C++ VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between interpreters and copi!ers"

Interpreters read thro#$h so#rce code and trans!ate a pro$ra% t#rnin$ the
pro$raer&s code% or pro$ra instr#ctions% direct!' into actions. Copi!ers
trans!ate so#rce code into an e(ec#tab!e pro$ra that can be r#n at a !ater tie.
). *ow do 'o# copi!e the so#rce code with 'o#r copi!er"
E+er' copi!er is different. ,e s#re to chec- the doc#entation that cae with 'o#r
copi!er.
.. What does the !in-er do"
The !in-er&s /ob is to tie to$ether 'o#r copi!ed code with the !ibraries s#pp!ied b'
'o#r copi!er +endor and other so#rces. The !in-er !ets 'o# b#i!d 'o#r pro$ra in
pieces and then !in- to$ether the pieces into one bi$ pro$ra.
0. What are the steps in the de+e!opent c'c!e"
Edit so#rce code% copi!e% !in-% test% repeat.
1. What is the difference between the copi!er and the preprocessor"
Each tie 'o# r#n 'o#r copi!er% the preprocessor r#ns first. It reads thro#$h 'o#r
so#rce code and inc!#des the fi!es 'o#&+e as-ed for% and perfors other
ho#se-eepin$ chores. The preprocessor is disc#ssed in detai! on 2a' 13% 4Ob/ect5
Oriented Ana!'sis and 2esi$n.4
6. Wh' is the f#nction ain78 specia!"
ain78 is ca!!ed a#toatica!!'% each tie 'o#r pro$ra is e(ec#ted.
9. What are the two t'pes of coents% and how do the' differ"
C++5st'!e coents are two s!ashes 7::8% and the' coent o#t an' te(t #nti! the
end of the !ine. C5st'!e coents coe in pairs 7:; ;:8% and e+er'thin$ between
theatchin$ pairs is coented o#t. <o# #st be caref#! to ens#re 'o# ha+e
atchedpairs.



3. Can coents be nested"
<es% C++5st'!e coents can be nested within C5st'!e coents. <o# can% in fact%nest
C5st'!e coents within C++5st'!e coents% as !on$ as 'o# reeber thatthe C++5
st'!e coents end at the end of the !ine.
=. Can coents be !on$er than one !ine"
C5st'!e coents can. If 'o# want to e(tend C++5st'!e coents to a second !ine%
'o# #st p#t another set of do#b!e s!ashes 7::8.
1>. What are the differences between the f#nction protot'pe and the f#nction
definition"
The f#nction protot'pe dec!ares the f#nction? the definition defines it. The protot'pe
ends with a seico!on? the definition need not. The dec!aration can inc!#de the
-e'word in!ine and defa#!t +a!#es for the paraeters? the definition cannot. The
dec!aration need not inc!#de naes for the paraeters? the definition #st.
11. 2o the naes of paraeters ha+e to a$ree in the protot'pe% definition% and ca!!
to the f#nction"
No. A!! paraeters are identified b' position% not nae.
1). If a f#nction doesn&t ret#rn a +a!#e% how do 'o# dec!are the f#nction"
2ec!are the f#nction to ret#rn +oid.
1.. If 'o# don&t dec!are a ret#rn +a!#e% what t'pe of ret#rn +a!#e is ass#ed"
An' f#nction that does not e(p!icit!' dec!are a ret#rn t'pe ret#rns int.
10. What is a !oca! +ariab!e"
A !oca! +ariab!e is a +ariab!e passed into or dec!ared within a b!oc-% t'pica!!' a
f#nction. It is +isib!e on!' within the b!oc-.
11. What is scope"
Scope refers to the +isibi!it' and !ifetie of !oca! and $!oba! +ariab!es. Scope is
#s#a!!' estab!ished b' a set of braces.
16. What is rec#rsion"
@ec#rsion $enera!!' refers to the abi!it' of a f#nction to ca!! itse!f.



19. When sho#!d 'o# #se $!oba! +ariab!es"
A!oba! +ariab!es are t'pica!!' #sed when an' f#nctions need access to the sae
data. A!oba! +ariab!es are +er' rare in C++? once 'o# -now how to create static
c!ass +ariab!es% 'o# wi!! a!ost ne+er create $!oba! +ariab!es.
