142 + 11F
R
TD
= E/14123/242 + 11F
R
TD
= E5 + 11F
R
TD
= 15
Bte" 3% ra# the ,orton '-ui8a!ent Circuit /$ho#n *e!o#2%

/i-,re 6 - Norton:s E;,ivalent Cir(,it
,o# that #e ha8e the ,orton '-ui8a!ent Circuit: #e can u$e it to fin+ ho# com"onent$ #ou!+
react *et#een the termina!$: in *oth the ,orton Circuit or the origina! circuit. For e(am"!e: if
#e "!ace a 15 re$i$tor *et#een the termina!$ of the ,orton Circuit: it #ou!+ ha8e =8 acro$$ it
an+ 411mA through it. Therefore: if #e "!ace a 15 re$i$tor *et#een the termina!$ in the
origina! circuit: it $hou!+ a!$o ha8e =8 acro$$ it an+ 411mA through it.
NOTES:-
To apply Thevenins theore) to any net'or*"the ollo'in- points are to +e ollo'e&"
1.9+entify the !ocation of the !oa+ re$i$tor or the out"ut termina!$ containing the *ranch
/going to connect the !oa+2 Becau$e through that *ranch on!y the current #i!! *e
"a$$e+ *y the e-ui8a!ent circuit.
2.Then ca!cu!ate the current "a$$ing through the out"ut termina!$/or the *ranch
containing the !oa+2 #hich i$ $erie$ to that any re$i$tor.An+ thi$ current on!y taCen a$
,orton$ e-ui8a!ent current 9,.
3.After fin+ing that the e-ui8a!ent re$i$tance ha8e to *e ca!cu!ate+ a$ re"!acing any
current $ource *y o"en circuit or if any 8o!tage $ource re"!ace it *y $hort circuit.
&. Then !ooC the net#orC from the out"ut termina!$ an+ ca!cu!ate the e-ui8a!ent
re$i$tance for the net#orC #hich i$ the ,orton$ e-ui8a!ent re$i$tance R, for the
net#orC.
Norton:s an& Thevenin:s Theore)s
You can a!$o a""!y ,orton;$ Theorem to a The8enin e-ui8a!ent circuit or 8ice
8er$a. >et;$ !ooC at the ,orton circuit in Figure &. 9f #e re"!ace the ,orton Current
Bource #ith it$ i+ea! interna! re$i$tance /an o"en circuit2: an+ then "!ooC into" the
termina!$: #e fin+ that R
,
=R
TD
.
We then re"!ace the current $ource an+ fin+ the o"en circuit 8o!tage. 9n thi$ ca$e: 9
,
f!o#$ through R
,
: therefore 0
TD
= 9
,
* R
,
. We can then +ra# the The8enin
e-ui8a!ent circuit /$ho#n *e!o#2.

/i-,re 3 - Thevenin:s E;,ivalent Cir(,it
B#itching *et#een The8enin an+ ,orton Circuit$ can *e e(treme!y u$efu!. For e(am"!e: you
may nee+ to Cno# The8enin;$ 0o!tage: *ut ,orton;$ current i$ ea$ier to fin+ *ecau$e in the
"roce$$ of $horting the termina!$ to ca!cu!ate ,orton;$ current: you $hort circuit many
com"onent$: there*y maCing your ana!y$i$ $im"!er. The $ame cou!+ ho!+ true for fin+ing
The8enin;$ 0o!tage.
The fo!!o#ing formu!a;$ are u$e+ to $#itch *et#een The8enin an+ ,orton Circuit$%
R
TD
= R
,

