A PRIMER OF

FIRST EDITION
A PRIMER OF OFFSHORE
First Edition
OPERATIONS
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Foreword to the First Edition
Energy requirements are increasing wolld wide. Available supplies of
natural gas and crude oil are being depleted at a rate which threatens acute
shortages rvithin the foreseeable future. Alternative sources- of energy are
being exploited by both government and industry. Some of these are nx-
clear, geothermal, and coal deposits. Each of these a'lternatives requires
many i*p.ouements in technology to meet the potential dangers inherent in
tltem. Radiation, destrrrction of the balance of nature, and air pollution are
among the ofrenders.
A desirable solution to meeting energy needs may lie in the improvement
and expausion of currently succissful technologies of exploration and pro-
duction of oil and gas. Beneath the seabeds and the ocean floors are the
remaining areas in *t ich to find and recover the additional hydrocarbons
so necessary to tfe present economy.
Inland and ofishore technologies have many similar or identical character-
istics. Since onshore operations are discussed in A Primer of Oilwell Drilling
and A Prhner of Oil and Gas Production, this publication will devote itself
principally to equiprnent ancl methods trsed to iolve problems encouptered
in offshore operations,
Witlr this purpose in view A Primer of Offshore Opetatiorw is submiited.
Curtis F. Kruse
Petroleum Extension Service
The University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas
August 1976
CONTENTS
Introduction
Marine Exploration .
L -
Environmental Information .
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Rigs for Offshore Explory
Moving on Location .
Station Keeping . .
tory Drilling
,.,t15
Rig Components and Procedures Peculiar to Floaters .
BOP Stacks .
Rotrtine Drilling Operations and Relaled Services .
.
.1," !4
Production Well Testing .
Abandonment Procedure
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C rews-Q u artef, s-TransP ort at ion
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Safetyandsurvival . . . . .
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69
Ofishore Drilling/Production
Platforms
Storage and Transport to Shore
Bases-spills-Reguf ations-Contingency
Planning
G l o s s a r y . . . .
.
Acknowledgements , .
73
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-"INTRODUCTION
Offshore
operations of the petroleum
industry
!"Sul^ll
extensions
of
.-oo,'
rfttt"
"-pfori'r,g,
4rilling, and^productttg'
gy
the late l93os,seismic.
surveys
had
be"r, madl of "oori*l maril lar,ds, 5*yuut,
and
-shallow
bays adjacent'to
,:tlte Gulf of Mexico.
In Louisiana
barges sunk
in dredged
channels
with water
'iiH,
"f;;;';il
and secured in
iositio'
with sptid and cluster'-piles'hacl
proyed themselves
", arUing ptatfo^rms.
Drilling
operations
in sha$ow
blys
tr;;""ffi";;r
*;od"r,"il*tfor*,
mounteii
tln timber piles' supplies
,'
were brought to these op"oiiotrr
!)t
b"tge- throrgh
access channels
o:
9I
trestles
f.oit n"orbf titoti ot boat landin[
tu"*tio"t'-ot.:"tP
" tfl,tl*
'
i,rg *o, done fronr'wlrarves extending
out into the Pacific from L;alilornra
ilil;.;"rn
"l'irt" early activities
ii water covered areas were to extend
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;;lil;;"rlr
""a a.ecou",
oil from reservoirs
already defined on shore'
--nub.y
odu"n""*"*
"*uy from the solid ground.of
prairies
and dry land
,
toward the bpen r"*rir"r bi'o,.,ghtconfrontaiions
with problems
that-had
to
'|1e
solvecl.
T'fte rrsuirl
patteru *'",,s for tlre operator
to first try the.equipment
and skills already in his possession;
and wlren tlris was not enough,
the oper-
ator had to seek itew rnaferials, designs,
and methods'
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S,,"""rsful
adaptations of existing
resottrces
were quickly
imitated
or
im-
proved
by cor-,rpeii'g operato's.
OfEn the e'rphasis
was more o' cooperation
io achieve ,, "un,,rloro, gionl tll,.n on individtraigains.
The net resttlt has been
a fairly steacly evolution
in every aspect of offslrore
activity'
,
As ofis6ore
operatio's rnove
into greater
water dept6s aud more lostile
,' .envirorrmelts, tr'il costs ilcrease
raplily' Ole of t[e-most
striking
effects
is
"
irr.f.," in"r"nrl
i' size of petroleurrir"rlru",
r'equired to
iustify
tt::9:::t:t:
'
ment of a discovery fieldi,In sorne areas a ,*r"iu" estimated-
at 100'000,000
-
frfri of' petroleum
irt st be considered
margintll
l$ ."y,"it
development
on
;ro
.that
basis. Comrnercial
reserves begin at 3d),(n0,000
bbl of anticipat"d
Pt-
,l
tluctiou for some fields.
otlrer fact'ors
u4rich are influencing
rising costs and feasihility
of develop-
ment are iucreasirrg patticipation
of host cottntries
in leases, bonuses'.anu.
: :ii'op"Jil;i
;t"d;Jtion.
ltestrictions
and regulations
i*p".t*
:.*T*:::
opirations ar.e generally
repressive
in efiect since larger capital
outlays
are
needed.
, lVith this backgrolncl
tlre entire field of exploration
has become
much
ii'
bro".l".. All the tiols available
to geophysicists
are used: seismic,
gravity'
magnetic, surveys based upon core drilling
are comrnol].
;il;;;;;;i'iu*g
#-;;'
greatlyiixpa'ded'
**:
iTt
l",ii*9
to determinu ,ur".uoiito"*tiotr
uni rir". ThJnumber
and design of drilling/
ilJ;;;;;;; ;i;;f;'*r
is determiued
by i'formation.obtainable
onlv
from
actual drilling. Production and transportation
facilities will not be con-
structed until their need is assured.
A; ;,I.*;^,,.fi,,!
"f ofislrore
operations
reqrrires tlrat eli4talq{-#9$
r r^--^r^---^--+ J-;tl :*- L.o ^l oo.l ., .l i sti ncrri sl red- Exnl oratOrv dri l l tng
rs
a'd developme*t Iritbng
-b_.
"_!.gedndg!,ll-guis6ed.
Exploratory
--*F#
oilffii *6il1b rigs, and the
we.lMtlg!g-?j-*
**r--
In *ater deepgr
uctlon alx
than abotrt 1000
Firsi semisubmersible
rig.
First ofishgre .Platform'
floating rigs.
drilled
from mobile
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Areas of ofishore activify.
Activifies start with exploratory surveys. Erploratory
drilling is nert. Production drilling is last. Mobile drill-
ing rigs test the
ProsPective
reservoirs to determine
the feasibility of develoPment.
Rig count---arly 1976.
!^JORKING
RI qS
-
Loui s i ana
Texas
U. S. Pac i f i c
Af ri ca
At l an t i c
Aus t ral i a
Canada and Great Lakes
Cari bbean
Cel t i c Sea
Medi t erranean
Mex i co
Mi ddl e East
Nort h Sea
Sout h Ameri ca
Sout heast As i a
286
I d l e Ri g s
En rout e
UNDER CONSTRUCTION
26
6
1 2 7
Dr i l l s h i p s
J ac kups
Semi subrnersi bl es
Firsi self-elevating rig.
Self-elevating rig with open-fabricated legs.
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1 2
3
1 B
5
2
1 0
3
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1 2
3
45
47
30
31
29
50
4B
Large drilling ship.
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Subsurface formations
Introduction
Oil and gas reservoirs under bays, gulfs,
and seas ar; just like those ttnder lancl sur-
fac;es; sonretirnes these reservOirs arc exten-
sions of those alre"dy proved on shore. Irregtr-
larities in subsurface strata exist iu such forms
as sdlJlpgs gi. dgryes, bqrig*
Iqgfs,-.f+slls,
.
folds, anticlines, synclines, oi- otlrej geqtgglg
e i-egularities or anomalies
@the
presence of oil or gas de-
posits;' Tlrere must be
'a
sou_{9e:tlpe__Lo..ck
formation, a reservoir-type rock rvith pore
structqre able t bons, aird a
barrier-t@ich will trap
And
retain
.
hydrocarbons'migrating from their source bed.
Exploration Techniques
,
Geophysicists and geologists have several
sources of data including magnetic, gravity,
electrical, radioactivity, geothermal, geochem-
ical, slim hole drilling, and seismic surveys.
Exploratory drilling,is the final method-
EIPL0Rl Tl 0r TEcl l rl qu Es
SE|S$C
Excltrsive of actual drilling the seismic
method accounts for riiore than 95% of monies
spent each year for acquiring and
Progessing
geophysical data.
Satellite-Doppler sonar navigator
Position determination 0 ,
The rfifila Wtreophvsical ffiodepends
ruporl tne
ffii"
;$F6fF Fo#rettirn to
the precise location of the prospective struc-
tnre. An accrlracy to a horizontal error of 16
feet and an al ti ttrde error of si x feet i s possi bl e
lry taking 20-30 satellite observertiort rccord-
ings frorn a fixed position for an offshore loca-
t i on.
Integrated navi gati on systerns pcrrl ri t al l -
weathsr, 24-hotrr-a-day navigation without
tlre need to establish base stations for radio
positioning. The navigation glrtion of a typi-
cal integrated system consists of r ( 1) a gyro-
compass, ( 2
)
a fotrr-beam Doppler sonar, (3
)
a satellite navigation receiver, and ( 4
)
a cen-
tral digital computer.
Otlrer ftrnctions generally performed l>y the
integrated system include :
o
Automatic logging on magretic tape of
navigation and geophysical data
o
Steering the ship along tlre desired sur-
vey track
'
I)riving a plottcr to rccord ship's track,
shot point iverit.s, and. time ann;tation
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Atrtomatic
firing of seismic shots based on
uniform
incren-ents
of tirne or distance
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AScepti'g,
corlverti'g, and recordirg
oth,er
geophys ical da ta
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seismic survey JtrkfiA.Hi*"
Vessels equipped f6r seismic suryeys are in
the 165-175 feet range in length. Op"rating
speed is 4-6 knots which pennits rechargrng
of the compressed air guns between shots and
holds within acceptable levels noise interfer-
ence and motion accelerations ( trim, pitch,
Iist, and roll
).
An acoustic wAve train or impulse is trans-
rnitted through the water column into the
earth and is fiactionally reflected from inter-
faces of strata lraving unlike velocity and den-
sity characteristics. These acoustic echoes are
detected by groups of hydrophones
,mounted
in a plastic covered streamer or seismic array
towei behind the vessel. Depth controlleis
maintain a constant depth of tlie streamer be-
low the vessel. The acoustic data is gathered,
digitized apd stored on mag4etic [ap*r for
computer analysis, resulting in displays which
provide a graphic representation of the
structure of the earth over which the vessel
traveled.
Sotrnd sorlrces of marine seismic surveys
incltrde:
o
Ai,_ guns or air gun arrays using compres-
sed air discharge
'
Single pulse using compressecl air
.
Small chemical explosive charges
o
Vibratory ( non-dynamite
)
o
Acoustic pulse ( Exxon
)
o
sparker (electrical
)
for minimal penetra-
tio', high resolution ( shallow gas, mud
line data
)
a
Courtesy Seismic Engineering Company.
Diqital recorder
SHOT f, SHOT 2 SHOT I
Seismic Survelor:-a speed of | 2.5 knots and | 0,000-
mi l e range t"' ku possi bl e l ong moves to remote areas.
ONE SECTTON
-
DETAIL
3O-5O HYDROPHONES, LINEAR OR TAPERED SPACING
@
5Om--tl
fr-,r'
Typical 48 trace geophysical array.
Hydrophone, acfual size.
Streamer, reel, and depfh controller.
Strrveys are initiadd io't.rr"iul'*"ytt (1)
A sirrgle company may contract for a survey.
( 2
)
A combination of several companies may
share the cost of a spqcifie contract. ( 3
)
The
seismic survey corporation may speculate by
making a survey in promising territory with
the expectation of profitability when industry
attention focuses on this new area. I)ata banks
eventually acquire much of the information,
and participating companies have access to
them.
Seismic common reflector point technique-
Detectors used in marine seisrnic work are
pressure sensitive devices called hydrophones.
These are placed in long cables called streanF
ers and towed behind the survey vessel. Cable
length may reach 3600-3800 meters with
2000-3000 hydrophones. For marine Lrse hy-
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drophones replace the geophones Lrsed or]
land.
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%)S\
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' Te:
Surface synoptic clrart
prePared
by NWAC'
'',,.-=.../.1
'r'
l"-'
.SYMROLS FOIT SIGNIFICAN"I' WE,ATHE,IT
SYMBOI , S FOI T FRON' TS,
( : ONVNI TCNN( : N I , I NNS, ETC: .
K
THUNDERSTORM
R TROPICAL REVOLVING STORM
a>
(HURRICANE/TYPHOON, ETC.1
- . .
SEVERE LI NE SQUALL
n
f i HAI L
V
c_
WIDESPREAD SANDS-I'ORM
J OR DUSTSTORM
(\) FREEZING RAIN
. RAI N
* sNow
COLD FRONT AT
-
^ ^ -
THESURFACE
COLD FRONT
ABOVE THE
SURFACE
WARM FRONT
I
'-'
lJ;lx8'
WARM FRONT
N N N ABOVE, THE
SURFACE
OCCLUDED FRONT
,.
-
^
fJ;$i8,
OCCLUDED FRONT
r^ \ r1"-A ABOVE THE
SURFACE
^=
o
FfS'ii'IfJi?"+'.tJ
'
SURFACE
CONVETTGENCE I,INE
INTER.TROPICAI,
CONVERGENCE ZONE
NOTE: THE SEPARATION OF THE TWO LINES
GIVES A
QUALITATTVE
REPRE.SENTATION OF
THE WIDTH OF TIIE ZONE, THE HATCHED
LINES MAY BE ADDED TO INDTCATE AREAS
OF ACTIVITY.
AN ARROW INDICATES THE EXPECTED DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT OF A FRONT ANI)
IIE,,X-[. TO THE ARROW
' I' HE
EXPECTED SPEEI) OF MOVEMENT (IN KNOTS). IS GIVEN'
Symbols and notation commonfy used on radio facsimile weather repork-
Sea conditions
the surface of the ocean and water bodies ( tt
gulfs and bays
)
connected with the ocean that
occur twice a day and are caused by the gravi-
tational attraction of the sun and moon occur-
ing uqeqnally on different parts of the earth.
Ordinary tides are completely predictable and
tide tables can be obtained which indicate
high and low tirnes for ahnost any water body
connected with the oceAns.
Storm tides are associated with the move-
ment of hurricanes. In the Gulf of Mexico
storm tides of 20 feet inundate beaches and
lorvlands as a maior storm system approaches
-sornetirnes
as mlrch as 24 hours in advance.
In other parts of the world hurricane-type
stonns rnay be called typhoons or cyclones, btrt
the basic frnr*rds are itr* same.
Currents are a part of the circulation sys-
tem of the eartlr's water which covers approxi-
nrately 7LA of the surface. Major currents such
as tlre Gtrlf Stream and the
Japanese
Current
are well known to residents of coastal {.f.S. and
shippittg interests. The Gulf Stream is a warm
ocean current in the North Atlantic flowing
frorn the Gulf of Mexico N. along coast of
(f.S.
to Nanttrcket Island and thence E. The weath-
er of the British Isles and the English North
Sea are products of this current. The japanese
Current moves northeastward from
Japan
to-
ward the Arctic, ttrnrs southward and sirongly
affects the weather and clirnate of Alaska, Can-
ada, and the U.S. Pacific Coast. Other major
currents are the Labrador, tlre Htrmboldt, thtr
Equatorial currents and their counter currents.
Tidal currents occrrr where water flows into
or from tidal basins. The B"y of Fundy, an in-
Iet o[ the Atlantic SE Canacla with r:eportecl
tidcs of 40 feet, is one exirmple of strorr! ddal
currents. It has been reported that at one point
along the coast of India tidal flow limited drill-
Waoe,s are formed by the frictional contact
of the blowing wind upon the surface of the
water, Windslre seldom calrn because the
circulation system of the atrnosphere kceps all
levels of air in.
constant motion either verti-
cally or horizontally. Horizontal motion of qir
is wirrd. On the surface of the water first rufles
then waves are formed. Waves ar not mass
transfers of water; wsves transmit,.,pnery.
Forces generated by wind velocity are trans-
mitted frorn one particle of water to the next
particle with only a minute loss of ener$r (the
same principle which operates in a hydraulic
sptem.
)
The area of wave propagation is
where a certain wind force prevails from the
same direction for a period of time. This is
called the FETCII. Wave movement expres-
sed in feet per se(nnd is called CELERITY.
Once in rnotion waves will continue until
tlre energy they contain has been transferred
to the blanket of air above or to the ocean
floor. In the shallows waves crest and break
and become suRF.
'waves
which travel be-
yond the wind which formed them are called
SWELLS. Swells may occur many miles from
the area that produced them. suRGEs are
Iarge waves ot i*"lls or a series of them.
Ts.unaffib, notably in the North Pacific, are
lruge shock waves produced by submarine
earthquakes. Effects of this energy transfer
are less serious in deep ocean waiers, but in
shallows and on shore immense
breakers may
inunda'te and destroy boats and installations.
Often there is no warning unless it is observed
and reported by a ship
a-t sea,
The following definitions are related to sea
conditions:
( 1) A cunent is defi'ed by the direction
tou;ard which it flows; ihir is the SET.
(2) Rate of flow of a current, the velocifr,
is called the DRIFT
ing operations
to three hours a d*y.
( 3)
( 4)
( 5)
Winds are named for the
fromwhich
they flow
Rate of flow of the wind
WIND FORCB
Both curent and wind velocities are
expressed
in KNOTS
( 6
)
A knot is a velocity, not a distance; it
is one nautical mile per hour
The nautical mile is 6080 feet ( 1.15
statute miles
)
A time rate of linear motion in a given
direction is a VELOCITY
A time rate of charlge of velocity is art
ACCELERATION.
direction
is called
( 7)
( 8)
( e)
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Sources of oceanographic information
Oceanoqraphers' charts and tables of dy-
namic o"""ttograPhy strpply basic informatior"t
on crtrrents, tides, and waves for variotrs parts
of the earth' s oceans.
Tables of tides are available in book form
arrd rnuclt of the information is available otl
regular radio broadcasts.
Logs and recorded observations of both
fixed and mobile platforrns c?n be obtained.
Indus t y publications often report unusual
sea states that have occtrrred.
First hand observations of ships at sea with
facilities to transmit ship's rveather messages
and storm data to coastal radio stations are
sometimes a good source.
Special studies irrcltrding
"hindcastiug"
re-
late observed weather conditions to the sea
states that might have been expected.
Company retained consultants interpret
and predict conditions requiring special
Pre-
catrtions.