13.What is f#nction o+er!oadin$"
B#nction o+er!oadin$ is the abi!it' to write ore than one f#nction with the sae
nae% distin$#ished b' the n#ber or t'pe of the paraeters.
1=. What is po!'orphis"
Co!'orphis is the abi!it' to treat an' ob/ects of differin$ b#t re!ated t'pes
witho#t re$ard to their differences. In C++% po!'orphis is accop!ished b' #sin$
c!ass deri+ation and +irt#a! f#nctions.
)>. Is the dec!aration of a c!ass its interface or its ip!eentation"
The dec!aration of a c!ass is its interface? it te!!s c!ients of the c!ass how to interact
with the c!ass. The ip!eentation of the c!ass is the set of eber f#nctions
stored55#s#a!!' in a re!ated CCC fi!e.
)1. What is the difference between p#b!ic and pri+ate data ebers"
C#b!ic data ebers can be accessed b' c!ients of the c!ass. Cri+ate data ebers
can be accessed on!' b' eber f#nctions of the c!ass.
)). Can eber f#nctions be pri+ate"
<es. ,oth eber f#nctions and eber data can be pri+ate.
).. Can eber data be p#b!ic"
A!tho#$h eber data can be p#b!ic% it is $ood pro$rain$ practice to a-e it
pri+ate and to pro+ide p#b!ic accessor f#nctions to the data.
)0. 2o c!ass dec!arations end with a seico!on" 2o c!ass ethod definitions"
2ec!arations end with a seico!on after the c!osin$ brace? f#nction definitions do
not.
)1. What is the difference between the indirection operator and the address of
operator"
The indirection operator ret#rns the +a!#e at the address stored in a pointer. The



address of operator 7D8 ret#rns the eor' address of the +ariab!e.
)6. What is the difference between a reference and a pointer"
A reference is an a!ias% and a pointer is a +ariab!e that ho!ds an address. @eferences
cannot be n#!! and cannot be assi$ned to.
)9. When #st 'o# #se a pointer rather than a reference"
When 'o# a' need to reassi$n what is pointed to% or when the pointer a' be
n#!!.
)3. What does new ret#rn if there is ins#fficient eor' to a-e 'o#r new ob/ect"
A n#!! pointer 7>8.
)=. What is a constant reference"
This is a shorthand wa' of sa'in$ 4a reference to a constant ob/ect.4
.>. What is the difference between passin$ b' reference and passin$ a reference"
Cassin$ b' reference eans not a-in$ a !oca! cop'. It can be accop!ished b'
passin$ a reference or b' passin$ a pointer.
.1. When 'o# o+er!oad eber f#nctions% in what wa's #st the' differ"
O+er!oaded eber f#nctions are f#nctions in a c!ass that share a nae b#t differ
in the n#ber or t'pe of their paraeters.
.). What is the difference between a dec!aration and a definition"
A definition sets aside eor'% b#t a dec!aration does not. A!ost a!! dec!arations
are definitions? the a/or e(ceptions are c!ass dec!arations% f#nction protot'pes%
and t'pedef stateents.
... When is the cop' constr#ctor ca!!ed"
Whene+er a teporar' cop' of an ob/ect is created. This happens e+er' tie an



ob/ect is passed b' +a!#e.
.0. When is the destr#ctor ca!!ed"
The destr#ctor is ca!!ed each tie an ob/ect is destro'ed% either beca#se it $oes o#t
of scope or beca#se 'o# ca!! de!ete on a pointer pointin$ to it.
.1. *ow does the cop' constr#ctor differ fro the assi$nent operator 7E8"
The assi$nent operator acts on an e(istin$ ob/ect? the cop' constr#ctor creates a
new one.
.6. What is the this pointer"
The this pointer is a hidden paraeter in e+er' eber f#nction that points to the
ob/ect itse!f.
.9. *ow do 'o# differentiate between o+er!oadin$ the prefi( and postfi(
increents"
The prefi( operator ta-es no paraeters. The postfi( operator ta-es a sin$!e int
paraeter% which is #sed as a si$na! to the copi!er that this is the postfi( +ariant.
