The role of context in assessing

international marketing
opportunities
Susan P. Douglas and C. Samuel Craig
Stern School of Business, New York University, New York, New York, USA
Abstract
Purpose The choice of which country or countries to enter is a critical decision and needs to be
made with considerable care and deliberation. Initial market entry decisions have typically focused on
country evaluations based on macro-economic data. While appropriate in providing an initial
screening of countries, other factors, notably contextual factors, can provide important insights in
assessing international market opportunities. The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of
context at four distinct levels.
Design/methodology/approach The literature on the influence of context on consumption and
purchase behavior is reviewed to provide a framework to understand contextual factors as a means to
refine entry strategy and develop effective segmentation strategies.
Findings Awide range of contextual factors exert influence on consumption choices and contribute
to within-country heterogeneity. These are typically examined at the macro-level, but also need to be
examined at the meso-level, micro-level and situational level to fully assess market opportunities and
establish viable market segments.
Practical implications Examination of contextual factors provides a richer and deeper
understanding of which international markets to enter and which segments to target. Within-country
cultural diversity, dramatic economic and regional disparities and marked differences in the
infrastructure need to be assessed. In particular, examination of contextual factors helps to shed light
on heterogeneity within countries not only in customer behavior, but also in the nature of the market
infrastructure. This is a key element, not only in formulating entry and segmentation strategies, but
also in implementing those strategies.
Originality/value The effect of context has received little attention to date. The current
paper highlights the importance of considering contextual factors and their impact on consumption
behavior an issue which has largely been ignored in previous research.
Keywords International business, Market entry, Market segmentation, Consumption,
Consumer behaviour
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
In assessing international marketing opportunities for initial market entry, firms have
typically adopted a sequential approach, focusing first on macro-level data and then
selecting a limited number of countries to examine in more depth (Cavusgil, 1985;
Papadopoulos and Denis, 1988; Kumar et al., 1994; Craig and Douglas, 2005). While
this approach provides a basis for ranking countries in terms of relative attractiveness,
further data need to be collected to identify potential target customers or market
segments and develop an effective marketing strategy to target such customers.
Countries may be similar in terms of macro-economic factors such as the level of
economic development or urbanization, but vary dramatically in terms of other
contextual factors such as regional and cultural variation within-country, or the nature
of the marketing and retail infrastructure. These have an important impact on target
market selection, as well as the formulation of marketing strategies. Further, as
markets expand and become more complex, firms are developing finely tuned
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0265-1335.htm
Received July 2009
Revised July 2009
Accepted October 2010
International Marketing Review
Vol. 28 No. 2, 2011
pp. 150-162
rEmerald Group Publishing Limited
0265-1335
DOI 10.1108/02651331111122641
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28,2
segmentation strategies, identifying target segments within and across countries, and
differentiating strategies based on similarities in customer tastes and interests, as well
as the context in which consumption and purchasing take place.
As a result of the increased geographic and technological complexity of managing
international operations, firms need to pay more attention to the broader socio-cultural
and ecological context of consumption and purchase behavior in evaluating
international marketing opportunities. This entails examining not only differences in
the macro-environmental or country level, but also within-country differences such as
the characteristics of an urban vs rural context, the household living arrangements and
social interaction, the marketing and media infrastructure, as well as the specific
situational context in which consumption takes place. In addition, this approach can
provide important insights not only into how a product or service can best be designed
to fit the consumption context, but also how it can be appropriately positioned and
promoted. This in turn requires greater attention to collecting information (both
quantitative and qualitative) relating to consumption contexts and factors which vary
across and within countries and influence behavior in these contexts. This paper
examines the impact of context at four distinct levels and suggests how this may
impact market selection and segmentation decisions.
