Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind.

For
more than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped
water. Wind power was widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-
flowing streams, or later, requiring sources of fuel. Wind-powered pumps drained
the polders of the Netherlands, and in arid regions such as the American mid-
west or theAustralian outback, wind pumps provided water for live stock and
steam engines.
With the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in
lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power. Throughout the 20th
century parallel paths developed small wind plants suitable for farms or
residences, and larger utility-scale wind generators that could be connected to
electricity grids for remote use of power. Today wind powered generators operate
in every size range between tiny plants for battery charging at isolated
residences, up to near-gigawatt sized offshore wind farms that provide electricity
to national electrical networks.
Contents
[hide]
1 Antiquity
2 Early Middle Ages
3 Late Middle Ages
4 18th century
5 19th century
6 20th century
o 6.1 19001973
6.1.1 Danish development
6.1.2 Farm power and isolated plants
6.1.3 Utility-scale turbines
6.1.4 Fuel-saving turbines
o 6.2 19732000
6.2.1 US development
6.2.2 Self-sufficiency and back-to-the-land
7 21st century
o 7.1 Floating wind turbine technology
o 7.2 Airborne turbines
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Antiquity[edit]

Heron's wind-powered organ, the earliest machine powered by wind
[1]

Sailboats and sailing ships have been using wind power for at least 5,500
years,
[citation needed]
and architects have used wind-driven natural ventilation in
buildings since similarly ancient times. The use of wind to provide mechanical
power came somewhat later in antiquity.
The Babylonian emperor Hammurabi planned to use wind power for his
ambitious irrigation project in the 17th century BC.
[2]

The windwheel of the Greek engineer Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD
is the earliest known instance of using a wind-driven wheel to power a
machine.
[1][3]
Another early example of a wind-driven wheel was the prayer wheel,
which was used in ancient Tibet and China since the 4th century.
[4]

Early Middle Ages[edit]

The Persian, horizontal windmill

Medieval depiction of a windmill
The first practical windmills were in use in Sistan, a region in Iran and
bordering Afghanistan, at least by the 9th century and possibly as early as the
7th century. These "Panemone windmills" were horizontal windmills
[note 1]
, which
had long vertical driveshafts with six to twelve rectangularsails covered in reed
matting or cloth.
[5]
These windmills were used to grind corn and pump water, and
in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.
[5]
The use of windmills became
widespread use across the Middle East and Central Asia, and later spread
to China and India.
[6]
Vertical windmills were later used extensively in
Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in the 1180s, and many examples
still exist.
[6]
By 1000 AD, windmills were used to pump seawater for salt-making in
China and Sicily.
[7]

Wind-powered automata are known from the mid-8th century: wind-
powered statues that "turned with the wind over the domes of the four gates and
the palace complex of the Round City of Baghdad". The "Green Dome of the
palace was surmounted by the statue of a horseman carrying a lance that was
believed to point toward the enemy. This public spectacle of wind-powered
statues had its private counterpart in the 'Abbasidpalaces where automata of
various types were predominantly displayed."
[6]

Late Middle Ages[edit]

The vertical windmills of Campo de Criptana were immortalized in chapter VIII of Don Quixote.
The first windmills in Europe appear in sources dating to the twelfth century.
These early European windmills were sunk post mills. The earliest certain
reference to a windmill dates from 1185, in Weedley, Yorkshire, although a
number of earlier but less certainly dated twelfth-century European sources
referring to windmills have also been adduced.
[8]
While it is sometimes argued
that crusaders may have been inspired by windmills in the Middle East, this is
unlikely since the European vertical windmills were of significantly different
design than the horizontal windmills of Afghanistan. Lynn White Jr., a specialist in
medieval European technology, asserts that the European windmill was an
"independent invention;" he argues that it is unlikely that the Afghanistan-style
horizontal windmill had spread as far west as the Levant during the Crusader
period.
[8]
In medieval England rights to waterpower sites were often confined to
nobility and clergy, so wind power was an important resource to a new middle
class.
[8]
In addition, windmills, unlike water mills, were not rendered inoperable by
the freezing of water in the winter.
By the 14th century Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine
River delta.
18th century[edit]
Windmills were used to pump water for salt making on the island of Bermuda,
and on Cape Cod during the American revolution.
[7]
InMykonos and in other
islands of Greece windmills were used to mill flour and remained in use until the
early 20th century.
[9]
Many of them are now refurbished to be inhabited.
[10]

19th century[edit]