.3. Can 'o# o+er!oad the operator+ for short inte$ers"
No% 'o# cannot o+er!oad an' operator for b#i!t5in t'pes.
.=. Is it !e$a! in C++ to o+er!oad operator++ so that it decreents a +a!#e in 'o#r
c!ass"
It is !e$a!% b#t it is a bad idea. Operators sho#!d be o+er!oaded in a wa' that is !i-e!'
to be readi!' #nderstood b' an'one readin$ 'o#r code.
0>. What ret#rn +a!#e #st con+ersion operators ha+e in their dec!aration"
None. Fi-e constr#ctors and destr#ctors% the' ha+e no ret#rn +a!#es.
01. What is a +5tab!e"
A +5tab!e% or +irt#a! f#nction tab!e% is a coon wa' for copi!ers to ana$e +irt#a!
f#nctions in C++. The tab!e -eeps a !ist of the addresses of a!! the +irt#a! f#nctions
and% dependin$ on the r#ntie t'pe of the ob/ect pointed to% in+o-es the ri$ht
f#nction.



0). What is a +irt#a! destr#ctor"
A destr#ctor of an' c!ass can be dec!ared to be +irt#a!. When the pointer is de!eted%
the r#ntie t'pe of the ob/ect wi!! be assessed and the correct deri+ed destr#ctor
in+o-ed.
0.. *ow do 'o# show the dec!aration of a +irt#a! constr#ctor"
There are no +irt#a! constr#ctors.
00. *ow can 'o# create a +irt#a! cop' constr#ctor"
,' creatin$ a +irt#a! ethod in 'o#r c!ass% which itse!f ca!!s the cop' constr#ctor.
01. *ow do 'o# in+o-e a base eber f#nction fro a deri+ed c!ass in which
'o#&+e o+erridden that f#nction"
,aseGGB#nctionNae78?
06. *ow do 'o# in+o-e a base eber f#nction fro a deri+ed c!ass in which 'o#
ha+e not o+erridden that f#nction"
B#nctionNae78?
09. If a base c!ass dec!ares a f#nction to be +irt#a!% and a deri+ed c!ass does not #se
the ter +irt#a! when o+erridin$ that c!ass% is it sti!! +irt#a! when inherited b' a
third5$eneration c!ass"
<es% the +irt#a!it' is inherited and cannot be t#rned off.
03. What is the protected -e'word #sed for"
protected ebers are accessib!e to the eber f#nctions of deri+ed ob/ects.
0=. What is a down cast"
A down cast 7a!so ca!!ed 4castin$ down48 is a dec!aration that a pointer to a base
c!ass is to be treated as a pointer to a deri+ed c!ass.
1>. What is the +5ptr"
The +5ptr% or +irt#a!5f#nction pointer% is an ip!eentation detai! of +irt#a! f#nctions.



Each ob/ect in a c!ass with +irt#a! f#nctions has a +5ptr% which points to the +irt#a!
f#nction tab!e for that c!ass.
11. If a ro#nd rectan$!e has strai$ht ed$es and ro#nded corners% 'o#r @o#nd@ectc!ass
inherits both fro @ectan$!e and fro Circ!e% and the' in t#rn both inheritfro
Shape%
how an' Shapes are created when 'o# create a @o#nd@ect"
If neither c!ass inherits #sin$ the -e'word +irt#a!% two Shapes are createdG one
for@ectan$!e and one for Shape. If the -e'word +irt#a! is #sed for both c!asses%
on!'one
shared Shape is created.
1). If *orse and ,ird inherit +irt#a! p#b!ic fro Ania!% do their constr#ctors
initia!iHe the Ania! constr#ctor" If Ce$as#s inherits fro both *orse and ,ird% how
does it initia!iHe Ania!&s constr#ctor"
,oth *orse and ,ird initia!iHe their base c!ass% Ania!% in their constr#ctors. Ce$as#s
does as we!!% and when a Ce$as#s is created% the *orse and ,ird initia!iHations of
Ania! are i$nored.
