Application of locally produced activated carbons in

water treatment


J ane Misihairabgwi
a,*
, Victor Ntuli
a
, Abisha Kasiyamhuru
a
, Sekesai Zinyowera
b
,
Ignatious Ncube
c
, Victor Chipofya
d
.

*, a
Department of Biochemistry, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP167, Harare,
Zimbabwe. Tel: +263 4 308047,Fax:+263 4 333678.
b
Department of Medical Microbiology, Medical School, Parirenyatwa Hospital, Harare,
Zimbabwe.
c
Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology, School of Molecular and
Life Sciences, University of Limpopo, P. Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South Africa. Tel:
+27 15 268 2341, Fax: +27 15 268 3234.
d
Centre for Water, Sanitation, Health and Appropriate Technology Development, Malawi
Polytechnic, University of Malawi, P. Bag 303, Chichiri, Blantyre 3, Malawi. Tel:+265 1
870 411, Fax: +265 1 870 578.



Corresponding author: E-mail:jmisi@medic.uz.ac.zw
jbvochora@yahoo.co.uk



2
Abstract

Activated carbon has been widely used worldwide as an effective filtration or
adsorption material for removing biological and chemical contaminants from drinking
water. In most developing countries, the activated carbon is imported at high cost,
limiting the quantities of safe drinking water available to the people. The study was
directed at assessing the applicability of activated carbon produced locally in water
treatment. An assessment of the carbon prepared from macadamia nut shell to remove
contaminants in water was carried out. After treatment with activated carbon, the
chemical oxygen demand of the water was reduced from 54 to 8 mg/l. The total microbial
load of the water was reduced from 800 to 50 cells /ml. The turbidity of the water was
reduced from 19.8 to 3.1 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). Sulphates and nitrates
were reduced from 53 to 21 mg/l and 0.6 to 0.4 mg/l respectively. Total coliforms, faecal
coliforms and faecal streptococci were adsorbed completely from initial concentrations of
10, 4 and 2 c.f.u/100 ml respectively. Carbons prepared from macadamia nut shells,
baobab shells and marula fruit stones were evaluated for their ability to adsorb the
parasites Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Chilomastix mesneli, Entamoeba coli,
Endolimax nana, Iodamoeba butschli and Entamoeba hatimanai from water. All carbons
were capable of adsorbing the parasites, with carbons prepared from macadamia nut
shells and baobab shells completely adsorbing all the parasites. Results indicate that the
carbons produced in this study are suitable for use in the removal of contaminants from
water.

Key words: activated carbon, adsorption, water treatment
3
1. Introduction

The provision of safe water to the people is an urgent development priority of the
Southern African Region. The continual expansion and increasing of urban centers in
developing nations has resulted in pollution of water sources. Conventional water
treatment plants use processes such as pre-chlorination, fluoridation, alum coagulation
with hydraulic flocculation, sedimentation, dual anthracite and sand filtration and post-
chlorination to remove dyes and metal ions in contaminated waters (Ahmed et al., 2004).
In countries with poor economic base, the high cost of importing the water treatment
chemicals prevents consistently good drinking water quality being achieved in many
cases.
In recent years, there has been research focusing on the use of appropriate, low-
cost technology for the treatment of drinking water in the developing world. Research has
also been focused on the indigenous production of water treatment chemicals using
locally available raw materials (Warhurst et al., 1997). Activated carbon has been widely
used worldwide as an effective filtration or adsorption material for removing biological
and chemical contaminants from drinking water. Currently, Zimbabwe uses 20 tonnes of
activated carbon per month for urban water treatment and imports the carbon at high cost.
The high cost of importing the activated carbon puts a significant burden on the water
treatment budget since foreign currency is scarce.
In an effort to reduce the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
drinking water, there is a need to optimize the production of activated carbon from locally
available aggroforestry wastes and apply it for water treatment in diverse communities. A
wide variety of carbons have been prepared from agricultural wastes such as rice husks,
4
pith, bagasse, sawdust, Coir pith, parthenium plant, hazelnut shells and apricot stone
(Kardirvelu et al., 2001, 2003; Kobya, 2004; Ayyappan et al., 2005; Kobya et al., 2005).
Our previous study has shown that activated carbon prepared from local agroforestry
waste residues such as macadamia nut shells, baobab shells and marula fruit stones is
effective in the removal of heavy metal ions from aqueous solution (Misihairabgwi et al.,
2007). Each of the activated carbons has its own characteristic properties and variation
exists in the efficiency of removal of a range of impurities from waste water.
Characterisation of the carbons is important in the formulation of a consistent quality
carbon that can be used in water treatment plants.
The main aim of the study was to apply activated carbon prepared from local
agroforestry wastes in water treatment and assess the efficiency of the carbons in the
removal of organic, inorganic and biological contaminants in water.
Infections of Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba hystolytica are quite high in
Zimbabwe, causing diarrhoea and other water borne diseases in communities and
households, especially in rural communities. Boiling is an effective, simple method in
destroying many water borne pathogens but it is impractical for the rural poor due to the
scarcity of firewood and because it is time consuming. The study was also aimed at
developing a sustainable way of providing safe water to various communities by
assessing the effect of applying activated carbon in the removal of waterborne parasites
from water.


