Rotation matrix

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In linear algebra, a rotation matrix is a matrix that is used to perform a rotation in Euclidean space. For example the matrix
rotates points in the xy-Cartesian plane counter-clockwise through an angle about the origin of the Cartesian coordinate system. o perform the
rotation using a rotation matrix R, the position of each point must be represented by a column !ector v, containing the coordinates of the point. "
rotated !ector is obtained by using the matrix multiplication Rv.
#otation matrices also pro!ide a means of numerically representing an arbitrary rotation of the axes about the origin, without appealing to angular
specification. hese coordinate rotations are a natural way to express the orientation of a camera, or the attitude of a spacecraft, relati!e to a
reference axes-set. $nce an obser!ational platform%s local X-Y-Z axes are expressed numerically as three direction !ectors in world coordinates,
they together comprise the columns of the rotation matrix R &world ' platform( that transforms directions &expressed in world coordinates( into
e)ui!alent directions expressed in platform-local coordinates.
he examples in this article apply to rotation of vectors anti-clockwise in a right-handed system by pre-multiplication. If any one of these is
changed &e.g. rotating axes instead of !ectors(, then the transpose of the example matrix should be used.
*ince matrix multiplication has no effect on the +ero !ector &the coordinates of the origin(, rotation matrices can only be used to describe rotations
about the origin of the coordinate system. #otation matrices pro!ide an algebraic description of such rotations, and are used extensi!ely for
computations in geometry, physics, and computer graphics.
#otation matrices are s)uare matrices, with real entries. ,ore specifically they can be characteri+ed as orthogonal matrices with determinant -,
.
In some literature, the term rotation is generali+ed to include improper rotations, characteri+ed by orthogonal matrices with determinant .-
&instead of /-(. hese combine proper rotations with reflections &which in!ert orientation(. In other cases, where reflections are not being
considered, the label proper may be dropped. his con!ention is followed in this article.
he set of all orthogonal matrices of si+e n with determinant /- forms a group known as the special orthogonal group *$&n(. he set of all
orthogonal matrices of si+e n with determinant /- or -- forms the &general( orthogonal group $&n(.
Contents
- In two dimensions
-.- 0on-standard orientation of the coordinate system
-.1 Common rotations
1 In three dimensions
1.- 2asic rotations
1.1 3eneral rotations
1.4 Con!ersion from and to axis-angle
1.4.- 5etermining the axis
1.4.1 5etermining the angle
1.4.4 #otation matrix from axis and angle
4 6roperties of a rotation matrix
7 Examples
8 3eometry
9 ,ultiplication
: "mbiguities
; 5ecompositions
;.- Independent planes
;.1 *e)uential angles
;.4 0ested dimensions
;.7 *kew parameters !ia Cayley%s formula
;.8 5ecomposition into shears
< 3roup theory
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A counterclockwise rotation of a
vector through angle . The vector is
initially aligned with the x-axis.
A rotation through angle with non-
standard axes.
9.1 Lie group
9.2 Lie algebra
9. !xponential "ap
9.# $aker%&a"pbell%'ausdorff for"ula
9.( )pin group
9.* +nfinitesi"al rotations
1, &onversions
1,.1 -uaternion
1,.2 .olar deco"position
1,. Axis and angle
1,.# !uler angles
11 /nifor" rando" rotation "atrices
12 )ee also
1 0otes
1# 1eferences
1( !xternal links
In two dimensions
+n two di"ensions2 every rotation "atrix has the following for"2
.
This rotates colu"n vectors by "eans of the following "atrix "ultiplication2
.
)o the coordinates 3x',y'4 of the point 3x,y4 after rotation are
2
.
The direction of vector rotation is counterclockwise if is positive 3e.g. 9,542 and clockwise if is
negative 3e.g. 69,54. Thus the clockwise rotation "atrix is found as
.
0ote that the two-di"ensional case is the only non-trivial 3e.g. one di"ension4 case where the rotation "atrices group is co""utative2 so that it
does not "atter the order in which "ultiple rotations are perfor"ed. An alternative convention uses rotating axes2
718
and the above "atrix also
represents a rotation of the axes clockwise through an angle .
Non-standard orientation of the coordinate system
+f a standard right-handed &artesian coordinate syste" is used2 with the x axis to the right and the y axis
up2 the rotation R34 is counterclockwise. +f a left-handed &artesian coordinate syste" is used2 with x
directed to the right but y directed down2 R34 is clockwise. )uch non-standard orientations are rarely used
in "athe"atics but are co""on in 29 co"puter graphics2 which often have the origin in the top left corner
and the y-axis down the screen or page.
728
)ee below for other alternative conventions which "ay change the sense of the rotation produced by a
rotation "atrix.
Common rotations
.articularly useful are the "atrices for 9,5 and 1:,5 rotations2
39,5 counterclockwise rotation4
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(180 rotation in either direction a half-turn)
(270 counterclockwise rotation, the same as a 90 clockwise rotation)
In three dimensions
Basic rotations
A asic rotation (also called elemental rotation) is a rotation aout one of the a!es of a "oordinate s#stem$ %he followin& three asic rotation
matrices rotate 'ectors # an an&le aout the x, y, or a!is, in three dimensions, usin& the ri&ht hand rule$ (%he same matrices can also re(resent a
clockwise rotation of the a!es
)*+
)
,or column 'ectors, each of these asic 'ector rotations a((ears counter-clockwise when the a!is aout which the# occur (oints toward the
oser'er, the coordinate s#stem is ri&ht-handed, and the an&le is (ositi'e$ -
.
, for instance, would rotate toward the y-a!is a 'ector ali&ned with
the x-a!is, as can easil# e checked # o(eratin& with -
.
on the 'ector (1,0,0)/
%his is similar to the rotation (roduced # the ao'e mentioned 2-0 rotation matri!$ 1ee elow for alternati'e con'entions which ma# a((arentl#
or actuall# in'ert the sense of the rotation (roduced # these matrices$
General rotations
2ther rotation matrices can e otained from these three usin& matri! multi(lication$ ,or e!am(le, the (roduct
re(resents a rotation whose #aw, (itch, and roll an&les are !, ", and #, res(ecti'el#$ 3ore formall#, it is an intrinsic rotation whose %ait-4r#an
an&les are !, ", #, aout a!es , y, x res(ecti'el#$ 1imilarl#, the (roduct
re(resents an e!trinsic rotation whose 5uler an&les are !, ", # aout a!es y, x, y$
%hese matrices (roduce the desired effect onl# if the# are used to (re-multi(l# column 'ectors (see Ami&uities for more details)$
Conversion from and to axis-angle
5'er# rotation in three dimensions is defined # its axis 6 a direction that is left fi!ed # the rotation 6 and its angle 6 the amount of rotation
aout that a!is (5uler rotation theorem)$
%here are se'eral methods to com(ute an a!is and an an&le from a rotation matri! (see also a!is-an&le)$ 7ere, we onl# descrie the method ased
on the com(utation of the ei&en'ectors and ei&en'alues of the rotation matri!$ 8t is also (ossile to use the trace of the rotation matri!$
Determining the axis
9i'en a *!* rotation matri! R, a 'ector u (arallel to the rotation a!is must satisf#
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A rotation R around axis u can be
decomposed using 3 endomorphisms
P, (I P), and Q (click to enlarge).
since the rotation of u around the rotation axis must result in u. The equation above may be solved for u
hich is unique up to a scalar factor.
!urther, the equation may be reritten
hich shos that u is the null space of R $ %.
"ieed in another ay, u is an eigenvector of R corresponding to the eigenvalue & # $. %very rotation
matrix must have this eigenvalue.
Determining the angle
To find the angle of a rotation, once the axis of the rotation is knon, select a vector v perpendicular to the
axis. Then the angle of the rotation is the angle beteen v and Rv.
A much easier method, hoever, is to calculate the trace (i.e. the sum of the diagonal elements of the
rotation matrix) hich is $&'cos. (are should be taken to select the right sign for the angle to match the
chosen axis.
Rotation matrix from axis and angle
!or some applications, it is helpful to be able to make a rotation ith a given axis. )iven a unit vector u # (u
x
, u
y
, u