The role and influence of contextual factors
Consumption takes place within a context, and the context along with other factors
helps shape values and attitudes, as well as influencing both broad and specific
consumption choices. It is important to develop a deeper understanding not only of
the role of the context in shaping consumption and purchase behavior, but also to
understand the variations in contextual factors across and within countries. Figure 1
shows the four key levels of context nested within each other. The key element is that
two countries may have highly similar macro-environmental contexts, but differ
dramatically in context at other levels. Further, there may be significant variation
within a country that limits opportunities for segmentation strategies. There may also
be opportunities to target consumers across countries where the macro-level contexts
may be dissimilar, but meso- or micro-level factors are highly similar, at least in a
particular region or area.
Country A
Macro-level factors Macro-level factors
Micro-level factors Micro-level factors
Situational factors Situational factors
Consumption
and purchase
behavior
Consumption
and purchase
behavior
Meso-level factors Meso-level factors
Country B
Figure 1.
Levels of contextual
comparison within and
across countries
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The wide range of contextual factors existing at different levels impact consumer
values, attitudes and consumption behavior. These range from macro-environmental
factors relating to a given country or region in the world including, for example,
economic factors such as the level of GNI per capita, socio-cultural factors such as
values, income distribution, the role of women and demographic factors such as the
size of different age groups, or urbanization; meso- or middle-level factors such as
regional, economic or cultural variations within a country; micro-level or more specific
factors such as local population density, the media or distribution infrastructure, local
educational or social institutions and living arrangements such as extended vs primary
family habitations; and situation-specific factors relating to differences in behavior on
specific occasions vs daily routines. Illustrative factors in each of these categories are
summarized in Table I to provide some indication of the range and diversity of
contextual influences.
In addition to being surrogates for market potential, contextual factors play a key
role in the formation and perpetuation of cultural values and behavior, as well as
directly impacting consumer attitudes and behavior. Interactions within and beyond
the family unit will mediate the impact of macro-environmental forces. In some cases,
these interactions may reinforce the impact of contextual variables on individuals
behavior. In other cases, they may diminish the influence of these factors on values,
attitudes and behavior, and act as barriers to change, both at a societal or individual
level (Craig and Douglas, 2006). Contextual factors are thus key elements influencing
consumer attitudes and behavior and patterns of segmentation. Even where their
influence is subtle and indirect, they need to be taken into account in assessing market
opportunities and determining which countries offer the best market potential.
Macro-environmental factors
Macro-environmental factors constitute an important element of context and have been
widely used in cross-cultural research, largely due to their availability in data sources
such as the World Bank and United Nations (UN) publications. The types of macro-
environmental variables, which condition consumer behavior, include economic
variables such as GNI per capita, income distribution, demographic factors such as
population size and rate of growth, levels of education, socio-cultural factors such as
cultural values, religion and geographic factors such as climate or topography. While
each of these different factors can be clearly identified, it is important to remember
that they interact with each other, as well as conditioning variables at other levels of
context.
Beyond being primary indicators of market potential, there is ample evidence that
macro-environmental factors exert influence on underlying consumption values and
behavior. Work by Berry and colleagues (Berry, 1975, 2001; Georgas and Berry, 1995)
provides a framework for examining the role of contextual factors at the macro- and
meso-levels. Differences in human behavior and attitudes are viewed as a set of
collective and individual adaptations to contextual factors and more specifically,
ecological and sociopolitical systems (Mishra et al., 1996). Ecological and socio-political
influences follow a pattern of interaction and adaptation as change in one area
or part of the system impacts another part. Human organisms both interact with and
adapt to their physical environment in order to satisfy basic needs for food, shelter,
friendship, achievement, etc. At the same time, changes in human interaction and
behavior occur through socio-political institutions such as education, employment
and religion.
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Table I.
Typical contextual factors
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Georgas et al. (2004) applied the ecological framework to examine differences in
psychological characteristics and in particular, in values across countries and
geographic zones, identifying six principal contextual dimensions: ecology, economy,
education, mass media, population and religion. Since these are critical in
understanding psychological values, similar factors may be expected to impact
consumer values, attitudes and behavior patterns as these are deeply imbedded in and
to a large extent formed by social values.
