Laser Assisted Forming for Ship Building

G. Dearden, S. P. Edwardson

Laser Group, Department of Engineering, The University of Liverpool,
Liverpool, L69 3GH, United Kingdom

Abstract

Laser forming has become a viable process for the shaping of metallic components, as a
means of rapid prototyping and of adjusting and aligning. The process is similar to the
well established torch flame bending used on large sheet material in the ship building
industry but a great deal more control of the final product can be achieved. This paper
outlines the process and mechanisms of laser forming and reviews the potential of the
process for the ship building industry. Also outlined are experimental results of high
powered 2D and 3D laser forming of thick section material, the results demonstrating the
potential of the process for shipbuilding in terms of accurate net shape manufacture and
the secondary distortion correction process.

1.0 Introduction

The laser forming process (LF) has become viable for the shaping of metallic
components, and as a means of rapid prototyping and of adjusting and aligning. Laser
forming is of significant value to industries that previously relied on expensive stamping
dies and presses for prototype evaluations. Relevant industry sectors include aerospace,
automotive, shipbuilding and microelectronics. In contrast with conventional forming
techniques, this method requires no mechanical contact and thus promotes the idea of
"Virtual Tooling." It also offers many of the advantages of process flexibility associated
with other laser manufacturing techniques, such as laser cutting and marking [1, 2, 3].
Laser forming can produce metallic, predetermined shapes with minimal unwanted
distortion, investigations are also ongoing in the removal of unwanted distortion. The
process has its origins in flame bending for ship construction, with the earliest work on
LF beginning in the mid-1980s [4, 5]. The process has similarities to this well-established
torch flame bending used on large sheet material in the shipbuilding industry [6, 7, 8 ,9],
but a great deal more control of the final product can be achieved. The process employs a
defocused laser beam to induce thermal stresses in the surface of a workpiece in order to
produce controlled distortion, the exact mechanisms of the process are outlined in a later
section. It can be argued that the use of a defocused laser to form could be replicated by
cheaper more cost-effective means, e.g. a plasma torch [10], however it could also be
argued that laser forming would be a secondary process when considering the cost-
effectiveness of a laser system, in that a system would be purchased for primarily a
cutting or welding operation, proven to be cost effective and competitive, and used for
laser forming as a bonus additional process. The specific advantages and capabilities of
laser forming are outlined below.
SAIL 2003
Williamsburg
VA. June 2-4
2.0 The Laser Forming Process and Mechanisms

The laser-forming process is realised by introducing thermal stresses (without melting)
into the surface of a workpiece with a high-power laser beam. These internal stresses
induce plastic strains that bend the material or result in local elastic/plastic buckling.
The laser-forming process is principally used at the macro level to form metallic sheet
material. Current research at the University of Liverpool (UK) and other research groups
has shown that it can produce both parts with 2-D bends or 3-D, spatially formed parts
[11-16]. Research is also ongoing on the use of the process to remove unwanted
distortion in conventionally formed parts, as well as the distortion due to welding
operations. (In addition, research is ongoing in the use of lower-powered lasers to align
micro-electronic components and actuators.)
The principle behind the process for sheet material uses a laser beam that is guided across
the sheet surface. The path of the laser is dependent on the desired forming result. In the
simplest case it may be a point; in other cases it may be a straight line across the whole
part. And, for spatially formed parts and extrusions, the paths may be very sophisticated
radial and tangential lines.
There are several distinct mechanisms of laser forming, depending on the process setup.
The significant process variables (of many) that determine the active mechanism are the
traverse speed, laser spot diameter, incident laser power and absorption coefficient.
There are three main mechanisms for the laser forming of sheet, tubes and extrusions;
these are outlined in figure 1.

















