Coal-Anthracite (hard coal), Bituminous (soft), Sub Bituminous, and Lignite.

Composed of water (2), hydrocarbons

(5), fixed carbon (90), and ash (3). Coal reserves-USA (.289), Russia (.19), China (.14). Grate, pulverized fuel, and
fluidized bed (+limestone), boilers. Combustion pollutants- particulate matter, SO2/3 becomes H2SO4 (acid rain),
NOx becomes N2O4 (smog) and HNO3 (acid), CO and CO2. Controlling emissions-SOx-deSOx slurry injection,
NOx-selective catalytic reduction urea injection, PM-electrostatic precipitator (gas becomes ionized, ions absorbed
by PM, PM stick to metal plates) high efficiency, low pressure drop, low operating cost, high capital, large, not
flexible to plant changes, hydrocyclone (centrifugal), filter, wet scrubbing, CO2 carbon capture sequestration (CCS)-
reduces delivered elec by 25%, increased capital and operating$, . PM
10
(<10um). PM>10 stuck in mucus, .1-10
respiratory problems. EPA rules PM10<150 ug/m3, PM2.5<35ug/m3. Use tidal height difference or tidal streams.
Fish killed in turbines, stopped from spawning migration, decreased water quality. Up to 2TW wave energy.
Strongest west coast and poles. Salters duck, 90% efficient with tuned monochromatic waves. Three pelamis
Portugal, 2.25MW. Oscillating water column-water moves in/out of enclosed chamber air (blowhole) drives turbine.
Overtopping device-wave flows up channel, creates low head. Lysekil-floating bouy pulls on cable, drives
generator. Linear generator point absorber-electric coil and magnetic shaft (seabed). Ocean thermal energy
conversion-pump cold (1km 5*C) deep water to surface (25*C), hard to support pipes, low pressure water rankine or
organic rankine (butane), corrosion. [GW] Coal-317, gas-407, petrol-55, nuc-101, hydro-79, pumped-22, wind-39,
solar-.9, wood-7, biomass-4, geo-2.4. Hydro-US-.09, brazil .84, Norway .98, world .17. US-grand coulee 6.8 GW,
china-three gorges 14 GW. Dam, run of river, pump storage. Flooding, ecology, evaporative loss, water quality,
sedimentation. Impulse turbine- energy transfer by impact of water on blade, micro hydro, KE from high speed jet,
high head low flow. reaction-lift effect, P diff of blades creates torque, high flow low head. Pelton wheel-high p low
flow. Kaplan-low head very high flow (run of river). Francis-efficient for high flow. Vertical axis-darrieus rotor, no
(yaw) rotation needed to keep facing wind direction, heavy parts on ground, blades close to ground where wind is
slow. Downwind HAWT- no yaw needed, noise, shadow effect from blade behind tower. Upwind HAWT (modern
type)- need active yaw. Wind resources off shore and central states. Tower spacing affects efficiency and creates
wind shadow. Should stagger, 3-5 rotor D btwn towers and 5-9 D btwn rows, minimize rows. The key
constraint:Total power system generation must match the total load plus losses Sudden generation shortfalls dealt
with by maintaining sufficient spinning reserve to account for the loss of the largest single generator in region
Spinning reserve: generation that is on line but not fully used and can be brought into production in very short time
period. Bird mortality=.04birds/MW/yr. Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie, 1932: Discovery of neutron Also identified
ca. 3 neutrons per 235U fission later Hahn, Strassman and Meitner, 1938: Artificial fission demonstrated
(bombarding U with neutrons led to formation of Ba) Fermi and Szilard 1942: Self sustaining nuclear chain reaction
(part of Manhattan Project). 1
st
plant USSR 1954, 5MW. Expansion halted 70s, cheap coal/gas, slower load growth
rate, popular objection (Chernobyl, 3 mile, waste, weapons). 439 in world, 103 in 31 US states. France 77% nuc. US
running at 90% capacity. Energy gain due to residual nuclear force interaction leads to mass anomaly. Nuclear
forces holding nucleus stronger than forces holding electrons. Mass of products<mass reactants. Diff due to mass
anomaly turned to energy. Alpha decay-creates He. B decay-transform neutron to proton, electron, and neutrino.
Positron decay-unstable nucleus due to excess protons, proton convert to neutron by emission of positron. Gamma
decay-electromagnetic radiation, short wavelength 10-4um, high frequency. Subcrit-fewer neutrons produced than
consumed, rxn dampened. Crit-equal prod. and cons. rxn at SS. Supercrit-more free neutrons prod, accelerating rxn.
AU 31% U. 30% open pit mining, 38 underground, 21 in situ leaching. Grinding ~100microns, H2SO4 or Na2CO3
leach, solid liq separation, purification, precipitation, drying to get U oxide U3O8, dissolve in HNO3, calcination,
reduction, hydroflourination, fluorination UF6, then enrichment and conversion to U02 for fuel rods. Moderator
slows fast neutrons (300K km/s to few km/s) to increase fission events. Light water reactor-H20, heavy water-D2O,
rbmk-graphite. Control rod-neutron absorbing material regulate rxn, Cd, B, Hf. Coolant, P water, molten salts/lead,
CO2. BWR-1000psi, 285*C. PWR-2300psi 315*C. fuel replaced yearly, stored underwater 10-20yrs before
disposal. ABWR-compact, safety, reliable, maintenance. Gen4, very high TR-He cool H2 prod., supercrit WCR-
thermal efficiency 44%, lead cooled fast R-able seal core small capacity refuel 10yr, molten salt-thorough fuel
burnup can use Th in coolant to gen fuel, sodium cooled fast-actinide buring can burn weapons grade fuel can use as
fast breeder reactor. Pebble bed uranium covered by graphite-no control rods, safer fuel, He cooled. The sun
1.4millionkmindiameter 3.8 x 1020 MW of radiated electromagnetic energy. Tracking singleaxis usually polar
mounttrack,trackazimuthonly() sometimes has manual altitude adjustment (adjust a few times per year) twoaxis
trackaltitudeandazimuth(and) Approximate benefits are 20% gain for single axis, 25% to 30% gain for two axis.
Flat plate solar collector-Tmax 70*C, hot water/space heat, 30% heat loss. Conc collector-incerase intestity, less
heat loss, higher T, smaller area, lower cost. Trough-300*C, CR 10-50. Dish-700*C CR200-500. Heliostat-800-
100*C CR 500-3000. PV-photons move e to conduction band, creates hole e pair. Max eff. 30% single, 68% multi
layer. N-type donate e, ptype accept e. Energy payback multicryst-4yr, thin film-3yr.