1

A
SEMINAR REPORT
ON
Air Craft Surveillance
Through RADAR

SUBMITTED BY:

AMIT KUMAR (4NM11EC020)


Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
NitteMahalingaAdyanthaya Memorial Institute of Technology
Nitte
2014-2015



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N.M.A.M INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NITTE 574110
(An Autonomous College Under VTU, Belgaum)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

CERTIFICATE

Certified that Mr. AMIT KUMAR, 4NM11EC020 , a bonafide
student of NMAM Institute of Technology, Nitte has submitted the
report and the seminar entitled Air Craft Surveillance Through
RADAR in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of
Engineering in Electronics And Communication during the year
2014-2015.


Signature of Reviewer Signature of Incharge Signature of HOD



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ABSTRACT
Every day tens of thousands of people board airplanes to travel from one place to another. These
flights, thousands of which take off and land daily, are among the safest forms of travel.
Although airplane crashes are tragic and headline grabbing, the fact is the sky is a very safe place
to be. But how, with so many airplanes in the air, does air travel maintain such a good safety
record? The answer is, in large part, air traffic control, the complex system of directing planes
and telling them how high or low to fly, and when and where to land safely.
Air traffic control systems rely heavily on radar. Radar first made a huge impact during World
War II when it was largely developed for use by battling nations. After the war the civil (that is,
non-military) aviation community began to apply radar techniques developed during the war to
civil aviation guidance and surveillance. The first use of this technology involved using radar to
aid landing. While its crucial that planes land safely, it is equally important that they be safe
during flight. Thus, as ILS replaced the GCA scanning pencil beams, improved rotating radars
with faster scan rates and larger coverage areas also replaced the GCA terminal area surveillance
radars.







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List of contents: Page
1.Introduction 6-7
2. Radar Frequencies 8-9
3. RADAR Applications 10-11
4. Classifications of Radar 12
4.1. En-Route Surveillance Radar (RSR) 12-13
4.2. Terminal Approach Radar (TAR) 14-15
4.2.1 Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) 16
4.2.2 Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) 17-18
4.2.3. How SSR Works? 19-20
5. Surface Movement Radar (SMR) 21-22
6. Advantages of Air Craft Surveillance Radar 23
7.Conclusion 24
8.References 25






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List of figures: Page
Figure 1.1: transmitted and receive signal through radar 7
Figure2.1: Common Frequency Bands for Radars 8
Figure3.1: Commercial marine radar antenna 10
Figure4: diagram showing types of radars 12
Figure4.1: En-Route Surveillance Radar 13
Figure4.2: Image of Terminal Approach Radar 15
Figure4.3.1: Functional Block Diagram of Secondary Radar 19
Figure5.1: Surface Movement Radar 21








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CHAPTER 1
1. Introduction
Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, altitude,
direction, or speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles,
motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The radar dish or antenna transmits pulses of
radio waves or microwaves that bounce off any object in their path. The object returns a tiny part
of the wave's energy to a dish or antenna that is usually located at the same site as the
transmitter.
Radar was secretly developed by several nations before and during World War 1I.The term
RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And
Ranging.The term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun,
losing all capitalization.
The modern uses of radar are highly diverse, including air traffic control, radar astronomy, air-
defense systems, antimissile systems; marine radars, to locate landmarks and other ships; aircraft
anticollision systems; ocean surveillance systems, outer space surveillance and rendezvous
systems; meteorological precipitation monitoring; altimetry and flight control systems; guide
missise target locating systems; and ground-penetrating radar for geological observations.
Highlevels. Other systems similar to radar make use of other parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum. One example is "lidar, which uses visible light from lasers rather than radio waves.



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Figure 1.1: transmitted and receive signal through radar
A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar signals in predetermined
directions. When these come into contact with an object they are usually reflected or scattered
in many directions. Radar signals are reflected especially well by materials of considerable
electrical conductivityespecially by most metals, by seawater and by wet ground. Some of
these make the use of radar altimeters possible. The radar signals that are reflected back
towards the transmitter are the desirable ones that make radar work. If the object is moving
either toward or away from the transmitter, there is a slight equivalent change in the frequency
of the radio waves, caused by the Doppler effect
.





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CHAPTER 2
Radar Frequencies
The spectrum of the electric magnetic waves shows frequencies up to 10
24
Hz. This very large
complete range is subdivided because of different physical qualities in different subranges.
The division of the frequencies to the different ranges was competed on criteria formerly, which
arose historically and a new division of the wavebands which is used internationally is out-dated
and arose so in the meantime. The traditional waveband name is partly still used in the literature,
however.