Blyth's windmill at his cottage in Marykirk in 1891

Wind powered generators were used on ships by the end of the 19th century, as seen on the
New Zealand sailing ship "Chance" (1902).
The first windmill used for the production of electricity was built in Scotland in
July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Anderson's College, Glasgow (the precursor
of Strathclyde University).
[11]
Blyth's 10 m high, cloth-sailed wind turbine was
installed in the garden of his holiday cottage atMarykirk in Kincardineshire and
was used to charge accumulators developed by the Frenchman Camille
Alphonse Faure, to power the lighting in the cottage,
[11]
thus making it the first
house in the world to have its electricity supplied by wind power.
[12]
Blyth offered
the surplus electricity to the people of Marykirk for lighting the main street,
however, they turned down the offer as they thought electricity was "the work of
the devil."
[11]
Although he later built a wind turbine to supply emergency power to
the local Lunatic Asylum, Infirmary and Dispensary ofMontrose, the invention
never really caught on as the technology was not considered to be economically
viable.
[11]
Across the Atlantic, inCleveland, Ohio a larger and heavily engineered
machine was designed and constructed in the winter of 1887-1888 by Charles F.
Brush,
[13]
this was built by his engineering company at his home and operated
from 1886 until 1900.
[14]
The Brush wind turbine had a rotor 17 m (56 foot) in
diameter and was mounted on an 18 m (60 foot) tower. Although large by today's
standards, the machine was only rated at 12 kW; it turned relatively slowly since
it had 144 blades. The connected dynamo was used either to charge a bank of
batteries or to operate up to 100incandescent light bulbs, three arc lamps, and
various motors in Brush's laboratory. The machine fell into disuse after 1900
when electricity became available from Cleveland's central stations, and was
abandoned in 1908.
[15]

In 1891 Danish scientist, Poul la Cour, constructed a wind turbine to generate
electricity, which was used to produce hydrogen
[11]
byelectrolysis to be stored for
use in experiments and to light the Askov High school. He later solved the
problem of producing a steady supply of power by inventing a regulator, the
Kratostate, and in 1895 converted his windmill into a prototype electrical power
plant that was used to light the village of Askov.
[16]

In Denmark there were about 2,500 windmills by 1900, used for mechanical
loads such as pumps and mills, producing an estimated combined peak power of
about 30 MW.
In the American midwest between 1850 and 1900, a large number of small
windmills, perhaps six million, were installed on farms to operate irrigation
pumps.
[8]
Firms such as Star, Eclipse, Fairbanks-Morse and Aeromotor became
famed suppliers in North and South America.
20th century[edit]
Development in the 20th century might be usefully divided into the periods:
19001973, when widespread use of individual wind generators competed
against fossil fuel plants and centrally-generated electricity
1973onward, when the oil price crisis spurred investigation of non-petroleum
energy sources.
19001973[edit]
Danish development[edit]
In Denmark wind power was an important part of a decentralized electrification in
the first quarter of the 20th century, partly because of Poul la Cour from his first
practical development in 1891 at Askov. By 1908 there were 72 wind-driven
electric generators from 5 kW to 25 kW. The largest machines were on 24 m
(79 ft) towers with four-bladed 23 m (75 ft) diameter rotors.
[17]
In 1957 Johannes
Juul installed a 24 m diameter wind turbine at Gedser, which ran from 1957 until
1967. This was a three-bladed, horizontal-axis, upwind, stall-regulated turbine
similar to those now used for commercial wind power development.
[17]

A giant change took place in 1978 when the world's first multi-megawatt wind
turbine was constructed. It pioneered many technologies used in modern wind
turbines and allowed Vestas, Siemens and others to get the parts they needed.
Especially important was the novel wing construction using help from German
aeronautics specialists. The power plant was capable of delivering 2MW, had a
tubular tower, pitch controlled wings and three blades. It was built by the
teachers and students of the Tvind school. Before completion these "amateurs"
were much ridiculed. The turbine still runs today and looks almost identical to the
newest most modern mills.
Danish commercial wind power development stressed incremental improvements
in capacity and efficiency based on extensive serial production of turbines, in
contrast with development models requiring extensive steps in unit size based
primarily on theoretical extrapolation. A practical consequence is that all
commercial wind turbines resemble theDanish model, a light-weight three-blade
upwind design.
[18]

Farm power and isolated plants[edit]
In 1927 the brothers Joe Jacobs and Marcellus Jacobs opened a factory, Jacobs
Wind in Minneapolis to produce wind turbine generators for farm use. These
would typically be used for lighting or battery charging, on farms out of reach of
central-station electricity and distribution lines. In 30 years the firm produced
about 30,000 small wind turbines, some of which ran for many years in remote
locations in Africa and on the Richard Evelyn Byrd expedition
to Antarctica.
[19]
Many other manufacturers produced small wind turbine sets for
the same market, including companies called Wincharger, Miller Airlite, Universal
Aeroelectric, Paris-Dunn, Airline and Winpower.
In 1931 the Darrieus wind turbine was invented, with its vertical axis providing a
different mix of design tradeoffs from the conventional horizontal-axis wind
turbine. The vertical orientation accepts wind from any direction with no need for
adjustments, and the heavy generator and gearbox equipment can rest on the
ground instead of atop a tower.
By the 1930s windmills were widely used to generate electricity on farms in the
United States where distribution systems had not yet been installed. Used to
replenish battery storage banks, these machines typically had generating
capacities of a few hundred watts to several kilowatts. Beside providing farm
power, they were also used for isolated applications such as electrifying bridge
structures to prevent corrosion. In this period, high tensile steel was cheap, and
windmills were placed atop prefabricated open steel lattice towers.
The most widely used small wind generator produced for American farms in the
1930s was a two-bladed horizontal-axis machine manufactured by the
Wincharger Corporation. It had a peak output of 200 watts. Blade speed was
regulated by curved air brakes near the hub that deployed at excessive rotational
velocities. These machines were still being manufactured in the United States
during the 1980s. In 1936, the U.S. started a rural electrification project that killed
the natural market for wind-generated power, since network power distribution
provided a farm with more dependable usable energy for a given amount of
capital investment.
In Australia, the Dunlite Corporation built hundreds of small wind generators to
provide power at isolated postal service stations and farms. These machines
were manufactured from 1936 until 1970.
[20]