5
2. Methodology

2.1 Activated carbon

Activated carbons prepared from macadamia nut shells (MNS), baobab shells
(BBB) and marula fruit stones (AML) were used in this study. The carbons were
obtained from the Centre for Water Sanitation and Hygiene, Malawi Polytechnic,
University of Malawi. All the biomass samples were activated and carbonized in a one-
step pyrolysis method in the presence of steam at 750
o
C and final soak time of 30 min
(Warhurst et al., 1997; Misihairabgwi et al., 2007).

2.2 Application of activated carbon to raw water
Activated carbon prepared from macadamia nut shells was used for the treatment
of water collected from Lake Chivero, Harare. The experiments were carried out in
triplicate. Samples of the water (100 ml) were mixed with carbon (0.1 g) in 250 ml
Erlenmeyer flasks. The mixtures were shaken at 200 rpm in a temperature controlled
shaker (Vacutec Cat N 10 4002) at (25 2
o
C) for 2 h then filtered using a Whatman
filter paper N 1 size 15 to remove the carbon. Full chemical and bacterial analysis were
done to check the water parameters after treating with activated carbon. The chemical
analysis included determination of alkalinity, chemical oxygen demand, cadmium,
calcium, chloride, copper, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, iron, manganese,
magnesium ,lead , nitrate, pH, sulphate, total hardness, and turbidity. Bacteriological
6
analysis included determination of total coliforms, faecal coliforms (E. coli); faecal
streptococci; and agar plate count at 22
o
C and 37
o
C.

2.2.1 Determination of alkalinity.

A sample of water (100 ml) was diluted with distilled water (100 ml) and titrated
with 0.02 N HCl using Bromocresol 1 methyl red as an indicator. A blank was run which
contained sodium carbonate instead of the water sample. Alkalinity was calculated in
mg/l using the following equation (Clesceri, et al., 1989)

mg/l Alkalinity =10(sample titre blank titre)

2.2.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand

A sample of water (50 ml) was poured into a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask with
ground-glass 24/40 neck. Mercuric sulphate (HgSO
4
) (1 g) was added, followed by
several glass beads. Sulphuric acid (5 ml) reagent was poured into the flask with mixing
to dissolve HgSO
4
. After cooling, 0.04 M K
2
Cr
2
O
7
(25 ml) solution was added. The flask
was attached to a 30 mm jacket Liebig condenser with 24/40 groundglass joint with
cooling water. The remaining sulphuric acid (70 ml) reagent was added through the open
end of the condenser. The mixture was refluxed for 2 h with a very small beaker covering
the open end to prevent entry of foreign material. After refluxing the mixture was cooled
and diluted to twice the volume using distilled water. The solution was cooled to room
temperature (25 2
o
C) and titrated with 0.25 N ferrous ammonium sulphate (FAS) using
7
2 to 3 drops of ferroin indicator. The end point of the titration was the first sharp change
from blue-green to reddish brown that persisted for 1 min or longer. In the same manner,
a blank containing the reagents and a volume of distilled water equal to that of the
sample, was refluxed and titrated with FAS (Clesceri et al., 1989). COD was calculated
as follows:
2500 . 0 =
c
b
M
where M is morality of FAS solution; b is volume of 0.04 M K
2
Cr
2
O
7
solution titrated
(ml) and c is volume FAS used in the titration (ml).