Figure2.1: Common Frequency Bands for Radars

A- and B- Band (HF- und VHF- Radar)
These radar bands below 300 MHz have a long historically tradition because these frequencies
represented the frontier of radio technology at the time during the World War II. Today these
frequencies are used for early warning radars and so called Over The Horizon (OTH) Radars.



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Using these lower frequencies it is easier to obtain high-power transmitters. The attenuation of
the electro-magnetic waves is lower than using higher frequencies. On the other hand the
accuracy is limited, because a lower frequency requires antennas with very large physical size
which determines angle accuracy and angle resolution. These frequency-bands are used by other
communications and broadcasting services too, therefore the bandwidth of the radar is limited (at
the expense of accuracy and resolution again).
These frequency bands are currently experiencing a comeback, while the actually used Stealth
technologies don't have the desired effect at extremely low frequencies.
C- Band (UHF- Radar)
There are some specialized Radar sets developed for this frequency band (300 MHz to1 GHz). It
is a good frequency for the operation of radars for the detection and tracking of satellites and
ballistic missiles over a long range. These radars operate for early warning and target acquisition
like the surveillance radar for the Medium Extended Air Defense System (MEADS). Some
weather radar-applications e.g. wind profilers work with these frequencies because the
electromagnetic waves are very low affected by clouds and rain.
The new technology of Ultrawideband (UWB) Radars uses all frequencies from A- to C-Band.
UWB- radars transmit very low pulses in all frequencies simultaneously. They are used for
technically material examination and as Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) for archaeological
explorations.




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CHAPTER 3
RADAR Applications
The information provided by radar includes the bearing and range (and therefore position) of the
object from the radar scanner. It is thus used in many different fields where the need for such
positioning is crucial. The first use of radar was for military purposes: to locate air, ground and
sea targets. This evolved in the civilian field into applications for aircraft, ships, and roads.
In aviation, aircraft are equipped with radar devices that warn of aircraft or other obstacles in or
approaching their path, display weather information, and give accurate altitude readings. The
first commercial device fitted to aircraft was a 1938 Bell Lab unit on some United Air Lines
aircraft. Such aircraft can land in fog at airports equipped with radar-assisted ground-controlled
approach systems in which the plane's flight is observed on radar screens while operators radio
landing directions to the pilot.

Figure3.1: Commercial marine radar antenna.



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Marine radars are used to measure the bearing and distance of ships to prevent collision with
other ships, to navigate, and to fix their position at sea when within range of shore or other fixed
references such as islands, buoys, and lightships. In port or in harbour, vessel traffic servicre
radar systems are used to monitor and regulate ship movements in busy waters.
Meteorologists use radar to monitor precipitation and wind. It has become the primary tool for
short-term weather forecasting and watching for severe weather such as thunderstorms,
tornadoes, winter storms, precipitation types, etc. Geologists use specialised ground-penetrating
radars to map the composition of Earth's crust.
Police forces use radar guns to monitor vehicle speeds on the roads.













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CHAPTER 4
Classifications of RADAR


Figure4: diagram showing types of radars

4.1. En-Route Surveillance Radar (RSR)
ATC provides services to aircraft in flight between airports as well. Pilots fly under one of two
sets of rules for separation: Visual Flight Rules (VFR) or Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). Air traffic
controllers have different responsibilities to aircraft operating under the different sets of rules.
While IFR flights are under positive control, in the US VFR pilots can request flight following,



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Figure4.1 : En-Route Surveillance Radar
which provides traffic advisory services on a time permitting basis and may also provide
assistance in avoiding areas of weather and flight restrictions. Across Europe, pilots may
request for a "Flight Information Service", which is similar to flight following. In the UK it is
known as a "Traffic Service".
En-route air traffic controllers issue clearances and instructions for airborne aircraft, and pilots
are required to comply with these instructions. En-route controllers also provide air traffic
control services to many smaller airports around the country, including clearance off of the
ground and clearance for approach to an airport. Controllers adhere to a set of separation
standards that define the minimum distance allowed between aircraft. These distances vary
depending on the equipment and procedures used in providing ATC services.