2.1 The Temperature Gradient Mechanism (TGM)
This mechanism is the most widely reported, and can be used to bend sheet material out
of plane towards the laser. The conditions for the temperature gradient mechanism are
energy parameters that lead to a steep temperature gradient across the sheet thickness
(figure 1).
This results in a differential thermal expansion through the thickness. The beam diameter
is typically of the same order as the sheet thickness but can be larger. The path feed rate
Figure 1: Schematic of the Three Main Laser Forming Mechanisms [17]
has to be chosen to be large enough that a steep temperature gradient can be maintained.
The feed rate/temperature gradient has to be increased if materials are used which have a
high thermal conductivity. The laser path on the sheet surface is typically a straight line
across the whole sheet. This straight line coincides with the bending edge. Initially the
sheet bends in the direction away from the laser. This is called counter bending. With
continued heating the bending moment of the sheet opposes the counter bending and the
mechanical properties of the material are reduced. Once the thermal stress reaches the
temperature dependent yield stress any further thermal expansion is converted into plastic
compression. During cooling the material contracts again in the upper layers, and because
it has been compressed, there is a local shortening of the upper layers of the sheet and the
sheet bends towards the laser beam. The yield stress and Youngs modulus return to a
much higher level during this cooling phase and little plastic re-straining occurs. Bends of
approximately one or two degrees per pass are achieved with this mechanism [17, 18].

2.2 The Buckling and Shortening Mechanisms
Both of these mechanisms are activated by the use of laser parameters that do not yield a
temperature gradient in the depth of the material (figure 1). For the case of the buckling
mechanism a beam diameter much larger than the sheet thickness and a slow traverse
speed is used. This results in a large amount of thermoelastic strain that in turn results in
a local thermoelastic-plastic buckling of the material. The buckle is traversed along the
length of the sample and once the buckle reaches the exiting edge of the sheet the elastic
strain dissipates and the remaining plastic strain causes a deflection. This mechanism can
be used for out of plane bending of sheet material, it may be accompanied by some in
plane shrinkage as well. The part can be made to bend in either the positive or negative
directions. The direction depends on a number factors including the pre-bending
orientation of the sheet, pre- existing residual stresses and the direction in which any
other elastic stresses are applied, (for example a forced air stream acting on the bottom of
the sheet.) The buckling mechanism results typically in bending angles between 1 and 15
degrees. This is significantly larger than observed for the temperature gradient
mechanism. This is not a result of a higher degree of performance but a result of the fact
that using the buckling mechanism more energy can be coupled into the workpiece in one
step.
For the shortening or upsetting mechanism the geometry of a workpiece would
prevent buckling due to the increased moment of inertia compared to sheet material. This
mechanism is used to shorten or upset a workpiece in plane, it may be used in different
ways for a wide range of forming results such as the bending of extrusions and tubes. By
the careful selection of the sequence of the sides of the geometry heated, a section can be
made to step out of plane. The mechanism can also be used for the shortening of small
frames. This is useful for aligning operations in micro parts production.
The mechanisms of laser forming can accompany each other to some extent because
there is a transition region of processing parameters and geometries where a switch from
one mechanism to another takes place. Additionally there is usually a coupling between
in plane and out of plane deformation in forming operations, for 3D forming operations
the interactions become very complex indeed [17, 18].


2.3 Current Laser Forming Capabilities
The range of metals that can be laser formed is considerable as there is only localized
heating involved, below the melting temperature. The bulk properties are not altered and
good metallurgical properties are retained in the irradiated area.
Materials of particular interest are specialty high-strength alloys, including titanium and
aluminium alloys. These materials are widely used in the aerospace industry, where the
implementation of laser bending as a replacement for existing low-volume manufacturing
processes is under investigation, as well as other industry areas where inexpensive
prototype evaluation parts prior to die manufacture would be useful.
Due to the progressive nature of the process, high accuracy can be achieved. In addition,
small bends can be produced in parts that would not be possible with conventional
techniques due to the springback of the material.
Two examples of laser formed parts produced at the University of Liverpool are shown in
Figure 2. The part on the left was formed from a 250 x 100 mm, 2-mm gauge aluminium
blank; the other was from 400 x 200 mm, 1.5-mm gauge mild steel. Both were formed
from flat sheet by a 1.5kW CO
2
laser with no additional tooling or restraint, save the
attachment to the CNC bed.