Utility-scale turbines[edit]

The world's first megawatt-sized wind turbine near Grandpa's Knob Summit,, Castleton,
Vermont.
[21]


Experimental wind turbine atNogent-le-Roi, France, 1955.
A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis utility-scale wind generators was the
WIME D-30 in service in Balaklava, near Yalta, USSR from 1931 until 1942. This
was a 100 kW generator on a 30 m (100 ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV
distribution system. It had a three-bladed 30 metre rotor on a steel lattice
tower.
[22]
It was reported to have an annual load factor of 32 per cent,
[23]
not much
different from current wind machines.
[24]

In 1941 the world's first megawatt-size wind turbine was connected to the local
electrical distribution system on the mountain known as Grandpa's Knob
in Castleton, Vermont, USA. It was designed by Palmer Cosslett Putnam and
manufactured by the S. Morgan Smith Company. This 1.25 MW Smith-Putnam
turbine operated for 1100 hours before a blade failed at a known weak point,
which had not been reinforced due to war-time material shortages. No similar-
sized unit was to repeat this "bold experiment" for about forty years.
[21]

Fuel-saving turbines[edit]
During the Second World War, small wind generators were used on German U-
boats to recharge submarine batteries as a fuel-conserving measure. In 1946 the
lighthouse and residences on the island Insel Neuwerk were partly powered by
an 18 kW wind turbine 15 metres in diameter, to economize on diesel fuel. This
installation ran for around 20 years before being replaced by a submarine cable
to the mainland.
[25]

The Station d'Etude de l'Energie du Vent at Nogent-le-Roi in France operated an
experimental 800 KVA wind turbine from 1956 to 1966.
[26]



The NASA/DOE 7.5 megawatt Mod-2 three turbine cluster in Goodnoe Hills, Washington in
1981.

Comparison of NASA wind turbines
19732000[edit]
US development[edit]
From 1974 through the mid-1980s the United States government worked with
industry to advance the technology and enable large commercial wind turbines.
The NASA wind turbines were developed under a program to create a utility-
scale wind turbine industry in the U.S. With funding from the National Science
Foundation and later the United States Department of Energy (DOE), a total of
13 experimental wind turbines were put into operation, in four major wind turbine
designs. This research and development program pioneered many of the multi-
megawatt turbine technologies in use today, including: steel tube towers,
variable-speed generators, composite blade materials, partial-span pitch control,
as well as aerodynamic, structural, and acoustic engineering design capabilities.
The large wind turbines developed under this effort set several world records for
diameter and power output. The MOD-2 wind turbine cluster of three turbines
produced 7.5 megawatts of power in 1981. In 1987, the MOD-5B was the largest
single wind turbine operating in the world with a rotor diameter of nearly 100
meters and a rated power of 3.2 megawatts. It demonstrated an availability of 95
percent, an unparalleled level for a new first-unit wind turbine. The MOD-5B had
the first large-scale variable speed drive train and a sectioned, two-blade rotor
that enabled easy transport of the blades. The 4 megawatt WTS-4 held the world
record for power output for over 20 years. Although the later units were sold
commercially, none of these two-bladed machines were ever put into mass
production. When oil prices declined by a factor of three from 1980 through the
early 1990s,
[27]
many turbine manufacturers, both large and small, left the
business. The commercial sales of the NASA/Boeing Mod-5B, for example, came
to an end in 1987 when Boeing Engineering and Construction announced they
were "planning to leave the market because low oil prices are keeping windmills
for electricity generation uneconomical."
[28]

Later, in the 1980s, California provided tax rebates for wind power. These
rebates funded the first major use of wind power for utility electricity. These
machines, gathered in large wind parks such as at Altamont Pass would be
considered small and un-economic by modern wind power development
standards.
Self-sufficiency and back-to-the-land[edit]
In the 1970s many people began to desire a self-sufficient life-style. Solar
cells were too expensive for small-scale electrical generation, so some turned to
windmills. At first they built ad-hoc designs using wood and automobile parts.
Most people discovered that a reliable wind generator is a moderately complex
engineering project, well beyond the ability of most amateurs. Some began to
search for and rebuild farm wind generators from the 1930s, of which Jacobs
Wind Electric Company machines were especially sought after. Hundreds of
Jacobs machines were reconditioned and sold during the 1970s.
[citation needed]

All major horizontal axis turbines today rotate the same way (clockwise) to
present a coherent view. However, early turbines rotated counter-clockwise like
the old windmills, but a shift occurred from 1978 and on. The individualist-
minded blade supplier kr made the decision to change direction in order to be
distinguished from the collective Tvind and their small wind turbines. Some of the
blade customers were companies that later evolved
into Vestas, Siemens, Enercon and Nordex. Public demand required that all
turbines rotate the same way, and the success of these companies made
clockwise the new standard.
[29]