1.. 2ec!are a c!ass Vehic!e and a-e it an abstract data t'pe.
c!ass Vehic!e
I+irt#a! +oid Jo+e78 E >?
K10. If a base c!ass is an A2T% and it has three p#re +irt#a! f#nctions% how an' of
these f#nctions #st be o+erridden in its deri+ed c!asses"
None #st be o+erridden #n!ess 'o# want to a-e the c!ass non5abstract% in which
case a!! three #st be o+erridden.
11. Can static eber +ariab!es be pri+ate"
<es. The' are eber +ariab!es% and their access can be contro!!ed !i-e an' other.
If the' are pri+ate% the' can be accessed on!' b' #sin$ eber f#nctions or% ore
coon!'% static eber f#nctions.
16. Show the dec!aration for a static eber +ariab!e.
static int itsStatic?
19. Show the dec!aration for a static f#nction pointer.
static int SoeB#nction78?
13. Show the dec!aration for a pointer to f#nction ret#rnin$ !on$ and ta-in$ an



inte$er paraeter.
!on$ 7; f#nction87int8?
1=. *ow do 'o# estab!ish an is5a re!ationship"
With p#b!ic inheritance.
6>. *ow do 'o# estab!ish a has5a re!ationship"
With containent? that is% one c!ass has a eber that is an ob/ect of another t'pe.
61. What is the difference between containent and de!e$ation"
Containent describes the idea of one c!ass ha+in$ a data eber that is an ob/ect
of another t'pe. 2e!e$ation e(presses the idea that one c!ass #ses another c!ass to
accop!ish a tas- or $oa!. 2e!e$ation is #s#a!!' accop!ished b' containent.
6). What is the difference between de!e$ation and ip!eented5in5ters5of"
2e!e$ation e(presses the idea that one c!ass #ses another c!ass to accop!ish a
tas- or $oa!. Ip!eented5in5ters5of e(presses the idea of inheritin$
ip!eentation fro another c!ass.
6.. What is a friend f#nction"
A friend f#nction is a f#nction dec!ared to ha+e access to the protected and pri+ate
ebers of 'o#r
c!ass.
60. What is a friend c!ass"
A friend c!ass is a c!ass dec!ared so that a!! its eber f#nctions are friend
f#nctions of 'o#r c!ass.
61. If 2o$ is a friend of ,o'% is ,o' a friend of 2o$"
No% friendship is not co#tati+e.
66. If 2o$ is a friend of ,o'% and Terrier deri+es fro 2o$% is Terrier a friend of ,o'"
No% friendship is not inherited.
69. If 2o$ is a friend of ,o' and ,o' is a friend of *o#se% is 2o$ a friend of *o#se"



No% friendship is not associati+e.
63. Where #st the dec!aration of a friend f#nction appear"
An'where within the c!ass dec!aration. It a-es no difference whether 'o# p#t the
dec!aration within the p#b!icG% protectedG% or pri+ateG access areas.
6=. What is the insertion operator and what does it do"
The insertion operator 7LL8 is a eber operator of the ostrea ob/ect and is #sedfor
writin$ to the o#tp#t de+ice. 9>. What is the e(traction operator and what doesit do"
The
e(traction operator 7MM8 is a eber operator of the istrea ob/ect andis #sed for
writin$ to 'o#r pro$ra&s +ariab!es.
91. What are the three fors of cin.$et78 and what are their differences"
The first for of $et78 is witho#t paraeters. This ret#rns the +a!#e of the character
fo#nd% and wi!! ret#rn EOB 7end of fi!e8 if the end of the fi!e is reached.
The second for of cin.$et78 ta-es a character reference as its paraeter? that
character is fi!!ed with the ne(t character in the inp#t strea. The ret#rn +a!#e is an
iostrea ob/ect.
The third for of cin.$et78 ta-es an arra'% a a(i# n#ber of characters to
$et%and a
terinatin$ character. This for of $et78 fi!!s the arra' with #p to one fewercharacters
than the a(i# 7appendin$ n#!!8 #n!ess it reads the terinatin$character% in which
case it iediate!' writes a n#!! and !ea+es the terinatin$character in the b#ffer.