Economic factors. A range of economic factors condition consumer behavior and
vary substantially between countries. A key economic factor is the level of GNI per
capita that impacts consumer ability to purchase and is particularly relevant for a
marketer of luxury or high-end goods or marketers of discretionary goods such as
clothing, consumer electronics and entertainment. It is important to view such factors
within the context of the general economic climate and rate of economic growth. When
consumers are pessimistic about the economic climate and the future, they may delay
expenditure in discretionary items such as travel, clothing or replacement of items
such as consumer electronics or home furnishings in favor of essential items such as
food or household maintenance.
It is, however, important to note that the average level of GNI per capita may mask
factors such as income distribution, which may be highly unequal in certain countries,
notably, for example, a number of countries in the Middle East and Latin America.
Consequently, in these countries marketers of expensive items may find a sizeable
market at the upper end of the income spectrum. This is in marked contrast to the
Scandinavian countries where there is considerable social inequality and displays of
conspicuous consumption are considered inappropriate. Equally, in considering income
levels, it is important to take into consideration local prices that impact living costs.
For example, while Norway had the highest GNI per capita in 2008 at US$87,070
(World Bank, 2010), this was estimated to be only US$58,000 in terms of purchasing
power parity. Levels of taxation impact consumer discretionary income, as well as
prices of selected products such as fuel, alcohol and automobiles. Again, government
expenditures on health, welfare and education as well as the physical infrastructure
can substantially impact private expenditures in such categories, as well as living
costs and conditions.
Demographic factors. Demographic factors are important in delineating market size
and growth potential. Population size in conjunction with income levels determines
market potential for a wide range of products from fast-moving consumer goods and
consumer durables to services and industrial products. Equally, population growth,
whether as a result of the natural growth rate or immigration, as well as the relative
size of different age groups, affects long-run market potential for different product
categories. The aging population in developed countries of the industrial triad leads to
higher levels of expenditure on health care, pharmaceuticals and related services.
Middle and high-income retirees provide a prime market for travel, notably cruises, as
well as certain forms of entertainment and leisure activities. Teenagers and young
adults, on the other hand, are a key target for electronic games and other electronic
gadgets, and young married couples for inexpensive household durables and
housing. Education levels are another factor influencing consumption patterns. This is,
however, strongly associated with income. Consequently, when considering the
impact of education in consumption it is important to consider relative income levels
(Katz-Gerro, 1999). For example, certain professions such as clergy, teachers and social
workers may have high levels of education relative to income, resulting in allocation of
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a high proportion of income to literary and educational activities. Illiteracy levels also
vary from country to country, as well as among different groupings within countries.
In many countries in the Middle East and in some Asian countries, illiteracy is
considerably higher among women than men (World Bank, 2010).
Socio-cultural factors. Socio-cultural factors reflect a blend of demographic and
economic factors and have an immediate impact on how people carry out their daily
lives. Housing arrangements influence behavior patterns and vary considerably from
one country to another as well as within countries. While in Western countries, couples
typically establish their own households and purchase homes after marriage, in other
countries, notably in Asia, the extended family lives together in one home or housing
complex. Extended family arrangements often result in collective consumption
patterns in relation to meals, social occasions, etc. where one or more family members
(typically the female members of the household) are responsible for shopping, others
for cooking, cleaning and so on. The degree of urbanization also varies from one
country to another, and influences housing and consumption patterns. The proportion
of the population living in apartments is likely to be strongly associated with
urbanization and impacts living and consumption patterns, notably in relation to
socialization, entertainment and leisure behavior. Urban areas also typically have a
higher concentration of affluent consumers, though in many developed countries,
affluent families may have two or more homes. However, consumption of higher
end products, expenditure on entertainment, financial services and eating out in
restaurants is likely to be considerably higher in urban areas.
Geographic factors. Consumers exist in physical environments that differ in climate,
topography and the availability of natural resources. These geographic factors shape
their consumption choices and standard of living, as well as influencing values and
beliefs. Parker and colleagues (Parker, 1997; Parker and Tavassoli, 2000; Van de Vliert
et al., 2004) have examined the effect of geographic location on a variety of factors
including mood and values, diet, housing and clothing choices, activity levels and
consumption of alcoholic beverages. Geographic location thus explains a significant
amount of variation in human behavior and the most pronounced differences are a
function of latitude. Countries that span large north/south differences, such as China
and India, tend to have substantial within-country variation in consumption behavior.
