WI1100EE-A Stewart: 7.4 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

WI1100EE-A
Lecture 11
Stewart: 7.4 Integration of Rational Functions by
Partial Fractions
Neil Budko
October 16, 2012
Neil Budko 7.4 Integration of Rational Functions
Our plan
Proper and improper rational functions
Denominator is a product of distinct linear factors
Denominator has repeated linear factors
Denominator has distinct irreducible quadratic factors
Denominator has repeated irreducible quadratic factors
Rationalizing substitutions
Exercises
Rational functions
Rational functions have the form
f (x) =
P(x)
Q(x)
,
P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n1
x
n1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
Q(x) = b
m
x
m
+ b
m1
x
m1
+ + b
1
x + b
0
The highest powers n and m are the degrees of polynomials P and
Q. If the degree of P is less than the degree of Q, then f is a
proper rational function. Otherwise, f is an improper rational
function.
Improper rational functions
If f is an improper rational function, then
f (x) =
P(x)
Q(x)
= S(x) +
R(x)
Q(x)
,
where S is a polynomial, R is a remainder polynomial, and R/Q is
a proper rational function.
Improper rational function long division: Example 1
Polynomials S quotient, and R remainder can be obtained by
the Euclidian long division algorithm. Sometimes it is all that is
needed:
x
3
+ x
x 1
dx =

x
2
+ x + 2 +
2
x 1
dx
=
x
3
3
+
x
2
2
+ 2x + 2 ln |x 1| + C
Proper rational functions factoring of Q
Any polynomial Q can be represented as a product of linear factors
(of the form ax + b) and irreducible quadratic factors (of the form
ax
2
+ bx + c, where b
2
4ac < 0).
x
4
16 = (x
2
4)(x
2
+ 4) = (x 2)(x + 2)(x
2
+ 4)
b
2
4ac = 0
2
4 1 4 = 16 < 0
Factored Q partial fractions
Any proper rational fanction with its denominator factored in
terms of the form ax +b and ax
2
+bx +c can be represented as a
sum of partial fractions of the form
A
(ax + b)
k
and
B
(ax
2
+ bx + c)
r
Q has distinct linear factors
Suppose
Q(x) = (a
1
x + b
1
)(a
2
x + b
2
) . . . (a
k
x + b
k
)
where no factor is repeated. Then, there eaxis constants
A
1
, A
2
. . . A
k
such that the proper rational function can be
represented in partial fractions as
R(x)
Q(x)
=
A
1
a
1
x + b
1
+
A
2
a
2
x + b
2
+ +
A
k
a
k
x + b
k
Distinct linear factors nding A
j
s: Example 2
x
2
+ 2x 1
2x
3
+ 3x
2
2x
dx
Proper rational function factorize the denominator:
2x
3
+ 3x
2
2x = x(2x
2
+ 3x 2) = x(2x + a)(x + b)
(2x + a)(x + b) = 2x
2
+ (2b + a)x + ab = 2x
2
+ 3x 2
a = 1, b = 2
2x
3
+ 3x
2
2x = x(2x 1)(x + 2)
Example 2 (continued)
x
2
+ 2x 1
2x
3
+ 3x
2
2x
=
x
2
+ 2x 1
x(2x 1)(x + 2)
=
A
x
+
B
2x 1
+
C
x + 2
(2x 1)(x + 2)A + x(x + 2)B + x(2x 1)C = x
2
+ 2x 1
(2x
2
x + 4x 2)A + (x
2
+ 2x)B + (2x
2
x)C = x
2
+ 2x 1
(2A + B + 2C)x
2
+ (3A + 2B C)x2A = 1 x
2
+ 2x1
2A + B + 2C = 1
3A + 2B C = 2
2A = 1
A =
1
2
, B =
1
5
, C =
1
10
x
2
+ 2x 1
2x
3
+ 3x
2
2x
dx =

A
x
+
B
2x 1
+
C
x + 2
dx
=

1
2x
+
1
5(2x 1)

1
10(x + 2)
dx
=
1
2
ln |x| +
1
10
ln |2x 1|
1
10
ln |x + 2| + C
Example 2 (alternative way)
(2x 1)(x + 2)A + x(x + 2)B + x(2x 1)C = x
2
+ 2x 1
Set x + 2 = 0, x = 2
2(2(2) 1)C = (2)
2
+ 2(2) 1, 10C = 1, C =
1
10
Set 2x 1 = 0, x = 1/2
1
2
(
1
2
+ 2)B =
1
2
2
+ 2
1
2
1,
5
4
B =
1
4
, B =
1
5
Set x = 0
(2 0 1)(0 + 2)A = 0
2
+ 2 0 1, 2A = 1, A =
1
2
Example 3
dx
x
2
a
2
Proper rational function factorize the denominator
x
2
a
2
= (x a)(x + a)
Distinct linear factors partial fractions with constants
1
(x a)(x + a)
=
A
x a
+
B
x + a
Determine the constants
A(x + a) + B(x a) = 1
Set x = a 2aA = 1, A =
1
2a
Set x = a 2aB = 1, B =
1
2a
dx
x
2
a
2
=