COD as mg O
2
/l =[(A-B) x M x8000]/ml sample
where A is blank titre, B is sample titre

2.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen
A dissolved oxygen bottle which was air tight was filled with water sample (100
ml). Manganese solution (0.5 ml) and OH
-
-l
-
-N
3
(0.8 ml) were added. The bottle was
closed and shaken. The precipitate of MNO (OH)
3
was left to sediment about half way in
the bottle and was shaken again. For the second time the precipitate was left to sediment
about a third of the height of the bottle and concentrated phosphoric acid (1 ml) was
added and mixed well. When the solution was dissolved completely, the solution (50 ml)
was transferred into a conical flask and titrated with 0.02 N methiosulphate (NaS
2
O
8
) to a
straw yellow colour. Four drops of starch indicator were added and titration was
continued until a colourless solution was obtained. Dissolved oxygen was calculated as
follows:
8
) ( 50
64000
D V
V C hate methiosulp
a

=
where a is O
2
(mg /l)
,
V is Volume capacity of bottle, C is concentration of thiosulphate
and D, is Volume of reagents (Clesceri et al., 1989).

2.2.4 Determination of Conductivity and pH
Conductivity of the water was determined using a conductivity meter, according
to the manufacturers instructions. The pH was determined on a Cripson GLP21 pH
meter.

2.2.5 Determination of Nitrates.

Nitrates were determined using a UV spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV -160A).
Calibration standards ranging from 0.25-2.00 mg/l nitrate solution were prepared and
were used to plot a standard curve. Absorbance of the sample was read on the
spectrophotometer using quartz curvets at 210 nm.

2.2.6 Determination of sulphates.

Calibration standards were prepared from sulphate solution stock ranging from
10-80 mg/l sulphate. The standards were then used to plot a calibration graph. A
photometer (Spectronic 20 Genesys) was used to measure turbidity of the sulphates in the
sample. A sample (100 ml) was mixed well into an Erlenmeyer flask with citrate buffer
solution (20 ml) using a stirrer at constant speed. While stirring, a spatula of barium
9
chloride was added and stirring continued for 1 min. After stirring, the solution was
poured into an absorption cell of the photometer and turbidity was measured at 450 nm.
The concentration of sulphate in the sample was then calculated from the calibration
graph.

2.2.7 Determination of turbidity.

A turbidity meter (2100N model) was used to measure turbidity of the sample.
The units for turbidity are nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).

2.2.8 Total hardness.

Calcium solution 0.2 N (10 ml) was diluted with distilled water (50 ml) and
titrated against E.D.T.A solution, using 2 ml ethanolamine buffer and 2 drops of
Eriochrome black T indicator solution in a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask. The colour change
was from red to blue. Water samples, treated with activated carbon and untreated (50 ml)
and a blank (distilled water) were also titrated against E.D.T.A as above and titrations
were carried out three times. Total hardness was calculated as follows:
Total hardness as mg/l calcium carbonate =20.018Volume of E.D.T.A consumed.
Final total hardness was obtained by subtracting the blank value from each sample value.



10
2.2.9 Determination of calcium.

Water sample, treated and untreated (50 ml) was mixed with 2 M sodium
hydroxide (2 ml) in a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask and titrated three times with E.D.T.A
using murexide indicator (0.1 g). The volume of titre was recorded (A). At end point,
colour changes from pink to purple. Standard calcium solution (200 mg/l) (10 ml) was
diluted into a 50 ml volumetric flak and titrated with E.D.T.A as above, and the volume
of the titre was recorded as F. A blank titration was carried out by titrating with distilled
water (50 ml), and the volume of the titre was recorded as B (Clesceri et al., 1989).
Calcium concentration was calculated as follows:

c
F b
a

=
3200
= 3200F

where a, is Ca concentration (mg/l), b is (A-B) and c is the sample (ml).

2.2.10 Determination of Chloride.

A known concentration of chloride ions (1 mg/ml)

in sodium chloride solution
(100 ml) was titrated with 2 N silver nitrate solution using two drops of potassium
chromate as an indicator. The colour change at end point was a slightest perceptible
reddish colour. After this, water sample treated and untreated and a blank (distilled water)
(100 ml) was treated as above and chloride concentration calculated as follows:
mg/l of Chloride =Volume of silver nitrate 10.
11
Final chloride concentration was established by subtracting the blank value from each
sample value and average obtained.