), here u
x
'
& u
y
'
& u

'
# $, the
matrix for a rotation by an angle of about an axis in the direction of u is
*+,
This can be ritten more concisely as
here is the cross product matrix of u, is the tensor product and % is the -dentity matrix. This is a matrix form of .odrigues/ rotation
formula, ith
-f the 30 space is right1handed, this rotation ill be counterclockise for an observer placed so that the axis u goes in her direction (.ight1hand
rule).
Properties of a rotation matrix
-n three dimensions, for any rotation matrix acting on , here a is a rotation axis and 2 a rotation angle,
(i.e., is an orthogonal matrix)
(i.e, the determinant of is $)

(here is the identity matrix)

The eigenvalues of are
here i is the standard imaginary unit ith the property
The trace of is equivalent to the sum of its eigenvalues.
3ome of these properties can be generalised to any number of dimensions. -n other ords, they hold for any rotation matrix .
!or instance, in to dimensions the properties hold ith the folloing exceptions4
a is not a given axis, but a point (rotation center) hich must coincide ith the origin of the coordinate system in hich the rotation is
represented.
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Consequently, the four elements of the rotation matrix depend only on , hence we write , rather than
The eigenvalues of are
The trace of is equivalent to the sum of its eigenvalues.
Examples
The 22 rotation matrix
corresponds to a 9! planar rotation.
The transpose of the 22 matrix
is its inverse, "ut since its determinant is #$, this is not a rotation
matrix% it is a reflection across the line $$y & 2x.
The '' rotation matrix
corresponds to a #'! rotation around the x axis in three(
dimensional space.
The '' rotation matrix
corresponds to a rotation of approximately #)*! around the axis
+#
$
,',
2
,',
2
,'- in three(dimensional space.
The '' permutation matrix
is a rotation matrix, as is the matrix of any even permutation, and
rotates through $2! a"out the axis x & y & .
The '' matrix
has determinant .$, "ut its transpose is not its inverse, so it is not
a rotation matrix.
The *' matrix
is not square, and so cannot "e a rotation matrix% yet '
(
' yields a
'' identity matrix +the columns are orthonormal-.
The ** matrix
descri"es an isoclinic rotation, a rotation through equal angles
+$/!- through two orthogonal planes.
The 00 rotation matrix
rotates vectors in the plane of the first two coordinate axes 9!,
rotates vectors in the plane of the next two axes $/!, and leaves
the last coordinate axis unmoved.
Geometry
1n 2uclidean geometry, a rotation is an example of an isometry, a transformation that moves points without changing the distances "etween them.
3otations are distinguished from other isometries "y two additional properties4 they leave +at least- one point fixed, and they leave 5handedness5
unchanged. 6y contrast, a translation moves every point, a reflection exchanges left( and right(handed ordering, and a glide reflection does "oth.
7 rotation that does not leave 5handedness5 unchanged is an improper rotation or a rotoinversion.
1f we ta8e the fixed point as the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system, then every point can "e given coordinates as a displacement from the
origin. Thus we may wor8 with the vector space of displacements instead of the points themselves. 9ow suppose +p
$
,:,p
n
- are the coordinates of
the vector p from the origin, ), to point *. Choose an orthonormal "asis for our coordinates% then the squared distance to *, "y ;ythagoras, is
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which we can compute using the matrix multiplication
A geometric rotation transforms lines to lines, and preserves ratios of distances between points. From these properties we can show that a rotation
is a linear transformation of the vectors, and thus can be written in matrix form, Qp. The fact that a rotation preserves, not just ratios, but distances
themselves, we can state as
or
Because this equation holds for all vectors, p, we conclude that every rotation matrix, Q, satisfies the orthogonality condition,
otations preserve handedness because they cannot change the ordering of the axes, which implies the special matrix condition,
!qually important, we can show that any matrix satisfying these two conditions acts as a rotation.
Multiplication
The inverse of a rotation matrix is its transpose, which is also a rotation matrix"
The product of two rotation matrices is a rotation matrix"
For n greater than #, multiplication of n$n rotation matrices is not commutative.
%oting that any identity matrix is a rotation matrix, and that matrix multiplication is associative, we may summari&e all these properties by saying
that the n$n rotation matrices form a group, which for n ' # is non(abelian. )alled a special orthogonal group, and denoted by *+,n-, *+,n,R-,
*+
n
, or *+
n
,R-, the group of n$n rotation matrices is isomorphic to the group of rotations in an n-dimensional space. This means that
multiplication of rotation matrices corresponds to composition of rotations, applied in left(to(right order of their corresponding matrices.
Ambiguities
The interpretation of a rotation matrix can be subject to many ambiguities.
.n most cases the effect of the ambiguity is equivalent to the effect of a rotation matrix inversion ,for these orthogonal matrices equivalently
matrix transpose-.
Alias or alibi (passive or active) transformation
The coordinates of a point P may change due to either a rotation of the coordinate system CS ,alias-, or a rotation of the point P ,alibi-. .n
the latter case, the rotation of P also produces a rotation of the vector v representing P. .n other words, either P and v are fixed while CS
rotates ,alias-, or CS is fixed while P and v rotate ,alibi-. Any given rotation can be legitimately described both ways, as vectors and
coordinate systems actually rotate with respect to each other, about the same axis but in opposite directions. Throughout this article, we
chose the alibi approach to describe rotations. For instance,
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Alias and alibi rotations
represents a counterclockwise rotation of a vector v by an angle , or a rotation
of CS by the same angle but in the opposite direction (i.e. clockwise). Alibi and
alias transformations are also known as active and passive transformations,
respectively.
Pre-multiplication or post-multiplication