A
x a
+
B
x + a
dx
=

1
2a(x a)

1
2a(x + a)
dx
=
1
2a
ln |x a|
1
2a
ln |x + a| + C
=
1
2a
ln
x a
x + a
+ C
Q has repeated linear factors
If in a proper rational function f = P/Q, the denominator is
factorized with some linear factor a
j
x b
j
repeated r times, i.e.
appears as (a
j
x b
j
)
r
, then the factorization will be
P(x)
Q(x)
=
P(x)
(a
1
x + b
1
) . . . (a
j
x + b
j
)
r
. . . (a
k
x + b
k
)
=
A
1
a
1
x + b
1
+ . . .
+
A
j
a
j
x + b
j
+
A
j +1
(a
j
x + b
j
)
2
+ +
A
j +r
(a
j
x + b
j
)
r
+
+
A
r +k
a
k
x + b
k
Repeated linear factors: Example 4
x
4
2x
2
+ 4x + 1
x
3
x
2
x + 1
dx
Improper rational function long division
x
4
2x
2
+ 4x + 1
x
3
x
2
x + 1
= x + 1 +
4x
x
3
x
2
x + 1
x
3
x
2
x + 1 = x
2
(x 1) (x 1)
= (x
2
1)(x 1) = (x 1)
2
(x + 1)
Repeated linear factors, x 1 is repeated twise partial fractions
are
4x
x
3
x
2
x + 1
=
A
x + 1
+
B
x 1
+
C
(x 1)
2
Finding the coecients
4x
x
3
x
2
x + 1
=
A
x + 1
+
B
x 1
+
C
(x 1)
2
(x 1)
2
A + (x + 1)(x 1)B + (x + 1)C = 4x
Set x = 1, 2C = 4, C = 2
Set x = 1, 4A = 4, A = 1
Set x = 0, A B + C = 0, 1 B + 2 = 0, B = 1
So, we have
4x
x
3
x
2
x + 1
=
1
x + 1
+
1
x 1
+
2
(x 1)
2
Assembling the integral
x
4
2x
2
+ 4x + 1
x
3
x
2
x + 1
dx
=

x + 1 +
1
x + 1
+
1
x 1
+
2
(x 1)
2
dx
=
x
2
2
+ x ln |x + 1| + ln |x 1|
2
x 1
+ C
=
x
2
2
+ x
2
x 1
+ ln
x 1
x + 1
+ C
Q has distinct irreducible quadratic factors
Suppose that after the factorization of Q we get
P(x)
Q(x)
=
P(x)
(a
1
x + b
1
) . . . (a
j
x
2
+ b
j
x + c
j
)(a
j +1
x
2
+ b
j +1
x + c
j +1
) . . .
Then, the partial fractions representation is
P(x)
Q(x)
=
A
1
a
1
x + b
1
+ . . .
+
A
j
x + B
j
a
j
x
2
+ b
j
x + c
j
+
A
j +1
x + B
j +1
a
j +1
x
2
+ b
j +1
x + c
j +1
+ . . .
Distinct irreducible quadratic factors: Example 5
2x
2
x + 4
x
3
+ 4x
dx
x
3
+ 4x = x(x
2
+ 4)
Irreducible quadratic factor, since in x
2
+4 = 1 x
2
+0 x +4, and
we get b
2
4ac = 0
2
4 1 4 = 16 < 0. Partial fractions are
2x
2
x + 4
x
3
+ 4x
=
A
x
+
Bx + C
x
2
+ 4
Finding the coecients
2x
2
x + 4
x
3
+ 4x
=
A
x
+
Bx + C
x
2
+ 4
(x
2
+ 4)A + x(Bx + C) = 2x
2
x + 4
(A + B)x
2
+ Cx + 4A = 2x
2
x + 4
A + B = 2
C = 1
4A = 4
A = 1, B = 1, C = 1
2x
2
x + 4
x
3
+ 4x
dx =