2.2.11 Enumeration of Feacal Coliforms (E coli)

The water sample (10 ml) was diluted with sterile water in a 100 ml volumetric
flask and was mixed well. An absorbent pad was aseptically placed into each petri dish
and membrane lauryl sulphate broth MLSB (2 ml) was pipetted onto each pad. The broth
was allowed to soak until the pad was saturated. The membrane filter was placed with
grid upside down. A sterile funnel was placed on the filter base and sample (100 ml) was
poured into the funnel. The sample was vacuum filtered and membrane was placed on
growth media, grid side up. The plates were later incubated at 30C for 4 h, and then
followed by 44C for the remaining 20 h. For each batch sample, a blank was prepared. A
colony counter (Leica Quebec Darkfield colony counter) was used to count the E coli in
the water sample.

2.2.12 Total Coliform Determination

A maximum of 10 yellow colonies were picked from the membrane, initially
plated for E coli enumeration and were inoculated aseptically using platinum loops into
Durham tubes. The tubes contained lactone peptone water (5 ml) and tryptophane (1 g).
The tubes were incubated at 37C for 24 h. A colour change from pink to yellow and the
presence of gas in Durham tubes confirmed the presence of coliforms. Total coliforms
were calculated as follows:
12
d
c b
a

=

where, a, is Total Coliforms; b is the number of presumptive colonies, c is the number of
positive tubes and d, the number of inoculated tubes.

2.2.13 Enumeration of Streptococci.

Enumeration of Streptococci was carried out in a similar manner to the
enumeration of E. coli. The sample (10 ml) was diluted in a 100 ml volumetric flask and
was mixed well. An absorbent pad was aseptically placed into each petri dish and
membrane lauryl sulphate broth MLSB (2 ml) was pipetted onto each pad. The broth was
allowed to soak until the pad was saturated. The membrane filter was placed, with grid
upside down. A sterile funnel was placed on the filter base and sample (100 ml) was
poured into the funnel. The sample was vacuum filtered and membrane was placed on
growth media, grid side up. The plates were incubated at 37C for 4 h, and then followed
by 44C for the remaining 44 h. Red and maroon colonies were counted using a colony
counter (Leica Quebec Darkfield colony counter).

2.2.14 Agar Plate Counts.

A sample (1 ml) was used for serial dilutions up to 10 times. An aliquot (100 l)
of dilution number 10 was used for inoculation of each nutrient agar plate followed by
even spreading under aseptic conditions. Two batches of plates were incubated, one batch
was incubated for 24 h at 37
o
C and the other was incubated at 22C. After the stipulated
13
times, counting of was done manually using a colony counter (Leica Quebec Darkfield
colony counter).

2.3 Removal of Parasites from water

Stool samples were collected from Tafara Primary School in Harare urban.
Parasites (cysts) were isolated by the formal ether concentration method. Using the
formal ether method, faeces (1g) were emulsified in a 15 ml tube containing 10 %
formalin. The sample was filtered using an 80 mesh sieve into another 15 ml tube and
centrifuged for 1 min at 3000 rpm using Centronic selecta centrifuge. The supernatant
was decanted then the residue was resuspended with 10 % formalin (7 ml). 5% ether (3
ml) was also added and the mixture was shaken vigorously. The mixture was further
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 1 min, and supernatant discarded. The sediment was
concentrated by the Discontinuous Percoll Gradient method. Using the Discontinuous
Percoll Gradient method, approximately 1 ml of sediment was thoroughly mixed with
sheaters sugar solution (500 g sucrose, 320 ml tap water and 6.5 g phenol). Centrifugation
of the mixture was done at 2000 rpm and the meniscus of the fluid was washed with
distilled water. The cyst was examined under a compound microscope (Carl Zeiss KF2).
Cyst suspension (1 ml) of known concentration was diluted with 99 ml distilled water.
Activated carbons from macadamia nut shells, baobab shells and marula fruit stones (0.2
g) were added into the diluted suspensions in flasks, and then the flasks were sealed with
parafilm. The mixtures were shaken at 100 rpm in a controlled shaker (Vacutec Cat N 10
4002) bath at room temperature 25C2 C for 24 h. The mixtures were then filtered
using Whatman N1 size 30 filter papers, into 15ml centrifuge tubes. Centrifugation was
14
carried out for 3 min at 3000 rpm then the sediments were transferred into clean tubes
and the supernatants discarded. The sediments were mixed and viewed on a light
microscope to determine the count of parasites present. Two drops of 0.2 N iodine was
added for easier viewing and counting of parasites. Parasite concentration was counted
using a hemocytometer. A control was set which only contained 1 ml sample and 99 ml
distilled water, without activated carbon.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Application of activated carbon to raw water.