The same point P can be represented either by a column vector v or a row vector
w. Rotation matrices can either pre-multiply column vectors (Rv), or post-
multiply row vectors (wR). owever, Rv produces a rotation in the opposite
direction with respect to wR. Throughout this article, we described rotations
produced on column vectors by means of a pre-multiplication. To obtain e!actly
the same rotation (i.e. the same final coordinates of point P), the row vector must be post-multiplied by the transpose of R (wR
T
).
Right- or left-handed coordinates
The matri! and the vector can be represented with respect to a right-handed or left-handed coordinate system. Throughout the article, we
assumed a right-handed orientation, unless otherwise specified.
Vectors or forms
The vector space has a dual space of linear forms, and the matri! can act on either vectors or forms.
Decompositions
Independent planes
"onsider the #$# rotation matri!
%f Q acts in a certain direction, v, purely as a scaling by a factor &, then we have
so that
Thus & is a root of the characteristic polynomial for Q,
Two features are noteworthy. 'irst, one of the roots (or eigenvalues) is (, which tells us that some direction is unaffected by the matri!. 'or
rotations in three dimensions, this is the axis of the rotation (a concept that has no meaning in any other dimension). )econd, the other two roots
are a pair of comple! con*ugates, whose product is ( (the constant term of the +uadratic), and whose sum is , cos - (the negated linear term). This
factori.ation is of interest for #$# rotation matrices because the same thing occurs for all of them. (As special cases, for a null rotation the
/comple! con*ugates/ are both (, and for a (012 rotation they are both 3(.) 'urthermore, a similar factori.ation holds for any n$n rotation matri!.
%f the dimension, n, is odd, there will be a /dangling/ eigenvalue of (4 and for any dimension the rest of the polynomial factors into +uadratic
terms like the one here (with the two special cases noted). 5e are guaranteed that the characteristic polynomial will have degree n and thus n
eigenvalues. And since a rotation matri! commutes with its transpose, it is a normal matri!, so can be diagonali.ed. 5e conclude that every
rotation matri!, when e!pressed in a suitable coordinate system, partitions into independent rotations of two-dimensional subspaces, at most
n
6
,
of
them.
The sum of the entries on the main diagonal of a matri! is called the trace4 it does not change if we reorient the coordinate system, and always
e+uals the sum of the eigenvalues. This has the convenient implication for ,$, and #$# rotation matrices that the trace reveals the angle of
rotation, -, in the two-dimensional (sub-)space. 'or a ,$, matri! the trace is , cos(-), and for a #$# matri! it is (7, cos(-). %n the three-
dimensional case, the subspace consists of all vectors perpendicular to the rotation a!is (the invariant direction, with eigenvalue (). Thus we can
e!tract from any #$# rotation matri! a rotation a!is and an angle, and these completely determine the rotation.
Sequential angles
The constraints on a ,$, rotation matri! imply that it must have the form
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xzx
w
xzy
w
xyx
w
xyz
w
yxy
w
yxz
w
yzy
w
yzx
w
zyz
w
zyx
w
zxz
w
zxy
w
xzx
b
yzx
b
xyx
b
zyx
b
yxy
b
zxy
b
yzy
b
xzy
b
zyz
b
xyz
b
zxz
b
yxz
b
with a
2
+b
2
= 1. Therefore we may set a = cos and b = sin , for some angle . To solve for it is not enough to look at a alone or b alone; we
must consider both together to lace the angle in the correct !uadrant, using a two"argument arctangent function.
#ow consider the first column of a $%$ rotation matri&,
'lthough a
2
+b
2
will robably not e!ual 1, but some value r
2
( 1, we can use a slight variation of the revious comutation to find a so"called
)ivens rotation that transforms the column to
*eroing b. This acts on the subsace sanned by the x and y a&es. +e can then reeat the rocess for the xz subsace to *ero c. 'cting on the full
matri&, these two rotations roduce the schematic form
,hifting attention to the second column, a )ivens rotation of the yz subsace can now *ero the z value. This brings the full matri& to the form
which is an identity matri&. Thus we have decomosed Q as
'n n%n rotation matri& will have -n.1/+-n.2/++2+1, or
entries below the diagonal to *ero. +e can *ero them by e&tending the same idea of steing through the columns with a series of rotations in a
fi&ed se!uence of lanes. +e conclude that the set of n%n rotation matrices, each of which has n
2
entries, can be arameteri*ed by n-n.1/02
angles.
1n three dimensions this restates in matri& form an observation made by 2uler, so mathematicians call the ordered
se!uence of three angles 2uler angles. 3owever, the situation is somewhat more comlicated than we have so far
indicated. 4esite the small dimension, we actually have considerable freedom in the se!uence of a&is airs we use; and
we also have some freedom in the choice of angles. Thus we find many different conventions emloyed when three"
dimensional rotations are arameteri*ed for hysics, or medicine, or chemistry, or other discilines. +hen we include
the otion of world a&es or body a&es, 25 different se!uences are ossible. 'nd while some discilines call any
se!uence 2uler angles, others give different names -2uler, 6ardano, Tait"7ryan, 8oll"itch"yaw/ to different se!uences.
9ne reason for the large number of otions is that, as noted reviously, rotations in three dimensions -and higher/ do not
commute. 1f we reverse a given se!uence of rotations, we get a different outcome. This also imlies that we cannot
comose two rotations by adding their corresonding angles. Thus Euler angles are not vectors, desite a similarity in aearance as a trile of
numbers.
Nested dimensions
' $%$ rotation matri& like
suggests a 2%2 rotation matri&,
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is embedded in the upper left corner:
This is no illusion; not just one, but many, copies of n-dimensional rotations are found within (n+1)-dimensional rotations, as subgroups !ach
embedding lea"es one direction fi#ed, which in the case of $%$ matrices is the rotation a#is &or e#ample, we ha"e
fi#ing the x a#is, the y a#is, and the z a#is, respecti"ely The rotation a#is need not be a coordinate a#is; if u ' (x,y,z) is a unit "ector in the desired
direction, then
where c
(
' cos (, s
(