0
TD
= 9
,
* R
,
9
,
= 0
TD
3 R
TD

'eciprocity Theorem
I a volta!e source E actin! in one #ranch o a networ; causes a current ( to low in
another #ranch o the networ;' then the same volta!e source E actin! in the second
#ranch would cause an identical current ( to low in the irst #ranch&
Compensation Theorem
(# the impedance ) o# a branch in a net"or* in "hich a current ( #lo"s is changed
by a #inite amount d)% then the change in the currents in all other branches o# the
net"or* may be calculated by inserting a voltage source o# -(d) into that branch "ith
all other voltage sources replaced by their internal impedances+
This theorem is use#ul to #ind the changes in current or voltage "hen the value o#
resistance is changed in the circuit+
Tellegen's Theorem

Tellegen's theorem is valid for any lumped network which may be linear or non
-linear, passive or active,or time-varying or time-varient.This theorem states that in
an arbitrary lumped network,the algebraic sum of the powers in all branshes at any
instant is zero.
All +ran(h (,rrents an& volta-es in that net'or* ),st satisy Kir(hos la's.Other'ise" in a
-iven net'or*"the al-e+rai( s,) o the po'ers &elivere& +y all so,r(es is e;,al to the al-e+rai(
s,) o the po'ers a+sor+e& +y +y all ele)ents.
Con$i+er t#o net#orC$ ,1 an+ ,2: ha8ing the $ame gra"h #ith +ifferent ty"e$ of e!ement$
*et#een the corre$"on+ing no+e$.
Then:
#
v1ki2k = 0
;A)
#
and v2ki1k = 0
;A)
?ill)ans Theore)
Millmans Theorem states that!n any network,if the voltage sources !",!#,..,!n in
series with internal resistances$impedences%&"$'"%,&#$'#%,...,&#$'n%,respectively,are
in parallel, then these sources may be replaced by a single voltage source !' in
series with &'$''%!.
7i!!man;$ Theorem i$ name+ after Iaco* 7i!!man. 7r. 7i!!man #a$ *orn in Ru$$ia in 1J11
recei8e+ a )h.. from 79T in 1J34. De #ent on to #rite eight te(t*ooC$ on e!ectronic$ *et#een
1J&1 an+ 1J=6 an+ #a$ a "rofe$$or of e!ectrica! engineering at Co!um*ia Ani8er$ity.
A$ you may reca!! from the !a$t artic!e in the $erie$: #e tooC the circuit of figure 1: reconfigure+
it a$ $ho#n in figure 2: then con8erte+ the 8o!tage $ource$ #ith $erie$ re$i$tance$ to current
$ource$ #ith "ara!!e! re$i$tance$ /,orton e-ui8a!ent$2. ,ote that the groun+ at the *ottom of R
2
ha$ *een re"!ace+ #ith a ?ero 8o!t 8o!tage $ource /0
2
2

to groun+.

Reca!! that a ""iece of #ire"
can *e re"!ace+ #ith a ?ero 8o!t 8o!tage $ource. A++ing thi$ 8o!tage $ource maCe$ each *ranch
of the circuit i+entica! /a 8o!tage $ource #ith a $erie$ re$i$tance2. >et;$ genera!i?e the ana!y$i$
*y Cee"ing the 0;$ an+ R;$: in$tea+ of $u*$tituting 8a!ue$.