Many water treatment works often use activated carbon to reduce odor caused by
algae decay in drinking water. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 show the results of the full chemical
and bacteriological analysis of raw water, both treated with activated carbon and
untreated. The alkalinity for treated water, 139 mg/l HCO
3,
was higher than that for
untreated water, 119 mg/l HCO
3.
This is because the carbon used was alkaline, with a pH
value of 9.98. There was a marked adsorption of non-biodegradable organic material
from the water. The chemical oxygen demand was reduced from a concentration of 54
mg/l to less than 8 mg/l. Organic compounds are degraded by microorganisms in water
and this leads to consumption of dissolved oxygen in the water. A slightly higher
percentage saturation of dissolved oxygen of 102.5 % was noted in untreated water
compared to that in treated water, 98.5 %. Activated carbon adsorbed most of the organic
compounds and the microorganisms that utilize the oxygen for the degradation of
organics. Organic compounds also cause colour in water leaving water unacceptable to
15
drink. Activated carbon adsorbed the organics, thus reducing turbidity from 19.8 to 3.21
NTU. Low levels of nitrates and sulphates were found in both treated and untreated
water, both being below the recommended limit and maximum limit allowed by Standard
Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ) which is 10 mg/l for nitrates and 200 mg/l for sulphates.
Nitrates and sulphates pose a problem of eutrophication in the aquatic ecosystem, and
thus result in odors in water if found in levels above the maximum limit. High cost for
water treatment plants would be needed to remove high concentration of algae due to
eutrophication. On treatment of raw water with activated carbon, nitrates were reduced
from 0.6 to 0.4 mg/l and sulphates from 54 to 21 mg/l (Table 3.1). The treated water
contained very low concentrations of heavy metals. The quantity of the metals in raw
water was below the recommended limit under SAZ. Activated carbon was capable of
removing microorganisms such as bacteria from water. It is not understood if activated
carbon removes bacteria by entrapment or by adsorption. Faecal coliforms and faecal
streptococci were removed from raw water (Table 3.2).
Streptococci and total coliforms were completely removed from the water by
carbon, from initial concentrations of 2 cells/100 ml and 10 cells/100 ml respectively.
Total microbial counts at 37
o
C in the water were reduced from 860 cells/100 ml sample
to less than 50 cells/100 ml sample.
Some bacteria which are found in water are very harmful to human health and
need disinfectant such as chlorine for the removal. Activated carbon is applied first in the
water treatment plant before disinfectant. This reduces the quantity of disinfectant needed
to kill pathogens and thus it is cost effective to use activated carbon for water treatment.

16
3.2 Removal of parasites from water.

Activated carbons with capacity to remove parasites from water are shown in
Table 3.3. Carbons prepared from macadamia nut shells and baobab shells removed all
parasites from the suspension sample of parasites which was under investigation.
Activated carbon prepared from marula fruit stones managed to remove some
parasites completely such as Lodamoeba butschii; Entamoeba coli and Giardia lamblia
from the suspension of parasites. The percentage removal of parasites such as Entamoeba
histolytica, Chilomastic mesinnelli, Endolimax nana and Entamoeba hartmanni by
activated carbon prepared from marula fruit stones was 50 % for all the parasites.
During treatment of water, conventional methods such as chlorination is not
effective in removal of parasites from water thus cheaper and effective methods are
needed. Activated carbon produced from agroforestry waste has the potential of
removing microbial contaminants such as parasites and bacteria from water and thus is
very much ideal to use in water treatment plants. Research is currently being directed at
elucidating the mechanism of removal of the parasites from water by activated carbon
since it is not fully understood if parasites are removed from water by entrapment or
adsorption on the adsorbent.

4. Conclusion
The results of the study show great potential of local agroforestry waste based
carbons to remove toxic organic compounds, biological contaminants and toxic metals
from water using low cost, domestic and environmentally safe technology.
17
Carbons prepared from macadamia nut shells, baobab shells and marula fruit
stone carbons produce high quality carbons which compare well with commercially
available carbons found in Zimbabwe and if produced on a large scale, the water
treatment budget would be reduced and funds could be diverted to other uses. Local
production of activated carbon from agroforestry wastes can improve the quality of
drinking water and palatability, whilst reducing importation and expenditure of foreign
exchange, and contributing to improved local incomes.