Following experience with reconditioned 1930s wind turbines, a new generation
of American manufacturers started building and selling small wind turbines not
only for battery-charging but also for interconnection to electricity networks. An
early example would be Enertech Corporation of Norwich, Vermont, which began
building 1.8 kW models in the early 1980s.
In the 1990s, as aesthetics and durability became more important, turbines were
placed atop tubular steel or reinforced concrete towers. Small generators are
connected to the tower on the ground, then the tower is raised into position.
Larger generators are hoisted into position atop the tower and there is a ladder or
staircase inside the tower to allow technicians to reach and maintain the
generator, while protected from the weather.
21st century[edit]

This section does not cite any references or
sources. Please help improve this section by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may
be challenged and removed. (August 2011)

Size comparison of modern wind turbines
As the 21st century began, fossil fuel was still relatively cheap, but rising
concerns over energy security, global warming, and eventual fossil fuel
depletion led to an expansion of interest in all available forms of renewable
energy. The fledgling commercial wind power industry began expanding at a
robust growth rate of about 25% per year, driven by the ready availability of large
wind resources, and falling costs due to improved technology and wind farm
management.
[citation needed]
The steady run-up in oil prices after 2003 led to
increasing fears that peak oilwas imminent, further increasing interest in
commercial wind power. Even though wind power generates electricity rather
than liquid fuels, and thus is not an immediate substitute for petroleum in most
applications (especially transport), fears over petroleum shortages only added to
the urgency to expand wind power. Earlier oil crisis had already caused many
utility and industrial users of petroleum to shift to coal ornatural gas. Natural gas
began having its own supply problems, and wind power showed potential for
replacing natural gas in electricity generation.
[citation needed]

Technological innovations continues to drive new developments in the
application of wind power.
[30][31]

Floating wind turbine technology[edit]
Offshore wind power began to expand beyond fixed-bottom, shallow-water
turbines beginning late in the first decade of the 2000s. The world's first
operational deep-water large-capacity floating wind turbine, Hywind, became
operational in the North Sea off Norway in late 2009
[32]

[33]
at a cost of some 400
million kroner (around US$62 million) to build and deploy.
[34]

These floating turbines are a very different construction technologycloser to
floating oil rigs ratherthan traditional fixed-bottom, shallow-water monopile
foundations that are used in the other large offshore wind farms to date.
By late 2011, Japan announced plans to build a multiple-unit floating wind farm,
with six 2-megawatt turbines, off the Fukushima coast of northeast Japan where
the 2011 tsunami and nuclear disaster has created a scarcity of electric
power.
[35]
After the evaluation phase is complete in 2016, "Japan plans to build as
many as 80 floating wind turbines off Fukushima by 2020"
[35]
at a cost of some
10-20 billion Yen.
[36]

Airborne turbines[edit]
See also: High altitude wind power
Airborne wind energy systems use airfoils or turbines supported in the air by
buoyancy or by aerodynamic lift. The purpose is to eliminate the expense of
tower construction, and allow extraction of wind energy from steadier, faster,
winds higher in the atmosphere. As yet no grid-scale plants have been
constructed. Many design concepts have been demonstrated.
[37][38][39]

See also[edit]
Wind power in Ohio History
Notes[edit]
1. ^ The terms "horizontal" and "vertical" refer to the plane of rotation of the
sails. Modern wind turbines are generally referred to by the plane of
rotation of the main axle (windshaft). Thus a horizontal mill may also be
described as a "vertical-axis windmill" and a vertical mill may also be
described as a "horizontal-axis windmill".
References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

Wind power in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Progress in India's installed wind power generating capacity since 2006
The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has significantly increased in the
last few years. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry compared with Denmark or
the United States, India has the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the world.
[1]
In 2009-10
India's growth rate was highest among the other top four countries.
As of 31 March 2014 the installed capacity of wind power in India was 21136.3 MW,
[2][3]
mainly
spread across Tamil Nadu(7253 MW),
[4]
Gujarat (3,093 MW), Maharashtra (2976
MW), Karnataka (2113 MW), Rajasthan (2355 MW), Madhya Pradesh(386 MW), Andhra
Pradesh (435 MW), Kerala (35.1 MW), Orissa (2MW),
[5][6]
West Bengal (1.1 MW) and other states
(3.20 MW).
[7]
It is estimated that 6,000 MW of additional wind power capacity will be installed in India
by 2014.
[8]
Wind power accounts for 8.5% of India's total installed power capacity, and it generates
1.6% of the country's power.
[9]
India's wind atlas is available.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 State-level wind power
o 2.1 Tamil Nadu (7,253 MW)
o 2.2 Gujarat (3,187 MW)
o 2.3 Maharashtra (2976 MW)
o 2.4 Rajasthan (2355 MW)
o 2.5 Madhya Pradesh (386 MW)
o 2.6 Kerala
o 2.7 Odisha (2.0MW)
o 2.8 West Bengal (2.10MW)
3 Projects
4 Barriers
5 Future
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Overview[edit]