Meso-level factors
Contextual variations can also occur at the meso- or middle level, i.e. within countries
and regions within countries. This is particularly likely to occur within large countries
where there are marked differences in topography, climate, ethnic groupings and urban
vs rural populations. These in turn may result in major differences in consumption
patterns and purchasing behavior, especially where there are significant differences
in the distribution and market infrastructure between regions. In China, for example,
there are marked differences in the economic infrastructure, consumer purchasing
power and distribution channels between different regions (Batra, 1997; Cui and
Liu, 2000).
One study (Cui and Liu, 2000) identified seven different regional markets in China:
south, east, north, central, southwest, northwest and northeast. The major growth
markets are in the south and east around cities such as Guangdong, Fujian and
Shanghai. Consumers in these areas are among the most prosperous in China, and
since they are closer to Hong Kong and Taiwan and have long been exposed to foreign
products, tend to be innovative and highly cosmopolitan. Consequently, they are
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setting trends in fashion and lifestyles. Markets in the north, central and southwest of
China have also been growing rapidly in recent years and are becoming increasingly
attractive for global companies. North China includes Beijing and Tianjin and has
historically been the geopolitical base of the country. Recently, substantial investment
has been made in industries such as telecommunications, computer technology and
pharmaceuticals. Central and southwest China are also becoming increasingly
industrialized, particularly around Wuhan, Chongqing and other major cities in the
region, though this area has traditionally placed heavy emphasis on agriculture. In
addition, this area is characterized by diverse local cultures in cuisine, dialects and
operating styles. The northeast and northwest of China are the least well-developed
areas, and income levels in these areas are substantially lower than in other parts of
China. While the northeast contains heavy industry such as automobile and machinery
manufacturing, it has been slow to adapt to changes arising from modernization and
the shift away from a command economy. Consumption patterns and particularly
ownership of consumer durables such as microwave ovens, washing machines,
color televisions, air conditioners, as well as access to more advanced information
technology such as mobile phones or computers tends to follow income levels, and
hence is high in east and south China, but low in northeast and northwest China.
The marked regional disparities in different parts of China suggest that contextual
factors and in particular local market conditions have an important impact with regard
to consumption behavior. While there is little variation across regions with regard to
traditional food and beverage items, such as rice, cooking oil and tea, there are
differences with regard to the penetration of Western items such as instant coffee,
chocolate or ice cream. Consumers in east China have the highest consumption rate for
such items as well as frozen entrees and soft drinks, closely followed by consumers in
south China. Consumption of alcoholic beverages and in particular liquor is, however,
considerably higher in northeast and north China.
Equally, there are significant regional variations within India, not only in terms of
affluence, but also in terms of terrain, language, lifestyle and culture (Bijapurkar, 2007).
The land in the extreme north of India is more arid and mountainous compared with
the fertile southern and western regions, the source of most of Indias agricultural
production in grain, rice, vegetables and tea. Equally, while Hindi and English are
the official languages, there are 15 regional languages recognized by the constitution,
an estimated 180 local languages and an estimated 544 dialects. Similarly, there are
substantial differences in food consumption and lifestyle patterns, as well as
perceptions of gender roles and other aspects of culture from one state or region to
another. In Gujarat, for example, consumption of alcohol is rare and strictly regulated
and food consumption is predominantly vegetarian.
Apart from such differences observed in large markets, in-depth studies of markets
within the European region (ter Hofstede, 1999) show significant differences in
consumption and behavior patterns within European countries. In some cases within-
country differences are greater than between-country ones, resulting in the emergence
of transnational consumption segments. For example, ter Hofstede (1999) examined
meat store images relating to attributes such as assortment, pricing, product quality,
service quality and store atmosphere, as well as overall evaluations of store image for
120 regions in seven countries in Europe. This resulted in the identification of
five spatial market segments of which only one was located in a single country, Italy.