Ice
Tlre presence of sheet ice may limit drilling
( 1) to short seasonal operations of 4-Srnonths
during srunmer ancl early fall when there is
tro sheet ice, or (2) to specially designed
fixed drilling
lilatforms
with caisson-type
l"g consh uction as those used in the Cook
Inlet, or ( 3
)
to dynamically positioned drill-
ships with capability for quick disconnects
and reconnects.
I
Cook Inlet platform.
Pack iceis sea ice formed into " *rrs by the
crtrsltirtg together of pans, floes, and brash-
L pan is a drifting fragment of the flat thin
ice that forms in bays or along the shore.
h
fl,oe
is floating ice formed in a large sheet
on the strrface of a body of water.
Brashis a mass of ice fragments.
Icebergs are large floating masses of ice de-
tached from a glacier. The average iceberg is
calculated to weig\ one million tons. Hun-
dreds of lcebergs threaten drilling from 100-
300 miles off the shore of the Labrador Sea'. As
with pack ice drillshipr with qtrick disconnect
and reconnect capabilities can functiotr, leav-
itrg the BOP stack on the sea floor.
Major iceberg detection is by radar. Heli-
copters can spot approaching pack ice or ice-
bergs in time for disconnects to be performed.
In some instances icebergs can be torved by
tugs or other auxiliary craft to a course that
will bypass the dril'lship if the BOP stack is
threatened. fu a safety precaution a workboat
may be stationed within one mile of the drill-
ship to assist when icebergs threaten the oper-
ation. In a danger zone an ice management
consultant supervises the safety procedures.
Freezing spray and build up of ice on the
srrperstrtrcttrre from freezing rain can halt or
hinder drilling operations. In some instances
small craft have been lost because of super-
strtrcture ice accumulations. Day rates for ice-
troubled operations are two to three times
those of mild conditions.
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Weather
Weather is defined as a state of the atmos-
phere
with respect to heat or cold, wetness or
dryr"ss, calm or storm, clearness or cloudiness.
In many sittrations the term
"weatller"
is used
principally
to indicate conditions hazardous
or unfavorable to the operation in progress.
Sea states and weather are so conrpletely
interrelated that both figure in long tenn plan-
ning as well as daily work schedules.
Circtrlation of the earth's ahnosphere, Iike
the circulation of its water, is constant. The
sun supplies the energy. The rotation of the
earrtlr is a factor. Differences in heating and
eooling rates of land and water surfaces have
tlreir effect. The zane of maxirnum heating b)'
incoming solar radiation changes throtr{h ;
range of 47 degrees as the surl reaches its ze-
nith between 23.5 N. Lat. abotrt
June
21st and
23.5 S. Lzrt. ahout December 2L. Heati ng i n
equatorial or tropical erreas, cooling at bot' h
prles and the two temperate zones between
tr<l pi c.s urrd thcr pol cs gi vc ri sc to cl i .sti rrct ci r' -
ctrl rrti on patterns of the carth' s atmosphere.
Seasonally cold air advances from polar
areas into temperate areas; the warln equa-
torial band of atmosphere moves northward or
sotrthw:rrd into the temperate zolles.
Air masses acquire their temperature and
rnoisttrre characteristics from the surface over
which they originate. Arctic or polar air
Inasses fomred over continents have lower
teurperattrres and contain less moisttrre than
ltrctic maritinle arir nrasses. Tropicrll air mrrsscs
resul ti ng from heati ng of l and strrfaces l rave
high temperattrres and low water vapor corr-
tent; maritinre air masscs have lower tempera-
trtres and rnuch hi gher water vapor content.
The chi ef poi nt of i nterest i n these rneteoro-
Iogical facts is that the energy to prodtrce lraz-
arclotrs weather lies in lncl is transported by
the \,vater content of the atmosphere, added in
tlre form of vapor. The release of this euergy at
the tinre it conderlses from the gaseous form to
the liqtrid forrn supplies the erlergy to produce
fronttrl st'o'rnls, thunderstorffis, hurricalles, ancl
related disturbances.
Drilling rig tender during a severe storm.
Fronts are strrfaces of discontirruity or inter-
faces between unlike masses of air. Cold fronts
move toward warmer air; warm fronts rnove
toward cooler air. Stationary fronts appear to
remain motionless; an occluded front exists
wlrcn a cold front ovcrtakcs a warm front lift-
irrg the warm air above the earth's surface.
Lows are potential storm centers. Fronts lie in
trouglrs of lowcr prcssure where wind shifts
itrrtl ternperature clranges will occur. Rapicl
rnoving cold fronts sometimes produce squall
lines ( a squall line is a line of prefrontal rain-
showers and thunderstorms which form in
warm air masses
).
At the front, precipitation
will occur if the warrn air contains adequate
rnoisture. Cold fronts move faster than warm
fronts. Warm fronts may actually indicate cold
air receding
Some areas, the North Sea is one, have a
high incidence of frontal storms with high
winds and dangerous sea states. Rigs must
have t}e capability to operate in this hostile
environrnent. Iluy rates are based upon rig
capability and include
rig rental, drill prp
use, and fuel consumed. Rates for severe
weather areas are about double those of mild
weather locations.
.
A hurricane forms as an extremely low pres-
sure system along an easterly wave. For the
Gulf the months of
June
to November are the
most critical.
To'radoes develop as spin offs from hurri-
canes coming aslrore; at sea they are called
water spouts.
--E:l' .rys.;i".:' -arc-;s:
Areas where cyclones
{hurricanesl
forrn.
SoiI conditions
Every phase of drilling and producing off-
shore petrolerlm is affected by soil conditions
at the site of the operation. For jacktrp rigs
penetratiorr depths of the legs, the use of mats,
footings, piles, arld anchors to stab ilize the rig
rnust be accurately predicted. Floaters must
assess their anchoring and mooring needs.
Fixed platfouns and. pipeline construction re-
quire accurate soil condition surveys in order
to design footings, clttster piles, artcl piles to be
driven,
Soil tests include combinations of :
( 1) Core dri l l i ng and sampl i ng
(2) Side-scan solrar to detect pipelines or
other sea floor structures.
( 3
)
Ivtagnetometer to detect caprocks or
other rocks
( 4
)
Precision echo sounder to obtain accu-
rate water depths and mud thickness
( 5
)
Laboratory analyses to determine shear
strength, load bearing capabilities, arrd
estirnate
pile depth penetration
Specialists
perform these soil tests. Bottorrr
soundings to deternrine the suitability for
anchoring and mooring a dlillship or semisub-
rnersible may cost
$30,000
a duy.
10
Corrosive elements
The composition of the waters in which
steel structures are submerged varies widely
in dilferent environtnetlts. The degree of sa-
linity and the prevailing temperatures affect
rates of corrosion and methods used to oombat
it. Natural seawater, brackish water, and
P"t-
lution-laden water all differ.
Contact and abrasion by water in splash
zones or spray generally require coatings de-
sigrred to prevent air or water frpm contact
with metal. The coating should also prevent
or reduce flow of electric current.
Corrosion occurs when unlike metals either
in direct contact or proximity in an electrolyte
produce a flow of low electrical current which
dissolves one of the metals and either takes the
rnetal into solution or deposits it on another
surface as in electroplating and anodizing
Processes.
Cathodic protection is based upon the es-
tablished principle that both the amount ancl
clirection of current flow can be controlled by
tlre placing of anodes in strategic locations.
Various metals and metal alloys and impressed
current systems are used. The desired result is
to prevent the protected metal from dissolving
and instead to deposit a thin protective metal--
lic layer on it.
Station: BOSTON, MASS. (NMF, NIK, IVOU)
drca afcctcd:r
(a) Nrrrth Artantic warcrs rxrrrlr of t0" N. tn<l wcsr of .lio W.
(b) Coastal waters: [,ast1xrrt. Mairrc. !\lerrimacl R.. I{ars.
{c) Mcrrinrack R.. Mass.. to Block lsland, R.l.
(d) Oftshore waters: nonh of 4lo and west of {i0" W- (Ncw E,nglarrrl watcr.s).
(!) Ofishore-waters: 32" N.-{1" N. arrd west of 650 lv. (West eentral Noritr Arlarrric waters).
(f) Boston Harbor. .r
_""":'g_
NTK
NI K
NT\|F
NMF
NIt{F
NMF
woU
Time ol broadc*l
Frcguenci es
(hHz)
Ctass.ol
rntJJton
loioct
(kw)
i ! i 1: . , : . 1
I' ii i' r.
j:,' '
;!.t - :. I
i : -. ' : r.
' ' : ' . . .
l
; l : - : . : i \ - - -
ill.-r.:..
l 2t 8
{X}50. 1650: H*l tl or.H+{8t
Ou reccilrt
r
ot.to. irxo, t{i4o. 22,t0
0t30.07J0, t330, t930
o{20. 1020. 1120. l{i20.222O: on
rcceipt arrd ern H+20 until next
schcdtrled hroadcast
5320
8502
8502
127511
472
2t82
267q
2670
E?64
3
2450
2506
2566.
t 0
560w
560w
5fr)w
00r 8, t 2r 8
0050
t 650
0420,2220
l0:t0. il20. t620
o{.10. t{}40.22{{)
{||:t{1. (f7:r0.
l 3$0, t!,:to
r8+0
0n receipt2:
H+l E or H*{8;
e
on receipt and even
Ht2O unti l next.sched-
uled broa<lcast
( 2 )
( 3)
( 4)
( s)
( 6 )
( 7)
( B)
lce bullerin lce relxrrts dtrring the icc seasoe. March l-f uly
l, approxirnarely. Broadcast at l6 wpm,-fol-
lowed try a rcbroaclcasr at 22 wpm.
Forecast Forecasts anrl warninpi for ar:rs h, c. and d.
t i ne<ast Forccasl r arxt warrri l rgr f or: rreas t r. <. and d:
localir.crl rnarine for,ecasts.e
Forecasr Forecasts and warning-s for areas b, c. d, e, and f.
Forct' as( Forccasts and warningr for areas b, <- d, e, and f;
l<rcalized marine forecasts.i
Forccast Forccast an<t warnings for area d.
t' orc<:ast F<u' ccast arrd warrrings lirr arca a. lce lrtrllitinr
i n scasorr ar 0130 and 1330.
Ifarnings (ialc/storm/hurricane
warnings.
\' l' arrrings Gale/storm/hurricarre warnings.
Worldwide Marine Wealher Broadcastr, a United Sfates Department o{ Commerce publication, is tfie princi-
pal source of information on marine weather broadcasls for all U.5. ships.
Forecast services
Information and forecasts by radio and
,r'adiolelephone
are available in all parts of the
woitd with the obvious differences that widely
'
$paced
reporting stations produce.
"
Lii-t.ed below are the principal sources:
,
, (t )Worl dwi dg Mari ne Weat her Broad-
casts, a publication of the {,t.S. Depart-
' '
'
ment.,of Commerce, National Oceanic
Service; revised annuAlly, changes ancl
I
,, , .:
,
'Sgpelintendent
of Documents
tI.S. Govenrment Printing Office
Waslrington, D. C. 2A402
Continuous Weather Broadcasts, tI.S,
National Weather Service, VHF-FM
radio stations
Radio Facsimile Transmissions
(J.S.
Offshore Marine Weather Broad-
casts-Radiotelephone
lU.S.
High Seas Marine Weather Broad-
cast s. Radi ot el ephone
Hurricane Warniog Service
l{WS Severe Weather Circuit
Professional forecasting services,
weather consultants in company em-
ploy.
11
Jackup Drillship
u
Semi submersi bl e
L2
I,RIGS
FOR OFFSHORE EXPTORATORY DRILLTNG
J '
--y
*oY -7
- F. ef I
comparative view "f ,Sfft" ris "o#g?l"WtQ+itp^.+-
-
The,,.e:ryironnrent
in which each type_. gf
^ ^ n
nrobil" .iiiii irrg ng func tions best ir-de
tffi
Y'
dDrillshipr.yfi"fty
range inlength from 200
ate in water depths of 3000 feet, Engineering
sttrdies for the Mohole proiect and the core
clrilling successes of the Eureka, the Glomar
JnckupiliCvelargelyreplacedsubmersibles. Cftalle"nger, and a predecerso., Cuss l, have
Aiackup.rig: (1)provides-affxeddrillingpfaf
proved ihe capability "f drillships for opera-
forlr, ( 2
)
its initial cost is less than others, (3
) iio,r in deep iater. Li-it"tiorrs:are fouid io
it can wor\,r"l,rl"Uorn
areas of deltas if
the lack of suitable risers to suppdrt drilling
dntpPdd
with fi'fffto srrpport the legs, (4) it
mud circulation-wellhead to di-Uins foor.
-rr
can be designed,to:withstand
hurricane-type
r.
/i\
storms, (5) it is the best tool available for
[:#
gtiprtrep-s-
incl-udq
qftbc[e=ArilUng+lat-
water depths of less than 300 feet.
-zf""riiiir"i(
t ) "r" self_pronellE *a UG ih"
rrer oeprns or tess uran ;rOU teet.
rforms
that
(
I ) are self_pronelled arrd have the
t l'ffigii;;131i-t_fJjh$'ft
In5%itri#ffi
cun to tow' (z)
legq..must
P-e-!gid*q"o^up-.g
{n{(2) d:4lips@ot
i:i1lu,tf-lf"tg:g;:;j'"(q[Fi'{,#es'+
,ig-6lr,"{m
*
y'il*"1..b+:stle:ts-u*rts,
(4) gr.'"Bg
e.q
gJ_g$
,;-*rT;EIiiI'Ab"-;g;
"il-"ta lie a1istfi!fiffi
-
Ios.ttig.Lis
lraz4r{ls5iacking.to
raise or low-
t\ro*
the
$fifff6frn:fffiier
commonty usi4wig*_*
.
;:::"i3'.t',:k: "l:]-ti*_np
s-+-4prrev
n
a,1x4qd
4",5"*' $
;i'iJ;fitrff
lavg
pr-gdgcg{po.qJ
t$*p.Jy;egoid.
f"ffi.Fui6i66oittol by a'barsemasterralher
raYP
Pr-gg!l-c-9{P9.9J
-s=$*9-JyJegord.
feattii'esl! its control b
Drillships liave a number of advantages.
than a "ffi-ffi6
Amo.ng them are: (1).proven deep water
;nEcEsfffrffie-bodiedsea'-"rr*refn"h*rg
r.?:i'I}?d?l
*Xffi";?;.;,T::,
rT
ffii
a-".lfl*""ff:":?,x'n:il*fJ:"il*'i:*,_
_.
travcl times to remote locatibns, (4) no need
"'.,,-catering
costs continue. Drilling U"rguJ:EffifrT**'
for
ffi"i3
they are self-propelled, (f
)
lower
/'
these costs.
costs to operating company-maintenance
"l ,,
$..Tl,il;iffi
'*ff
il.&Jffffii.#"i;:iln:H,i,T::i".I:l#Eii,Hffi
In:.
ot.o!l't"s*",!
ih;Ttrilffi
;FF,^A
*
fir#ffirl
lrc its limited
capacity to operate i'-riind or'
r.tla1r
,t " ott "rl-iH-ftfiffi5ilrrtil'for
water
wave conditions
which produce ekf6ffil06plat.
eAffij
ronrl rnouou.
2000 fert, (+),g!r*gggg-$fqy
r"gqrCJ
s
1
13
DE' LOADING
FOR DISCO\IERER CLASS
TYPICAL
SUMMA.RY
9I
VARIABLES
'-
: .
ITEt"l :
FueI
Brake Cool i ng
Water
Engi ne Cool i ng Water
Lube, Hydraul i c & Gear Oi l
Wash Wat er
Dri l l i ng Wat er
Potabl e Water
Bul k Mud & Cement
Liquid lvlud
Fl ume Stabi l i zati on
Water
Chemi cal s
Dri l l Pi pe
,
Col l ars, Casi ng and t ' l ari ne
Ri ser
Chai n, Wi re RoPe & Anchors
Dr y St or es, Mi sc. Tool g e Mi sc. Equi pment
Moori ng Li ne Pul I Down
Bal l ast
Conti ngency
TOTAL:
Semiqu,bmersi'bles
have : ( 1
)--linnlte-{Seqt?::
QUANTITY
4250 bbl .
460
,,
bbl .,!
NONE
1000 bbl .
4000 bbl .
825 bbl .
. 7060
f t .
3
1700 bbl .
5'800 bbl
.
5000 sacks
WEIGHT
7 A7 tons
85 tons
5 tons
180 t ons
700 tons
148 t ons
400 tons
600 t ons
1020 t ons
300 t ons
500 tons
50 tons
40 t ons
60 t ons
57 5 tons
5370 t ons
ilv
{'ol.LgHggjHlryIF:li9sJ?
J
r e-qsirs rgpre
strouort tffiffimfrjply,
aqqlror
\andlipg,
*i
$Ei, ls]-]frfft
"ci.4ffi,*!ilef_
t_et-r.r*ee-dd
Dy_
IacSgP!.
,"*
'.biitti"g
barges have the advantages of ( 1)
' i
l.r.rror ,^r^r.r rl' rnr. nfhcr foaters^
(
2\ smallgr
i
lo*"t "oit than other floaters,
(2) smaller
i { i { ' , i
r v Yr \
'e:-i
i
crew and quarters needs. T'heir disadvantaggt
i
*r", (1) l ow towi ng speeds, and (2) depend-
i -
'?,
ence on tugs and other work boats-
(semisubmersible
drilling rigs cArne into use
its it became clear that floating drilling plat-
forms instead of bottorn supported must be
used in cleeper waters.>A few strbmersibles
were convett".t to ,"*irubmersibles.
Newer
sernisubrnersibles resemble their prededessors
in rlppearance btrt improved streamlining
and
design changes in the buoyancy and flotation
clrambers have increased towing sPeeds from
3-4 kno ts to 9-10 knots.'$-L9W-ip*isubmersi-
t, tu
n ir;"""1+
pr:qpglled . .d:-*;T,I
lit' ff- lmia
ifrbG:
#eed-
ing balast cTrambers with seawater. The ves-
r"i G1fixin"ond-*rd-ufffiffi-tfi6Test
wave,
ctrrrent, and wind relationships ancl tnoored
ancl anchored.-
L4
NONE
If the semispbmersible
is self-propetled, it
will have a shipmaster who will suPervise its
propulsiott,
towing, moorinS, iind anchoring.
to 1000 feet. Under construction and testing
are a number of semisubmersibles
with nomi-
nal depth ratings of 2000 feet.
)
Relative initial costs are statistical in nature
btrt to indicate the range, these figures are
suggested:
]ackup
( 100-150 ft.)
$10,000,000-$12,000,0m
Jackup
( 100-300 ft,
)
$20,000,000-$25,000,q00
Semisubmersible
( 600-2000 ft.)
$40,000,000-$50,000,000
Drillship
( 600-2m0 ft.)