India is the world's fifth largest wind power producer, with a generation capacity of 20,149
MW.
[10]
Shown here is a wind farm in Kayathar, Tamil Nadu.
The worldwide installed capacity of wind power reached 283 GW by the end of 2012. China (75,564
MW), US (60,007 MW), Germany (31,332 MW) and Spain (22,796 MW) are ahead of India in fifth
position.
[11]
The short gestation periods for installing wind turbines, and the increasing reliability and
performance of wind energy machines has made wind power a favoured choice for capacity addition
in India.
[12]

Suzlon, an Indian-owned company, emerged on the global scene in the past decade, and by 2006
had captured almost 7.7 percent of market share in global wind turbine sales. Suzlon is currently the
leading manufacturer of wind turbines for the Indian market, holding some 43 percent of market
share in India. Suzlons success has made India the developing country leader in advanced wind
turbine technology.
[13]

State-level wind power[edit]
There is a growing number of wind energy installations in states across India. By the end of January
2014, the states of India had a cumulative installed capacity of 21264 MW.
[14]

State Capacity as on 31.03.2014(MW)
[14]

Tamil Nadu 7253
Gujarat 3414
Maharashtra 2976
Rajasthan 2820
Karnataka 2409
Andhra Pradesh 753
Madhya Pradesh 439.00
Kerala 55
Others 4.30
Total 21264
.
Tamil Nadu (7,253 MW)[edit]
Tamil Nadu generate around 35% of India's total wind capacity. The Government of Tamil Nadu
realized the importance and need for renewable energy, and set up a separate Agency, as
registered society, called the Tamil Nadu Energy Development Agency (TEDA) as early as 1985.
Now, Tamil Nadu has become a leader in Wind Power in India. In Muppandal windfarm, Tamil Nadu
the total capacity is 1500MW, which is the largest in India. As per TEDA, the total installed capacity
in Tamil Nadu is 7253MW.
[15]

Gujarat (3,187 MW)[edit]
Gujarat governments focus on tapping renewable energy has led to sharp rise in the capacity to
generate power using wind energy in the last few years. According to official data, wind power
generations capacity in the state has increased a staggering ten times in just six years.
As per C-WET data, the total installed capacity in Gujarat stood at 3093 MW.
[4]

Maharashtra (2976 MW)[edit]
Maharashtra is third only to Tamil Nadu and Gujarat in terms of generating in India.In Satara a
Company named Suzlon Energy Ltd. has its wind power plant.
[citation needed]

Rajasthan (2355 MW)[edit]
2356 MW as per the news reported by Times of India, Dated 31.3.2012.
[citation needed]

Madhya Pradesh (386 MW)[edit]
In consideration of unique concept, Govt. of Madhya Pradesh has sanctioned another 15 MW project
to Madhya Pradesh Windfarms Ltd. MPWL, Bhopal at Nagda Hills near Dewas under consultation
from Consolidated Energy Consultants Ltd. CECL Bhopal. All the 25 WEGs have been
commissioned on 31.03.2008 and under successful operation.
[16]

Kerala[edit]
The first wind farm of the state was set up
[when?]
at Kanjikode in Palakkad district.
[citation needed]

They generate a total of 600 MW of power. The agency has identified 16 sites for setting up wind
farms through private developers.
[citation needed]

Odisha (2.0MW)[edit]
Odisha a coastal state has higher potential for wind energy. Current installation capacity stands at
2.0 MW. Odisha has a windpower potential of 1700MW. The Govt of Odisha is actively pursuing to
boost Wind power generation in the state. however it has not progressed like other states primarily
because Odisha having a huge coal reserve and number of existing and upcoming thermal power
plants, is a power surplus state.
[17]

West Bengal (2.10MW)[edit]
The total installation in West Bengal is 2.10 MW till Dec 2009 at Fraserganj, Distt- South 24
Paraganas. More 0.5 MW (approx) at Ganga Sagar, Kakdwip, Distt - South 24 Paraganas. Both the
project owned by West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency (WBREDA), Govt. of WB
and project was executed on turnkey basis by Utility Powertech Limited (UPL).
[citation needed]

Projects[edit]
India's largest wind power production facilities (10MW and greater)
[18]

Power plant Producer Location State
Total
capacity
(MWe)
Muppandal
windfarm
[19]

Muppandal Wind Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu 1500
Jaisalmer Wind
Park
[20]

Suzlon Energy Jaisalmer Rajasthan 1064
Brahmanvel
windfarm
[21]

Parakh Agro
Industries
Dhule Maharashtra 528
Dhalgaon
windfarm
[22]