1
x
+
x 1
x
2
+ 4
dx
= ln |x| +

x
x
2
+ 4

1
x
2
+ 4
dx + C
= ln |x| +
1
2
ln |x
2
+ 4|
1
2
arctan
x
2
+ C
where we have used the standard table integral
1
x
2
+ a
2
dx =
1
a
arctan
x
a
+ C =
1
a
tan
1
x
a
+ C
Example 6
4x
2
3x + 2
4x
2
4x + 3
dx
Improper rational function (!) long division
4x
2
3x + 2
4x
2
4x + 3
= 1 +
x 1
4x
2
4x + 3
Checking the quadratic form in the denominator of the proper
rational function:
4x
2
4x + 3, b
2
4ac = (4)
2
4 4 3 < 0
The single quadratic form weve got is already irreducible no
need to express as partial fractions anymore.
Completing the square technique:
4x
2
4x + 3 = (ax + b)
2
+ c
4x
2
4x + 3 = a
2
x
2
+ 2abx + b
2
+ c
a
2
= 4
2ab = 4
b
2
+ c = 3
a = 2, b = 1, c = 2
4x
2
4x + 3 = (2x 1)
2
+ 2
Hence,
x 1
4x
2
4x + 3
=
x 1
(2x 1)
2
+ 2
4x
2
3x + 2
4x
2
4x + 3
dx =

1 +
x 1
(2x 1)
2
+ 2
dx
= x +
x 1
(2x 1)
2
+ 2
dx + C = . . .
Substitution
2x 1 = u, 2 dx = du, dx =
1
2
du, x =
1
2
(u + 1)
x 1 =
1
2
(u + 1) 1 =
1
2
(u 1)
= x +
1
4
u
u
2
+ 2
du
1
4
1
u
2
+ 2
du + C
= x +
1
8
ln |u
2
+ 2|
1
4
2
arctan
+ C
Back substitution
= x +
1
8
ln |(2x 1)
2
+ 2|
1
4
2
arctan
2x 1
+ C
= x +
1
8
ln |4x
2
4x + 3|
1
4
2
arctan
2x 1
+ C
Easy! :-)
Q has repeated irreducible quadratic factors
Suppose that after the factorization of Q we get some repeated
irreducible quadratic factors
P(x)
Q(x)
=
P(x)
(a
1
x + b
1
) . . . (a
j
x
2
+ b
j
x + c
j
)
r
. . .
Then, the partial fractions representation is
P(x)
Q(x)
=
A
1
a
1
x + b
1
+ . . .
+
A
j
x + B
j
a
j
x
2
+ b
j
x + c
j
+ +
A
j +r
x + B
j +r
(a
j
x
2
+ b
j
x + c
j
)
r
+ . . .
Repeated irreducible quadratic factors: Example 8
1 x + 2x
2
x
3
x(x
2
+ 1)
2
dx
Proper rational function (why?) factorization (already in place)
repeated irreducible (why?) quadratic factors partial
fractions are
1 x + 2x
2
x
3
x(x
2
+ 1)
2
=
A
x
+
Bx + C
x
2
+ 1
+
Dx + E
(x
2
+ 1)
2
Computing the coecients
1 x + 2x
2
x
3
= (x
2
+ 1)
2
A + x(x
2
+ 1)(Bx + C) + x(Dx + E)
= A(x
4
+ 2x
2
+ 1) + B(x
4
+ x
2
) + C(x
3
+ x) + Dx
2
+ Ex
= (A + B)x
4
+ Cx
3
+ (2A + B + D)x
2
+ (C + E)x + A
Still computing the coecients
A + B = 0, C = 1, 2A + B + D = 2, C + E = 1, A = 1
A = 1, B = 1, C = 1, D = 1, E = 0
1 x + 2x
2
x
3
x(x
2
+ 1)
2
dx =

A
x
+
Bx + C
x
2
+ 1
+
Dx + E
(x
2
+ 1)
2
dx
=

1
x
+
x 1
x
2
+ 1
+
x
(x
2
+ 1)
2
dx
=

1
x

x
x
2
+ 1

1
x
2
+ 1
+
x
(x
2
+ 1)
2
dx
= ln |x|
1
2
ln |x
2
+ 1| arctan x
1
2(x
2
+ 1)
+ C
Avoiding partial fractions
x
2
+ 1
x(x
2
+ 3)
dx
Proper rational function with distinct factors, but substitution is
also possible
u = x(x
2
+ 3) = x
3
+ 3x, du = (3x
2
+ 3)dx
(x
2
+ 1) dx =
1
3
du
x
2
+ 1
x(x
2
+ 3)
dx =
1
3u
du =
1
3
ln |x
3
+ 3x| + C
Rationalizing substitution

x + 4
x
dx
Not a rational function. Try substitution to make it a rational one
u =
x + 4, u
2
= x + 4, x = u
2
4, dx = 2u du
The integral becomes

x + 4
x
dx =
u
u
2
4
2u du =
2u
2
u
2
4
du
Improper rational function, etc.
Exercise!
Stewart 7.4: 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 25, 34, 45, 51

WI1100EE-A Stewart: 7.4 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

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