3.0 Thick Section Forming

To be relevant to the ship building industry the laser forming process must be capable of
thick section large scale processing. A number of studies have been made to this end in
both 2D and 3D laser forming of thick section materials [4, 13 & 14], these studies and
others demonstrated the potential of the process to produce accurately repeatable
geometries.
A study was conducted at the University of Liverpool on thick section 2D and 3D laser
forming of mild steel in order to investigate the factors influencing a scaling of known
scan strategies for thinner section materials, the results of this study are reported here.
The study was conducted on 5 mm thick mild steel using two different laser systems.
An initial study was conducted on an Electrox 1.5kW CO
2
laser system, wavelength
10.6m, TEM
00
(Gaussian) beam, run in continuous wave mode. The laser beam was fed
via turning mirrors to a set of Galil PC card controlled X-Y-Z CNC tables for beam
Figure 2: Examples of Laser Formed Parts
Figure 3: Part-Cylinder,
5mm Mild Steel
Figure 4: Single & Double Pass Comparison,
3.2mm Ti64 Sheet
Figure 5: Thermocouple Analysis Single Pass,
3.2mm Ti64 Sheet
manipulation. The sample dimensions used for this initial
study were 360x190x5mm, the samples were sprayed
with graphite in order to increase the absorption of the
10.6m radiation, not as necessary for shorter
wavelengths. An attempt was made to reproduce work on
thinner section material, the work on part-cylinders [15]
and saddle shapes [11] represent 2D and 3D laser forming
process capabilities.
3.1 Thick Section Part-Cylinder
For a part-cylinder the scan strategy is relatively simple, a
series of straight line multi-pass bends across the longer
axis will produce the desired geometry (figure 3). For
previous studies using 1 1.5mm Mild Steel and
Titanium alloy sheet [15] a single pass strategy was used
per line, i.e. after each single direction pass the bend
angle was measured and the plate was allowed to cool
before the next pass in the opposite direction was made.
However as the section thickness and hence material strength increases, more energy
input is required to achieve the same forming result and if power availability is limited
then thick section forming can be
difficult. In order to address this
issue a Double Pass technique was
developed initially for the laser
forming of thick section high
strength Titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V or
Ti64), however it has been found to
be very effective for thick section
Steels. The technique involves a
scan strategy of a pass in one
direction followed immediately by a
return pass in the opposite direction;
the plate is allowed to cool after each
double pass (forced cooled by air jet
to decrease process time). The
concept behind this strategy is that,
providing the material surface isnt
damaged on the second pass, the
additional energy input per pass is
essentially akin to processing with a
much higher laser power (factor
increase dependent on overlapping
interaction times). Another factor in
this technique is that on the second
pass the heat retained in the
irradiated area from the first pass
could serve to produce additional
Figure 6: Thermocouple Analysis Double Pass,
3.2mm Ti64 Sheet
Figure 7: 5mm Thick Mild Steel Part-Cylinder (CMM)
forming by reducing the temperature
dependent flow stress of the
material, in that a hot plate is easier
to form than a cold one. The results
of a direct comparison of single and
double pass techniques is shown in
figure 4, using 3.2mm Ti64, 800W
(Electrox 1.5kW CO
2
laser), 7mm
beam diameter and a processing
speed of 15mm/s. The results show
an increase in achievable bend angle
using a double pass technique when
compared to the same number of overall passes using a single pass strategy.
A study using thermocouples attached to the surface of a 3.2mm Ti64 sheet revealed the
thermal profiles of the two techniques. Using adhesive thermopads the K type
thermocouples were attached to the top surface of an 80x80mm plate at 7.5 and 9.5mm
from the scan line centre, the temperature data was recorded using an Agilent 34970A
data acquisition unit, acquiring at up to 250 samples a second. Figure 5 shows the
thermocouple output for a single pass using the processing parameters outlined earlier for
figure 4, it can be seen that the maximum temperature recorded at 7.5mm is 120C, it can
be assumed that the peak temperature at the centre of the beam will be considerably
higher, FE analysis suggests temperatures in the region of 700C. Figure 6 shows the
thermocouple output from a Double Pass, it can be seen that the distinction between the
two passes is not that apparent and that the peak temperature for the second pass is built
on the first pass temperature, the peak temperature at 7.5mm is now 200C. This confirms
the idea that the second immediate pass is akin to processing with considerably more
power, in this case approximately double, and that there would be sufficient heat
remaining on the second pass to aid the forming process. Both plates in this study were
forced cooled after processing using a compressed air jet on the bottom surface.