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4.2. Terminal Approach Radar (TAR)
Many airports have a radar control facility that is associated with the airport. In most countries,
this is referred to as Terminal Control; in the U.S., it is referred to as a TRACON (Terminal Radar
Approach Control). While every airport varies, terminal controllers usually handle traffic in a 30-
to-50-nautical-mile (56 to 93 km) radius from the airport. Where there are many busy airports
close together, one consolidated Terminal Control Center may service all the airports. The
airspace boundaries and altitudes assigned to a Terminal Control Center, which vary widely
from airport to airport, are based on factors such as traffic flows, neighboring airports and
terrain. A large and complex example is the London Terminal Control Centre which controls
traffic for five main London airports up to 20,000 feet (6,100 m) and out to 100 nautical miles
(190 km).
Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all ATC services within their airspace. Traffic
flow is broadly divided into departures, arrivals, and overflights. As aircraft move in and out of
the terminal airspace, they are handed off to the next appropriate control facility (a control
tower, an en-route control facility, or a bordering terminal or approach control). Terminal
control is responsible for ensuring that aircraft are at an appropriate altitude when they are
handed off, and that aircraft arrive at a suitable rate for landing
Not all airports have a radar approach or terminal control available. In this case, the en-route
center or a neighboring terminal or approach control may co-ordinate directly with the tower on



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the airport and vector inbound aircraft to a position from where they can land visually. At some
of these airports, the tower may provide a non-radar procedural approach service to arriving
aircraft handed over from a radar unit before they are visual to land. Some units also have a
dedicated approach unit which can provide the procedural approach service either all the time or
for any periods of radar outage for any reason.

Figure4.2: Image of Terminal Approach Radar



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4.2.1. Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR)
The first ATC radars used in Australia were wartime air defence units which were used
experimentally. These radars were of the type that later became known as 'Primary' radars.
That is, they worked on the well-known 'Battle of Britain' principle in which the radar
transmitter sends out a pulse of radio energy, of which a very small proportion is reflected
from the surface or structure of the target aircraft back to the radar receiver.
The azimuth orientation of the radar antenna provides the bearing of the aircraft from the
ground station, and the time taken for the pulse to reach the target and return provides a
measure of the distance of the target from the ground station. The bearing and distance of
the target can then be converted into a ground position for display to the Air Traffic
Controller. Target elevation (altitude) is not normally measured by ATC primary radars.
The advantage of Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) is that it operates totally independently
of the target aircraft - that is, no action from the aircraft is required for it to provide a radar
return.
The disadvantages of PSR are that, firstly, enormous amounts of power must be radiated to
ensure returns from the target. This is especially true if long range is desired. Secondly,
because of the small amount of energy returned at the receiver, returns may be easily
disrupted due to such factors as changes of target attitude or signal attenuation due to
heavy rain. This may cause the displayed target to 'fade'. Thirdly, correlation of a particular
radar return with a particular aircraft requires an identification process. When PSR was the
only type of radar available, this was typically achieved by the Controller instructing an
aircraft to turn and observing same on their display, or by correlating a DME distance report
by the aircraft with the position of a particular return along a known track.



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4.2.2. Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
The disadvantages of PSR outlined above led to the employment of another aspect of
wartime radar development. This was the Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) system, which
had been developed as a means of positively identifying friendly aircraft from enemy. The
system which became known in civil use as Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR), or in the
USA as the Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System, relies on a piece of equipment aboard
the aircraft known as a 'transponder'.
The transponder is a radio receiver and transmitter operating on the radar frequency. The
target aircraft's transponder responds to interrogation by the ground station by transmitting
a coded reply signal. The great advantages of SSR are three: firstly, because the reply
signal is transmitted from the aircraft it is much stronger when received at the ground
station, thus giving the possibility of much greater range and reducing the problems of
signal attenuation; similarly, the transmitting power required of the ground station for a
given range is much reduced, thus providing considerable economy; and thirdly, because
the signals in each direction are electronically coded the possibility is offered to transmit
additional information between the two stations.
The disadvantage of SSR is that it requires a target aircraft to carry an operating
transponder. Thus SSR is a 'dependant' surveillance system. For this reason, PSR will
operate in conjunction with SSR in certain areas for the foreseeable future so that 'non-
cooperating' targets, such as some light aircraft, can be detected.
SSR has several modes of operation, the basic civil mode being Mode A. In this mode the
aircraft's transponder provides positive aircraft identification by transmitting a four-digit
code to the ground station. The code system is octal; that is, each of the code digits may be
any of the numbers 0-7. There are thus 4096 possible four-digit codes (e.g. 3472).



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Another principal SSR mode currently used in Australia is Mode C. In this mode the aircraft's
altitude, derived from on-board instruments, is transmitted to the ground station in addition
to the identity. The use of Mode C was introduced in Australia in the late 1980s with the
acquisition of ground systems, such as ATCARDS, capable of processing the information.
A further mode, Mode S (or 'Mode Select'), is also used. Aircraft equipped with transponders
supporting this mode are assigned a permanent identification which can be selectively
addressed by the ground radar. This reduces problems of garbling between SSR returns
from aircraft in close proximity. Mode S also offers a wider range of data to be transmitted,
including potentially an uplink of data from the ground station to the aircraft although this
capability is presently not used in Australia.
Additional SSR Modes are used by military aircraft.