All others transcended national boundaries, though one was predominantly in
Germany and border regions in Belgium and France, e.g. Liege, Trier and Lorraine.
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This suggests that while in some cases potential market segments extend beyond
national boundaries, in other cases they may be confined to regions within a given
country. Consequently, in some cases a firm may be able to identify and target a global
or regional market segment, while in others segments may be country-specific.
Another factor is what has been termed institutional voids (Khanna et al., 2005) or,
more specifically, lack of a strong soft infrastructure of auxiliary institutions together
with ineffective regulatory systems and contract-enforcing mechanisms. This is
particularly likely to occur in emerging and developing markets. This is often rooted in
the inadequacy of the communication system, and is particularly marked in rural
areas. Consumers do not necessarily have adequate information (which in some cases
is compounded by low levels of education and literacy) to assess and evaluate
products, and in particular to be cognizant of purchase regulation relating to
counterfeit or knock-off brands and other types of consumer exploitation. Product and
market regulations are often poorly developed or followed, and more importantly are
enforced locally. Inefficient judicial systems and variability from one location to
another mean that there is considerable uncertainty about contracts with distributors,
as well as regulation relating to retail price maintenance, product or brand
counterfeiting promotion or advertising claims and other deceptive practices. In
addition, in many instances these are not effectively enforced, resulting in considerable
consumer exploitation, deception and corruption.
Micro-environmental factors
A third element of the context in which consumption takes place is the micro-
environment that comprises more proximate influences. This is defined here as
consisting of the basic physical infrastructure in a village, town or city, including
roads, water, electricity, the market infrastructure, i.e. the number and type of stores
available, the social and housing/living context, i.e. the nature of housing and family
living arrangements, and the media context. All these form the immediate context in
which consumers make consumption and purchase decisions and hence influence the
nature of those decisions, which are in turn influenced by the economic, societal and
ethnic patterns characterizing the environment.
Another important aspect of the micro-environment is the retail infrastructure,
particularly in terms of the number, size and type of stores. This may include a wide
range of modern distribution outlets, such as department stores, hypermarkets,
superstores or supermarkets as well as traditional outlets, such as Mom and Pop
shops, roadside stalls, itinerant retailers and bazaars. Countries such as China have
been through and are continuing to undergo dramatic changes in the structure and size
of their retail infrastructures (Wang and Jones, 2002). The relative importance of
different types of stores is likely to have an important impact on consumption, and
particularly product and brand choice and package size, as well as the price paid by the
consumer. The range of products and brands carried by traditional retailers is likely to
be considerably smaller than that available in organized retail outlets, thus restricting
brand choice, and resulting in focus on major global brands or alternatively on
low-priced local brands. The price paid for a global or major brand is often higher,
given limited scale efficiencies and high operating costs. At the same time, if
consumers are in the habit of shopping at a particular store, they may rely on the
advice of the retailer, particularly in the case of new products and brands. Consumers
shopping in organized retailing, on the other hand, are more likely to be influenced by
store layout and promotions as well as media advertising. Again, this suggests that
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while a segment may exist in different regions throughout an entire country, size or
accessibility may limit potential opportunities.
Situational factors
The specific situation in which consumption takes place can also impact consumption
behavior. This can range from differences in behavior common to all members of a
particular social, ethnic or religious group or community on a given occasion such as
festivals and rites of passage or gift giving, as well as differences in individual
behavior depending on the specific social identity evoked by the occasion ( Joy, 2001).
Ayoung adult, for example, may exhibit different behavior and consumption patterns
at a family dinner, as compared to eating with friends. Distinctions are sometimes
made between brands, particularly of liquor, which are offered to guests vs those that
are typically consumed by a household. Thus premium or prestige brands will be
reserved for guests or special occasions. This type of conspicuous consumption varies
considerably from one country or culture to another and may be particularly marked in
certain parts of emerging markets, as for example, northern India, where there are
marked class differences.