$35,000,000-$40,000,000
D"y rates or rentals will likely be approxi-
mately $1200 lday
per $1,000,000
of invest-
ment with additional charges for support base
farcilities. Severe weather locations and ice-
ffi-.bt.
n'fiiwai6'ffiBa-
gjtsA**ffi;iffi.
A few aie 6ilBa-
Efu of *odiftcition to drill in water depths uP
trotrbled areas will increase rates.
MOVING ON LOCATION
lackup
Platfonns
Towing
Igs5yp*{lgt,t.{eT,grgdJrg$"'9n9}*Rgp*J.o
q--rl-.a.Lhgi.-bj
_J,gS":.
Average towing speeds in
calm seas aie 4 knots using three 9,000 ltp sea
tugs. Under less favorable conditions the tow-
iug speed will be slower. The daily cost of a
9,000-hp ttrg is at least
$3,000.
A rePresenta-
tive figure for towing is
$10,000/day.
Modern
supllort vessels are capable of serying as a tug,
a supply boat, or an anchor handlittg boat.
-gJ
gyed
i a ck u
p
r i gs.I g_l_Bg1^9J_gI
_
I
" ff bi;
-6
; ffii& ri ts*i tian.th
s"di;
;iJi_fr fu
a t r . r .
_ ;
ing crews with special trainitrg have been de-
veloped bv several contractors for in transit
and going off or on locatiorl.
Close-up of footing
Setting the legs on bottom
Sea floor and soil conditions will have been
d" 6ftffi ;affi ce- Tfiralaili;;m;
tid-;ili" 6JRfi6ffi .*itootings for
iackup
plat-
forms sometimes are
"of
'
cffibn-3a]rii,r-iH;a
iil|.ffi
s;1a;tr6;nr#ir*ffi
r
the legs reduce the depth of-"Lqg*pg,gg*trj-slt1
into tft r&-floo;.' r"g'fr"?il"tioil;rnffmes
l h aJ ZOO feet of soil depth'
Tlre use of mats permits erection in dJltas
and shallow bays where mud deposits
have
accumulated.
Preloading of jack*p legs helps assure, tle
suitability of the sea floor as a foundation.,.i
,
I '
: : : : - r '
'.,i:,:-,
-,:=...
,:1-': '.
.
:::::
. j : _ i
:.:...,,.
t : 1. ,
i : . :
',":'i -
: : - .
Jackup rack-pinion teeth.
Positioning the platform
With the legs on bottom, jacking crews ele-
vate the drilling floor to the height above
wave action anticipated to be safe for the sea-
son and the area. In the Gulf of Mexico clear-
i t ncc f or t l rc st onrr scasorr i s 35 f cct , 25 f cct l or
rest of year.
Three areils with the tytry of pertineut in-
formation
to be used in positioning a clrilling
cleck .bove nlear level water follorir:
Offshore Louisiarra ( I00 year storm
)
L?.5 rnph winds ( I0gk
)
57 ft. waves
2.4 fpr current
280 ft. water depth
North Sea
f 30 mph winds ( ltg k
)
94 ft. waves
420 ft. water
Persian
GuIf
94 k wincls ( I08 mph
)
39 ft. waves
'
.0,9,
ft. tide
154 ft. water
t,,c::npariso.
of ratcd water depths with
avafltrble
l.q
le'gtlrs
in
tlr"' n""o*pr,nying
table will
indicate=that
l% Iengt6s *ili
permir
ft'onr apploximately
40 to-90 flet of Air^space
between
mei l n water l evel and the hul l .
16
Overall view of
iackup
during ouffifting.
On location legs are lowerecl to bottom.
overall I"g length of nine jackup rigs in the
Zapata fleet ranges from 2L3 feet to 460 feet.
Available l"g length below hull ranges from
165 feet to 390 feet. Watet d"pth ratings range
from 100 feet to 300 feet with two depths rated
for North Sea operations.
l
Year Nameof H"iil T:ft
#*lli,,
Briilt
]ackup Rating Lenglh Below Hutt
r966
1965
1966
r964
1967
1968
1956
1967
r972
300'
250'
300'
300'
100'
115'
165'
230' NS
300' Ns
460'
360'
48A'
460'
213'
22L'
245'
363'
400'
390'
290'
390'
3g0'
L7O'
165'
2Lg'
306'
339'
Chapparal
Endeavour
Heron
{ntrepid
Topper I
Topper II
Vinegarron
Explorer
Nordic
seven of the above have three triangular
legs, one has three square legs, another has.
three rectangular legs. six of lhe above have
slant I*g design, three have straight legs. Six
:rre
eqtripped with Le Tournea,,
J*"trif
i""lq.,
ing and slanting systems,
electromagnetic
Drilling equipment stot.
brakes and with rack and pinion final drive;
three are eqtripped with'siraight I"g design
jacking systems.
)
jagking
speed at maximurn load is approxi-
"rn[ef
vi"-tnibrlrriiirti'ftlT6l:i6rn"E]ildl{iiils1*--***
g*d -".{**;",r-:r-'r\rri:i+r-*sa*-*q
<rr.;rr.,*.d
(.i*;:==r*"--".. --.-**Or****3tl-ti+'rtit
"
Anchorin$systems vary with size. The basic
pattern is the use of four wire line
.anchor
winches rated 50,000 lb. pull at ?n fpm and.
fotrr 10,000-lb. anchors.
Zapafa Ugl and underway-sel f-propel l ed.
SEDCO 135-note wi nches and anchor chai ns"
Mr. Sam uses cyl i ndri cal l egs. Note anchors at ri ght
< . - . . 4 7 . ' : 4 i - \ -
Mr. Charl i e, fi rst submersi bl e barge capabl e of operati ng i n open sea at 4O-foot depths, photograph on sea
trials by J. M. Payne of Shell, fint user.
Moving on location and riggitrg
up semisubmersibles
lone
of the newest semisubmersibles with a
nominal water depth rating of 2000 feet has a
towing speed in calm sea or ro knots. some of
the early sernisubmersibles were rated at tow-
itrg speeds of 3 knots.
zapata's ugland, a semisubmersible built in
L974, is self propelled. It has a speed in calm
seas of I knots. Its platform specifications are
3ff7'x 210' X
B0', displacement of 90,000
short tons and variable deck load capability of
3,000 tons. The deck area is approximately
L.75 acres. on its trip from sabine Pass, Texas,
to Aberdeen,
scotland, it set a record time of
2l days, L4y, hours. It crossed the Atlantic
from North Ameri'ca to Europe without assist-
ance from a towing vessel. Other features
worth noting are:
Ability to continue operations in seas of 40-
50 feet
Ability to remain moored in seas trp to 100
feet
1B
3. Surveys made and buoy markers placed
Load capacity enabling all movcments to be
made witli anchors and anchor chains
stowed aboard the vessel
Mooring system for at least 1,000 feet of
water
'HS,[qLg-*$e
dritlllg rig
.arlives
on location
rg1'"1"!-ptgp-a_rSiory-op;agong_iho:trlA-Ey"
f * x- - r - r " n' : F. - . . !
:
* . +: - r
b_9S1_c_oygJiteted:
1. Bottom soil conditions deterrnined
2. Prevailing winds and sea states known
for exact anchor locations
4"
i"-
ventoried
-- -
5. f,iiiEffcommunication
deftnitely estab-
Iished: operating companl, drilling con-
tractor, anchor handling boat, and qpecial
crew.
Tlre sequence of anchor placing includes
such considerations as placing stern anchors
and mooring lines as the rig cornes on site, fol-
lowed by placing of bow anchors in the direc-
tion of heading,
prvailing winds, and sea
states.
STATION KEEPING
DRILLING EQU
AND SUPPLY
DRITUN
ENT
rDS
rtP
LC o
t\[E]
)AD
I
WEIGHI
I
WIND FORCES
'HOORING FORCES
Forces acting on floafing rigs.
Station keepittg of a semisubmersible
Semisubmersibles are crested with
hg*g
n
fr;- a re-
; apabilitv
F
b!.s.{df4?F-..*.t*-<.r+,-,e-.V-s-1qr::iEsrf.r.ii-Fi--.njr;:t4erJa,1'-q:..?@ i
o[_gg:ftif
"rU"lng:ape;ati_o-nl.ggd=g"f
_*g,tq.d,gyge
W$g$gj;J9-31,"-*,+tes.
They are positioned to
resist the maximurn anticipated loadings from
qtrartering winds and c,rri"uts. fn roml areas
a cornbination of wind, waves, and currents
tnay
el from an
!.iiqrf
150
$qg6;r
rathe
Station keeping involves all of the opera-
tions used to keep the platform over the hole.
It is to be expected that floating platforms will
lrc in coustant rnotion.
&p
ru *qtiop;5"._,[g-
*
l-':gh*1 = fl$
glg.. yess*l. ir,
ji;ffii
rrrg",
WATET
A
r&
{*"a{,
**l
{
{ #t}
{
{i;t'ku
{d?:'r}
n
?''"r':r-:'6"
19
t*
.lv
/
-p,
.#
Syrnm ef ri c E i ghf- | i ne
(8
s) Symmet r i c Si x- l i ne
( 6s)
\F
ff
Symr net r i c N i ne- l i ne
( 9s)
Symr net r i c Twel ve- l i ne
t l 2s) 45o- 90" Ei ghl - l i ne ( 8o)
3O"- 60"
Ei ght-f i ne
(Bb)
Spread Mooring patterns.
Careful monitoring of individual line loads
is essential. A number of line load measuring
ancl indicating devices are used. Some meas-
rrre line deflection. Others involve very com-
plicated electronic compu'ting and recorditrg
faciliti*r,-,
p-
osite tlfe:'applied=tffit"
nothin
aud-
qre
tlackened to reduce tension on lines
trnder full load
@eloa,@
mooring Tinei, called pretension, can be ac-
cornplished with a mooring cunputer pro-
grrun. Better horizontal
control can be achiev-
ed r,vithout overloading the mooring lines.
The hardware for anchoring systems of
sernisubrnersible,s
varies. In the examples used
here differences are based upon nominal op-
erating water depths, 2,000 feet for Concord
arncl 600 feet for Ugland, and in the overall
size.
2A
Anchors.
( 1) Zapata Concord
:
night Vincinay Offdrill 40,000 lb. on-
chors with eight 2,500 lengths of 2y4
steel stud length chain and eight 4,500-
ft. lengths of 21[-in. wire rolry for Skagit
double drum wildcat windlasses:rated
at 450,000 lb. tension with release up to
900,000 lb. tension.
(2) Zapata Ugland
:
Ten 40,000 lb. Baldt Moortast anchors,
ten 3"
x
3,500' chain lines; four dual
and two single wildcat anchor'windlass
a
units.
Modiftcations of mooring systems of semi-
submersibles require longer lines and larger
anchor flukes when depth capabilities are in-
creased. One example aaaed SO0 feet to each
line and enlarged anchor flukes by
g0%
for
1200 feet water depths.
Symme t r i c Ten- t i ne
( l Os)
45o- 90" Ten- l i ne
( l Oo)
l . ; .
f i '
DANFORTH
t 4 5
"
tl
go"
)
c";
Des
U. S. NAVI ' LI GHT \ \ ' EI GHT
( LWT)
, ....:,
,'
:i,il,i
: . : . t ,
, , : : r , l . , r :
' ' , '
,
1, . ; .
, .i:;:
'
:'.::.:
:l'..'-i,':
:' :. .t::.:t:' :,.
":-:.
. , : . i . .
. i : : - , . : . . j
- : ' i '
i r r - i . . . : " J
' ..:' .
i . : . ; .
: : , ' : , , i .
-ri !;i.
' ;:..:,:-1:
, . r r , : ; _ . -
1' : ; f - i . :
;;!;i:
. !at:.tr.
: : 3 a - '
: ! : ni - r
" i , i . r '
' : i . : a .
- - : - a e r
,
ii;i,:
i j . i i '
' : - . + ;
- :.-l'
- t,;.
: ; i i
M o o e , / N q S v s r E ^, s
Station keepir,g systems for drillships
Turet mooring
Mooring turrets used bvfrhe Offshore Com-
?'po"v
ilffiir Dffi,6"6ffi#6ss enabte rrr" ship's
ffi_i.
frry'li"
ffiffi;-a*-Bt@Serutftji{$m
op.lhg*rggll. From a roller-mounted tu*et in
the shipk well beneath the derrick, eight an-
chor lines extend outward to the anchors. The
marine conductor is the vertical axis around
which the entire ship rotates. One bow thrust-
er and two steryr thrusters supply a total of
2250 hp to change headings. The vessel can be
revolved 360 degrees around the mooring
pl.rg by the bow and stern thrusters.
Dynamic positioning
E"rly successes in maintaining a position
over the wellbore by use of dynamic position-
ing equipment were achieved by Shell's Eu-
reka and Global Marine's Cuss I. The Mohole
project led to progress in core drilling where
mud rettrrns to the drillship were not made.
Dynarnic positioning has as its principal ob-
iective
maintaining the horizontal position of
the rnoonpool over the marine riser and the
BOP stack on the ocean floor.
The Royal Dutch Shell Group and South-
eastern Drilling and Exploration Company
engineerr
ioined
in develo'pit g dynamic sta-
tjonilg equipment and techniques using a
drillship also equipped with conventional &
point mooring and anchorittg capabilities.
SA-Q9-A--4''=w.?,s*$S3gl,9g,"-tg;dgi-l'k5gk*.
,gf
yg.lls-+S]9.
..:Pi**_"_g*,gYgi"
"*g_^=d
without anchor-type mooring. Dynamic
sta-
ffffias$d,{6rs;;-ffi.bffi
r i ,:,i i
ti
ti sn qf a qpssel-bJaJrl
g gs
.g[.
thrus tTiopellers
exert thrust in controlled directions and these
2l
MOORTt {G
ROLLERS
_'._"-
---
TRAAISVRSE SCNOil
propellers can be activated by controls which
3rce-P3L!-gfj}hgmt4is
Sensing equipment includes acoustic
positioi
indicators, taut wire position sensing systeffi,
and a riser a_ngle method of controllins the
l-ailmprtet
Pendul um
Potentiometer
I
2?.
Taut Wi re Incl i nometer
BASIC AUTOMATIG
STATIONKEEPING
SYSTEM
THBUST, Fil
MAIN SCREW
TAUT WIBE
MARINT R
Position Sensing
Systems
r - - -
ITHRUSTER
AND SCREW COMMANTIS
:
COMMANDED POSITION
AND HEADITUG
ASK c0MPu_TlE
_i
'vACgUSTfC
BEAC0N
rHydrophone
Array Top VieW
//'?-
\Thrusters
I
I
-Riser
-l
I
I
SYSTEM
CONTROT
TOGIC
THRUSTiil.
A[[0cATiofU
RTFERENCE
POSITION
AND
HEADING
WIND SENSOR
{.-WINO
F0RCE, F
,.#--,'\-.J
-
suBtAcE GUBRENT F0RCE, Fc
THRUSTTRS
HYDROPHONES
\
'N
)Hydrophones
-T-r
u
Operational performance :
o
SEDCO 445 can rotate 360" to al i gn tl re
shi p wi th the best shi p to wave-wi nd
relation.
'
Tlrrtrstcrs nurintain a {ixcd hcacling;
change of heading is manual
Typlcal Thruster
Configuration
Cycloidal Thrusters
Mai n Screws Control
Surge Moti ons
LENGTH BEAM DRAFT DI SPLACEMENT
FT FT FT LONG TONS
Thrusters Control Sway,
Yaw Motions
Tunnel Thruster
o Vari abl e Pi tch
o
Fi xed or Azi muthi ng
Six of the twelve 7ffi hp main screw
motors supplv required thrust
Dyrrarnic stittioning system is capable of
operating in water depths as shallow as
100-500 feet.
Ilolds position in 50 knot wincls
,
LZ feet
significant waves and 1.5 knot ctrrrent.
MAI N
SCREWS LATERAL THRUSTERS
s @
r l
: !
l / |
/ l
CHARACTERI STI CS OF DYNAMI CALLY POSI TI ONED DRI t t SHt PS
:,t'f'.9.1
i:i:i;:,:,
-' .' ,$:
-
ti:.' -: :- .
'"!i:"
. ' :
.r t'!:
'
;' r:
]..'tl. i .
' r'.;-.1
. . i :
' : ,
. '
' i ",' ' i '
' j , . - : : ' .
-,, ::.'
- t ;
:ti:...;.i
! ' : : l a
VESSE L
DI SCOVERER 534
SAI PEM DUE
LE PE LI CAN
SEDCO 445
GLOMAR
CHALLENGE R
534
431
490
445
386
70 24
70 22
22
22.5
18400
12795
1 5500
15100
10500
2 @ 8000 HP
EACH
2 @ 3000 HP
EACH
2 @ 4254 HP
EACH
2 @ 2250 HP
EACH
6
-
BI RD. JOHNSON RETRACT.
ABLE, CONTROLLABLE
-
PITCH @ 25OO HP EACH
4
-
VOI TH SCHNEI DER
CYCLOI DAL, 2 FWD @ 11OO
HP EACH, 2 AFT @ 2550 HP
EACH
( AFT
THRUSTERS USED
AS MAI N SCREWS)
5
_
TUNNEL THRUSTERS,
CONTROLLABLE PI TCH @
15OO HP EACH
11
_
BAYLOR RETRACTABLE,
FI XED PI TCH @ 8OO HP EACH
4
-
SCHOTTEL TUNNEL
THRUSTERS, FI XED PI TCH
@ 750 HP EACH
.;!iJ:
65 20
23
,>-
tr-
' - J
Typi cal combi nati on wi re-chai n moori ng system .#
Setting and retrieving anchors
Z$uqbgl
lg"digg il"d"
hy
t
and succirrllv eouipued ancltor harrdling boats.)
r----*.--Je-< *"A.* 4*d*il;.fr.**E@#qqeFyfFs,-r*F<'r-'.#
-r'tq
r -*-ffi
The directional orientation of the vessel to
prevailing or anticipated sea conditions, the
type of anchors used, the compass direction of
settitrg for each anchor, and the proper length
of the anchor lines are basic consideratiolts.
/ . Se, ni submersi bl escust omari l yusel ongl i nes. >
Anchors are transferred bv deck crane.s
tl"g":tdF"ll,F,
th*-e-.,*.I}"qhgl,hqrl*li"_rg,b_g*J=grsyffMnt
the rig. rvindlasses or winches
pay
out the
"!ia ii frt ;ii" Ii,r".
-tri"
;;.ffiffieilffi:
r;i;;;;iliffi;-ilim.ient power to'drag up to
3,500 feet of 3-inch anchor chaih. t'h" inaivia-
trirl anclrors are transported on the cleck of the
artchor handlit,g boat. Pendant lines support
the anchor as it is being trarrsferred, raised or
l owered. "g
lines to
prevent
chain or wire line frorn
4o
-*r"r*--..\-t\-*# -*\+*-*+sr'@k-?t_.#
fi otrl i ug.