Gadre Marine Exports Sangli Maharashtra 278
Vankusawade Wind
Park
Suzlon Energy Ltd. Satara District. Maharashtra 259
Damanjodi Wind
Power Plant
Suzlon Energy Ltd. Damanjodi Odisha 99
Cape Comorin
Aban Loyd Chiles
Offshore Ltd.
Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu 33
Kayathar Subhash Subhash Ltd. Kayathar Tamil Nadu 30
Ramakkalmedu Subhash Ltd. Ramakkalmedu Kerala 25
Power plant Producer Location State
Total
capacity
(MWe)
Gudimangalam
Gudimangalam Wind
Farm
Gudimangalam Tamil Nadu 21
Puthlur RCI Wescare (India) Ltd. Puthlur
Andhra
Pradesh
20
Lamda Danida Danida India Ltd. Lamba Gujarat 15
Chennai Mohan
Mohan Breweries &
Distilleries Ltd.
Chennai Tamil Nadu 15
Jamgudrani MP MP Windfarms Ltd. Dewas
Madhya
Pradesh
14
Jogmatti BSES BSES Ltd.
Chitradurga
District
Karnataka 14
Perungudi Newam
Newam Power
Company Ltd.
Perungudi Tamil Nadu 12
Kethanur Wind Farm Kethanur Wind Farm Kethanur Tamil Nadu 11
Hyderabad APSRTC
Andhra Pradesh State
Road Transport
Hyderabad
Andhra
Pradesh
10
Power plant Producer Location State
Total
capacity
(MWe)
Corporation
Muppandal Madras Madras Cements Ltd. Muppandal Tamil Nadu 10
Shah Gajendragarh MMTCL Gadag Karnataka 15
Shah Gajendragarh Sanjay D. Ghodawat Gadag Karnataka 10.8
Acciona Tuppadahalli
Tuppadahalli Energy
India Private Limited
Chitradurga
District
Karnataka 56.1
Poolavadi Chettinad
Chettinad Cement
Corp. Ltd.
Poolavadi Tamil Nadu 10
Shalivahana Wind
Shalivahana Green
Energy. Ltd.
Tirupur Tamil Nadu 20.4
Dangiri Wind Farm Oil India Ltd. Jaiselmer Rajasthan 54
[23]

Barriers[edit]
Initial cost for wind turbines is greater than that of conventional fossil fuel generators per MW
installed.
[24]
Noise is produced by the rotor blades. This is not normally an issue in the locations
chosen for most wind farms.
Future[edit]
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) had fixed a target of 10,500 MW between
200712, but an additional generation capacity of only about 6,000 MW might be available for
commercial use by 2012.
[8]

The MNRE has announced a revised estimation of the potential wind resource in India from 49,130
MW assessed at 50m Hub heights to 102,788 MW assessed at 80m Hub height. The wind resource
at higher Hub heights that are now prevailing is possibly even more.
See also[edit]

India portal

Renewable energy portal
Energy policy of India
Solar power in India
List of onshore wind farms
Wind turbine design
References[edit]
1. Jump up^ "World Wind Energy Report 2008". Report. "World Wind Energy Report
2008"
2. Jump up^ "Indian W

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Physics of Wind Turbines
Over a thousand years ago, windmills were in operations in Persia and China , see TelosNet and Wikipedia.
Post mills appeared in Europe in the twelfth century, and by the end of the thirteenth century the tower mill, on which only the
timber cap rotated rather than the whole body of the mill, had been introduced. In the United States, the development
of the water-pumping windmill was a major factor in allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas in the middle of the
nineteenth century. The wind pumps (sometimes called Western mills) are still common in America and Australia.
They have a rotor with about 30 vanes (or blades) and the ability to turn itself slowly. Of the 200,000 windmills existing in Europe
in the middle of the nineteenth century, only one in ten remained after 100 years. The old windmills have been replaced by steam
and internal combustion engines. However, since the end of the last century the number of wind turbines (WT) is growing
steadily, and is beginning to take an important role in power generation in many countries.
We first show that for all wind turbines, wind power is proportional to wind speed cubed. Wind energy is the kinetic energy of the
moving air. The kinetic energy of a mass m with the velocity v is

The air mass m can be determined from the air density and the air volume V according to

Then,

Power is energy divided by time. We consider a small time, t, in which the air particles travel a distance s = v t
to flow through. We multiply the distance with the rotor area of the wind turbine, A, resulting in a volume of

which drives the wind turbine for the small period of time. Then the wind power is given as

The wind power increases with the cube of the wind speed. In other words: doubling the wind speed gives eight times the wind
power. Therefore, the selection of a "windy" location is very important for a wind turbine.
The effective usable wind power is less than indicated by the above equation. The wind speed behind the wind turbine
can not be zero, since no air could follow. Therefore, only a part of the kinetic energy can be extracted. Consider the following
picture:


The wind speed before the wind turbine is larger than after. Because the mass flow must be continuous, the area A
2
after the
wind turbine is bigger than the area A
1
before. The effective power is the difference between the two wind powers:

If the difference of both speeds is zero, we have no net efficiency. If the difference is too big, the air flow through the rotor is
hindered too much. The power coefficient c
p
characterizes the relative drawing power:

To derive the above equation, the following was assumed: A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2
= A (v
1
+v
2
) / 2. We designate the ratio v
2
/v
1
on
the right side of the equation with x. To find the value of x that gives the maximum value of C
P
, we take the derivative
with respect to x and set it equal to zero. This gives a maximum when x = 1/3. Maximum drawing power is then obtained
for v
2
= v
1
/ 3, and the ideal power coefficient is given by