' sin (, is a rotation by angle ( lea"ing a#is u fi#ed
) direction in (n+1)-dimensional space will be a unit magnitude "ector, which we may consider a point on a generali*ed sphere, S
n
Thus it is
natural to describe the rotation group +,(n+1) as combining +,(n) and S
n
) suitable formalism is the fiber bundle,
where for e"ery direction in the -base space-, S
n
, the -fiber- o"er it in the -total space-, +,(n+1), is a copy of the -fiber space-, +,(n), namely the
rotations that .eep that direction fi#ed
Thus we can build an n%n rotation matri# by starting with a /%/ matri#, aiming its fi#ed a#is on S
/
(the ordinary sphere in three-dimensional
space), aiming the resulting rotation on S
$
, and so on up through S
n01
) point on S
n
can be selected using n numbers, so we again ha"e n(n01)1/
numbers to describe any n%n rotation matri#
2n fact, we can "iew the se3uential angle decomposition, discussed pre"iously, as re"ersing this process The composition of n01 4i"ens rotations
brings the first column (and row) to (1,5,6,5), so that the remainder of the matri# is a rotation matri# of dimension one less, embedded so as to
lea"e (1,5,6,5) fi#ed
Skew parameters via Cayley's formula
7hen an n%n rotation matri#, Q, does not include 01 as an eigen"alue, so that none of the planar rotations of which it is composed are 1859
rotations, then Q+I is an in"ertible matri# :ost rotation matrices fit this description, and for them we can show that (Q0I)(Q+I)
01
is a s.ew-
symmetric matri#, A Thus A
T
' 0A; and since the diagonal is necessarily *ero, and since the upper triangle determines the lower one, A contains n
(n01)1/ independent numbers ;on"eniently, I0A is in"ertible whene"er A is s.ew-symmetric; thus we can reco"er the original matri# using the
Cayley transorm,
which maps any s.ew-symmetric matri# A to a rotation matri# 2n fact, aside from the noted e#ceptions, we can produce any rotation matri# in this
way )lthough in practical applications we can hardly afford to ignore 1859 rotations, the ;ayley transform is still a potentially useful tool, gi"ing
a parameteri*ation of most rotation matrices without trigonometric functions
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In three dimensions, for example, we have (Cayley 1846)
If we condense the skew entries into a vector, (x,y,z), then we produce a !" rotation around the x axis for (1,!,!), around the y axis for (!,1,!), and
around the z axis for (!,!,1)# $he 18!" rotations are %ust out of reach& for, in the limit as x 'oes to infinity, (x,!,!) does approach a 18!" rotation
around the x axis, and similarly for other directions#
Decomposition into shears
(or the )* case, a rotation matrix can +e decomposed into three shear matrices (,aeth 186)-
$his is useful, for instance, in computer 'raphics, since shears can +e implemented with fewer multiplication instructions than rotatin' a +itmap
directly# .n modern computers, this may not matter, +ut it can +e relevant for very old or low/end microprocessors#
Group theory
Lie group
0e have esta+lished that n1n rotation matrices form a 'roup, the special ortho'onal 'roup, 2.(n)# $his al'e+raic structure is coupled with a
topolo'ical structure, in that the operations of multiplication and takin' the inverse (which here is merely transposition) are continuous functions
of the matrix entries# $hus 2.(n) is a classic example of a topolo'ical 'roup# (In purely topolo'ical terms, it is a compact manifold#) (urthermore,
the operations are not only continuous, +ut smooth, so 2.(n) is a differentia+le manifold and a 3ie 'roup#
456
7ost properties of individual rotations of
n
depend very little on the dimension n& nevertheless, in 3ie 'roup theory, we see systematic
differences +etween even dimensions and odd dimensions# (urthermore, there are some isolated irre'ularities +elow n 8 5& for example, 2.(4) is,
anomalously, not a simple 3ie 'roup# Instead its (only) dou+le cover is isomorphic to the product S
9
1 S
9
# :ither factor is clearly a normal
su+'roup, and hence so is its ima'e under the dou+le/coverin' homomorphism# $his shows 2.(4) is not simple#
Lie algebra
;ssociated with every 3ie 'roup is a 3ie al'e+ra, a linear space e<uipped with a +ilinear alternatin' product called a +racket# $he al'e+ra for 2.
(n) is denoted +y
and consists of all skew/symmetric n1n matrices (as implied +y differentiatin' the ortho'onality condition, I 8 Q
$
Q)# $he +racket, 4A
1
,A
)
6, of
two skew/symmetric matrices is defined to +e A
1
A
)
=A
)
A
1
, which is a'ain a skew/symmetric matrix# $his 3ie al'e+ra +racket captures the
essence of the 3ie 'roup product via infinitesimals#
(or )1) rotation matrices, the 3ie al'e+ra so(2) is a one/dimensional vector space, mere multiples of
>ere the +racket always vanishes, which tells us that, in two dimensions, rotations commute# ?ot so in any hi'her dimension#
(or 919 rotation matrices, one has a three/dimensional vector space with the convenient +asis
$he 3ie +rackets of these 'enerators are as follows,
0e can conveniently identify any matrix in this 3ie al'e+ra with a vector in
9
,
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Under this identification, the so(3) bracket has a memorable description; it is the vector cross product,
The matrix identified with a vector v is also memorable, because
Notice this implies that v is in the null space of the skew-smmetric matrix with which it is identified, because v!v is alwas the "ero vector#
Exponential map
$onnectin% the &ie al%ebra to the &ie %roup is the exponential map, which is defined usin% the standard matrix exponential series for e
A
,
'()
*or an skew-smmetric matrix A, exp(A) is alwas a rotation matrix#
Note that this exponential map of skew-smmetric matrices to rotation matrices is +uite different from the $ale transform discussed earlier,
differin% to 3rd order,
,n important practical example is the 3!3 case, where we have seen we can identif ever skew-smmetric matrix with a vector - u, where
u - (x,y,z) is a unit ma%nitude vector# .ecall that u is in the null space of the matrix associated with ; so that, if we use a basis with u as the z
axis, the final column and row will be "ero# Thus, we know in advance that the exponential matrix must leave u fixed# /t is mathematicall
impossible to suppl a strai%htforward formula for such a basis as a function of u (its existence would violate the hair ball theorem); but direct
exponentiation is possible, and ields
where c - cos