-
-F- ./
24
BUOY
/
BUOY
/
\
PENDANT
TRI PLATE
30,ooo LB
ANCHOR
ZYr " ' 6
ANCHOR CHAI N
{
Atthe anchor btroy anchor flukes are set and
.
r#+i'*r1oJ*-trv:re%-*"8;'q-{ftJ*sh.{'6t4t+--s&{F^aL;L1*'
,*r*#r4:r*4ies
o,a-a*l,-'
tlls4ehodo-wp-redi,*IgplggS_,
After all anclretrs have beeq
Lu4i4d
set, an-
t -
#ee {r%
erl"gd,
g
+"s.'4"t##*
linps_
to a maxrmnm of one-halt breanng
+JHryi
strenqtlt( Maximum allowable working load
is one-third breakittg strength.)
L\islelsiqrlils.il*,4j=1-qli"9_tl9.glll,l_9ggsj
q9l1 lire to the forces
it
ir
*lgg"ted fo dry.g;lt
ence on a Continuin$b3gi$,. fili""ffiilil;;
fiffi'C-ffiiilih"rir iif=ffi0 lbs. to as much as
200,000 tbs. in the North Sea environment. >
The anchor chain itself lies on bottom at the
anchor and contributes to the total holding
ability of the anchor.
$_e.$,_9-tiggg.=1'"Whg",g2
soft
bottom conditio4s r"qd{#agiti"ili''
FF'+'*;.-
-^.
*.-- ^ *.--at . .*1i'."{.
*-fi=F1T'**:ry
force, a
"p_iggyhrsk
.
.
g{"
.gg9.9}g='?l:bg_L5'**t-
t?,gl
d'*,--
lv{oving off location requires the use of
anchor handling crews and equipment. In
general, sequences of anchor setting are re-
versecl. All anchors, chains, and lines are re-
ttrnred to the rig and stowed for moving.
g.
RIG COMPONENTS AND PROCEDURES
PECUTIAR TO FIOATERS
lvlarine risers
Floating rigs used in gathering core samples
ncconrplished this withotrt retnrn circtrlation.
Drittittg fluids used for cleaning cuttings from
the borehole
'and
cooling the lrit *"t" not
tecovered.
The drilling of explorator.y wells requires
that drilling fluids be^utilized for maintalning
well pressure control in addition to the two
lunctions already suggested. Mud pumped
clorvn the drill string, through the bit no riles,
and back up to the drilling platform must have
a conduit through which it can be returned to
rnud supplies on the platforrn deck for con-
tinued uss;
Marine risers are used to provid.e a return-
flow path between the weilfure and the drill
vessel and to guide the drill string or casing to
the tsOP stack on the ocean floor.
The
.corypoJr_eJrts
of aJnariqgriser
system
from bottom to top inciude:
fiydraulic
cohnector
4-ower flexible
ioint
( ball joint
)
4lexible
piping for cfoke and kill lines
4iser pipe and connectors
4hoke and kill lines and connections
-'Telescooic
( slip
)
joint
Diverter system
Riser tensioning equipment
COMPONENTS
OF THE DRILLING RISEB SYSTEM
BELL N I PPLE
TENSI ONER SYSTEM SLI P JOI NT BARREL
BALL JOI NT
RI SER CONN, ECTOR
GUI DE LI NES
BALL JOI NT
RI SER JOI NT
CHOKE AND KI LL LI NES
MARI NE CONNECTOR
BOP
2,5
o
Comuensates for vertical movement of
ffi"#iffi
r";ilT;"'tiiiiffi 6;-[di"-aa;Iad
tlffi&;6;-"t"qitred for" any horizontal
displacement of the platfonn
o
Provides fitfing for choke and kill line
fiil;rJ
. -**.=,...-.-.-e.'.-.<..v:2ii-,i..+a,,*-+!-hL -,:?i.*s;,,+{-:,}i,{r+rjet*s&
o
tr6ffies
for connecting bg-ll,-ttpCg-"g:"9i-
vertei'assgmbiy
' ;'r1P-:;t**E'= *
'
Irydvide5Toi"attachmcnt of riser tensioner
:rni r
-... . ...i.r._ .i ,-..;.-,.-_--.;..11-
:*+.-::,::jrj-:' ri-=,,.;:,.-:";1aL_.rea;.i3.:.i.:!t,.::,-r' j9::,,:
,teji,-jJ;:ig*3(g**!
sljlem:
E. - r - " _ . r . J ,
The otrter barrel of the telescopic
ioint
is at-
tacii ed to-fiie"
.*;;;"*iGa?
ffiidiffiry
-
ifi fi*i},"
tached to the inner barrel which is suspended
lrom the rotary supl]ort beams of the rig. The
strength of the telescopic
ioint
in tension is
sufficient to support the weight of the BOP
stack and rnarine riser. Resilient seals or pack-
ing elements betweerr the inner and outer bar-
rels provide a pressure seal. Oil or water lub-
rication reduces wear.
ojhq'
_n"
i
.y,lt*b,
qgv_gqlgt
@
un
d e
Lgt ess st
q
br **r*-fbe SgP:std*g ndjhe
gasing:vbighJepgg*g
i!_Iays "hessrsr.
The
diverter is an integral part of the bell nipple.
It rnay be a bag-type unit or a modified rotat-
ing BOP. Control is from a hydraulic system.
It is valtrable when drilling through shallow
gas zones or for divertitrg gas kicks in deep
high-pressure zones.
Iliser tensioners support a maior
portion
of
ttrefrffiit ;f iil" il;ii,i; Til"r$m
rr' ::
".-.*.
_*_,* -*a*.tr4*r*tt' :r*F.-:i.+E 4:-=.' t-:\...r r\a4r1+31: i..+.{ii' 64 .JJ{a?ictr.c#FfnGh*l"gag.' n^C-' *-,xf
drilling mud it contains. These tensioners also
p'*li["'{,
s'A$::
motiorqE
"pJ
*bg*_p1**lgg.
Without i6e risei
tensioning system only a very short riser could
be supported by the BoP stack. Drilling at
greater water deptlrs has shown the need for
flotation equipment to support part of tbe
weight of the marine riser.
Maxi.mum load ratings vzgt but range be-
tween 45,000 and 80,000 lb., and,allq,
r{'line
travel between 30 and 50 feet. Normal'maxi-
mum operating loads are limited to f$-flgg sg
the *"*i*.,* rated tensioner loads. Under
some operatirrg conditioni' the system will
cycle almost 6,000 timei in one d*y.
ti.on of the maring_Iger. IJgggly fggr_!ipg."t arg
@
ffie
are affected5V "*aiffi
samd?isturbing forces which aet on the ma-
rine riser. t
are necessarrt. Makers of tensioning syqlqs
ff
'
uFTire-Iame engtneering principles for both,
the guide,line tensioners having leis dyo"mic
load cap?city. Both are gllerated from the
same control panel. Aftei the marine risei is
in plac, guide lines can b" pretensioned and
attached to the outer barrel of the telescopic
ioint.
Television cameras for use in subsea ln-
spections are run on these lines.
Connectors used in making up integrated
choke and kill lines and riser pipe connections
are designed to reqtrire a minimum number of
operations. Connectors can be actuated hy-
draulically, making diver assistance unneces-
sary. TV cameras have been used to assist in
alignment, stabbirrg and attaching connectors.
Special clamps are used instead of some of the
flange-type connectors used on land. If divers
are used, fast operating air powered tools are
used to reduce diver time on bottorn.
The major components of a pneumatic riser
tensioning system are:
o
Tensioner cylinders
and sheave assem-
blies
Hydropneumatic
pressure vessels
Control panel and
High pressure air
Standby air pressure vessels.
a
o
o
accumulators and air
piping manifold
eomPressors
Guide liqer gry-_uwd..tg:l
,qll equipmept
-' , :..:
. T**=t-t a
IOm r-l
NNS
NSN
t-'TTl
F{-j-j-i:ffil
l:.!1:rr.:.:.t t
TOW PRESSURE AI R
HI GH PRESSUR AI R
TOW PRESSURE OI T
HI GH PRESSURE OI I
Di agram showi ng tensi oner operati on.
Heave compensation
The vertical motion of the drilling rig over
the borehole is called heave as it relates to
wave action. The telescoping joint of the ma-
rine riser provides the means of returnirrg
drilling fluid to the rig ,while
the entire plat-
form is rising and falling.
.
In the center foreground two tensioners are visible.
Compare this phoiograph with schematic of Riser
Tensioner Systern. Guide lines must also be kept un-
der tension.-rhir phofograph of the Zapafa Ugland
shows tensioners in place.
The drill string must also be'compgnsated
for thi.s rnotion to sustain the proper
weight
9'. 1ltg_b-Sff;i;.ffieaff6
lii e' ( t
)
the use
-of
b'_rmper subs, and (Z)
heave compensators
placed between the trav-
..lnglMggd."thq,Irmk-or.*Ileriltef,rwirrcL bit remains constant as
A t
pl aced i n the
drill string capable of transmitting torque at
e\,'ery position in its stroke" Its five-foot stroke
is ldeqtrate for the two or three-foot averages
28
Heave compensators' have' " typical stroke
'of
f8 feet. The weight of the ittirrg pulls
down; cCImpensators
push up.
Wglgblggu[k:
to eight,-foot seas.
trol.
Drill string compensation on the Zapata Ugland is achieved with the pictured equip-
ment. Nofe also the traveling block and the guide track which limits its oscillafion.
6aL)
f*il
>-'-Z
ANNULAR
CONNECT
CONNECT
L - - l
Present day blowout preventer arrangement.
ANNULAR
SHEAR- BLI ND.
F5
F,
FS
PI PE
F 5
L
PI PE
PI PE
2":
*3,t*
4
BOP STACKS
BOP stack
*o^9t
\t;'
'r.iit'
\
Subsea blowout preventers and their acces-
\ory equipment give the driller the capabiilty
,.o..r
tO:
,,,J,:0-"jt''*,
'
l,{glose
the top of the borehole at the sea
floor
Q.Ycontrol
release of high pressure forma-
tion fluids that enter the wellbore
{e)
Pump weighted mud under high pres-
sure in the well to restore balanced
Pressure
{*f
Move pipe while the well is under pres-
sure
$5)
Disconnect, cut off, or hang drill pipe
in the well
*( 6
)
Disconnect or reconnect marine riser
In the section on marine risers the use of
subsea two stack systems on the Zapata rigs
was mentioned. It should be noted that at any
given time only one riser and BOP stack was
in use. Larger diameter risers and preventers
were used first; then smaller diameter pre-
venters with higher working pressure were
used. The two stack system required two sepa-
rate riser systerns, BOP stacks, and connectors.
A trend toward the single stack system is
evident in rigr currently beit g delivered. Four
o,f Zapata's ttl*est semist,bmersibles have the
followirrg:
BOP equipment: Cameron L8ri." single
stack system with four 10,000 psi wp
Cameron type U ram preventers and two
Subsea BOP stacfc.
ber packing element can effectively fill the an-
nular space or the total we'llbore if drill pipe
is otrt of the hole.
Rarn tvne Dreventers enable ttre driller to
orzot;sa1a:i=-n*;14xL;o1;r.{^:. , :\il.*:.i
' ---=t1;1?-.' :t:.-:r
.:::..- .:.r}. ":+:itl:iEa-!t:-tEtpg*lF =e!@+
strip driil
prpe
either into or out of the well-
of miitril;
[_p$,b
. Dlfferent sized ram
blocki are used for drill pipe and casing; rtrns
from opposite sides center the plpe or casirrg
and the rubber packing is extruded to com-
pletely-
fiU -the
annular space.
''
Sb"qtHhrr..gag"be us--ed to cut o.drill-g-ry"
.
*' +"' v' ' ;qt<-.:-:j.
.' -.' -r l"- :":l
' :"::.:
ij:t' '
::'
rn an ernergency. Some shear rams also seal the
.-.F :
:t-\- 4
. . ---. -, --;':..-V- I . r-" - ., 7 {4* l;
wellbore in the same operation.
head.
2. $nn
'\
Sh+r
3 i? op;
i Sof
{..s*,f
lt";.-'" 5
31
Schemati c shows l andi ngel ernenfs.
Running the BOP stack
Running the subsea BOP stack with its
choke and kill lines, hydraulic hose bundles
ancl control pods, and the top and bottom con-
rtcctors of the preventer, assembly is clone orl
the marine riser.
Tlre following steps are included:
( 1) A riser runnirrg tool is made up on the
drill pipe, Iowered throttgh tG rotary
table and connected to the riser stab
assenlblv.
(2) The pr"rr"nter stack is positioned on
tlre spider beams and guide lines strtrng
through guide fnnnels.
(3
)
The ri ser stab assembl y i s rnade up on
top of tfre
Preverter
,[nck a' cl the As-
sembl-y is pressure tested.
( 4
)
Next the riser nrnning tool is releasecl
.and
the next joi' t of riser is made up
on top of the riser stab iusembly.
32
(5
)
The assembly is lifted to clear the
spider beams; the spider beams are re-
moved, and the nssrnbly is lowered to
,
h*g ofi on the first
joi"t
of riser.
( 6
)
'The
remaining joints of
,riser
pipe are
added as the assembly is lowerid.
( 7
)
The, telescqping
,joint
is
added to the
top of the riser, the risei tensioning sys-
tem is connected and the BOP stack
Ianded on the wellhead.
( B
)
The connector is latched,
( I
)
The diverter, bell nipple,
and kill lines are connected
of the riser.
r
and choke
at the top
( t0
)
The preventer stack and choke and kill
lines are pressure checked.
BOP operation
. . _ . 1 . . . -
' - ^* ' ' - { L\ -
r . ot t o r t
' i
i
I$$=ere
drillirg,generall;r..
$,*&'*pr*f,s;rrri
\. g.rrerbalance of at least 200 psi. The weight of
'T"m"t611itd
il 6r' d i iil iq
-ff
ilid+."" " rt, u pt o sure
at the bottom of the wellbore greater than the
formation prsslrre at the bit. ff the rnud col-
umn exerts too much pressure, the formation
may be fractured and mud goes into the for-
rnation. If the mud co,lurnn exerts too little
pressure, formation fluids will enter the well-
bore. In either case a potential blowout condi-
tion exists. The BOP stack and its accessories
are indispensable to offshore drilling opera-
tions.
Kill linep enable. the driller: tg-pgpqg.mgd
ilii_ggtut$g$-if
.a.b-b-vvofi
".J-ffi,tffi
ffi
"
wh i le t h e d
ril! =
gtg rn, i
$,,
o,,ug,.ojJhs
-hp&
. R epl ace
-
**i't
"o'-rrii
*;;J i; ;l*;;i ;i-S- circ^ tated
d own t
k*t-ijl*p-kgasr. q : il l.i,i: $ ._.+!' * -, ^ i;.. s tu.***
ffipd,ffil"ffiffiililiffi"ffiiffia\
,-}g-.3I*.f
g9g-+d-*l^::$eqf
eJllp.*.h*qke^Jine--"-*-
Hydratrlic power actuates the ram blocks
and packing elements of preventers. Basic
units for the power prodrction and distribu-
tion of tlris hydratrlic system are the compres-
sors, accumulators, control manifold, hose
bturdle, corltrol pod, and tlre auxiliary accumu-
Iators on the BOP stack.Jn accumulator is a
cararor
rul trtttt ccrl l o!
.r.r.!
' -
tocttrto
to?cr.
l-
L E V . \ a , \ . - l l l t t '
"
colRpressed air with the capacitv to stone
;dHddlp-*-4td-isl[fffit:m
thq,;.g.g",.ggg_ry"g,.-{k
ffi
ffi
ffi
@
E
E
E
E
3[
DI SCOVERER I I
Driller's control panel.
C,.p.ntrol pJ=tlrc s,yqtem,lnqg! be fapt, p"e.
$i.Llyg,
ancl reliable. The location of the auxiliary ac-
I,, iii,ilaitoiTldjacent to the preventeruoroi ancl
packing elements assures fast action to applied
c o n t roL fu
t?'dfr$frffiffi:
ii6
"e
itn-e i-#l f
:I&inf)
--*Gl
{gr--*.-qgg*LrO-J-agf,9j*,A"Sgs*i,g &i"a""t
s)' stcnr assrrrcs operating control capability
even if one system should fail. A rednndant
power delivery unit duplicates co,mpletely the
alternate Unit.
hya,d. hi
r
ebr**-h' rrdy
tullrrub
A
Subsea tsQP control systems are either hv-
{L'i
L{i{ sil*]g-ggntusu*$"
AiT 1;;;; *t
power pack is incorporated
fri tlre system. The
driller' s electric
panel is the primary control
stati orr. An el cctri c mi ni -pancl , ustral l y l ocatcd
irr the toolptrsher's
office, is the alternate corl-
trol .stittion.
Actiors ttrken include the following:
( I
)
stop p*nrl^ t'rcl begi' to r*ise the
kelly
I
(2) Check tl re fl ow
( 3
)
Close the annular
preventer
( 4
)
Li*e up the chokeha' ifold
with the
choke open as the well is shut i'
( 5
)
close choke mr' rifold whe' Iower
kelly cock is at ustral break out level
. ; f f i , nE
.t&
f f i f f i
t r f f i
-E
hffi
. E
( 6
)
Check drill pipe pressure; allow to
stabili ze; rectp*""te
drill prpe at one
minute intervals
(7
)
Begin mud weight build up proced-
ure
( s
)
cease reciprocation
ancl close pipe
rams if drill pipe pressures "*ceed
permissible limit.
Blowout
-drr!!s
are held each week. Bops
*5rt?ilo$s*j.+s*--*.s*;"g'a+v*r+
*i;**;**;.:.*;*Gi*- ?+-+.--,.-.1.--*..;..
are"h"dKi[F
r driil,
;ffi
';A
.GiA..i['"t;fi;;."
dilL'
seneydrilts
may
be initiated
by either th driller or the tool-
ptrsher, both being aware that a drill is to be
held. No prior warning is grven crews or other
rig personnel. All smoking and welditrg activi-
ties cease. Every action ls taken thai would
I . r l
o t F
t
, t
be required if a
,threatening
well condition
existed. Crewmen have specific
drty station
assignments;
the contractir's toolpusher
and
the operator's drilling superintendent
super-
vise and
observe.
g;__p,ggkets3lly}g.s=c*L_
q-qr---.4&-di.'vs$-eilJs,+t--_d.ffi
ff_orJhe
Jsg:*9,.**r
j::xA{grsst-#:sffi
outs unti!