Another wind turbine located too close behind would be driven only by slower air. Therefore, wind farms in the prevailing wind
direction need a minimum distance of eight times the rotor diameter. The usual diameter of wind turbines is 50 m with an installed
capacity of 1 MW and 126 m with a 5-MW wind turbine. The latter is mainly used off shore.
The installed capacity or rated power of a wind turbine corresponds to an electrical power output of a speed between 12 and 16
m/s, with optimal wind conditions. For safety reasons, the plant does not produce greater power at the high wind conditions than
those for which it is designed. During storms, the plant is switched off. Throughout the year, a workload
of 23% can be reached inland. This increases to 28% on the coast and 43% off-shore.
Technical details can be found in books edited by Robert Gasch, Thomas Ackermann, and Tony Burton et al., and in the Internet
pages of the American Wind Energy Association.
Statistical data shows that in 2013 the installed capacity of wind power in the United States was over 60 GW. This capacity is
exceeded only by China (over 75 GW). The Alta Wind Energy Center in California is the largest wind farm in the United States
with a capacity of 1 GW. The electricity produced from wind power in the United States amounted to 164 TWh (terawatt-hours), or
4% of all generated electrical energy. Detailed information about the present state in the US can be found in Wikipedia.
A crucial point about wind power is that the times of peak electricity demand and the times of optimal wind conditions rarely
coincide. Thus, other electric power producers with short lead times and a well developed electricity distribution system are
necessary to supplement wind power generation.
Why have the wind turbines of today lost one blade in comparison to the old four-blade windmills?
The rotor power P
mech
= 2 M n is proportional to the torque M acting on the shaft and the rotation frequency n.
The latter is influenced by the tip speed ratio , which is calculated according to = v
u
/ v
1
from the ratio of peripheral speed (tip
speed) v
u
of the rotor and the wind speed v
1
. The torque M increases with the number of blades.
It is therefore largest for the many-vaned Western mills, smaller for wind mills with four blades, and smallest for todays
wind turbines with 3 blades. However, every blade, as it rotates, reduces the wind speed for the following blades.
This "wind shadow" effect increases with the number of blades. The optimal tip speed ratio is about one for the Western mill,
barely over 2 for the four-bladed type, and 78 for the three-bladed rotors. At their optimal tip speed ratio, three-bladed rotors
achieve a c
p
value of 48% and come closer to the ideal value of 59% than wind turbines with 4 blades.
For wind turbines with two blades or weight-balanced one-bladed rotor configurations, the yield is smaller in spite of a higher tip
speed ratio, because of the smaller torque M. Therefore, wind turbines today have three blades.

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Thermal energy; Electrical energy; Energy of electric and magnetic fields; Chemical energy; Batteries; Nuclear energy; Heat engines;
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Solar Cells
Solar cells are electrical components that convert sunlight directly into electrical energy. They are based on the photovoltaic
effect at a boundary between the positive and negative doped areas of a semiconducting material.
Solar cells for electrical energy generation are thus called photovoltaic (PV) cells.
An undoped semiconducting material like silicon does not have any free charge carriers. Through incorporation (doping) of a very
low concentration of pentavalent atoms (like arsenic) in tetravalent silicon material, a low concentration of electrons is created in
the conduction band. The incorporation of trivalent atoms (like aluminum) results in electron vacancies (holes) in the valence
band. The former material has a negative conductivity (n-type), and the later has a positive conductivity
(p-type). The moving charges are compensated in the doped material by fixed positive or negative charges.

A sequence of metal contact, n-type semiconductor,
p-type semiconductor, and metal contact yields a
semiconductor diode, pictured left. At the interface between n-
and p- conductive materials (p-n junction),
the mobile charges (shown within circles in the figure)
recombine, while the fixed charges (negative in
p-conducting and positive in n-conducting material) remain.
This produces a boundary layer that has a lower concentration
of mobile charge carriers but still the usual concentration of
fixed charge carriers and gives rise to a "potential wall" that
hinders the subsequent flow f other mobile carriers and limits
the thickness of the boundary layer to less than 1 micron.
A solar cell is so thin that the sunlight penetrates to the p-n junction. There, by the internal photoelectric effect, the light energy is
converted into a mobile electron and a mobile hole. Some of the newly created electrons manage to move away from the
boundary layer into the n-type region, and some of the holes succeed in moving into the p-type region.
Unfortunately, the majority of the charge carrier pairs created by the light energy recombine in the boundary layer, and this limits
the efficiency of silicon solar cells to less than 25%. However, if the charge carriers do make it out of the boundary layer, the
potential wall prevents their return. If the outside edges of the n- and p-conductor layers are connected by a wire, these carriers
can combine only in a "round about way" through the electricity consumer, because the resistance of the wire and even a
consumer is smaller than that of the boundary layer. A single solar cell generates about one volt. Inverters are used for the
transformation into altering current and for generating greater voltages. In 2007 - 2011, a solar farm was installed on a former
airfield near Leipzig, Germany, on an area of 0.15 square miles. The installed capacity of 52 MW reached an annual production
of 52 GWh.
The PV system near Leipzig was constructed of thin-film CdTe
modules. These are so-called II-VI-semiconductors, which are used
in addition to III-V-semiconductors (GaAs) and the common
tetravalent semiconductors like Si or Ge. The Roman numerals
II, III, V and VI describe the valency of each component of the
material. The Cd-Te combination can be cheaply manufactured on a
large scale, but higher efficiencies can be reached with GaAs cells.
Si materials can be divided into mono-crystalline (higher efficiency)
and polycrystalline (better price/performance ratio). Pictured right is
a polycrystalline wafer, 10 cm in length. The so-called "thick layer"
Si wafers are about 250 m thick, whereas thin-film cells have a
thickness on the order of 10 m. They are produced from crystalline
material with high efficiencies or from cheaper, amorphous material.
Even cheaper and easier to produce solar cells are expected in the
future from organic semiconductors. So far, however, polymers
have only achieved low efficiency and durability. There are no
expected shortages of material for polymers and silicon, but it could
be difficult in the future to find sufficient resources of indium,
gallium, tellurium, and selenium.