0
1
, s - sin

0
1
#
2e reco%ni"e this as our matrix for a rotation around axis u b the an%le 3 cf# .odri%ues4 rotation formula#
/n an dimension, if we choose some non"ero A and consider all its scalar multiples, exponentiation ields rotation matrices alon% a geodesic of
the %roup manifold, formin% a one-parameter sub%roup of the &ie %roup#
5ore broadl, the exponential map provides a homeomorphism between a nei%hborhood of the ori%in in the &ie al%ebra and a nei%hborhood of the
identit in the &ie %roup# /n fact, we can produce an rotation matrix as the exponential of some skew-smmetric matrix, so for these %roups the
exponential map is a surjection#
BakerCampbellHausdorff formula
6uppose we are %iven A and B in the &ie al%ebra# Their exponentials, exp(A) and exp(B), are rotation matrices, which we can multipl# 6ince the
exponential map is a sur7ection, we know that, for some C in the &ie al%ebra, exp(A)exp(B) - exp(C), and so we ma write
8a%e 99 of 9: .otation matrix - 2ikipedia, the free encclopedia
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When exp(A) and exp(B) commute, then C = A+B, mimicking the behavior of complex exponentiation. However, the general case is given b
the more elaborate !"H formula, a series expansion of nested brackets.
#$%
&or matrices, the bracket is the same operation as the commutator,
which monitors lack of commutativit in multiplication. 'his general expansion unfolds as follows,
(epresentation of a rotation matrix as a se)uential angle decomposition, as in *uler angles, ma tempt one to treat rotations as a vector space, but
the higher order terms in the !"H formula deprecate such an approach for large angles.
We again take special interest in the +,+ case, where #A,B% e)uals the cross product, A,B. -f A and B are linearl independent, then A, B, and
A,B provide a complete basis. if not, then A and B commute. *videntl, in this dimension, the infinite expansion in the !"H formula for group
composition has a compact form, as C = A+B+AB for suitable coefficients.
#/%
(0lso see the straightforward 1,1 derivation for 23(1). &or the general n,n case, use.
#4%
)
Spin group
'he 5ie group of n,n rotation matrices, 26(n), is a compact and path7connected manifold, and thus locall compact and connected. However, it is
not simpl connected, so 5ie theor tells us it is a kind of 8shadow8 (a homomorphic image) of a universal covering group. 6ften the covering
group, which in this case is the spin group denoted b 2pin(n), is simpler and more natural to work with.
#9:%
-n the case of planar rotations, 26(1) is topologicall a circle, S
9
. -ts universal covering group, 2pin(1), is isomorphic to the real line, R, under
addition. -n other words, whenever we use angles of arbitrar magnitude, which we often do, we are essentiall taking advantage of the
convenience of the 8mother space8. *ver 1,1 rotation matrix is produced b a countable infinit of angles, separated b integer multiples of 1;.
"orrespondingl, the fundamental group of 26(1) is isomorphic to the integers, Z.
-n the case of spatial rotations, 26(+) is topologicall e)uivalent to three7dimensional real pro<ective space, RP
+
. -ts universal covering group,
2pin(+), is isomorphic to the +7sphere, S
+
. *ver +,+ rotation matrix is produced b two opposite points on the sphere. "orrespondingl, the
fundamental group of 26(+) is isomorphic to the two7element group, Z
1
. We can also describe 2pin(+) as isomorphic to )uaternions of unit norm
under multiplication, or to certain =,= real matrices, or to 1,1 complex special unitar matrices.
"oncretel, a unit )uaternion, q, with
produces the rotation matrix
'his is our third version of this matrix, here as a rotation around the now nonunit axis vector (x,y,z) b angle 1>, where cos > = ! and ?sin >? = ??
(x,y,z)??. ('he proper sign for sin > is implied once the signs of the axis components are fixed.)
@an features of this case are the same for higher dimensions. 'he coverings are all two7to7one, with 26(n), n A 1, having fundamental group Z
1
.
'he natural setting for these groups is within a "lifford algebra. 0nd the action of the rotations is produced b a kind of 8sandwich8, denoted b
q"q