Situational factors may also impact behavior at the individual level (Belk, 1975;
Wooten, 1995). This is most likely to occur where an individual interacts with multiple
groups, which vary in terms of age, gender, education, ethnicity, religion or other
background or group characteristics. For example, a young American adult from an
Asian American family may consume Asian food when at home, but go to US casual
restaurants, such as Olive Garden or TGI Fridays, when with friends. Equally,
members of different ethnic groups may tend to behave differently when out with
friends from the same ethnic group as compared with mixed ethnic groups.
Information sources for contextual factors
Contextual data are most readily available at the macro-level from sources such as the
UN, the World Bank, the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) and the CIA World Fact
Book. Most are online and readily accessible. The challenge is to go beyond reliance on
macro-economic data such as GNI per capita, population, trade flows or urbanization,
which reflect market size and wealth, and look more broadly at other socio-eco-cultural
variables such as kilometers of coastline, climate, terrain or land use, which impact
consumption patterns and form the socio-geographic context in which consumption
takes place (Parker, 1997; Parker and Tavassoli, 2000). In each case, the relevance of a
particular contextual variable for the specific product or service examined needs to be
assessed. Information on meso-factors, such as ethnic groupings, lifestyles, cultural
conventions and communication patterns, is not readily available and usually requires
survey research or qualitative research. An exception to this is the Nomenclature of
Territorial Units for Statistics data, which are compiled by Eurostat (European
Statistical Office of the European Commission). In 2009 these data covered all
27 members of the EU as well as all four candidate countries and four EFTA countries.
Typical breakdowns include counties (97 units across the 27 countries) and
districts within counties (1,303 units). At Level 1, data are collected in relation to
population, different demographics and population density. These data are available on
almost all regions. At Level 2, data are collected relating to the use of information
and communication technology among private persons and households, as well as
businesses and educational levels in the EU regions, and where available in the other
regions. At Level 3, data are collected in relation to local demography, GDP and labor
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market data. These data can provide an indication of within-country heterogeneity and
cross-country similarities, but do not provide insights into variation in consumption.
Data on values, attitudes and consumption choices are often collected by international
research agencies, but are typically proprietary or very expensive to obtain. There is
also an issue of comparability across units. Consequently, while these data provide a
useful basis for further in-depth research and estimating market opportunities, they are
not necessarily accurate bases for developing transnational segmentation strategies.
International research organizations or large MNCs collect consumption data, but
typically in relation to a specific product or service category, with little attention to
acquiring data about the context in which the individuals make consumption choices.
Data on some micro-level factors such as the physical infrastructure are readily
available in UN or World Bank sources or geographic atlases. Equally, information
relating to the market and media infrastructure can be found in sources such as
Euromonitor or the EIU data. However, more detailed information relating to specific
regions or cities within a country is typically more difficult to obtain, as are data
relating to social and family interaction. Similarly, while some data relating to
situational factors may be available in the anthropological literature, this is rarely
collected on a cross-national basis, raising issues of comparability and equivalence.
Implications and conclusion
The impact of context on consumption behavior and market opportunities is pervasive
and complex. Examination of contextual factors provides a richer and deeper
understanding as to which international markets to enter and which segments to
target. In particular, it helps to shed light on heterogeneity within countries not
only in customer behavior and competitive behavior, but also in the nature of the
market infrastructure. This may be a key element not only in formulating entry and
segmentation strategies, but also in implementing those strategies. This suggests the
importance of going beyond the macro-environmental level in analyzing data for
market selection and segmentation decisions. While international market selection
decisions tend to use the country as the focal unit of analysis in collecting data relating
to these decisions, contextual factors operating at different levels within a country help
to shape behavior both within and across countries. A high degree of within-country
heterogeneity may make a country less attractive, as it suggests diverse contexts and
fragmented markets, although in some cases transnational market segments may be
identified. Consequently, while contextual factors are frequently ignored, it is critical
for management to consider their impact both in selecting which countries to enter and
how to segment markets.