The part-cylinder shown in
figure 3 was formed from
5mm thick mild steel using
the double pass technique
discussed above, using
900W, 6.5mm beam
diameter, 20mm/s, 6
double pass per line, 30
lines and a 10mm step
between the lines. The
irradiation lines were
started at one (free) end and stepped towards a clamped end (figure 3), this ensured that
the plate to be irradiated would be flat on the work bed. A wooded wedge was used to
support the plate (figure 3) as there was a concern that as the bending leg became longer
(i.e. the weight of the plate becomes a factor) the resultant moment generated by the
forming process would be reduced. The plate was cooled between passes using a high
Figure 9: Scan Strategy for a
Saddle Shape
Figure 8: Laser Forming 800x400
x5mm Mild Steel Sheet
pressure air jet on the bottom surface. The geometry produced was verified using a single
point laser range finder attached to the z axis of the workstation, coupled with in-house
software this forms a co-ordinate measuring machine (CMM). Figure 7 shows the output
from the CMM for the part-cylinder described above. It can be seen that there is a
considerable amount of forming for the power level and section thickness, there is a
maximum distortion of ~30mm from the plate centre to the edges. It can also be seen that
the geometry is reasonably symmetrical with a consistent bend angle along the plate
length. It can be noted in figure 7 that as the plate has been measured using an optical
technique the sensor has picked up some surface noise on the left hand side of the plot
where the surface condition of the plate was somewhat degraded, unfortunately this is a
limitation of this type of sensor.
A second investigation to produce a thick section part-cylinder was conducted using
800x400x5mm Mild Steel plates, employing an 8kW Ferranti CO
2
laser and a 0.9x1.5m
Wadkin CNC table at the University of
Liverpool (figure 8). As there was more
power available it may have been possible
to use a single pass strategy to achieve the
desired results, however in order to make a
comparison with the previous work above it
was decided to scale the process parameters
instead. As the plate dimensions had
doubled but the length to width ratio had
remained approximately the same a
doubling of the speed and power would
result in the same energy fluence and
interaction time on the plate. To that end the
plate was processed using 1800W, 40mm/s,
6.5mm beam diameter, 6 double pass per
line, 34 lines 20mm step. Although the dimensions of the plate made measurement using
the CMM system impossible, however it can be seen in figure 8 that plate dimensions and
amount of forming (max ~120mm) prove to be a useful demonstration of the laser
forming process in terms of ship component manufacture.

3.2 Thick Section Saddle Shapes
A previous study on the 3D laser forming of saddle shapes [11] from 400x200x1.5mm
Mild Steel concluded that the most efficient
scan strategy to produce double curvatures (+ve
and -ve curvatures) was to use a Race Track
style scan path and employ the shortening
mechanism (figure 9). This strategy effectively
shortens or pinches the plate laterally at its
centre, in order to account for this reduction the
plate forms a saddle. The direction of the bend
on each side depends on the length to width
ratio of the plate itself, in this study it was found
that the shorter side always produce a positive
Figure 10: Set-up for LF of a
Saddle Shape
Figure 11: CMM output for 5mm Mild Steel
Saddle Shape
curvature and the longer a negative curvature. As mentioned earlier a study was
conducted at the University of Liverpool using these results on thicker section materials
in order to demonstrate the 3D laser forming of such materials. The study was conducted
using an Electrox 1.5kW CO2 laser system, wavelength 10.6m, TEM
00
(Gaussian)
beam, run in continuous wave mode, to process 360x190x5mm Mild Steel plates (Figure
10). The process parameters used were 1200W, 8mm beam diameter, 10mm/s, 5 passes.
The geometry produced was verified by the CMM system described earlier. The results
of the thick section 3D laser forming of a saddle shape are shown in Figure 11.








The results demonstrate that it is possible to scale up somewhat work completed on
thinner section materials, figure 11 shows that a reasonably symmetrical saddle shape has
been formed. The maximum amount of forming after 5 passes is ~8mm, with more power
and passes the amount of distortion would increase, in addition as the scale of the sheet to
be formed increases the amount of forming possible increases also, as the sheet become
more developable. These results demonstrate the potential of laser forming to generate
fully 3D net shapes, however the development of scan strategy prediction and online
control systems are essential to harness this potential.
4.0 Projections for Potential Applications of Laser Forming in Shipbuilding

The current picture of shipbuilding technology and projections for the near future suggest
a continuing demand for metal forming processes. Currently, various types of sheet metal
forming processes are employed in shipyards, these mainly being mechanical (such as
roll bending). Figure 12 shows examples of some steel plate forming technology
currently in operation in UK shipyards (Courtesy of BAE Systems, Glasgow).