5. References
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U.S.A.
Ayyappan, R., Carmalin Sophia, A., Swaminathan, K., Sandhya, S. (2005). Removal of
lead from aqueous solution using carbon derived from agricultural waste. Process.
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of water and waste water. 17
th
Ed. American Public Health.
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Application. Chemistry. 12, 266-273.

18
Girgis , B. S., Yunis, S.S ., Soliman ., (2000) . Characterisation of activated carbon from
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Hasar, H., (2003). Adsorption of nickel from aqueous solution onto activated
carbon prepared from almond husk. J ournal. Hazard. Mater. B97, 49-57.
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nitrogen mixture .Energy Conservation. 56, 76-80.
Helleur, R, Liu, D, Ikura, M, (2001). Caracterisation and potential application of
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from industrial wastewaters by adsorption onto activated carbon prepared from an
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Kadirvelu, K., Kavipriya, M., Karthika, C., Radhika, M., Vennilamani, N., Pattabi, S.,
(2003). Utilization of various agricultural wastes for activated carbon preparation
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Bioresource. Technology. 87, 129-132.
Kobya, M., (2004). Adsorption, kinetic and equilibrium studies of Cr(VI) by hazelnut
shell activated carbon. Adsorption. Science. Technology. 22, 51-64.
McConnachie, G., Mtawali A., Young R., (1994) Design aspects of hydraulic
flocculates, 3,284-288.
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effluent using a low cost natural adsorbent material. Water Science. Technology.
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19
Minkova, V., Razvigorova, M., Bjornbom, E., Budinova, T., (2003). Effect of water
vapour and biomass nature on yield and quality of the pyrolysis product from
biomass. Fuel. Process. Technology. 70, 53-61.
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Tsai, W.T, Chang, C.Y,. Lee, S.L., (1997) Preparation and characterization of activated
carbons from corn cob. Carbon .35, 1198-1200.
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20
Table 3.1 Chemical analysis results of water treated with activated carbon (MNS)
and untreated.
Treated Untreated
Maximum
allowed
limit
(Zimbabwe
Standards
Association)
Parameters Units

Alkalinity mg/l HCO
3
139 119 *
Chemical Oxygen Demand mg/l <8 54 *
Cadmium mg/l Cd <0.01 <0.01 0.02
Calcium mg/l Ca 24.2 28.2 *
Chloride mg/l Cl 44 56 300
Copper mg/l Cu 0.1 0.1 2
Dissolved Oxygen % Saturation 98.5 102.5 *
E. Conductivity uS/cm 484 523 3000
Iron mg/l Fe 0.02 0.06 1
Magnesium mg/l Mg 11.3 12.3 100
Manganese mg/l Mn 0.02 0.02 1
Lead mg/l Pb 0.06 0.06 0.1
Nitrates mg/l N 0.4 0.6 50
PH 9.06 8.83 6.0-9.0
Sulphate mg/l SO4 21 53 500
Total Hardness mg/l CaCO3 111 117 500
Turbidity NTU 3.21 19.8 5
Zinc mg/l Zn 0.02 0.02 3













21




Table 3.2 Full bacteriological analysis results of water treated with activated carbon
prepared from macadamia nutshells
Treated Untreated
Standards
Association
of
Zimbabwe
limit
Parameters tested Units

Total coliforms number/100 ml 0 10
0
Faecal Coliforms (E. coli) number/100 ml 0 4
0
Faecal streptococci number/100 ml 0 2
0
Agar plate count at 22
o
C number/1ml 50 860
100
Agar plate count 37
o
C number/1ml 5 800
100














22
Table 3.3 Removal of parasites from water by activated carbon
Concentration of cells/ml
Parasite Initial After treatment
with carbon
from baobab
shells
After treatment
with carbon from
macadamia nut
shells
After treatment
with carbon from
marula fruit
stones
Entamoeba
hysolytica
6.0x10
6
No parasites No parasites 2.0x10
3

Chilomastix
mesneli
8.0x10
6
No parasites No parasites 2.0x10
3

Endomalix
nana
1.97x10
7
No parasites No parasites 4.0x10
3

Entamoeba
hatimanai
1.2x10
6
No parasites No parasites 1.0x10
4

Giardia
lamblia
3.4x10
6
No parasites No parasites No parasites
Entamoeba
coli
7.8x10
6
No parasites No parasites No parasites
Iodamoeba
butschii
1.6x10
6
No parasites No parasites No parasites