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4.3. How SSR Works?

Figure4.3.1: Functional Block Diagram of Secondary Radar
In the interrogator on the ground:
The secondary radar set needs a synchronous impulse of the (analogous) primary radar set to the
synchronization of the indication.
The chosen mode is encoded in the Coder. (By the different modes different questions
can be defined to the airplane.)
The transmitter modulates these impulses with the RF frequency. Because another
frequency than on the replay path is used on the interrogation path, an expensive
duplexer can be renounced.



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The antenna is usually mounted on the antenna of the primary radar set and turns
synchronously to the deflection on the monitor therefore.
In the aircrafts transponder:
A receiving antenna and a transponder are in the airplane.
The receiver amplifies and demodulates the interrogation impulses.
The decoder decodes the question according to the desired information and induces the coder
to prepare the suitable answer.
The coder encodes the answer.
The transmitter amplifies the replay impulses and modulates these with the RF reply-frequency.

Again in the interrogator on the ground:
The receiver amplifies and demodulates the replay impulses. Jamming or interfering
signals are filtered out as well as possible at this.
From the informations Mode and Code the decoder decodes the answer.
The monitor of the primary radar represents the additional interrogator information.
Perhaps additional numbers must be shown on an extra display.






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CHAPTER 5
Surface Movement Radar (SMR)
Surface Movement Radar (SMR) is used to detect aircraft and vehicles on the surface of an
airport. It is used by air traffic controllers to supplement visual observations. It may also be used
at night time and during low visibility to monitor the movement of aircraft and vehicles. Surface
movement radar is the term accepted by ICAO, but it has historically been known by other
names such a ground movement radar, airport surface detection equipment (ASDE) and airfield
surface movement indicator.

Figure5.1: Surface Movement Radar
SMR is typically presented as a video blip, overlaid onto a plan view map of the airport showing
features such as the runways and taxiways, grass areas and buildings. The SMR may be
augmented by callsigns to identify each target, and provide warnings in the event of potential
conflicts between aircraft on the runway (see AMASS). SMR also forms a key element of A-
SMGCS.



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SMR is required to provide high accuracy (typically 7.5 m), high update rate (1 per second), high
resolution (less than 20 m) detection of airfield targets. To achieve this, SMR uses very short
transmitter's pulse length of typically 40 nanoseconds. It use a carrier-frequency in X-Band
(9 GHz) or K
u
-band (15 to 17 GHz), and antennas with a very narrow beam (about 0.25 degrees
in azimuth).















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CHAPTER 6
Advantages of Air Craft Surveillance Radar
1. Traffic When using an air craft surveillance radar pilot is able to view traffic information
about surrounding aircraft. This information includes altitude, heading, speed, and distance to
aircraft.
2. Using this technology will be able to receive weather reports, and weather radar through
flight information service-broadcast (FIS-B).
3. Minimize the mid-air colloison between aircrafts and also helps in proper take off and
landing process of aircraft. Extending collision avoidance below 1,000 feet above ground level, and
detecting runway incursions.
4. Expense - ADS-B ground stations are significantly cheaper to install and operate compared to primary
and secondary radar systems












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CHAPTER 7
Conclusions
Radar surveillance to assure safety of aircraft on the airport surface is difficult because of
reflections from the ground and from airport structures and service vehicles. Although several
generations of airport surface detection radars have been deployed since the 1990s, and surface
surveillance performance has improved, reflections continue to cause unreliable tracking.
As with other radar environments, surveillance quality on the airport surface can be improved by
the use of transponders. Unfortunately, the resolution of the beacon system used for airspace
surveillance is inadequate to distinguish between closely spaced aircraft at airports. However,
high-resolution surface surveillance can be achieved with multiple receivers on the airport
surface that estimate transponder locations by comparing arrival times of replies from
conventional transponders. Systems that combine this multilateration technique with primary
radar surveillance can now achieve surveillance accuracies and reliabilities that are good enough
to input to automatic safety warning devices on the airport surface.








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CHAPTER 8
References
1) http://www.radartutorial.eu/13.ssr/sr04.en.html
2) http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Air_Traffic_Control_and_Radar
3) Www.Wikipedia.Org
4) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_collision_avoidance_system
5) http://www.davi.ws/skolnik/Skolnik_preface_contents.pdf