Figure 12 Some Current Forming Techniques in Shipbuilding

BAE Systems on the Clyde have recently provided the authors with some figures on the
approximate levels of cost and time of forming in naval shipbuilding today, with some
projections for BAEs demand for forming over the coming 10 years. Taking the general
figures first, it is possible to estimate the percentage cost of steel plate and section
forming. Considering that (i) steelwork fabrication is around 15% of the total labour
spend on a vessel; (ii) steel preparation is approximately 15% of the steelwork fabrication
labour spend; and (iii) steel plate and section forming is approximately 8% of the total
steel preparation time, then (multiplying these factors together) it can be seen that
forming constitutes approximately 0.2% of the total labour spend on a vessel. While this
may appear to be a small fraction, an example of its true value is the projection from
BAE Systems that on the Clyde the cost of steel forming over the next 10 years is
estimated to be in the order of 600k for labour alone not accounting for any re-work
which has been reported to be considerable.
Some projections for potential applications of laser forming in shipbuilding can be made
by considering it either as a substitution process for existing forming methods (for
reasons of enhanced flexibility, increased control etc), but also for wholly novel
techniques that perhaps could not have been considered with other forming processes and
which may even provide unique advantages. With this in mind, the potential applications
under consideration in work at Liverpool are in the following areas:

- Hull section fabrication (and alignment in future assembly operations)
- Correction of distortion (due to welding and other processes)
- Shaft / propeller alignment
Figure 13: Bulbous Bow from the QM2 [19]
In the fabrication of hull sections, the main area of interest is to use 2-D and 3-D laser
forming to replace mechanical methods of steel plate bending, for a material thickness
range of up to 20-25mm (1inch). The most straightforward case is the 2-D laser forming
of part-cylinder shapes for hull skin panels to be subsequently welded together. However,
as the capabilities of 3-D laser forming
begin to evolve, it will be possible to
consider using the process to produce
primitive 3-D shapes involving various
double-curvatures (saddles and
pillows), which would then be patched
together as elements of a larger, more
complex structure. A key example of
this concept is the bulbous bow, which
has been quoted by a number of yards as
being one of the most difficult and time-
consuming parts of a ship to construct
(Figure 13).

The correction of distortion (chiefly that due to welding operations) in shipbuilding
remains a significant issue, even though the last few years have seen the introduction of a
number of advanced reduced-distortion welding techniques (including laser-based or
laser hybrids [20]). For many larger projects, the manual re-working of weld distortion
can effectively use up 30% of the total ship production labour costs and the new
techniques referred to above can often only be applied to ship deck flat panel
construction, where component geometry allows. Therefore, there must be significant
potential for using an advanced 3-D laser forming system to address at least some of this
need. As an example, BAE Systems report that they perceive potential issues around plate
distortion in projects such as the Type 45 Destroyer programme, which requires a light
hull structure in order to deliver its specified sea speed. Since laser cutting is already
being used and laser welding is currently under investigation, there is now growing
interest in laser forming for thin plate if it can deliver productivity, throughput or cost
savings.

Shaft alignment Investigations have been reported to the authors using laser forming for
the straightening of rod and cylindrical tubes at smaller scales, where a glancing
incidence of the laser beam allows an almost self-straightening effect to be established as
the component is rotated and the laser beam moved along the component length. It would
be of interest to see if this could be scaled up to marine shaft parts.
Ships propellers are large components cast from special alloys and their performance
characteristics depend strongly on the curvature variations along their surfaces. Once
cast, if modifications are required either during production or at a later maintenance /
repair phase, this requires large-scale and expensive machining capability. This is a
further area for investigation of laser forming.

Figure 14: 3-D Laser Forming: routes to practical realisation and key elements required
Figure 15: LaserDyne890 5-Axis
Beam Director System
5.0 Future Systems for 3-D Laser Forming

It has been shown that laser forming shows great potential for the manufacturing of
metallic components, using a 2D straight line or 3D spatial forming approach. However
in order to advance the process further for realistic forming applications and for
straightening and aligning operations in a manufacturing industry it is necessary to
develop systems for accurate and repeatable part production. Figure 14 outlines the routes
and key elements required, in the authors opinion, to the practical realisation of 3D laser
forming. A predictive or an adaptive approach can be taken. In a predictive system a
knowledge base is built up that provides a look up table of known results to predict a
processing strategy for a desired geometry, coupled with the development of improved
thermo-mechanical models or neural networks, repeatable accuracy should be possible,
systems of this type have been reported by a number of groups [16, 21 & 22].

