_tI_e__,DQP
" stack.*js-.run.' fhe Bop
S*i["ir-ngru...,lrliL.lh*ap,ffi
been run. The diverter is also "ied art"i the
r[*"ii iffi" if ls,ti" casing has not yetbeen
s e t' The
diy-er.tpJ
b*I"
Igg*Ugg&asd& rdorm*-
"r$-
19 l-T.:
g gJ.
flsifi
,lwedung. ih*
rcIlbro,
33
tr
IJ'-
ffi
'ro
H
Ef f i
rFil
,s
tu
s
ffi
: a '
.' -G.-rl .
t l / - f f "
-ad-..:):
' ' ,--t:/
H
H
TN
tr
5,
ffi
tr
W
ffi
ROUTINE DRILLING OPERATIONS AND
RETATED SERVICES
Percent
20.8
8.3
8.3
4.9
Routine drilling, operations
Several variabLs-water depth, target
depth o'f the well, and remot"r"rr^of the oper-
ation from supply sources-affect time proiec-
tions. Severe weather and sea states further
complicate projecting time calculations.
A sample distribtrtion of rig time as proiect-
ed for a mild weather location follows:
Operation Percerrt
Drilling and tripping 57.0
Fishing, logging, or cement 21.0
7.0 Runnitrg casing
Runnittg BOP stack or riser 15.0
100.0
Distribtrtion of drill rig time for a severe sea
and weather location follows:
Operation Percent
Drilling 15.4
Tripping 11.8
Runnirrg casing and cementing 11.0
Circulating
4.9
Reamirrg 2.L
Coring 1.4
Logging
5.5
Drill-stem test 2.8
PIug and abandon 2.8
5?1
Associatecl operations pcculiar' to offshore
drilling accotrnt for the rernainder of the rig
tirne:
Operation
Wai t i ng on weat her
Nlooring aud anchoring
Rturning and retreiving
stack and riser
Other
Tripping time is reduced substantially with power
pipe handling sysfems.
The jackup rig is a fixed platform and its
initial operations resemble those on land. The
BOP stack may be placed either below the
drilling deck oi ot, the sea floor. The well riser
is a ccnductor pipe without the features of the
marine riser.
Initial operations in beginning a well vary
on floaters. One method includes ( 1) inspect-
ing the ocean floor for debris or slope, (2)
making up ^"I" running tool on drill prpe and
temporary guide
,base
under the rotary, (3)
weighting the guide base, ( 4
)
attaching guide
lines, ( 5
)
lowering to ocean floor on drill pipr,
( 6
)
releasing
"I"
running tool and retriwing
with drill pipe (7
)
rigging up guide lines to
tensionitrg systern.
42.3
35
Typical subsea wellhead system.
Another method is to
iet
30" conductor
pipe without using a drilling ternplate. The
conductor pipe is made np and suspended be-
Iow tlre rotary. The jetting string is nrn inside
the conductor. The guide base and housing are
installed on top of tlre conductor. The t,tnt ing
tool is rnade up or the
ietting
string and drill
pipe and is installed in the housing. The con-
ductor is then
ietted
down and lowered into
place on drill pip.. The running tool is released
and retrieved. The guidelines are rigged up to
the guide line tensioning system on:the ti!.
If a hole is drilled to receive the 30' con-
ductor
pipe, the drilling template is used,.
step_s will include ( l
)
making up drill string
to drill a 36-inch hole, (Z) install guid;
frarne on gtride_ Iines and around drill rLing,
( 3
)
lowerirtg drill string and guide frame,
stabbing into template. ( 4
)
drilling hole with
retums dumped on ocean floor,.(s) retrieving
drill string and guide frame, ( 6
)
repeatinf
previous steps until open hole reaches
s6,,.
usually at least zaa feet of conductor
pipe
is used. Maximum lengths can be prewela"a
36
to save time. Most op,erators use
"squnch"
ioints
or some other raprd makeup joint.
A guide frame is'used to lower the bottom
section of conductor pipe through the drilling
template, then the guide frame is retrieved-.
The conductor, housing, and guide base is low-
ered with drill pipe and landed in the drilling
template, then cemented through
'the
drill
PIPE.
A good bit program c?n speed the rate of
penetratiorr attd reduce the time spent in trip-
ping by lowering the frequency of bit:changes.
Inventory must include sizes for drilling the
initial hole for corrducdor prpe, and sizes need-
ed for drilling the different hole sizes for the
clsing
program.
Drilling engrneers select types
of bits best suited for penetrating the rp"clft"
formations to be encountered.
A typical bit
inventory rnight include B0 or more bits rang-
ils from one 36-inch bit for drilling the con-
ductor hole to 15 bits for making hole for the
final casing string.
GUI DETI NE
gO.
WELLHEAD
HOUSI N
30' cAstNG
NA UDLINE
CTNNENT
Landing base and casing landed on bottom.
Latchi ng casi ng
Ileurning, coring, and loggirlg proceclures on
floating
platforrns differ very little from those
on fixe,l
plirtforms.
_
Tripping for changing bits, rturning cirsing,
logging,
coring, drill-stem testing *nd fishing
all trtilizc spccial equiprnent. Sbrne lloaters
Irave eqtripnrent to l*y down pipe stancls for
better load distribution and "*t"t of gravity
l ocati on.
--Rtyning
casing in coastal waters is gener-
ally clone by casing crews brought in frJm the
mainltrnd.
Casing and rnnning *q.ripment
can
lr: brought
to the
,location
ur ,r"iaea
by sup-
ply or work boats. For rernote areas casing *"a
nnlrring
tools ilre
part of the rig inventory
and
rcgtrlar
cl'ews mn casing. Ceinenting opera-
tions reqtrire
special
eqiripment "trJ ri,p"r-
vision.
Related serviees and equipment
casing crews, their tools, and the casing it-
self are
lrg"ght
to the mobile platform "r ilr"y
are needgd if
!h"
rig location is within range
of shore based contractors who specialize irt
this,s'ervice. When drillirg is don"jr a remote
location, casing and t.mri-rg tools will be part
of the vessel's inventory
"t a regular driliit g
crews will run the casing.
v
Prirnary cementing is the typical operation
required
for exploratory wellsl This includes
cernenting
of strrface, intermediate,
and pro-
ductio' strings of castlg. skid-mounted
pilp-
ilg units, either diesel or electric powet6d, "i,
the conventional installations
for ofirhore drill-
r^ru rigs. Also available
are pumps rated
to
20,000
psi for controlling
ana Flhng
wells
where extremely high pre-ssures are encount-
ered. It is likely that foi remote
locations a ce-
me,ting technician
would be part of the ves-
sel's personnel.
Drilling-fluids
technicians representing
the
supplier
of mud and its additives
perforil all
T"d
quality testing and mud "tr"lysis.
They
direct tlre derrickman in maintaini"s
t6e drili-
ing fluids
programs.
A mud engineer
supervises
mud mainte-
nance for
proper weight and quality control.
Mixi'g equipment,
water supply, mud tenks,
pits, pumps, gooseneck
and kelly direct drill-
ing fluid to the drill pipe. From the bit fluids
return with cuttings, shale, sand, and some-
ti'res
gas or salt water to the surface. shale
shakers, desanders,
and degassers
{emove
these impurities.
The mud "rglrreer
uses addi,
tives to produce the weights a;d
qualities that
the formation
requir"t,
Stroke
counters for the
mtrd pumps enable drillers to know exact rate.s
at which drilling fluids are entering
the well-
bore. Pit level measuring
devices-
and fluid
Ievel measuring
systerns
for the open hole give
the driller the means of knowing instaitl;,
when drilling fluicls are being lost"to
the for;
mation or when formation
fluids are entering
the wellbore.
elevators,
r f
F-"":t{^--&r-&\-
" . /
37
The pnrpose of an exPloratory well is to de-
termine the potential
productivity of all the
formations between
the wellhead and target
depth. In order to do this a complete record
of every formation penefrated by the borehole
is kept.
A mud logging laboratory provides means
to make a continuous examination of all drill-
ing fluids returns for evidence of gas or oil con-
tent in the ctrttings.
Electrical well logging, trsually a contract
service, provides geologists with records of
efectrical characteristics of formations trans-
versed by the borehole, identifying them, and
rnaking determinations r"gordi"g the nature
and amounts of fluids they contain, and their'
location in terms of depth.
A radioactivity well log records the radioac-
tive characteristics of the strbsurface forma-
tions. Generally two logs are run simultane-
orrsly. The two are the gamm a ray curve and
tl rc ncutron curvc. TIri .s i s rrl so a scrvi cc con-
tract operation.
Cores may be either side-wall samples or
cylindrical cores. Side-wall samples are taken
with specierl tools lowered on wire line equip
ment. Cylinclricarl cores 25 to ffi fcet in length
are obtained trsing cutter head and core barrel
assemblies lowered and rotated on drill pipe.
Core samples reqtrire special handliog to ie-
tain the information they contain for
.labora-
tory analysis. Cores yield information on po-
rosity,
prrneab,ility, fluid content and other
geological data.
Driil-stem testing on offshore platforms is
lirnited to cased holes; no openhole drill-stem
testing is clorie. The use of packers, testirrg
tools, and perforations of casing at the
,levels
being tested are similar to thosJ.rsed for pro-
cltrction well testing.
Although direeti"onal drilling or slant drill-
ing, is not commonly associated
with explor-
atory wells, there are instances in which a tar-
get area is directly under a fairwey,
sea lane,
or other area where no obstruction
to navigo-
ti orri Spenni tted.
:
: ' -
--
38
Diving bell and decdmpression chamber.
Diving capability with effective results to
water depths of 300 feet has been demon-
strated and capabilities are being extended to
600-foot depths. Floating drilling rigs with oP-
erating capabilities of 1000-3000-foot water
depthi "t" being tested and delivered. Both
diving research and engineering are presently
working to extend their operating limits to
equal.those of the rigs.
Saturation diving describes a type of divittg
irr wlriclr tlrc divcr' s lxldy becomes saturated
with the inert gases which he breathes while
under pressure exerted by the mass of water
surrounding him. The time required to com-
pletely reverse this saturation is decornpres-
sion time. It is determined by the length'of
time the diver is exposed and to the pressure
or depth whi,ch was iustained.
^
'
Sattrration is counted
,as
being the point at
wlrich no further quantities of gas are being
abso'rbed by the diver's body, U;der this con-
cept a diver can extend his time on bottom
very rnaterially without increasing his deggm-
pression time requirement. A rq,Ie
,9f
thumb
indicates that one d*y of decompiession time
is required for each 100 feet of depth, Uging
this scale a diver working at toda)"s 50-'
foot depths will require a week or: more'of
decompression time.
Diving equipment is found on the decks of
almost all floating platforms. ft will consist of
a diving bell with deck decompression cham-
bers, the necessary mating and handlirrg
eqtripment and saturation habitat to give th;
diver safety *ld comfort during the decorn-
pression
lleriod.
. i
PRODUCTION
WEIL TESTING
ABANDONMENT
PROCEDURE
Production well testing
In exploration drilling the trigh point of in-
terest is reached in
production well testing.
The purpose of tlre "rrtir" prograrn is to det;
mine whether
or not hydrocarbons exist in
quantities which warrant the capital expend-
ittrres required
to prodtrce and irarket ihem.
A second
purpose of each well tested is to de-
fine reservoir
boundaries and cletermine sites
for future drilling/production
platforms.
A procluction well testing iool or tree is
larrded in the preventer stack and pipe rams
closed to support it. A packer is set and the
casing is perforated to permit flow from the
formation
being tested into the test assembly.
well
pressure is allowed
to stabilize. The for-
rnation will
produce gas, oil and salt water to
varying
proportions.
separators,
heating units,
Burners
consume all fluids
produced during production
well testing.
and. high and low
pressure flow paths enable
sgparation of salt water, gas, and oil. Each of
these fluids is run through
met'ering and re-
cording devices. From
the meterl ail the
produced fluids continue to a burner which
disposes of them, The burner is located
zo-g0
fee't downwind frorn the deck area, mounted
on a special boom.
where burners are not used, all solids and
liquids are retained in storage units for later
disposal; nothing is released which will con-
tarninate
the environment.
Production
well testing
on floaters is done
during
daylight hours, not at night. Twelve
hours is the usual testing
period. ih" desired
information
is the produ"tio" rate, not volume.
Bottorn hole pressure is another item of in-
formation
which is essential.
Bottom
hole
bornbs are used in acquiring
this data.
WETTHEAD BTOWN OFF 1 25 FT BETOW SEA FTOOR
TOP PLUG
30" cAsl NG
20" cAsfNG
l 3r/ s" CASI NG
PIUG TAGGED
CASI NG ERI DGE PI UG
(PRESSURE TESTI
PTUG 3
CASING
(PRESSURE TESTI
BRIDGE PLUG
PIUG 2
PtuG |
-
PTUG TAGGED
CASI NG
Typi cal abandonmenf schemati c.
Abandonment procedure and retrieval
When production well testing has been
completed, the exploration well has no further
value. Both the operating company and the
drilling contractor are concerned with moving
to the next l ocati on and mi ni mal ti me i s spent
in retrieval.
The abandoned well casing is closed by
plugging or cementing. A casing ctrtter sepa-
rates the landing base and wellhead from the
strings of casing in the well. The landing base,
wellhead, BOP stack and controls, marine
riser and choke and kill lines, guide lines, ten-
sioning units and motion compensating equip-
ment are retrieved. Shaped charges are often
used to save ctrtting time. No effort is made to
salvage casing since rig time costs make this
uneconomical. It is possible to place caps orl
w'ells but the subsequent use of the borehole
is highly unlikely.
PI LOT HOUSE
CRANE
/ \
CRANE D
HELTPoRT
|
(
PI PE RACK
QUARTERS
L- ] GALLEY
PIPE RACK
WATER I ST' G.
MUD PUMPS MUD PI TS
SACK ST' G.
PLUG
CEM.
SACK
ST' G. IENERAToR
RooM
ltBtiit FLUME
STAB' Z' N
TANK
PROP' S
I WASH
' N
l war e n
DRI LL
WATER
FUEt
orr
FLUM
TANK
DBr LL
l pr - unl t r I
r uel
I eaLLasr
! 4\ rERl
TANK
I
Ot r
;
waren, /
356 FT
Discoverer
ll-f nboard profile.
C R E Ws-Q
UA RTE RS-TRAN
SPO RTATI
O N
PORT AFT PI PE RACK
STBD AFT PI PE
TWEEN DECK
BULK MUD & CEMENT STORAGE
-
RAC
J
I cnarue
c
t!
F
E
F
o
a.
:
t&, :
o i
MUD PUMPS
CHEMI CAL
STORAGE
Pr r 4
pi r
z'
DRI LL
WATER
FLUME ST.
SACK
STORAGE
FL UME ST.
FLUME BALLAST
TANK
BALL AST
NO. 7
AI R
COMP.
PUMPS & FRESH
WATER GEN.
ENGI NE STORES
ENGI NE ROOM
-.i ---]-_-
p t r r i r , r , l
I
FU EL
FST
FLUME FUEL
or L
(r
o
F
_ _: _
STOR. HEAVY TooLs
i sacr
;
i STORAGE i
INNER BOTTOIY1
DRI LL
WATER
DRI LL
WATER
I
I
I
? r
F O
0 7
trJ
\.r,
E Z
- i <
d F
Q
o,
=
:l
o-
I
I
) i
I
J
I
A BR
TANK
NO. 4
WEATHER DECK
QTJAR TE RS
. f i -
A U X .
I D R T L L I
Y1S
t',oi
DRI LL
WATR
FUEL OI L
Di scoverer
l l Stowage pl an.
4L
Crew'-working hours -
duties
Offshore mobile
rig personnel
generally
have dtrty hours of s-eyel
d*ys orl' seven days
off. Twelve:hours
daily for seven days totals
84 hotrrs of duty time. For employees on hour-
Iy wage scales this means 40 hours at the base
rate and 44 hours at an overtime rate.
The actual number of men on a mobile plat-
forrn at a given time will vaty with such fact-
ors as the accessibility of shore-based suplnrt
services and the drilling operation in progress.
Qtrarters
and accomrnodations
available on a
rig
furnish
a god indication of the expected
size of crew membership.
A limited survey
produced these averagc figures on quarters ac-
cornmodations:
|ackttp:
Srnall 52 Large 75
Sernisubmerisible:
Small 62 Large 84
Drillship: Small 53 Large 85
self-propelled rigs will have a qualifted capl
tain rn'lio is responsible for handlittg the vessel
rvhile it is in motion. Tl:e captain u' iil have de-
signatecl ship's officer.s and able-llodied sea-
nlen. Thcse tnen are qtrartered
and food is
caterecl for them. Thev have no duties except
as ship' s crew.
Tlre rig tnanoger or cotttpony ntan is in di-
rect charge of all comPany activities on loca-
tion. He is generally shore based. He doe.s
planni,rg, seti up lead time for supplies aud
special services and is responsible for carrying
otrt contingency measures. He may have as as-
sistauts drilling supervisors or all on-board
clrilling engineer.
Tlre toolpuslter is the drilling contractor's
top man on board. He supervises all drilling
operations through the driller and coordinates
company and contractor affairs with the rig
lllrtllager.
lv{any contractors have a rig superintendent
who is above the toolpttslter.
A nutd engineer, alrnost always an em-
ployee of the mtrd supplier, supervises all
drilling fluids quality control
including mix-
ing, conditioning, and weighting up the mud
for pressure conh'ol.
42
Ofishore supply vessel and
iaclcup
rig.
Drillers, ttnder direct supervision of the tool-
pusher, perform alt drilling oPerations with
i"sponsibility for the performance
of their
crews.
Deririckmen are trsually more experiencecl
rig r,r'orkers who assist the drillers and the
nrird engineer in their duties. The title
"der-
ri.ckman" originated when a man was stationed
in the derrick to unlatch or latch elevators
from the 90-foot stands of drillptp" while trip-
ping otrt of or into the hole.
Fbormcn do the stabbing and. make uP
additional
ioints
of drilt prpe as the drilling
progresses or breakittg out and making uP
stands of plpe when tripping is in progress.
The motorm&n has charge of operating and
maintaining
llower
units most of which are
diesel-electric ins tallations.
An electrician operates the generating and
distributing system for electrical
Power
sys-
tems on the rig.
Crane oper&tors move drill pipe, casing, and
other materials and equipment on deck or to
load and trnload supply and work boats.
Roustabouts are new men at the bottom
rung of the ladder. They assist crane oPerators
and perform various repair and maintenance
tasks.
Offshore crew boat.
F:rcilities for personnel
Quarters
on mobile rigs provide comfort-
able, air-conditioned living and sleeping ac-
conlnronclations for off-duty men. Dining
r ooms with good food ftrrnished at no cost to
crew rnenrbers is an attractive feattrre of an
offslrore rig assignment. Recreation rooms, first
aid or lrosp'ital facilities are provided for re-
nrote locartions. Eighty-four hours of assigned
dtrties during a seven-day tour provides a full
schedtrle, It is worth noting that separate
sleeping quarters and mess facilities may be
required when both expatriates and foreign
nati onal s are aboard.