9). What is the difference between cin.read78 and cin.$et!ine78"
cin.read78 is #sed for readin$ binar' data str#ct#res.
$et!ine78 is #sed to read fro the istrea&s b#ffer.
9.. What is the defa#!t width for o#p#ttin$ a !on$ inte$er #sin$ the insertion
operator"
Wide eno#$h to disp!a' the entire n#ber.
90. What is the ret#rn +a!#e of the insertion operator"
A reference to an istrea ob/ect.
91. What paraeter does the constr#ctor to an ofstrea ob/ect ta-e"
The fi!enae to be opened.
96. What does the iosGGate ar$#ent do"
iosGGate p!aces 'o# at the end of the fi!e% b#t 'o# can write data an'where in the fi!e.
99. What is an inc!#sion $#ard"
Inc!#sion $#ards are #sed to protect a header fi!e fro bein$ inc!#ded into a
pro$ra ore than once.
93. *ow do 'o# instr#ct 'o#r copi!er to print the contents of the interediate fi!e
showin$ the effects of the preprocessor"
This N#iH N#estion #st be answered b' 'o#% dependin$ on the copi!er 'o# are
#sin$.
9=. What is the difference between Odefine deb#$ > and O#ndef deb#$"
Odefine deb#$ > defines the ter deb#$ to eN#a! > 7Hero8. E+er'where the word
deb#$ is fo#nd% the character > wi!! be s#bstit#ted. O#ndef deb#$ reo+es an'
definition of deb#$? when the word deb#$ is fo#nd in the fi!e% it wi!! be !eft
#nchan$ed.
3>. Nae fo#r predefined acros.
PP2ATEPP% PPTIJEPP% PPBIFEPP% PPFINEPP
31. Wh' can&t 'o# ca!! in+ariants78 as the first !ine of 'o#r constr#ctor"
The /ob of 'o#r constr#ctor is to create the ob/ect. The c!ass in+ariants cannot and
sho#!d not e(ist before the ob/ect is f#!!' created% so an' eanin$f#! #se of
in+ariants78 wi!! ret#rn fa!se #nti! the constr#ctor is finished.
3). What is the difference between ob/ect5oriented pro$rain$ and proced#ra!
pro$rain$"
Croced#ra! pro$rain$ foc#ses on f#nctions separate fro data.
Ob/ectorientedpro$rain$
ties data and f#nctiona!it' to$ether into ob/ects% and foc#ses on
theinteraction aon$ the ob/ects.
3.. To what does 4e+ent5dri+en4 refer"
E+ent5dri+en pro$ras are distin$#ished b' the fact that action is ta-en on!' in
response to soe for of 7#s#a!!' e(terna!8 si#!ation% s#ch as a #ser&s -e'board or
o#se inp#t.
30. What are the sta$es in the de+e!opent c'c!e"
T'pica!!'% the de+e!opent c'c!e inc!#des ana!'sis% desi$n% codin$% testin$%
pro$rain$% and interaction and feedbac- aon$ these sta$es.
31. What is a rooted hierarch'"
A rooted hierarch' is one in which a!! the c!asses in the pro$ra deri+e direct!' or
indirect!' fro a sin$!e base c!ass
36. What is a dri+er pro$ra"
A dri+er pro$ra is sip!' a f#nction that is desi$ned to e(ercise whate+er ob/ects
and f#nctions 'o# are c#rrent!' pro$rain$.
39. What is encaps#!ation"
Encaps#!ation refers to the 7desirab!e8 trait of brin$in$ to$ether in one c!ass a!! the
data and f#nctiona!it' of one discrete entit'.
33. What is the difference between a tep!ate and a acro"
Tep!ates are b#i!t into the C++ !an$#a$e and are t'pe5safe. Jacros are
ip!eented b' the preprocessor and are not t'pe5safe.
3=. What is the difference between the paraeter to a tep!ate and the paraeter
to a f#nction"
The paraeter to the tep!ate creates an instance of the tep!ate for each t'pe. If
'o# create si( tep!ate instances% si( different c!asses or f#nctions are created. The
paraeters to the f#nction chan$e the beha+ior or data of the f#nction% b#t on!'
one f#nction is created.