In an adaptive system the use of sensors to provide
accurate controlled feedback coupled with the
development of intelligent software e.g. neural
network, provides an incremental or even real time
closed loop method of accurate 3D laser forming,
based on the current part characteristics independent
of material variability e.g. residual stress. Systems of
this type have been reported by a number of groups
[13, 14]. It is likely that future 3D laser forming
systems would include elements of both these
approaches, in that an initial prediction for a scan
strategy would be made based on a knowledge base
of known data, the parts geometry would be
Predictive system Adaptive system
Intelligence
Sensors
KBS

Parameter
look-up
Neural
Network
Repeatable
accuracy
Accurate
model
Control
feedback
Response
tuning
Multi-axis
LF process
Rapid data
processing
2-D LF Basics
Real-time /
incremental
Process mechanisms
Material properties
Residual stresses (history)
monitored, and the scan strategy would be adapted either in process or for subsequent
passes so as to achieve the desired result.
Future work on larger scale 3D laser forming at the University of Liverpool will be based
on a LaserDyne890 5 Axis beam director system (Figure 15). This system has the ability
to follow the shape of a part as it forms, using AutoFocus and AutoNormal functions,
thus avoiding beam spot ellipse problem and non-orthogonal incidence so that the
irradiation for forming is regular across the part surface. Part geometries will be verified
using an in built laser rage finder. In addition, this system to be used as part of a
correction of distortion study to look at possibility of reverse engineering of parts using
LF through analysis and stress mapping knowledge of a component.

6.0 Conclusions

Industrial promise:
The full potential of LF will only be realised through improved process knowledge
(supported by the development of improved thermo-mechanical models [23-26]) and
associated system developments. With many of the currently identified limitations
already being addressed in ongoing research, the process has significant potential for use
in a broad range of industrial applications and sectors, including shipbuilding. Table 1
summarises the co-authors current view of the short-term degree of application potential
in various stages of a (component non-specific) product life cycle.
Compared to other forming processes, LF has the advantage of process flexibility, in that
it could be carried out alongside other laser processes (cutting, welding & others) by
multi-purpose laser systems. For large scale LF of metals e.g. in shipbuilding, the high
equipment costs and safety requirements are currently key concerns, but these should be
alleviated by the continuing development of cheaper, more compact and more efficient
sources (diode and fibre lasers) and automated LF systems.

Stage of industrial application (Product Life Cycle) Degree of
application
potential
Design &
Development
Manufacture
(processing)
Product
assembly
In-service
operation
Repair &
Maintenance
High
Rapid
Prototyping
Forming
(Hybrid LF)
Precision
alignment &
adjustment

Medium
Distortion
& shape
correction

On-board
automatic
correction
Damage &
distortion
correction
Low

Forming (LF)



Table 1: Degree of application potential for LF in various stages of a general product life-
cycle (not specific to component scale, material or geometry)

Laser forming at a macro level is developing from a knowledge base of basic 2D
mechanisms to a practical realisation of 3D laser forming of complex structures routes to
practical 3D laser forming may encompass elements of both predictive and adaptive
systems. Promising applications for LF are in rapid prototyping, net shape production and
distortion correction. It is likely that a hybrid system would be the most practical
solution, e.g. using a laser to selectively heat a component prior to a mechanical forming
operation.

Future work planned

A new project is to start from September 2003 at the University of Liverpool, to
investigate Laser Forming for the Correction of Distortion and Design Shape in
Aluminium Structures, funded by the UKs Engineering & Physical Sciences Research
Council (EPSRC).

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Mr Keith Miller of BAE Systems, Glasgow, UK, for his kind
contributions of photos and data on current (non-laser) forming in shipyards.
The authors acknowledge the support of the EPSRC and of co-workers within the
EPSRC-funded UK Consortium Project Laser Forming of Aerospace Alloys (Contract
No. GR/N21581)

Contacts
E Mail: g.dearden@liverpool.ac.uk and s.p.edwardson@liverpool.ac.uk
Web: www.lasers.org.uk

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