Several criteria are used to assess the possible applications of the PV system. The assessment of the economic payback
is complicated by the fact that no accurate predictions are possible on state subsidies of PV power generation and the
development of electricity prices. A more easily calculated parameter is the energy payback time, which is the number of years
required for the PV installation to generate the same amount of energy (in kilowatt hours) that was spent on the
its production. A thin-film module system can pay for itself in about 2-3 years. PV with polycrystalline cells need 3-5 years,
and those with mono-crystalline cells require 4-6 years. This requires the best sunshine conditions. In Chicago, double these
times may be required. The balance becomes negative when the calculated payback times exceed the estimated lifespan of
about 20 years.
Many innovations and details can be found on the Internet pages of howstaffworks, Wikipedia, and SolarServer.

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Thermal energy; Electrical energy; Energy of electric and magnetic fields; Chemical energy; Batteries; Nuclear energy; Heat engines;
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Solar Thermal Energy
Solar heat, also called solar thermal energy, describes the conversion of solar energy into a technically usable heat.
For example, a heat exchanger on the roof and heat storage in a house can help with the hot water:


The average performance over a year of solar radiation on the Earth varies in the range 50-250 watts per m:




In Las Vegas, the solar yield is twice that of Chicago. Therefore, the southwestern US is a favorite place for solar thermal
energy (STE). Solar energy is transformed into thermal energy and in solar power plants then converted into electricity
with proven techniques. The most commonly used method collects solar radiation by reflectors.

Parabolic trough power plants use a curved, mirrored trough which reflects the
direct solar radiation onto a glass tube (also called a receiver, absorber or
collector) running the length of the trough, positioned at the focal point of the
reflectors. The trough is parabolic along one axis and linear in the orthogonal
axis, see figure at left. For a change of the daily position of the sun
perpendicular to the receiver, the trough tilts east to west so that the direct
radiation remains focused on the receiver, which transfers the heat to a pipe
with superheated steam or thermal oil. In the former case, the steam can work
the turbine directly, and in the latter case a heat exchanger is needed. In 2007,
a large plant of its kind went to the grid near Las Vegas. Nevada Solar
One has a capacity of 75 MW, covers 1.6 km and uses 760 parabolic troughs
consisting of more than 180,000 mirrors. As the sun doesnt always shine in
Nevada, the average annual output expected is about 20% of the installed
capacity. At night, there is the option to use the turbines by combustion of gas,
in order to satisfy the power demand. Solana, the largest solar power plant in
the world (280 MW), located 70 miles southwest of Phoenix, near Gila Bend,
Arizona, will begin operation in 2014.
In a solar tower plant, a combustion chamber in the tower receives
the solar energy from a large field of reflectors. More than a
thousand automatically positioned mirrors (heliostats) reflect the
sunlight toward the central absorber (receiver). Temperatures
easily exceed 1,000 F. Molten nitrate salt, steam, or hot air can be
used as the heat transfer medium. If a large reservoir of the heat
transfer medium is used, the turbines of the power plant can
produce electricity at any time. The picture to the right shows
PS10. Since 2009, Planta Solar 20 (PS20) near Seville in Spain
obtains by a 165m (531 feet)-high tower the sunlight from 1,255
mirrors (surface area of 1,3 square feet or 0.1 m for each) and
converts it to an output of 20 MW. In 2014, Ivanpah will become
the largest solar thermal power tower system in the world (377
MW). Located in Ivanpah Dry Lake, California, the three-unit power
system is built on 3,500 acres of desert land. A listing of the
concentrated solar power (CSP) plants shows a world capacity of
2,5 MW at the end of 2012.

A solar updraft tower plant is
enormous. It combines three
old and proven technologies:
the chimney effect, the greenhouse
effect, and the wind turbine.
Air is heated by sunshine and the
resulting convection causes the air
to rise up the updraft tower and
drive the turbines. A pilot plant was
operated in Manzanares in Spain
for several years. A power of only
50 kW was provided with a collector
diameter of 244 m and a stack
height of 195 m. There are currently
no updraft power plants working or
under construction. Plans to build
solar updraft towers with capacities
up to 400 MW, up to 1.5 km high
and area diameter up to 7 km, were
not realized.


Definition of the word "energy"; Einsteins equivalence of energy and mass; Units of energy; Daily energy needs; Mechanical energy;
Thermal energy; Electrical energy; Energy of electric and magnetic fields; Chemical energy; Batteries; Nuclear energy; Heat engines;
Heat pumps; Fuel cells; Physics of wind turbines; Solar cells; Solar thermal energy; Environmental risks;
Potential of fossil and atomic fuels; Methane hydrates; Potential of renewable energy
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1.