.
Infinitesimal rotations
'he matrices in the 5ie algebra are not themselves rotations. the skew7smmetric matrices are derivatives, proportional differences of rotations.
0n actual 8differential rotation8, or in#initesimal rotation matrix has the form
where d is vanishingl small.
'hese matrices do not satisf all the same properties as ordinar finite rotation matrices under the usual treatment of infinitesimals .
#99%
'o
understand what this means, consider
&irst, test the orthogonalit condition, $
%
$ = &. 'he product is
Bage 91 of 9/ (otation matrix 7 Wikipedia, the free encclopedia
997471:9= httpCDDen.wikipedia.orgDwikiD(otationEmatrix
differing from an identity matrix by second order infinitesimals, discarded here. So, to first order, an infinitesimal rotation matrix is an orthogonal
matrix.
Next, examine the square of the matrix,
Again discarding second order effects, note that the angle simply doubles. This hints at the most essential difference in behavior, which we can
exhibit with the assistance of a second infinitesimal rotation,
Compare the products dA
x
dA
y
to dA
y
dA
x
,
Since d d' is second order, we discard it thus, to first order, multiplication of infinitesimal rotation matrices is commutati"e. !n fact,
again to first order. !n other words, the order in which infinitesimal rotations are applied is irrelevant.
This useful fact ma"es, for example, derivation of rigid body rotation relatively simple. #ut we must always be careful to distinguish $the first
order treatment of% these infinitesimal rotation matrices from both finite rotation matrices and from derivatives of rotation matrices $namely s"ew&
symmetric matrices%. Contrast the behavior of finite rotation matrices in the #C' formula above with that of infinitesimal rotation matrices, where
all the commutator terms will be second order infinitesimals so we do have a bona fide vector space. $Technically, this dismissal of any second
order terms amounts to (roup contraction.%
Conversions
)e have seen the existence of several decompositions that apply in any dimension, namely independent planes, sequential angles, and nested
dimensions. !n all these cases we can either decompose a matrix or construct one. )e have also given special attention to *+* rotation matrices,
and these warrant further attention, in both directions $Stuelpnagel ,-./%.
Quaternion
(iven the unit quaternion q 0 $!,x,y,z%, the equivalent left&handed $1ost&2ultiplied% *+* rotation matrix is
Now every quaternion component appears multiplied by two in a term of degree two, and if all such terms are 3ero what4s left is an identity matrix.
This leads to an efficient, robust conversion from any quaternion 5 whether unit or non&unit 5 to a *+* rotation matrix.
n = w * w + x * x + y * y + z * z
s = if n == 0 then 0 else 2 / n
wx = s * w * x, wy = s * w * y, wz = s * w * z
xx = s * x * x, xy = s * x * y, xz = s * x * z
yy = s * y * y, yz = s * y * z, zz = s * z * z
[ 1 - (yy + zz) xy - wz xz + wy ]
[ xy + wz 1 - (xx + zz) yz - wx ]
[ xz - wy yz + wx 1 - (xx + yy) ]
1age ,* of ,6 7otation matrix & )i"ipedia, the free encyclopedia
,,&-&89,/ http::en.wi"ipedia.org:wi"i:7otation;matrix
Consider a 22 example. Including constraints, we seek to minimize
Freed from the demand for a unit quaternion, we find that nonzero quaternions act as homogeneous coordinates for 33 rotation matrices. he
Ca!le! transform, discussed earlier, is o"tained "! scaling the quaternion so that its ! component is #. For a #$%& rotation around an! axis, ! will
"e zero, which explains the Ca!le! limitation.
he sum of the entries along the main diagonal 'the trace(, plus one, equals )*)'x
2
+y
2
+z
2
(, which is )!
2
. hus we can write the trace itself as
2!
2
+2!
2
*#, and from the pre-ious -ersion of the matrix we see that the diagonal entries themsel-es ha-e the same form. 2x
2
+2!
2
*#, 2y
2
+2!
2
*#,
and 2z
2
+2!
2
*#. /o we can easil! compare the magnitudes of all four quaternion components using the matrix diagonal. 0e can, in fact, o(tain all
four magnitudes using sums and square roots, and choose consistent signs using the skew1s!mmetric part of the off1diagonal entries.
t = Qxx+Qyy+Qzz (trace of Q)
r = sqrt(1+t)
w = 0.5*r
x = copysign(0.5*sqrt(1+Qxx-Qyy-Qzz), Qzy-Qyz)
y = copysign(0.5*sqrt(1-Qxx+Qyy-Qzz), Qxz-Qzx)
z = copysign(0.5*sqrt(1-Qxx-Qyy+Qzz), Qyx-Qxy)
where cop!sign'x,y( is x with the sign of y.
2lternati-el!, use a single square root and di-ision
t = Qxx+Qyy+Qzz
r = sqrt(1+t)
s = 0.5/r
w = 0.5*r
x = (Qzy-Qyz)*s
y = (Qxz-Qzx)*s
z = (Qyx-Qxy)*s
his is numericall! sta"le so long as the trace, t, is not negati-e, otherwise, we risk di-iding "! 'nearl!( zero. In that case, suppose Q
xx
is the
largest diagonal entr!, so x will ha-e the largest magnitude 'the other cases are similar(, then the following is safe.
t = Qxx+Qyy+Qzz
r = sqrt(1+Qxx-Qyy-Qzz)
s = 0.5/r
w = (Qzy-Qyz)*s
x = 0.5*r
y = (Qxy+Qyx)*s
z = (Qzx+Qxz)*s
If the matrix contains significant error, such as accumulated numerical error, we ma! construct a s!mmetric )) matrix,
and find the eigen-ector, 'x,y,z,!(, of its largest magnitude eigen-alue. 'If $ is trul! a rotation matrix, that -alue will "e #.( he quaternion so
o"tained will correspond to the rotation matrix closest to the gi-en matrix'3ar1Itzhack 2%%%(.
Polar decomposition
If the nn matrix ) is non1singular, its columns are linearl! independent -ectors, thus the 4ram5/chmidt process can ad6ust them to "e an
orthonormal "asis. /tated in terms of numerical linear alge"ra, we con-ert ) to an orthogonal matrix, $, using 78 decomposition. 9owe-er, we
often prefer a $ :closest: to ), which this method does not accomplish. For that, the tool we want is the polar decomposition 'Fan ; 9offman
#<==, 9igham #<$<(.
o measure closeness, we ma! use an! matrix norm in-ariant under orthogonal transformations. 2 con-enient choice is the Fro"enius norm,
>>$*)>>
F
, squared, which is the sum of the squares of the element differences. 0riting this in terms of the trace, r, our goal is,
Find $ minimizing r' '$*)(

'$*)( (, su"6ect to $

$ ? &.
hough written in matrix terms, the o"6ecti-e function is 6ust a quadratic pol!nomial. 0e can minimize it in the usual wa!, "! finding where its
deri-ati-e is zero. For a 33 matrix, the orthogonalit! constraint implies six scalar equalities that the entries of $ must satisf!. o incorporate the
constraint's(, we ma! emplo! a standard technique, @agrange multipliers, assem"led as a s!mmetric matrix, *. hus our method is.
Aifferentiate r' '$*)(

'$*)( + '$

$*&(* ( with respect to 'the entries of( $, and equate to zero.

In general, we o"tain the equation
so that
Bage #) of #$ 8otation matrix 1 0ikipedia, the free enc!clopedia
##1<12%#) http.CCen.wikipedia.orgCwikiC8otationDmatrix
Taking the derivative with respect to $xx, $xy, $yx, $yy in turn, we assemble a matrix.
where $ is orthogonal and S is symmetric. To ensure a minimum, the *
matrix (and hence S) must be positive definite. Linear algebra calls $S
the polar decomposition of ), with S the positive square root of S

!
)
T
).
"hen ) is non#singular, the $ and S factors of the polar decomposition
are uniquely determined. $owever, the determinant of S is positive
because S is positive definite, so $ inherits the sign of the determinant of ). That is, $ is only guaranteed to be orthogonal, not a rotation matrix.
This is unavoidable% an ) with negative determinant has no uniquely defined closest rotation matrix.
Axis and angle
To efficiently construct a rotation matrix & from an angle ' and a unit axis u, we can take advantage of symmetry and skew#symmetry within the
entries. (f x, y, and z are the components of the unit vector representing the axis, and
then
)etermining an axis and angle, like determining a quaternion, is only possible up to sign% that is, (u,') and (*u,*') correspond to the same rotation
matrix, +ust like q and *q. ,s well, axis#angle extraction presents additional difficulties. The angle can be restricted to be from -. to /0-., but
angles are formally ambiguous by multiples of 12-.. "hen the angle is 3ero, the axis is undefined. "hen the angle is /0-., the matrix becomes
symmetric, which has implications in extracting the axis. 4ear multiples of /0-., care is needed to avoid numerical problems5 in extracting the
angle, a two#argument arctangent with atan2(sin ,cos ) equal to ' avoids the insensitivity of arccosine% and in computing the axis magnitude
in order to force unit magnitude, a brute#force approach can lose accuracy through underflow (6oler 7 6orrison /801).
, partial approach is as follows5
The x, y, and z components of the axis would then be divided by r. , fully robust approach will use different code when t, the trace of the matrix
$, is negative, as with quaternion extraction. "hen r is 3ero because the angle is 3ero, an axis must be provided from some source other than the
matrix.
Euler angles
9omplexity of conversion escalates with :uler angles (used here in the broad sense). The first difficulty is to establish which of the twenty#four
variations of 9artesian axis order we will use. ;uppose the three angles are '
/
, '