Transportation is ftrrnislred without cost to
crew members. This saving is an additional in-
dtrccment when comparedwith self-paid crew
travel costs for some remote land locatiorrs.
A crew boat or a helicopter takes the new
crew to the offshore rig and returns the crew to
shore which has finished its seven-d*y tour.
crew transportation is generally arranged by
contract. Costs vary with time, distanc, size
of the crew boat, and combinations of crew
ancl strpply movelnellt.
La' ding
pads for helicopters are an impor-
tant design consideration for every rig, some
being designed for specific helicopters.
Safety precautions to protect all personnel
from dock to rig deck are rnandatory.
Transportation
of Personnel
A. Boats
1. Boarding Boats at Dock
a. Engines should be stanted
prior to any
personnel boarding.
This would help
minimize chances of a disaster in case
of an explosion.
b. No personnel should board a boat that
is not tied securely to the dock.
c. The passenger hsf should be signed as
soon as possible after boarditrg
boat.
d. All passengers should be informed
by
the boat shpper thi location of life
saving
1t
d ftre fighting equipment
prior to boat leaving dock.
'
2. Riding In Boats
a. Passengers should never ride on the
outside of boats. The boat skippgr
should be in control and not allowthis
to happen.
b. Passengers
should keep to their seats
as much as possible and not be walk-
ing up and down the aisle.
c. Passengers should not be allowed to
visit in the pilot's cabin.
3. Boarding Tender From Boat
a. All_passengers
should put on life jacket
,to
leave boat and board tender.
Crew transfer baslcet.
43
b, Tender personnel on dyty when boat
arrives at tender should be made avail-
able to assist passengers in boardiog
tenders as well as loading their l.rg-
". $:3:ngers boardi'g tender should al-
ways have both hands free in order to
grasp, grab and scramble aboard in
case it is required of them. No at-
tempts to board with objects in hand
should be rnade by any passenger.
d. Transfer should. "t*"yt U* *id" at
the peak of the rise of the boat, never
when it is dropping down.
e. Passengers should not be rushed into
transferring, but should be allowed to
determine the best possible time to go.
4. Rope Transfers
a. Swinging ropes should be L" in di-
ameter with a knot every foot or so in
the section to be grasped by p"rsonnel.
b. Ropes should be htrng in easily avail-
able places and placed so that swing-
i ng
personnel wi l l not col l i de wi th
s trtrctllres.
c. Transfers should be made when boat
is at its highest peak.
5. Personnel Basket Transfers
a. Baskets should be provided with a
bumper to protect riders against pos-
sible collisions.
b. Baskets should be equipped with stab-
ilizers to keep net in upright position
on a rising arrd falling boat.
c. Hooks used on personnel baskets
should always be provided with a
safety latch.
d. Rig personnel on duty at time of trans-
fer of personnel should be sent down
to assist in loading personnel and log-
gage as well as steady basket.
e. All persons riding basket should have
on a life vest.
f. Persons riding basket should stand on
outside of basket holdit g to net and
facing into basket. Never allow per..
sonnel to ride inside baslcet.
g. After a person is transferred to rig or
platform he should remove life vest
and put it in basket for personnel set
up for next trip up.
h. Personnel should stay inside boat ofi
deck unless they "i" preparing to
make trip up in basket.
B. Helicopters
1. Passengers should be ready to board
helicopters at scheduled departure time.
2. Passengers. should never ipproach or
leave the helicopter if the blades are still
turning except on signal from
pilot.
3. Passengers should always leave or a1>
proach the helicopter toward the front
in order to avoid tail rotor blades. Never
approach or leave around rear of heli-
copter.
4. upon entering cabin passengers should
put on life vests and sectrre thernselves
with seat belts. seat belts should stay se-
cur-e until the pilot gives signal to looserl.
5.
{11*pqlp_glggrs
shos!{
leceive, instnrc-
tion before every flight.
c" Paisengeri shotila "6ilrrr* smoking reg-
ulations.
7. Passenger and cargo weights should be
accurately furnished to pilot prior to
take off. Never guess weight.
B. Luggage or cargo rnust never be stored
or allowed to remain on landing deck at
any time.
9. Pilots only shall determine whetherheli-
copter flies or not due to inclement
weather or any other reason.
Turb ine-porvered helicopter.
44
SAFETY AND
SURVIVAT
on shore based drilling rigs certain hazards'
exist at all times such as blowouts, fire, falling
objects, fallirrg, electric shock, conta- t witt
machiner/,
injury while
performirrg routine
dtrties, carel*rrness
of fello*
.r"**in.
off.shore drilling operations
have all of these
dangers. fn addition there are:
o
Personnel
transfer to and from the rig
deck
o
Severe weather, *irr4 waves
o
Slippery
decks, sp raf
,
moisture
o
lv{ore walkways and ladders
o
Additiorral
equlpment:
risers, motion
cornpensators,
cranes, and, handling
equipment
o peci
motion:
sectrring all items against
rnotion,
observing load distribution
as re-
Iated
to deck stnrctural strength and load
balance
.
Falt into the ocean.
operating
companies
and drilling contrac-
lors are familiar with the perils their perso' ' el
are likely to encounter.
posted
insiructions,
warning lights, bells, communications
equip-
metrt and training
Programs
are
provided to all
personnel. , sorne ourJtvers
have noted that
Iaxity' on almost
every one's
part is the weak
Point
in the system.
T1e lasf itern of t6e fol-
lowing
may be the solution.
Essentials
of good
safety program
1. Preparation
and observance
of compre-
hensive
and clearly written
operating in-
structions
on things to do otrJ thingJnot
to do.
2. Formal
personnel
trainir,g programs for
every man involved.
3. First aid training
and drill.
'
.
. '
.' ..
,,,
' . .
'.i',1'"
- t ' " - ' -
I
,
-r
4; Preventive inspection and maintenance
Programs.
'5.
Disaster
plans with station and job as-
tions:
6.
freQuent
practice of disaster
proce-
dures. :
1
7. Hazards of uninformed repair or modi-
"
8. Free'discussion
of-operating
proc"dures
9. 'Prompt reporting
and discussion
of new
or indicated,oprating
problems.
10. Disciplinary
action lot witlful or re-
' .
i .
' "
' : ' 1 . '
peated disregard for' approved operating
instructions.
Platform abandonment
Escape and survival systems include
combi-
nations of slide systems similar to those used
for
ttg:
aircraft, suryival capsules, seu-righ,t-
iog lifeboats, in{atable lif; rafts, and lir"
jackets.
The efiectiveness
of all of these items
r-equires
familiarity of all deck occupants with
+r
proeedures necess'uy to ptoperlv use
them. Drills and instruction can accomplish
this.
Facilities for survival sho3rld be adequate to
protect the maximum ,rrr*Ler of p"rr#s who
are expected on the drilling platform at,one
time. This will include
personngf
,gg
temno-
rary
-assignment
in addition to' crews
q.i"r-
tered on the platform. ,:, :
The , Brucker ..s.urvivel
capsule accomrflo-
,
9"t*
213 prrs"ngers. Pota,bd,water
and food
for'
'ftr'e
dals--is itored on
'board.
A two-w ay
radio is installed.
The capsule is self-propellei
and ineorporates
air puriftcation "ni vintila-
tion. In addition
to desigtt features makirg the
:aps_.lle
very stable, the flotation is guaranteed
by the use of individually
sealed rinits in the
buoyancy
chambers even if flooding
should
occur.
45
OFFSHORE
DRILTING/PRODUCTION
PLATFORMS
fntroduction
Explorrrtion drilling is the final step in de-
ter"nri ni rrg rvhether
a petrol eul n reservoi r hol ds
enough oil or gas reserves to justify field devel-
opment. A sedes of dry holes will likely result
in cessation of all activity and termination o' f
lerrses. N{argirral quantities
of reserves will cle-
l*I development.
If the reservoir
potential jus-
tifies development,
& program of ietrelopment
will be forrnulated.
This program will include
the clesignirg and consrructing of all drilling/
production
platforffis, storage facilities, load-
ing sy_stems,
pipelines, compressors, and ever)'
installation
used between the reservoir and
the initial
purchasers
of crude oil or natural
gus. A tin-re log of two to five years may exist
l l e' tween tl re col npl eti on of **pi nrati o, dri tl i ' g
ancl delivery of the first barrelof crude oil.
v
It is con' rrnor]
practice for sevcral cornpirnies
to sl rare both expl orati on
a*d cl evel ol ment
c' ost.s- capital requirements
generalty exceecl
thc arlrotrnt
of money that o rirrgle conrpa' y is
wi f l i ng to i nvest.
Platform history
The first specifically designed
steel struc-
ture wAs i' stalled
in tlre Gtrlf of Mexico in
L947 in a water depth of za feet. In almost
tlrree decades
since this beginning the ind*s-
tty hrrs installed
over 3000 fixed
platforrns i'
water depths ranging
to 400 feet.
p,latforms
for use in the North sea \ rill
be installed in
460-foot depths. A Santa Bartara Channel
platform will stand in a water depth o{ BsO
feet.
Approximately
2000 of the 3000 drilli ngl
proc{uction
platforms of the world are located
in the Gulf of Mexico.
The irnproved tech-
'iques of fabrication
and erection gained in
tlrc Gtrlf structtlres
ltarre infltrcnced
p,latfonrr
constmction worldwide. Several Arnerican
firms operate in the Singapore area designitrg,
constructin$, and erecting platforms.', The in-
dustry saf,gy record for' fixed platforms has
been excellent. A few incid*rL
'have
been
mtrch pu;blicized bec,ause of their s.pectacular
nature, but the overall record is excellent. The
masritude
of offshore operations in the Gulf
l*r
gener"Ily been unrecognizd, by the pub-
Iic because of their good record.
Water depth
sha'llow de'pths permit the use of smaller
and less expensive structures. E'arly dritling
was done from posted pladorms in *"t"i
depths of 20-30 feet. small fixed platforms
with minimum equiprnent were built,as a part
of the p.latform-tencler rig combination, usual-
Iy in water depths of 60 feet or less. The ten-
der was an Lsr of ww rI surplus or similar
type and egtripped for supply and auxiliary
services. After a well was completed ( some-
times four wells fro'm a single platform),
the
tender was moved to the nJxt iocatiorr.
'
At water depths of 50-300 feet two factors
favored the use of more complex structures.
First, Iess sheltered locations procluced moor-
ing and anchoring
protrlems roo"iated with
damage to the platfo,rm caused by motions of
the tender. And, second, the costs of separa-
tors, storaqe
pipelines, and loading bq*,p*.nt
.
required that a large number of ;eilr be
clrilled from a centt*l lo*otion.
The need for constructi*
of pladorms in
water d*ptltr greater th,an s00 leet will be
closely related to production
technol oW
gaip. current drilling capability can be "*-
tented toward 3000-foot oi*t"t depths but itr"
constnrctiop o{ deep water ptqd;ction plat-
forms
-will
be contiigent upon capabitity of
s,ullsea
lxoduct
ion sys tems.
47
Monopod plafform installed in Cook Intet.
Environmental factors
Fixed pla'tforrns must be designed to with-
stand environrnental forces. In the Gulf of
Mexico the forces of winds, waves, and cur-
rents control design considerations. The his-
tory of hurricanes over a one-hundred year
period is one basis for design. Ice in the Cook
Inlet dictates both design and structural
nraterials trsecl. Earthqtrakes in the Pacific af-
fect constnrction characteristic:s of fixed plat-
forms frorn California to Alaska.
Soil and bottom conditions affect founda-
tion strrrctrlres. Generally soft bottoms are
common in the Gulf of Mexico and these re-
quire deep pile penetration and cluster piles
around each footing of the platform. Boulders
on the floor of the North Sea have led to the
development of gravity-type structures less
dependent upon driven
piles. other areas of
the world have other problems, and each area
must be surveyed before the platform is de-
signed.
.
one estimate of elapsed time between the
decision to build and the conrrpletion of a plat-
form follows:
Design
C'onstruction
Erection
8 months
l year
3-4months.
The effects on structural materials of con-
tinuous stresses produced by waves, winds,
and currents is of concern to both operating
conlpanies and governments. More complete
studies are
proposed.
48
Earfy posted platfor
,
Basic steel structures
The jacket
pladorrn is basically an evolu-
tion of the many posted platfonns of early
offshore drilling. Steel construction provides
the required strength. Steel permits designs
with good wave transparency. Template con-
struction enables the drilling of multiple wells
with rigs which can be skidded on deck.
sleeves welded to legs of the platform provide
for attachment of skirt piles to form the foun-
dation. Steel platforms in the Gu'lf are four-
or eight-pile structures. one North Sea plat-
forrn is a 32-pile stnrcture.
Tender-fyp" platform.
10, 000
5000
YEAff
A proi ecti on of i ndustry caPabi l i ty.
25OO METERS
MOBILE DRILLING
AND UNDERWATER
COMPLETION ,,
SYSTEMS
t
a
t - t '
2OO METERS
\
UNDERWATER PRODUCTION
AND MANIFOLD SYSTEMS
.<
FIXED PLATFORMS
*-l _
|
"-r I _l _-
r___l _ t. I I
1950
'60 '70 '80 '90
2000
Current depth capabilities
Using platfonns under-construction or in the
design stage as a guide to depth capabilities
these available figures indicate:
o
Approxirnately 75% in water,depths 20-
300 ft.
o
Thirteen percent in water depths 300-400
o
Eight prcent in water depths 400-500 ft.
o
Less than 296 in water depths 500-600 ft.
.
Other: 850.ft. in Santa B'arbara Channel
1020 ft. and 1050 ft. for completion 1978'-
1980
Corrosion protection
Cathodic protection for steel structures is of
two types: one uses a very small imlxessed
electrical current flow; the other uses sacri-
ficial anodes. Both methods are based upon
the principle that a controlled direction of
electric current through a metal structure will
prevent the metal from eorrodittg.
In splash zones protective coatings are used
which prevent corrosive elernents from con-
tacting metal struchrres.
J
a,
a' *'
a ' t
0
,
ft.
E
soo
-
F
g
ul
cl
G
r!
l=
=
100
Production Drilling from Fixed Platforms
Movable drilling rigs are mounted on a grid
somewltat resembling a checker board. Slots
are spaced laterally io allow for the installa-
tion of ttt* christmas trees when the wells are
,
.completed" Multrple drilling s!9ts *tg used by
s.krdding the rig frOrn
'one:,drilling
slot to the
next, OI platforms culrently under constfuc-
'
tiou most- are l2-slot; the seCond most com-
:
'
.
mon is the Z4rstbt platfolm.
'
.'
',,' ''
'
,r
,
"'Many"plaiforms
have deruicks whidh can be
used for two or more wells by skidding the
crown block, the'rotary, and. dt"wq{k* For
severe weather locations drilling slots have ac-
cess to the seafloor ,through
the piles which
support the platform.
floor trs in decp well drilling ashore.
52
Rig slcidding tubttructure rack.
CREW
OUARTER
S
DRI TTI NG RI G
- - PI PE TI NE
RI SER
r
PRODUCTI ON
Workover
Offshore production has the same problems
that are encountered ashore. Paraffir, sand,
repair or replacement of qubsurface equip-
ment require the same corrective measures
that are used on land.
Skid-mounted well workover masts and
tools are part of the permanent equipment of
many multiwell platforrns.
Special well workover equipment which
can be handled with deck cranes is used on
smaller platforms,
Emergency escape drills
Per:isdig drills are necessary for personnel
safety. Every occupant of the platforrn needs
to be farniliar with escape routes and alternate
routes. Specific duties should bc assigned for
hasty abandonment of the platform if systems
are to be stopped from optating.
Thc platform may be equipped with a chute
or slide from deck to water surface. A suffi-
cient number of
Jifeboats
or escape capsules
will be availabl;. The proper ftethoar of
boarding and launching *.rit be known by
everyone. Some survival capsules are powered
and provided with air supplies. rt is necessary
that specific instruction and drills be given to
effectively use the equipment.
- _- t
UP TO
300'
I
I
I o, ooo To
I 5, OOO FEET
I
I
i
tvznra7p77
DI RECTI ONAL
wErr s
Di recti onal dri l l i ng techni ques.
Directional or slant drilling
In order for maximurn efficiency in d.raining
a reservoir from a platforrn, directional drilling
is trsed to penetrate thc most productive for-
nrations and, to achieve the widest pattern of
spacing in the reservoir. Sometirnes direc-
tional or slant drilling is used to penetrate for-
rnations under sea ways and Areas where plat-
fornrs cannot be erected.
THUMS man-made i sl and off Long Beach.
*,f
' .' o;
i
. t '
5. 000 To
7
, OOO FEET
53
Concrete ( gravity) structures
Concrete gavlty
stnrctirres
have been
built for use in the North,$"".
Their enormous
bulk afiords protection
from storrns and sea
states common to that area. The size of struc-
ture supported by the ocean floor is adaptable
to bottom conditions. Spaces between
'the
structure
:and
the sea floor can b filled with
a grout which provides a very good degree of
resistance to erosion by currents. Rock is built
up around the perimeter of the base to pro-
vide protection. The huge vertical concrete
legs contain cells with storage calncity of
from 800,000 to one million barrels of cmde.
The gross weight of tlre structure is over 300,-
000 tons, approximately ten times the weight
of a steel structure.
The concrete legs are built first, then the
decks are cornpleted rvith the drilling and pro-
duction modules. The entire structure is towed
to its site and put on bottom. During towing
the structure is 40% submerged, A vertical
dimension of 680 ft. fro'rn base to top of the
drilling mast gives an idea of its size.
Cost figtrres range from
$140
million to
$200
million. Its water depth capabilities based
upon present use is in water depths of 38H74
feet.
Towing energy to rnaneuver
gravity structure exceeds 75,-
000 hp in this view.
Construction nearing complefion, second platform
fo rear. Note storage tanlrs af base.
ll\
.\! -l\
--\-v-t-
--t
:
-
; ?
*--1?--
rt nl
^:FS
G
l,.E;-j*:
?7- tt
-7
kytroBM T
TENSIOfUED
cABtfs
OBILLIT{G OB
PBoDUCTtoTU
RISER
CABLE
AilCHOBS
\
\
\
OFF-LOADIiJG RISEB
\
-PIPELIIIE
sYsrEirl SUBSEA
-
2
-
Proposed platfonns
Two experimental
platforms are being
tested; they are ( 1) a slim to#er-typ" sup-
ported by guy wires, and (2) a tension-leg
platfonn. At this time all evaluations have not
bee.r completed.
Above is a diagram of a tension teg plafform.
on the left is a diagram of a cornpleted 1500-foot
guyed tower.
*
2t z
a
w
.--s
J e
d y
= - , t
fd-*
-
55
-r._.8
YEAR
1955
1966
1967
1958
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
WELLS I N WATER DEEPER
THAN 5OO FT.
23
75
t35l *
WELLS I N WATER DEEPER
THAN 1OOO FT.