'ach 8o!tage $ource #ith a $erie$ re$i$tance i$ con8erte+ to a current $ource #ith a "ara!!e!
re$i$tance. The current i$ the "$hort circuit current" of the circuit #hich #e are ",ortoni?ing".
We fin+ that 9
1
=0
1
3R
1
: 9
2
=0
2
3R
2
: 9
3
=0
3
3R
3
. A$ the circuit i$ e("an+e+: it;$ fair!y o*8iou$ that
9
,
=0
,
3R
,
. Further: a$ #e +etermine+ !a$t time: the ,orton re$i$tance /that re$i$tance #e #i!!
"!ace acro$$ the current $ource2 i$ the $ame a$ the The8enin re$i$tance /that re$i$tance in $erie$
#ith the 8o!tage $ource2. We +etermine the The8enin re$i$tance *y $horting out the 8o!tage
$ource$ an+ o"ening any current $ource$ in the circuit #e are trying to $im"!ify: then mea$ure
the re$u!ting re$i$tance. For e(am"!e: in the !eft "ortion of figure 2: #e $hort out 0
1
: $etting it to
?ero 8o!t$. We then mea$ure the re$i$tance from the to" of R
1
to groun+: getting /$ur"ri$eK2 R
1
ohm$. Figure 3 $ho#$ the circuit of figure 2 reconfigure+ to u$e ,orton e-ui8a!ent$ for each
$ection.
Thi$ i$ "retty much #here #e !eft off !a$t time. We a++e+ the "ara!!e! current $ource$ to get
the tota! current an+ a""!ie+ thi$ to the com*ine+ "ara!!e! re$i$tance to fin+ the 8o!tage at the
Hunction of the re$i$tance$. >et;$ genera!i?e itK The tota! current i$%
I
!
@ I
#
@ I
$
A5
!
<R
!
B @ A5
#
<R
#
B @ A5
$
<R
$
B
Further: the e-ui8a!ent "ara!!e! re$i$tance i$%
!<AA!<R
!
B@A!<R
#
B@A!<R
$
BB

Fina!!y: the 8o!tage at the re$i$tor Hunction$ i$ +etermine+ *y mu!ti"!ying the tota! current *y
the "ara!!e! re$i$tance /<hm;$ >a#2%
58IR
58AA5
!
<R
!
B@A5
#
<R
#
B@A5
$
<R
$
BB C A!<AA!<R
!
B@A!<R
#
B@A!<R
$
BB
58AA5
!
<R
!
B@A5
#
<R
#
B@A5
$
<R
$
BB<AA!<R
!
B@A!<R
#
B@A!<R
$
BB
The !a$t e-uation i$ 7i!!man;$ theorem. 9t might *e more ea$i!y remem*ere+ *y
con$i+ering it$ com"onent$. 9f #e re"!ace the R in 0=9R #ith 13@ /#here @ i$ con+uctance
mea$ure+ in Biemen$2 an+ re"!ace 03R #ith 9: the e-uation *ecome$%
58AI
!
@I
#
@I
$
B<A=
!
@=
#
@=
$
B
Benerali5in! or any num#er o sources and resistances'
58AI
!
@I
#
@I
$
@...I
N
B<A=
!
@=
#
@=
$
@...=
N
B
DUALS AND DUALITY
9n an e!ectrica! circuit it$e!f there are "air$ of term$ #hich can *e interchange+ to get ne#
circuit$. Buch "air$ of +ua! term$ are gi8en *e!o#.
Current -- 0o!tage
<"en -- Bhort
> -- C
R -- @
Berie$ -- )ara!!e!
L -- Y
0o!tage Bource -- Current Bource
MC> N M0>
Con$i+er a net#orC containing a 8o!tage $ource 5 in $erie$ #ith re$ictance R: Ca"acitance C
an+ 9n+uctance L: then the +ua! circuit of the net#orC #i!! *e R-L-C e!ement$ connecte+ in
"ara!!e! an+ +ri8en *y a current $ource I.
To &ra' the D,al o any net'or*"the ollo'in- steps are to +e ollo'e&:
1.9n each !oo" of a net#orC "!ace a no+eOan+ "!ace an e(tra no+e:ca!!e+ the reference
node,out$i+e the net#orC.
2.ra# the !ine$ connecting a+Hacent no+e$ "a$$ing through each e!ement:an+ a!$o to the
reference no+e:*y "!acing the +ua! of each e!ement in the !ine "a$$ing through origina!
e!ement$.
'e#erence
,oo*s
)&C('C-(TS .$/ $ET01'2S .nalysis and Synthesis
.+Sudha*ar and S ! Shyammohan
3in*s
)&http:44alumni+media+mit+edu45nate4EE671+html
*&http:44"""+circuit-magic+com4
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