, '
1
% physics and chemistry may interpret these as
while aircraft dynamics may use
<ne systematic approach begins with choosing the right#most axis. ,mong all permutations of (x,y,z), only two place that axis first% one is an even
permutation and the other odd. 9hoosing parity thus establishes the middle axis. That leaves two choices for the left#most axis, either duplicating
the first or not. These three choices gives us 1== ! / variations% we double that to > by choosing static or rotating axes.
This is enough to construct a matrix from angles, but triples differing in many ways can give the same rotation matrix. ?or example, suppose we
use the zyz convention above% then we have the following equivalent pairs5
(8-., >@., */-@.) A (*B-., *1/@., @@.) multiples o# +,-.
Cage /@ of /0 Dotation matrix # "ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
//#8#-/> http5EEen.wikipedia.orgEwikiEDotationFmatrix
(72, 0, 0) (40, 0, 32) singular alignment
(45, 60, 30) (135, 60, 150) bistable flip
Angles for any order can be found using a concise coon rou!ine ("er!er # $o!! 1%%3& '(oea)e 1%%4)*
+(e ,roble of singular alignen!, !(e a!(ea!ical analog of ,(ysical gibal loc), occurs -(en !(e iddle ro!a!ion aligns !(e a.es of !(e firs!
and las! ro!a!ions* /! afflic!s e0ery a.is order a! ei!(er e0en or odd ul!i,les of %0* +(ese singulari!ies are no! c(arac!eris!ic of !(e ro!a!ion a!ri.
as suc(, and only occur -i!( !(e usage of 1uler angles*
+(e singulari!ies are a0oided -(en considering and ani,ula!ing !(e ro!a!ion a!ri. as or!(onoral ro- 0ec!ors (in 32 a,,lica!ions of!en naed
3rig(!340ec!or, 3u,340ec!or and 3ou!340ec!or) ins!ead of as angles* +(e singulari!ies are also a0oided -(en -or)ing -i!( 5ua!ernions*
Uniform random rotation matrices
6e soe!ies need !o genera!e a uniforly dis!ribu!ed rando ro!a!ion a!ri.* /! sees in!ui!i0ely clear in !-o diensions !(a! !(is eans !(e
ro!a!ion angle is uniforly dis!ribu!ed be!-een 0 and 27* +(a! in!ui!ion is correc!, bu! does no! carry o0er !o (ig(er diensions* 8or e.a,le, if
-e deco,ose 393 ro!a!ion a!rices in a.is4angle for, !(e angle s(ould not be uniforly dis!ribu!ed& !(e ,robabili!y !(a! (!(e agni!ude of) !(e
angle is a! os! : s(ould be
1
;
7
(: sin :), for 0 < : < 7*
'ince '=(n) is a connec!ed and locally co,ac! $ie grou,, -e (a0e a si,le s!andard cri!erion for unifori!y, naely !(a! !(e dis!ribu!ion be
unc(anged -(en co,osed -i!( any arbi!rary ro!a!ion (a $ie grou, >!ransla!ion>)* +(is defini!ion corres,onds !o -(a! is called Haar measure*
$e?n, @assA # Bi0es! (2006) s(o- (o- !o use !(e Cayley !ransfor !o genera!e and !es! a!rices according !o !(is cri!erion*
6e can also genera!e a unifor dis!ribu!ion in any diension using !(e subgroup algorithm of 2iaconis # '(as(a(ani (1%D7)* +(is recursi0ely
e.,loi!s !(e nes!ed diensions grou, s!ruc!ure of '=(n), as follo-s* Eenera!e a unifor angle and cons!ruc! a 292 ro!a!ion a!ri.* +o s!e, fro n
!o nF1, genera!e a 0ec!or v uniforly dis!ribu!ed on !(e n-s,(ere, S
n
, ebed !(e n9n a!ri. in !(e ne.! larger siGe -i!( las! colun (0,H,0,1), and
ro!a!e !(e larger a!ri. so !(e las! colun becoes v*
As usual, -e (a0e s,ecial al!erna!i0es for !(e 393 case* 1ac( of !(ese e!(ods begins -i!( !(ree inde,enden! rando scalars uniforly dis!ribu!ed
on !(e uni! in!er0al* Ar0o (1%%2) !a)es ad0an!age of !(e odd diension !o c(ange a "ouse(older reflec!ion !o a ro!a!ion by nega!ion, and uses !(a!
!o ai !(e a.is of a unifor ,lanar ro!a!ion*
Ano!(er e!(od uses uni! 5ua!ernions* @ul!i,lica!ion of ro!a!ion a!rices is (ooor,(ic !o ul!i,lica!ion of 5ua!ernions, and ul!i,lica!ion by
a uni! 5ua!ernion ro!a!es !(e uni! s,(ere* 'ince !(e (ooor,(is is a local isoe!ry, -e iedia!ely conclude !(a! !o ,roduce a unifor
dis!ribu!ion on '=(3) -e ay use a unifor dis!ribu!ion on S
3
*
1uler angles can also be used, !(oug( no! -i!( eac( angle uniforly dis!ribu!ed (@urnag(an 1%62& @iles 1%65)*
8or !(e a.is4angle for, !(e a.is is uniforly dis!ribu!ed o0er !(e uni! s,(ere of direc!ions, S
2
, -(ile !(e angle (as !(e non4unifor dis!ribu!ion
o0er I0,7J no!ed ,re0iously (@iles 1%65)*
See also
/soe!ry
Kabsc( algori!(
=r!(ogonal a!ri.
Llane of ro!a!ion
Bodrigues3 ro!a!ion forula
Bo!a!ion foraliss in !(ree diensions
Bo!a!ion o,era!or (0ec!or s,ace)
+ransfora!ion a!ri.
Ma-4,i!c(4roll sys!e
Notes
1* ^ '-o)o-s)i, 1arl (1%7%)* Calculus with Analytic Geometry (Lrindle, 6eber, and 'c(id!)*