=>. What is the difference between a t'pe5specific tep!ate friend c!ass and a
$enera! tep!ate friend c!ass"
The $enera! tep!ate friend f#nction creates one f#nction for e+er' t'pe of the
paraeteriHed c!ass? the t'pe5specific f#nction creates a t'pe5specific instance for
each instance of the paraeteriHed c!ass.
=1. Is it possib!e to pro+ide specia! beha+ior for one instance of a tep!ate b#t not
for other instances"
<es% create a specia!iHed f#nction for the partic#!ar instance. In addition to
creatin$Arra'GGSoeB#nction78% a!so create Arra'GGSoeB#nction78 to chan$e the
beha+iorfor inte$er arra's.
=). *ow an' static +ariab!es are created if 'o# p#t one static eber into a
tep!ate c!ass definition"
One for each instance of the c!ass.
=.. What is an e(ception"
An e(ception is an ob/ect that is created as a res#!t of in+o-in$ the -e'word throw.
It is #sed to si$na! an e(ceptiona! condition% and is passed #p the ca!! stac- to the
first catch stateent that hand!es its t'pe.
=0. What is a tr' b!oc-"
A tr' b!oc- is a set of stateents that i$ht $enerate an e(ception.
=1. What is a catch stateent"
A catch stateent has a si$nat#re of the t'pe of e(ception it hand!es. It fo!!ows a
tr' b!oc- and acts as the recei+er of e(ceptions raised within the tr' b!oc-.
=6. What inforation can an e(ception contain"
An e(ception is an ob/ect and can contain an' inforation that can be defined
within a #ser5created c!ass.
=9. When are e(ception ob/ects created"
E(ception ob/ects are created when 'o# in+o-e the -e'word throw.
=3. Sho#!d 'o# pass e(ceptions b' +a!#e or b' reference"
In $enera!% e(ceptions sho#!d be passed b' reference. If 'o# don&t intend to odif'
the contents of the e(ception ob/ect% 'o# sho#!d pass a const reference.
==. Wi!! a catch stateent catch a deri+ed e(ception if it is !oo-in$ for the base
c!ass"
<es% if 'o# pass the e(ception b' reference.
1>>. If there are two catch stateents% one for base and one for deri+ed% which
sho#!d coe first"
catch stateents are e(ained in the order the' appear in the so#rce code. The
first catch stateent whose si$nat#re atches the e(ception is #sed.
1>1. What does catch7...8 ean"
catch7...8 wi!! catch an' e(ception of an' t'pe.
1>). What is a brea-point"
A brea-point is a p!ace in the code where the deb#$$er wi!! stop e(ec#tion.
1>. What is the difference between strcp'78 and strncp'78"
strcp'7char; destination% char; so#rce8 copies so#rce to destination% and p#ts a n#!!
at the end of destination. destination #st be !ar$e eno#$h to accoodate
so#rce% or strcp'78 wi!! sip!' write past the end of the arra'. strncp'7char;
destination char; so#rce% int howan'8 wi!! write howan' b'tes of so#rce to
destination% b#t wi!! not p#t a terinatin$ n#!!.
1>0. What does ctie78 do"
ctie78 ta-es a tiePt +ariab!e and ret#rns an ASCII strin$ with the c#rrent tie.
The tiePt +ariab!e is t'pica!!' fi!!ed b' passin$ its address to tie78.
1>1. What is the f#nction to ca!! to t#rn an ASCII strin$ into a !on$"
ato!78
SOJE JO@E VIVA QUESTIONS
1.What are c!asses"
A c!ass is a co!!ection of ob/ects of sii!ar t'pe. Once a c!ass is defined an'
Q
n#ber of ob/ects can be created of that c!ass.
E(ap!es of c!asses are c!ass of cars% c!ass of pens% c!ass of birds etc.
Q
What are Instances"
Instances are essentia!!' ob
Q
/ects deri+ed o#t of c!asses.
When an ob/ect is created for a partic#!ar c!ass the process is ca!!ed Instantiation.
Q
In $enera!% !ife tie of ob/ect is nothin$ b#t the tie between an ob/ect creation% ti!!
the ob/ect is no !on$er #sed and is destr#cted or freed.