The limitations of assessing international marketing opportunities based on
macro-economic or country-level factors suggest the need for a broader and more
comprehensive approach, which includes not only country-level factors, but also
within-country factors. These should include consumer characteristics that enable the
firm to identify potential target segments, based on demographics, consumption
patterns, media habits and so on, as well as contextual factors relating to the general
environment such as ecological or topographical factors, the nature of the local
environment, for example, urban vs rural, and the specific consumption situation or
occasion. While frequently ignored, these are often critical factors influencing the
nature, formation and evolution of consumption patterns.
In-depth examination of contextual factors at different levels of aggregation helps to
shed light on the diversity of consumption patterns both within and across countries.
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In recent years the geographic scope of international operations has expanded to
include not only developed countries, i.e. the Industrial Triad, but also emerging
markets such as China, India and Brazil. As a consequence, marketers have to cope
with an increasingly diverse array of cultures and behavioral patterns worldwide.
Consumption patterns in emerging markets not only reflect different cultural values
and behavior from Western industrialized nations, but are also characterized by
marked differences within countries, particularly the gulf between the surging class of
affluent, mostly urban entrepreneurs, and the rural poor.
Understanding how contextual factors at different levels of aggregation impact
consumption patterns within and across countries provides valuable insights that can
aid in designing product, pricing, promotional and distribution strategies tailored to
contextual differences. In addition, it can help in identifying target market segments
both within and across countries. As markets become ever more diverse, resulting in
growing market fragmentation and segmentation, developing context-based strategies
can be an important tool in increasingly competitive international markets.
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About the authors
Susan P. Douglas was the Paganelli-Bull Professor of Marketing and International Business at
New York Universitys Stern School of Business. She received her PhD from the University of
Pennsylvania. Prior to joining New York University, Professor Douglas taught at Centre-HEC,
Jouy-en-Josas, France, and was a faculty member of the European Institute for Advanced Studies
in Management in Brussels. She also taught international marketing in executive programs in
France, Belgium, Italy, Greece, Taiwan, Singapore, India, South Africa and the former
Yugoslavia. A past president of the European Marketing Academy, and former vice president of
the Academy of International Business, Professor Douglas was elected as a Fellow of the
Academy of International Business in 1991 and was Dean of the Fellows from 1999 to 2002.
She was made a Fellow of the European Marketing Academy in 2002 and chaired the Fellows
from 2002 to 2005. Professor Douglas co-authored Global Marketing Strategy (McGraw-Hill) and
International Marketing Research (Wiley), 3rd edition. Her research appeared in the Journal
of Marketing, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of
International Business Studies, Columbia Journal of World Business, International Journal of
Research in Marketing, International Marketing Review, Journal of International Marketing and
other publications.
Susan P. Douglas passed away on 3 January 2011.
C. Samuel Craig is the Catherine and Peter Kellner Professor, Professor of Marketing and
International Business and Director of the Entertainment, Media and Technology Program at
New York Universitys Stern School of Business. He received his PhD from the Ohio State
University. Prior to joining New York University, Professor Craig taught at Cornell University.
He has taught marketing for executive programs in the USA, as well as France, the UK,
Thailand, Singapore, Greece, India and Slovenia. Professor Craig co-authored Consumer
Behavior: An Information Processing Perspective (Prentice Hall), Global Marketing Strategy
(McGraw-Hill) and International Marketing Research, 3rd edition (Wiley). His research has
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appeared in the Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Consumer
Research, Journal of International Business Studies, Columbia Journal of World Business,
International Journal of Research in Marketing, Journal of International Marketing, International
Marketing Review and other publications. His research is widely cited and he has been the
recipient of six best article awards. He is currently on the editorial boards of the Journal of
Advertising Research, International Journal of Advertising and the Journal of International
Marketing and is a past member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Marketing Research and
the Journal of Retailing. His research interests focus on the entertainment industry, global
marketing strategy and methodological issues in International Marketing Research. C. Samuel
Craig is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: scraig@stern.nyu.edu
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