1
0
0
4
6
7
10
I
6
10
0
0
o
0
i
4
2
1 5
4
l ' t
r965 rg68 rg69 1970
YAA
,
.
rgil lg?2
994'
EXXON, USA
SBC
rZSg
IXXON. USA
s8c
r437'
EXX0frt,
USA
s8c
t3{y
SHETT
BRUI{EI
r437'
EXX0f{,
USA
s8c
r356'
SHETL
ERUIIEI
I
5000'
?
8 tttr a$
WATER OEPffi WATER BEPTH WAITR OEPff
t9{7 ts ts5
oFFSHORE
PRODUCTTON SYSTEMF
fntroduction
satellite wells are generally single wells
wlrich are the sorlrce of crude oil or nahlral gas
for a gathering systern. Their location will be
related to the horizontal
shape of the reservoir,
btrt trsuall
v a central gathering point for sepa-
rating, storing, or transfer of the product is
joined by flowlines to the individual wells.
In tlre Gulf of Mexico hundreds of wells
have been drilled in shallow water areas, many
with mobile rigs. Upon completion christrnas
trees sirnilar to those used on land were
installed.
These single well christmas trees
were installcd on several types of structures.
Tlt" fiTpt.st
form was a well guard extending
10-15 feet above mean water level. It was on a
platform which supplied minimum work space
for
-operating
valves, changing chokes, and
similar tasks. Another forrn h;d more clear-
ance above water and was fitted with a heli-
cop!9r pad. A third type of platform was the
small fixed
platforrn similat to those used in
platform tender opemtions.
Satellite platform.
Well plafforrn with helipad.
As offshore operations moved to deeper
water, production was confined almost totally
to the larger and very exllensive platfomrs.
wells drilled for purposes of exploration were
abandoned. The capability of drilting in water
depths well beyond present limits of platform
construction or gathering systems became ap-
parent. Tlris situation spurred researctr ancl
development of subsea production systems.
Status of subsea completions
E*p*rirnents which were.begun
in the early
1960s were hindered by failures of untested
materials and equiprnent.
Hurricanes darn-
aged and slowed some of the experiments.
.
Apqroxirnately 100 subsea completions
have been made in fifteen years of research
and developrnent.
Successes in experimental
work indicate
that the indus try is lapable of
57
developing a completel)'
feasible productio'
technology for subsea oil and gas
_recovery.
Produ.iiott
frorn subsea completions will
pass from wells throtrgh flowlines' manifold-
ing systems,
separators, storage, and pipeliues
or-loading
facilities. Equipment for seafloot:
rnanifolding
and bottom-suPPorted seParators
is being develoPed. Experiments include in-
stallations
moored and anchored; some float
on the surface, others are str,bmerged. MoOred
loading systerns with limited storage ltave
lreen used. A few systerns have operated with
taukers alternately serving as storage or
transportatiorl.
than those currently accessible, to divei as-
sistance.
j : '
A Wet christmas tree is run to- replace the
BOP stack. The use of comPatible
wellhead
guide line strugt_ures and hydraulic control of
connectors enable this operation to be accom-
plished without diver assistance. Basic units
i ncl ude:
(1) wel l head,
(2) tree, (3) val ves,
(4) flowline connector,
(5) controls, and (6)
a TFL ( tluough
flowline )
loop. Other installa-
tions pre
T"{"-
witb diver assistance. Valves
are controlled frorn the rig or control station.
Fail-safe valves proVide
automatic closure if
hydraulic control is 'lost. One of two rnaster'
valves affords manual control by a'diver in
emergencies.
Flowline connectors are positioned for ease
of
ioining
flowlines to the christmas tree and
sometimes diver assistance is not needed.
Special tools are used when seafloor lines are
pulled to
ioin
tree and manifold or seParator.
Divcr assistallce is required in cases of
.mis-
alignment.
TFL loops are wellhead attachments of
clrrved pipe connecting flowlines to the well
tubing. These loops permit pump down tools
to enter the well for well servicit g tasks. Paraf'
ftn removal at rbgular intervals and perforat-
ing have beeq successfully done.
Dry christmas trees have been develoPed
by several groups. At this time only one
dty christmas tree has been tested very
exterrsively. :
Production risers
A well producing from three zones through
t l r r eest r i ngsof t ubi ngwi l l r equi r ear i ser
tubing bt nlle from til flowlinei to the pro-
duction platform for separation and commit g-
tring before delivery to pipeline'or tanker. Crrr-
rently almost all production
risers are from
seafloor to production platform and require
diver assistance for makittg connections.
, ,
. . t t .
. r : 1 . ' r t t .
' '
- l ' ' I
i , - j . . . : i . - , .
RI SER PI P
SHELTER
GUI DE
AND
ORI ENI
POST
MARI NE
CONDUCTOR
\
CONNECTOR
--' \' -
sLowLt NE
CONNECTOR
CUI DE LI Nf
FOR
FLOWLI N
hUB ANT)
r t OwLi Nf
CONNf C I OR
TREE HU8
I
\
\
RUNNI NG
AND
RE TRI VI NG
NCK
FLOWLI NE
HU8
POSI TI ONI NG
PTATE
/
Wef Christmas free.
Subsea christmas trees
Two types of wellhead installations for sea-
floor prodtrction are wet, and dty christmas
trees. A wet tree is exposed to the salt water
and the currents'thai *" the natural environ-
ment on bottom. A dry tree is oue that can be
serviced in a one-atmosphere environrnent
without the assistance of professional divers
for perforrnarlce of rotttine rvorkover
iobs.
The special reason for interest in the dty tree
sterns frorn the expectation that proclttction
capability will move to water depths greater
58
COLLECT
CONNCTOR
\
--.-
K
Shallow-wafer well
iackets
and produclion plafforms.
Shal l ow-water producti on compl ex.
Concrete production plafform.
A Shel l pl atform i n the Gul f of Mexi co
wi l dcat acreage.
produces from
. -
, ,
j
Deep-water production complex.
l''".
b "
',!lA
.,*t
1
!.1,:l
' . : . . , . i
..,
i'ii
- : . j j
.' .rA
id:$
.:: ..,ii;,i
':. -Y,.r
-:i,..{
' '1i
f . r ,::t'
,t
: ,:.ii
STORAGE
AND TRANSPORTATION
TO SHORE
Offshore storage facilities
In areas of shallow water depths limited
storage capacities on production platforms ex-
ist. For North Sea operations
steel platforms
are_ being designed with underwater storage
tanks of steel. several
concrete ( gravity
)
typ".
clrilling and production
platforms in the North'
sea are being built with up to r,000,000 bbl
of crude oil storage space located in cells
ilround the corlcrete legs.
Floating
storage frequently is available in
the forrn of tankers whicS alter'ately load and
tr:ansport
crude oil to shore facilities.
strbsea storage systems composed of multi-
ples of hernispheric
concrte tanks have been
tused in one Asian locale.
Oil storage sphere.
Crude and gas transport facilities
Subsea pipelines provide the best transport
method that can be devised for both crude oil
and natural
gas. Limitirg factors
are the cost
of construction and the capability
of pipe lay-
ing in water depths of more than 400 feet.
only a few pipelines
have been built in water
depths between 500 and 000 feet. The con-
struction of produetion risers is an additional
problem.
shuttle tankers are used for the transport of
crude oil. Two_ge_neral
methods for usin! shut-
tle taskers include; (I)
a tanker fo*Tor"g"
and loading
of other tankers which shuttle b!-
tween offshore and land, and (z)
shuttle tank-
ters alternating.---one
loading
one transport-
itrg to shore.
Gas-satt:n1 plafform.
. : , , . ; t r t l - ,
,
Oi l storage tanker.
Open sea mooring
Open sea mooring systems provide' Ioading
facilities for strbsea production without stor-
age capabilities. SBM, single buoy mooring,
aud SALM, single ancllor l"g mooring, are the
birsic s1'stems. Refinements of the single buoy
mooring system for the North Sea arer ( 1)
SPAR, a vertically floating storage cylinder
vvith 300,000 bbl oil storage flowing from a
rrrani fol d on the seabed, and (2) ELSBM, an
exposed location single btroy mooring system.
Loading crude oil from ELSBM. One of fwo tanlcers
shuttling between exposed location single buoy moor-
ing and a refinery.
'
Exposed location single buoy mooring in Shell/Esso
Aul field. Height-243 feet.
Si ngl e moori ng tower headpi ece for servi ci ng
fa n ke rs.
WELDING
LAY BAR,GE
offshore Pipeline construction Methods
water depth capability for subsea pipeline
corlstruction has advanced to the 500-feet
range in the North Sea. Pipe diameters have
been increased
.from
gatharing line sizes of
6-10 inch diameters to 32 inches. A few off-
shore loading facilities are 48-inch diameter
pipe for *ouing oil from shore to ship.
Rough seas limit pipelaying operations.
Larger_ vessels r,vith construction design usecl
irr stallle semistrbmersibles
meet this pioblem.
Thc lirybarge method includes atl of the
basic operations of a pipeline construction
spread on shore. Route selection, right of way,
tuud surveying
problems are solved firit.
Trenching is accornplished
by dredging sleds
:rnd pipe trenclJing
barges, some .,ring water
ietting
?r
placed explosives. Filling mat be re-
quired for uneven or boulder-strewn seafloors.
welding, coating of field joints, Iowering to
seafloor, covering, and checking are maior op-
erations. Special equiprnent and techniquls
for each of these offshore tasks have &"rt
developed.
coatilgs
which
protect the pipeline and
give it the required
negative buoyancy must
be i'tact afteibeing
loivered into'the Ler"lr.
o'e method is the pulling of long sections of
pipe i'to_ position.
nlaboLt"
ryri"*, of pon-
toons and stingers
have been used to minimize
the bendi'g forces
which destroy
concrete
and mastic
coatings while the pipe is being
lowered.
offslrore
pipeline risers should have an arc
of curvature
which will penrnit travel
of pipe-
Ii'e pigs for cleanitrg oi inspection.
66
X-RAY INSPECTION
JOINT COATING
PIPETINE
Combination derrick and pipelaying barge.
Reel-type pipelaying barge.
'
Gas pipeline-Federal Power Commis-
sion
o
Conservation proration allowables-(1)
agency of adjacent state, ( 2
)
supenrisor
of USGS
o
Obstructions to navigation-Us Corps of
trngineers
and US Coast Guard; Fair-
ways-Us Corps of Engineers
o
Platform design-Us Corp,s of Engineers
with USGS
'
Vessels-US
Coast Guard using the
American Bureau of Shippi.tg recommen-
dations
o
Safety-the
US Coast Guard speciftes
salery devices, inspects for compliance,
enforces
o
Radio communications-Fcc
( I
)
Assigns frequencies
(2) Approves equipment
'
Air transportation-FFA
o
Pollution-,both
state and federal agen-
cies
'
saf_ety and Health-occupational
safety
and Health Agency-OSHA
o
Workmen's cornpensation-injtrries
( 1) ReErlations of adjacent state
(2) Outer continental shelf U.S. Long-
shoremen's and Harbor Worker's Com-
pensation Act
Contingency Planning
For every offshore drilling operation the
possibility exists that some totally unforeseen
occurrence will begin a sequence of events
which are catastrophic. A blowout, a fire, a
platform collaps", ot a ship/platform co'llision
are a few examples.
In any incident which violates
regulations indicated previously,
ate notiftcation of the regtrlating
be made.
contingency plans for a mobile rig would
likely exceed this publication in size. Detailed
instructions on corrective measures to apply,
pro?e_r notiftcation
of the operating company
and all of the agencies having jurisdlction
over
the operation that has been affected. by the
incident are included.
some of the
an immedi-
agency must
6B
GT OSSARY
A :
accumul af or n: A vessel cont ai ni ng bot h hydr aul i c f l ui d and a com-
pressed gas wi i h t he capaci t y t o st ore energy t o operat e openi ng
and cl osi ng of bl o*out pr event er r ams and annul ar pr event er el e-
ment s. Accumul at ors suppl y energy f or connect ors and val ves re-
mot el y cont r ol l ed. Tensl oner sysi ems al so ut i l i ze accumul at or s.
acoust i c wave n: An emi ssi on f rom a sound source used i n subsea
sei smi c sur veys.
ai r mass n: A vol ume of t he ear t h' s at mospher e whi ch has acqui r ed
di st i nct i ve heat and moi sf ure charact eri sf i cs f rom i t s exposure t o
heat i ng or cool i ng and t o moi st ur e gai n or l oss i n a gi ven ar ea.
anchor buoy n: A f l oat i ng mar ker ur ud i n posi t i oni ng each anchor of
a spr ead moor i ng paf t er n f or a semi submer si bl e or dr i t l shi p.
anode n: A moss of met al or an al l oy whi ch i s a par t of a cot hodi c
proi ect i on syst e' l i t o prevent comosi on. A sacri f i ci al anode i s con-
sumed i n t he process of produci ng el ect ri c current .
anomal y n: A devi at i on f rom t he normal pat t ern. As appl i ed t o geo-
l ogi c f ormai . / ons i t suggest s di st orf i on or unconf ormi t y of sedi -
ment ar y beds such as f aul t s, f ol ds, or domes.
B
bl owouf n: An uncont r ol l ed f l ow of wel l f l ui ds f r om t he wel l bor o ei t her
at t he wel l head or i nt o t he f orrnat i on. Bl owouf prevent ers enabl e
t he dr i l l er t o pr ' event damage af t he sur f ace whi l e r est or i ng t he
bol once bet ween t he pr essur e oxer t od by t he col umn of dr i l l i ng f l ui d
and f or mat i on pr essur e.
bumper sub n: A uni t pf aced i n t he dr i l l st r i ng of a f l oal i ng r "i g f o
compensat e f or heave or ver f i cal mof i on. l t enabl es t he dr i l l er t o
keep a const ant bi t wei ght .
bundl e n: A gr oup of sever al par al l el cabl es, hoses, l i nes, or f ubi ng
l eadi ng f r om pl at f or m cont r ol s t o r emot e act uat i ng uni t s.
bur ner n: A devi ce mount ed on a boom f r om a mobi l e pl at f or m t o
ccnsur ne by f i r e t he f l ui ds whi ch f l ow f r om a wel l dur i ng pr oduct i on
wel l i est .
c
cased hol e n: ' A wel l bore cont ai ni ng t ubr. rl ar st eel t o separaf e t he
f or mat i on and t he space occupi ed by dr i l l i ng f l ui d, dr i l l st em, or
reproduct i on t ubi ng af t er cornpl et i on. The wel l bore i s cased i n suc-
cessi ve oper at i ons wi t h smal l er pi po di amet er s as t he wef l i s deep-
ened.
casi ng st r i ngs n: Thr ee st r i ngs of cosl ng of di f f er ent di amet er s ar e ot -
t ached t o t he wel l head wi t h casi ng hanger s. . The upper most casi ng
st ri ng has t he l argest di amet er, t he l owesf or product i on st ri ng t he
smal f est di amet er .
caf hodi c pr ot eci i on n: The appl i cat i on of an el ect r i c cur r ent i n such
a way t hat t he st ruct ure i s made t o act as t he cat hode or negat i ve
t er mi nal i nst ead of t he anode of +he r esuhi ng el et r of yt i c cel l . Ei t her
an anode or dn i mpr essed
el ect r i c cur r ent may be used
cel l ar n: The space beneat h t he chr i si mas t r ee of a pr oduci ng wel l
and t he base st ruct ure t o whi ch a personnel capsul e can
. be
at -
t ached i or. *orkover of a subsea wel l equi pped wi t h a dry chri st mas
t reo.
cement i ng n: The appl i cat i on of a cement sl ur r y t o anchor and pr o-
t ect t he conduct or pi p" and t he casi ng st r i ngs. Squeeze cement i ng
i s used t o i sol at e a pr oduci ng zone. Cement pl ugs f or t he casi ng
ar e used when abandoni ng a wel l .
choke n: A var i abl e di a*et er or i f i ce t hr ough whi ch hi gh pr essur e wel l
f l ui ds can be r ef eased at a cont r ol l ed r at e. Hydr aul i c chokes gi ve
t he dri l l er cont rol of hi gh borehof e pressures when a bl owouf
t hr eaf ens- Manual chokes ar e cl assi f i ed as ei t her posi t i ve or adi usf -
abl e. Posi f i ve chokes are ni ppl es wi t h f i xed ori f i ces and ore remov-
abl e f or change of si ze. Adj usf obl e chokes have a coni cal noedl e
and seat t o permi t chonge of ori f i ce si ze. Product i on chokes are part
of t he chr i st mas t r ee assembl y.
conducf or pi pe n: A l a rge di amet er pi pe ext endi ng f rom t he wef l -
head t hr ough t he mudl i ne and shal l ow f or mat i ons t o pr ovi de sol i d
suppor t f or t he casi ng and wel l head assembl i es.
connect or s n: Hydr aul i cal l y cont r ol l ed cl amps t o mat e and secur e
mar i ne r i ser segment s, and choke and ki l l l i nes. One connect or
i oi ns
t he l ower bal l
i oi nt
of t he mar i ne r i ser t o t he BOP st ack and anot her
secur es t he BOP st ack t o f ho wel l head. Ths uso of connect or s r e-
duces t he need f or di ver assi st ance.
cor e n: A cyl i ndr i cal sampl e t aken f r om f he f or mat i on f or pur poses of
anal ysi s. A si dewal l sampl e i s f aken f rorn t he wal l of t he borehol e
wi t h a speci at wi rel i ne t ool .
core barrel n: A devi ce
used
i n rof ary dri l l i ng t o cuf cores. A sampl e
25 t o 60 f eet i n l engt h i s cuf f rom t he f ormat i on bei ng penet rat ed,
r et ai ned i nsi de f he uni t . and br ought t o t he sur f ace.
correl at i on n: Combi ni ng dat a f rom several sources t o support a pro-
cedure or conf i rm a proposi t i on
corrosi on n: The di si nt egrof i ng of a met al st ruct ure t hrough envi ron-
ment al exposure t o chemi cal or el ecf rol yf i c act i on. Rust i s o pri me
exampl e. Pi t t i ng and scal i ng are evi dences of corrosi on.
current
{i mpressed}
n: El ect ri cal energy t ransmi t t ed t o a met al sf ruc-
t ure or pi pel i ne t o af f ord cat hodi c prot ect i on.
D
devel opment wel l n: A wel l dri l l ed t o produce hydrocarbons f or t rans-
port at i on and sal e, not f o be' conf used wi t h an expl orat ory wel l
whi ch. i s al most never used f or pr oduct i on.
di vert er n: An i nt egral part of t he bel l ni ppl e at t he t op of t he mari ne
ri ser; cont rol s f l ow of gas or ot her f l ui ds whi ch may ent er t he wef l -
bore under pressure bef ore f he BOP st ack has been run. l l may be
a bag-t ype uni t or a modi f i ed rot af i ng BOP. Cont rol i s f rom a hy-
draul i c syst em. l t i s usef ul when dri l l i ng f hrough shal l ow gas zones
or f or di vert i ng gds ki cks i n deep hi gh-pressure zones. Al f ernaf e
f l ow l i nes provi de means t o f l are gas downwi nd at al l t i mes.