).What is ob/ect orientation"
It is a techniN#e for s'ste ode!in$. It offers a n#ber of concepts
..Cointer t'peG A Cointer is a +ariab!e which ho!ds the address of another +ariab!e.
0.Const Q#a!ifierG Const N#a!ifier is #sed to pre+ent fro accidenta! chan$es within
a pro$ra.
1.2ifferences between Str#ct#red Cro$rain$ and OOC
Q In St.C ephasis is on What is happenin$. In OOC ephasis is on Who is bein$
affected.
Q 2ata o+e open!' aro#nd the s'ste. In St.C. In OOC the data and f#nctions that
operate on the data are tied to$ether
Q In St.C ost fns share $!oba! data. In OOC data is hidden and cannot be accessed
b' e(terna! f#nctions.
Q In St.C% Far$e pro$ras are di+ided to sa!!er pro$ras -nown as f#nctions% In
OOC the' are di+ided into ob/ects.
6.En#erated 2ata t'peG It is a #ser5defined data t'pe.
R The s'nta( of en# stateent is sii!ar to that of str#ct
R Bor E(G en# shapeI circ!e% sN#are% trian$!eK?
9. New and 2e!ete G 7Jeor' Jana$eent Operators8
These are the #nar' operators to perfor d'naic eor' a!!ocation and
dea!!ocation
New operator is #sed to create ob/ects. The Aenera! Bor isG
Cointer5+ariab!e E new data5t'pe? The $enera! for of #sin$ de!ete
de!ete pointer5+ariab!e?
Bor E(G de!ete p?
To free d'naica!!' a!!ocated arra'
de!ete SsiHeT pointer5+ariab!e
Bor E(G de!ete S1>T p?
Bor E(G int ;p E new int?
3. In!ine B#nctionsGAn in!ine f#nction is a f#nction that is e(panded in !ine when it is
in+o-ed
In!ine f#nction5header
If#nction bod'
KE(G in!ine int sN#are7int a8
Iret#rn a;a
K?
=. Aeneric B#nctions
A $eneric f#nction defines a $enera! set of operations that can be app!ied to +ario#s
t'pes of data.. A $eneric f#nction is created #sin$ the -e'word tep!ate. The
$enera! for of tep!ate f#nction definition is
1. Tep!ate ret5t'pe f#nc5nae7paraeter !ist8
I ::f#nction bod' K
1>. Constr#ctors and 2estr#ctors
1. C++ a!!ows a#toatic initia!iHation of ob/ects when the' are created. This is
perfored thro#$h the #se of a constr#ctor f#nction.
). Constr#ctor is a specia! f#nction that is a eber of the c!ass and has the sae
nae as that c!ass.
.. The Constr#ctor is a#toatica!!' ca!!ed whene+er an ob/ect of its associated c!ass
is created.
0. A Constr#ctor is dec!ared and defined as fo!!ows
2estr#ctorsG
1. A destr#ctor as the nae ip!ies is a cop!eent of the constr#ctor% #sed to
destro' ob/ects.
). It wi!! be in+o-ed ip!icit!' b' the copi!er #pon e(it fro pro$ra or f#nction or
b!oc-
.. Foca! ob/ects are destro'ed when the b!oc- is !eft. A!oba! ob/ects are destro'ed
when the pro$ra terinates.
0. It is a eber f#nction whose nae is sae as the c!ass nae b#t is preceded
b' a ti!de 7U8 operator. E( G Ustac-78?
1. There are an' reasons wh' a destr#ctor a' be needed. E(G An ob/ect a'
need to dea!!ocate eor' that it had pre+io#s!' a!!ocated% or c!ose a fi!e that it
had opened.
6. A destr#ctor ne+er ta-es an' ar$#ent nor does it ret#rn an' +a!#e
9. It is a $ood practice to dec!are destr#ctors
11. C!ass is s'ntactica!!' sii!ar to a str#ct. The on!' difference between the is
that b' defa#!t a!! ebers are p#b!ic in a str#ct and pri+ate in a c!ass.