2* ^ 63C recoenda!ion (2003), Scalable Vector Graphics the initial coordinate system
((!!,NOO---*-3*orgO+BO'PEOcoords*(!lQ/ni!ialCoordina!e'ys!e)
3* ^ Ro!e !(a! if ins!ead of ro!a!ing 0ec!ors, i! is !(e reference frae !(a! is being ro!a!ed, !(e signs on !(e sin !ers -ill be re0ersed* /f reference frae A is
ro!a!ed an!i4cloc)-ise abou! !(e origin !(roug( an angle !o crea!e reference frae S, !(en BT. (-i!( !(e signs fli,,ed) -ill !ransfor a 0ec!or described
in reference frae A coordina!es !o reference frae S coordina!es*
4* ^ +aylor, Caillo& Kriegan (1%%4)* >@iniiGa!ion on !(e $ie Erou, '=(3) and Bela!ed @anifolds>* Technical eport* Ro* %405 (Male Uni0ersi!y)*
5* ^ Sa)er (2003)& 8ul!on # "arris (1%%1)
6* ^ (6edderburn 1%34, VD*02)
7* ^ "all 2004, C(* 3& ParadaraWan 1%D4, V2*15
Lage 16 of 1D Bo!a!ion a!ri. 4 6i)i,edia, !(e free encyclo,edia
114%42014 (!!,NOOen*-i)i,edia*orgO-i)iOBo!a!ionTa!ri.
8. ^ (Eng 2001)
9. ^ Curtright, T L; Fairlie, D B; Zach!, C " (201#). $% c&'act (r&ula (r rtatin! a! !'in &atri) 'l*n&ial!$. S!G"A 10+ 08#.
,i+10.-8#2./012%.201#.08# (htt'+..,).,i.rg.10.-8#232F/012%.201#.08#).
10. ^ Ba4er 200-, Ch. 5; Fultn 6 7arri! 1991, ''. 2998-15
11. ^ (1l,!tein, 9le 6 /a(4 2002, :#.8)
References
%r;, <a&e! (1992), $Fa!t ran,& rtatin &atrice!$ (htt'+..===.gra'hic!ge&!.rg.), in Da;i, "ir4, Graphics Gems !!!, /an Dieg+
%ca,e&ic 9re!! 9r(e!!inal, ''. 11>8120, 0/B? 9>8@0@12@#09A>1@#
Ba4er, %n,re= (200-), "atri# Groups$ An !ntroduction to %ie Group Theory, /'ringer, 0/B? 9>8@1@852--@#>0@-
Bar@0tBhac4, 0tBhac4 C. (?;8Dec 2000), $?e= &eth, (r e)tracting the Duaternin (r& a rtatin &atri)$, A!AA &ournal of Guidance'
Control and (ynamics 23 (A)+ 10858108>, ,i+10.251#.2.#A5# (htt'+..,).,i.rg.10.251#32F2.#A5#), 0//? 0>-1@5090
(htt'!+..===.=rl,cat.rg.i!!n.0>-1@5090)
BEFrc4, G4e; B=ie, ClaBett (<une 19>1), $%n iterati;e algrith& (r c&'uting the He!t e!ti&ate ( an rthgnal &atri)$, S!A" &ournal
on )umerical Analysis 8 (2)+ -588-A#, ,i+10.11->.0>080-A (htt'+..,).,i.rg.10.11->32F0>080-A), 0//? 00-A@1#29
(htt'!+..===.=rl,cat.rg.i!!n.00-A@1#29)
Ca*le*, %rthur (18#A), $/ur DuelDue! 'r'riItI! ,e! ,Iter&inant! gauche!$, &ournal f*r die reine und angewandte "athemati+ 32+ 119
812-, ,i+10.1515.crll.18#A.-2.119 (htt'+..,).,i.rg.10.151532Fcrll.18#A.-2.119), 0//? 00>5@#102 (htt'!+..===.=rl,cat.rg.i!!n.00>5@
#102); re'rinte, a! article 52 in Ca*le*, %rthur (1889), The collected mathematical papers of Arthur Cayley
(htt'+..===.hti.u&ich.e,u.cgi.t.te)t.'age;ie=er@i,)JcKu&hi!t&ath;ccKu&hi!t&ath;rgnK(ull3
20te)t;i,nK%B/-15-.0001.001;,i,nK%B/-15-.0001.001;;ie=Ki&age;!eDK00000-#9), 0 (18#18185-), Ca&Hri,ge Lni;er!it* 9re!!,
''. --28--A
Diacni!, 9er!i; /hah!hahani, 2ehr,a, (198>), $The !uHgru' algrith& (r generating uni(r& ran,& ;ariaHle!$, ,robability in the
-ngineering and !nformational Sciences 1+ 158-2, ,i+10.101>./02A99A#800000255 (htt'+..,).,i.rg.10.101>32F/02A99A#800000255),
0//? 02A9@9A#8 (htt'!+..===.=rl,cat.rg.i!!n.02A9@9A#8)
Eng, "enth (<une 2001), $Mn the BC7@(r&ula in so(-)$ (htt'+..===.ii.uiH.n.'uHli4a!Ener.te)ra'.aH!tract.2000@201.ht&l), .!T
)umerical "athematics 41 (-)+ A298A-2, ,i+10.102-.%+10219>9515229 (htt'+..,).,i.rg.10.102-32F%3-%10219>9515229),
0//? 000A@-8-5 (htt'!+..===.=rl,cat.rg.i!!n.000A@-8-5)
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M'enDcu&ent), !." &ournal of esearch and (e2elopment 27 (A)+ 5>>8581, ,i+10.11#>.r,.2>A.05>> (htt'+..,).,i.rg.10.11#>3
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5@.5#5$/ (http!!ntrs.nasa.gov!search.Ksp).)
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/'1/.#'00.'
External links
CaJe"in4el, Michiel, e(. ('001), "@otation" (http!!""".enc6clope(iaofmath.org!in(e).php8title9p!r0/'$'0), -ncyclopedia of
"athematics, ,pringer, +,3- 9%/.1.55$0/.010.0
@otation matrices at Math"orl( (http!!math"orl(."olfram.com!@otationMatri).html)
Math 7"areness Month '000 interactive (emo (http!!""".matha"are.org!mam!00!master!(imension!(emos!plane.rotate.html) (re;uires
Fava)
@otation Matrices (http!!""".mathpages.com!home!4math59#!4math59#.htm) at Math>ages
(Italian) 7 parametriJation of ,In(@) <6 generaliJe( Buler 7ngles (http!!ansi.altervista.org)
@otation a<out an6 point (http!!""".eucli(eanspace.com!maths!geometr6!affine!aroun(>oint!)
@etrieve( from "http!!en."i4ipe(ia.org!"!in(e).php8title9@otationNmatri)Lol(i(9$'0/15510"
5ategories Transformation (function) Matrices
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