1). Briend B#nctions
1. Cri+ate ebers cannot be accessed fro o#tside the c!ass i.e b' a non5eber
f#nction
). C++ a!!ows a non5eber f#nction to access pri+ate ebers of a c!ass b'
#sin$ a friend f#nction.
.. A friend f#nction need not be a eber of an' c!ass.
0. To a-e an o#tside f#nction friend!' to a c!ass% inc!#de its protot'pe within the
c!ass% precedin$ it with the -e'word friend.
1.. Static 2ata Jebers7S2J8
1. Crecedin$ a data eberVs dec!aration with the -e'word static te!!s the copi!er
that on!' one cop' of that +ariab!e wi!! e(ist and that a!! ob/ects of the c!ass wi!!
share that +ariab!e.
). A static data eber is initia!iHed to Hero when the first ob/ect of its c!ass is
created. No other initia!iHation is peritted.
.. 2ec!arin$ a static data eber is not definin$ it 7eans not a!!ocatin$ stora$e
for it8. @eeber c!ass is a !o$ica! constr#ct that does not ha+e ph'sica! rea!it'.
0. 2efinin$ a static data eber is done o#tside the c!ass b' redec!arin$ the static
+ariab!e #sin$ the scope reso!#tion operator .
1. S2J are nora!!' #sed to aintain +a!#es coon to entire c!ass
Static Jeber B#nctions7SJB8
There are se+era! restrictions p!aced on Static eber f#nctions.
1. A static f#nction can ha+e access to on!' other static ebers dec!ared in the
sae c!ass.
). A!oba! f#nctions and data a' be accessed b' SJB.
.. A SJB does not ha+e a this pointer.
0. There cannot be a static +ersion and non5static +ersion of the sae f#nction
1. A SJB a' not be +irt#a!.
6. The' cannot be dec!ared as const or +o!ati!e
9. A static eber f#nction can be ca!!ed #sin$ the c!ass nae as fo!!ows C!assnae
GG f#nction5nae?
3. Use is to preinitia!iHe pri+ate static data before an' ob/ect is created
10. This Cointer
When a eber f#nction is ca!!ed% it is a#toatica!!' passed an ip!icit ar$#ent
that is a pointer to the in+o-in$ ob/ect. This pointer is ca!!ed this
11.Operator O+er!oadin$
The echanis of $i+in$ additiona! eanin$ to an operator is -nown as operator
o+er!oadin$.
16.IN*E@ITANCE
1. The echanis of deri+in$ a new c!ass fro an o!d one is ca!!ed Inheritance.
). The concept of Inheritance pro+ides the idea of re#sabi!it'. This is basica!!' done
b' creatin$ new c!asses% re#sin$ the properties of the e(istin$ ones.
.. A c!ass that is inherited is referred to as base c!ass% and a c!ass that inherits is
ca!!ed the deri+ed c!ass.
0. 2ifferent t'pes of InheritanceG
19.Crotected Jebers
When a eber of a c!ass is dec!ared as protected% that eber is not accessib!e
b' other noneber e!eents of the pro$ra
13.A Virt#a! f#nctionG is a eber f#nction that is dec!ared within a base c!ass and
redefined b' a deri+ed c!ass.To create a +irt#a! f#nction% precede the f#nctionVs
dec!aration in the base c!ass with the -e'word Virt#a!.
1=.. I:O OperationsG C++ #ses the concept of strea and strea c!asses to
ip!eent the I:O Operations. A strea acts as an interface between the pro$ra
and I:O de+ice.
)>.What is Co!'orphis"
It is $enera!!' abi!it' to appear in an' fors. In OOC% po!'orphis refers to a
pro$rain$ !an$#a$eVs abi!it' to process ob/ects different!' dependin$ on their
data t'pe or c!ass.
)1.What is Abstraction"
The process of pic-in$ o#t 7abstractin$8 coon feat#res of ob/ects and
proced#res. A pro$raer wo#!d #se abstraction. Abstraction is one of the ost
iportant techniN#es in software en$ineerin$ and it is c!ose!' re!ated to two other
techniN#es5 encaps#!ation and inforation hidin$. A!! these three techniN#es are
#sed to red#ce cop!e(it'.