69
dome n: An ef evaf ed' surf ace above a sal t pl ug. l n Gul f coast al oreas
sal t domes hbve def i ned boundari es of oi l produci ng f ormaf i ons.
dri l l
Pi pe
n: I n rot ary dri l l i ng t he heovy searnl ess t ubi ng used t o ro-
f af e t he bi t and ci r cul ai e t he dr i l l i ng f l ui d. Lengt hs ar e gener al l y
30 f eef . Three
i oi nt s,
f ot al l i ng approxi rnat el y 90 f eet are cal l ed a
st a nd.
' F
f ci rway n: A desi gnat ed rout e al ong a coast or t he approach t o a
port i n whi ch no obst rucf i on t o navi gat i on i s parmi t t ed.
f aul t n: An i nt er f ace bet ween sedi ment af l ayer s whi ch have been di s-
pf aced by f ract uri ng. Al ong f aul t s are f ound t raps whi ch may con-
i ai n pet r ol eum.
f et ch n: An expanse of open wat er where a wi nd f rom a consf ant di -
rect i on over a peri od of t i me produces waves. Wi nd vel oci t y. dura-
t i on of t i me, ond di st once det er mi ne t he r nagni t ude of f he wavos.
f i shi ng n: Recoveri ng f rom a wef l bore any f ragment of casi ng, dri l l
st r i ng, bi t , wi r el i ne f ool or pl af f or m equi pment l osf i n t he hol e. I n
workovers f i shi ng may be f or pockers, l i ners, screens, ef c.
f l oes n: sheet i ce whi ch f orms i n bays of Art i c areas.
f l ul es n: Proi ect i ons of an anchor assembl y whi ch di g i nt o t he seaf l oor
and pr event t he onchor f r om bei ng di sl odgod.
f oot i ngs n: St ruct urol support s f or l egs of pl af f orms or
j ackup
ri gs t o
prevent excessi ve bol t orn ponet rat i on and provi de st abi l i t y.
f orrnal i on prossure n: Pressure exert od by f ormot i on f l ui ds, recorded
i n t he hol e at t he l evel of t he f ormat i on, wi f h t he wel l shut i n.
f ront n: The i nl erf ace or surf ace di sconl i nui t y bet ween unl i ke ai r
masses. Front s l i e i n l ow pressure oreas or t roughs and are t he
spawni ng ground of f ront af st orms. St orm t racks are al ong f ront s.
g
gravi f y met er n: A sensi t i ve wei ghi ng i nst rumenf t hat measures t he
var i at i on i n t he gr avi t at i onal f i el d by det ect i ng smal l di f i or ences
i n t he wei ght of a consf ant mass at di f f erent poi nt s (as on t he eart h
or seal . l f can be used t o hel p cl assi f y t he t ype of rock st ruct ure i n
an expf oraf ory survey.
heave comPensat i on
n: Count eract i on of vert i cal movemont of t he
dri l f i fri ng. Heave compensotors have a fypi cal stroke of I
g
feet.
The wei ght of f he st ri ng pul f s down: compensat ors push up. Thi s
cornpensat i on keeps a const ant wei ghf on t he bi t and ai ds i n di -
recf i onal cont rol .
J
J- t ool n: A uni t at t ached t o t he dr i l l st r i ng used f or r unni ng and po-
si t i oni ng downhol e equi pr nent . The t wo sl ot s and t wo di r ecf i ons of
r ol af i ons combi ned wi t h wei ght changes on t he t ool gi ve cont r ol .
i et t i ng
n: Use of a st ream of wat er under hi gh pressure f o open a hol e
f or pl aci ng conduct or pi pe at . t he ocean f l oor . Af so a met hod of
oponi ng a f rench f or pi pol ayi ng
beneat h t he seof l oor.
70
K '
tel l y cocl n: A val ve i nstafl ed bel weon the swi vel and the l cel l y. r\Mhen
a hi gh
Pressure
bacl cf l ow begi ns, t he operat or can cl ose t hi s vat ve
and keep the pressure off the swi vef ond rotary hose.
ki l l l i ne n: A hi gh-pressure l i ne connecf i ng t he mud pump and t he
wel l head t hrough whi ch heavy dri l l i ng f l ui d can be pumped
i nf o
t he wel l t o cont rol a t hreaf ened bl owouf . On a f l oaf er ki l l l i nes mey
be i nl egrat ed wi f h t he rnari ne ri ser. Fl exi bl e l i nes wi l l be used at
t he sl i p
i oi ni .
M
magnei omet er n: An i nst rument f or measuri ng t he i nl ensi t y and di -
rect i on of magnet i c f orces. Dat a obt ai ned i s sornet i mes used wi t h
gr ovi t y and sei smi c dat a.
mani f ol d n: An accessory t o a pi pi ng syst em or ot her conduct ors
whi ch sorves fo di vi de a fl ow to any one of severaf possi bl e desti na-
f i ons. Separat i on and di sposi t i on of subsea producf i on i s one use
of o mani f of di ng syst em.
marl er buoys n: Buoys i ndi cat i ng exacf poi nt s f or pt oci ng ri gs and
ot her of f shore st ruct ures. Convent i onal surveyi ng met hods or saf el -
f i f e observat i ons may be used f or pf aci ng t he buoys.
maf s n: Load beari ng surf aces pl aced i n sof t bot t om seaf l oor areas.
modul es n: Uni t s of compl et e syst erns f abri cat ed on shore wi t h di -
mensi ons and wei ght s adopt abl e t o t he cr ones ond der r i ck bar ges
t o be used. Const rucf i on i s speeded si nce onl y posi t i oni ng, as-
sombl i ng, and connecf i ng ar e done on si t e.
moonpool n: The openi ng bel o* t he derri ck on a dri l l shi p t hrough
whi ch t he mari ne ri ser and dri l l st ri ng aro
i oi ned
+o t he wel l head af
t he ocean f l oor.
/
u/moori ng
n: Securi ng a fl oati ng vessel i n o speci fi c area. Anchors,
anchor chai ns, wi r el i nes, and wi nches ar e sysf em component s.
mud pi t n: The open t onk whi ch i s bof h t he ori gi nat i ng and t ermi nol
poi nt f or dri l l i ng f l ui d ci rcul at ed down t he dri l l pi pe a' nd bacL , p
f he annul us. Pi t l evel changes are used t o det ect ei t her l oss of f l ui d
f o t he f ormat i on or i ncursi on of gas or sal t wat er i nt o f he wel l bore.
Ei t her i ndi cat es a bl owouf t hreat .
o
open hol e n: Wel l bore i n whi ch casi ng has nof been sef .
P
pacter n: A devi ce for i sol oti ng secti ons of +he wefl bore by fi l l i ng the
space bef ween t he i nner wal l of t he casi ng and pi pe or f ubi ng used
i n product i on wel l t est i ng. Used i n perf orat i ng ond ot her wel l com.
pl eti on procedures..
pendant l i nes n: Li nes
i oi ni ng
anchors
l i ne f oul i ng and t o provi de a means
f or sef t i ng and ret ri evi ng.
penetrafi on rate n: The rote at whi ch
eni ng of t he wel l bor e. l t i s usual l y
hour .
and buoys desi gned t o prevent
of l oweri ng and rai si ng anchors
t he dri l l ad*rances i n t he deep-
expressed i n f erms of f eet per
.l
,I
I
posi t i oni ng ( dynomi c) n: Mai nt ai ni ng
a f l oat i ng vessel over t he bor e-
hol e by use of t hrust ers rat her t hon by un on. hor moori ng syst em.
gsret ensi oni ng n: Adi ust i ng t he pul l l oad of each l i ne of a moori ng sys-
-tem
to the forces i t i s expected to encounfer i n i fs speci fi c l o.oti on.
pi l es n: Large di ameter steel pi pe dri ven i nfo o sed ffoor fo resr' st
vert i cal and l at eral f orces; l oad beari ng st rucf uraf parf s of pl at -
f orm l egs.
Ski rt pi l es are wel ded f o l arger pi f es t o i ncreur" , t r"ngt h.
ski rt pi l es usual f y do not ext end i nt o f he wave zone.
pod n: An assernbl y
of hydraul i c vol ves si t uat ed on t he BOP st ack,
i oi ned
t o l he dr i l l i ng pl af f or m by o bundl e of hydr aul i c f i nes whi ch
gi ve
f l re dri l l er cont rof of f he opel i ng and cl osi ng of bl owouf pre-
vent er s.
product i on
p rod uced
wel l i est i ng n: Measuri ng t he raf e of product i on of f l ui ds
safurafi on di vi ng n: Di vi ng for a fengfh
of ti rne whi ch resutts i n a
di ver' s body absorbi ng a maxi i num
of i nerf gases
used i n breat hi ng
at ' a gi ven pressure l evel . Decornpressi on
t i me and
equi pment are
r equi r ed.
sei smi c suryeys n: Det ermi ni ng
subsu#ace sf rat a by t ransrni ssi ons
of
pul ses t hrough t he wat er cof umn i nt o t he eart h ond , "cordi ng
t he
fracti onaf refl ecti ons from i nterfacos
havi ng unl i ke vel oci fy
and
densi t y charact eri st i cs.
Shi pshapes n: Fl oat i ng vessel s resembl i ng
i n pl anf orm a convent i onal
shi p. I ncl uded ar e dr i l l shi ps ond bar ges.
si dewal l . cori ng n: Obt ai ni ng sampl es f or anal ysi s f rom wal f s of t he
borehof e. A speci al wi rdl i ne t ool i s used-
si gni fi canf waves n: wave hei ghts observed and recorded
by ex-
peri enced
seof arers. A si gni f i cant wave i s equal i n hei ght f o t he
average of the one-fhi rd hi ghest w6ves under fhe same seo con-
di t i ons.
sl ci ddi ng f he ri g n: Movi ng t he deri ck and dri l l i ng equi pment t o t he
next sl ot when a wef l
. i s compl et ed on a dri l l i ng pl at f orm
havi ng a
mul ti pl e sl ot pottern. For some pl atforms wi th speci al derri cks onty
the crown bl ock and rotary are moved for two or. fo6 sl ot patt"rnr.
sl i m hol e n: A wef l bor e of smal l di amet er dr i l l ed f or cor e sampl i ng or
st raf i g raphi c t est i ng.
sl ot s n: Pl at f orrn l ocat i ons of equi pmenl used i n dri i t i ng devef opment
wel l s f rom a f i xed pf at f orm. Sf ot s aro usual l y i n a gri d pat t ern wi t h
spaci ng t o permi t i nst al l af i on of product i on
i rees upon compl ot i on
of each wel l .
/ spr""d moori ng n: A syst em of mul t i pl e anchors and l i nes di st ri but i ng
t he l oads i mposed by current s, wavos, and wi nds. Pret ensi oni ng
of
anchor l i nes det ermi nes t he i ni t i al f i ne l oodi ngs.
A cont i nuous
moni -
t ori ng of i ndi vi dual f i no l oads and aut omat i c
adi ust menf s
i n t ensi on
i ncreose t he ef f ect i veness of t hi s st ot i on keepi ng syst em.
sf abbi ng n: Al i gni ng and bri ngi ng t oget her f wo compat i bl e
uni t s f or
'
r nakeup or connect i on. Exampl es: BOP st ack a nd wel l head;
mar i ne
ri ser and t op of BoP sf acl c; Bop conf rol pod and mount i ng.
stati on l eepi ng n: Mai nfai ni ng o posi ti on of the rofary over the wel l -
bore whi ch wi l f pormi t t he dri l l i ng t o conf i nue. Moori ng sysf ems-
t urret and spread are used. Dynami c posi t i oni ng i s anof her met hod
of st at i on l ceepi ng.
i n an expl orat ory
wel l . Produced f l ui ds ore separat ed,
and di sposed of by bur ni ng
pul se n: A bri ef di st urbance i ransmi f t ed t hrough a medi um a
pul se of l i ght , sound, or pressure.
measur ed,
R
radi oacti vi fy wel f l og n: The record of the
of subsur f ace f or mat i ons
consi st i ng of
radi oacf i ve cha ract eri sl i cs
a gamma- r ay cur ve and. a
neuf ron curve. The t wo l ogs may be run si rnul t aneousl y.
To enf ar ge t ho wel l bor e by r edr i l f i ng wi t h a speci af bi t .
r oughneck n: Wor kman
on a dr i l l i ng r i g di r ect l y r esponsi bf e t o t he
dr i l l er - Al so cal l ed f l oor man or r ot ar y her per .
roust about n: Laborer who assi st s crane operaf or, perf orms repai r
and mai nt enonco t asks.
s
SALM n: Si ngl e anchor t eg moor i ng. A buoy wi t h f onl cor l oadi ng
equi pment i s connect ed t o a ri gi d, boom-l i k' e sf rucl ure hi nged or
at t ached at f he seaf l oor
SBM n: Si ngf e buoy moori ng. A f l oat i ng f aci l i f y f or shut t f e t anker
f r anspor t at i on
of cr ude oi l . A t anker somst i mes i s moor ed and used
f or st oroge and f ransl oadi ng
of shut t l e t ankers. I n of her cases one
f anker l oads whi l e ot her shut t l e t onker s ar e i n t r ansi t .
sampl es n: Cut t i ngs removed by t he bi t and brought t o t he dpi l l i ng
l evel by t he dri l l i ng f l ui d. Exami nat i ons
of sampl ", , "rr"al f ormat i on
i nf ormat i on: i dent i f i cat i on
of roct r t ypes, t hi ckness, and evi dence of
gas d ri d/ or oi l conf ent .
sat el l i t es, navi gat i on n: Mon-made
space vehi cl es orbi f i ng t he eart h.
i nst rument ed f or t ransmi i t i ng dat a or of her si gnaf s. A seri es of
recorded observat i ons f rom a f i xed posi t i on can be used t o est ab-
l i sh an exact poi nl on t he eart h' s. surf ace wi t h a hi gh degree of ac-
cur acy.
sat el l i t e wel l s n: Wel l heads l ocat ed over a l arge areo wi t h f l owl i nes
i nt o a cent ral i zed producf i on
syst em. Wi def y di spersed wel t s f rom
an i r r egul ar shaped r eser voi r
can be added f o t he gat her i ng sys-
t em.
si orm choke n: A downhol e f ai l -saf e val vo f or sl oppi ng
subsea wel t when t he wel l head i s dornaged. The t erm
tary narne.
flow from a
is a proprie-
submersi bl e ri g n: A barge-l i ke vesset supporf i ng a dri f l i ng ri g and
i t s equi pmont - l f wos f owed t o i t s l ocai i on, submerged
t o si t on
bof t om and senved as a f i xed pf at f orm f hat was al so mobi l e. l t s
f uncf i ons have been assumed by
i ackups.
l t was a f orerunner
of t he
presenf generaf i on of serni submersi bl es.
submer si bl e ( under seas
vehi cl el n, Sef f - pr opet l ed
under wat er
cr af t
f rom whi ch a number of di vi ng i asks can be perf orrned.
l t i s i n
ef f ect a mi ni at uro submari ne.
t
I
T
t empl af e n: A desi gn. pal t er : n wi l h bui f t - i n gui des f or speci f i c equi p-
ment and st r uct ur es t o assur e f hei r , r "f uf n"r r . Exompl es, +empl ai e
f or i nst al l i ng wel l - conduct or pi pe; pl at f or m
i acket
wi t h wel l sl ot s,
gui des. sf eeves f or i nst al l at i on of pi l es; subsea pr oduct i on
syst ems
wi t h spaci ng t o accommodat e t he wel l s i t wi l f produce. ,
t ender n: A supporf vessel used ext ensi vel y i n t he shef t ered wat ers
of t he Gul f of Mexi co wi t h mi ni mum-t ype
pl af f orms. The f ender
houses cr ew, suppf i es, and gener al l y
al l equi pmenf excepf t he
der r i ck, r ot ar y, and dr awwor ks. Somet i mes mud pumps and t he mud
pi t wer e on t he pl at f or r n.
Most popul a. t enj sr was t he LsT, a
Wodd War l l sur pl us vessel whi ch coul d be conver t ed at a cost
w e | | b e | o w t h e n e \ , / c o s t o f a c o m p a r a b | e y " , , " | .
t ensi oner s n: Equi pment used t o mai nt ai n t aut ness or const ant pul l i ng
sf ross on mari ne ri sors, gui de l i nes, dri f l sf ri ng, and appl i co+i ons oi
wi re and cont rol l i nes on f l oat i ng vessel s. Heave . ornp"nsaf i on i s
accomPl i shed
t hr ough ai r pr essur e vessol s. cont r ol panel , oi r com-
pr essor , ai r dr yer uni t s, dnd i dl er sheaves.
transparency n: Capoci ty of ti structure fo permi f wave forces to pass
t hrough rat her t han be absorbed. l f i s ochi eved by l i mi t i ng t he si ze
of surf aces exposed t o t he wave zone.
; ,
t ri ppi ng n: Hoi st i ng t he dri l l st ri ng out of and ret urni ng i f i nt o t he
wel l bore. Thi s i s done f or i he purpose of changi ng bi t s, prepari ng
to take a core. efc.
fi l e!. n: A rof l er.ffi ouoted sfructure beneath the derri cl c of a fl oati ng
dri l l i ng vessel t o whi ch anchor l i nes are at f ached. The vessef . ul
be revol ved 360 degrees around t he moori ng pl ug by f he bow and
st ern t hrust ers.
\
w
wel l bore n: The hol e made by t he dri l l bi f .
wel l compl el i on n: Set t i ng packers, perf orot i ng
cosi ng opposi f e t he
pr oduci ng f or mat i ons, i nst al l i ng pr oducf i on
t ubi ng, und connect i ng
t he chri st mas t ree.
wel l f oggi ng n: The recordi ng of i nf ormat i on aboul subsurf ace geo-
l ogi c f ormat i ons.
Loggi ng met ho"ds i ncl ude records kept by t he
dr i l l er , mud and cut t i ngs anal yses, dr i l l st em t est s, el ect r i c and
radi ooct i vi t y
l ogs.
72
t
*"
t
Acknorvlcdgments
TIte assi stan""
"f ' l tl :l l l i ttrcl e
of l xrsy
pcrsons from
the petrol eum i ncl ustry
Itas
made
possi bl e t' e gatrreri rrg
of pr.,.rtog,-"prr*;J;;5;
and data for thi s
ptrbl i cati on.
The
gtridance
of seferal
verv knor+'ieclgeable
inclividuals
6as co'tributed
ttrateri al l .v
to tl re accuracy
of reprcsentati ous
i n the text.
For ull tlte
courtesies
extenclecl
to nre clrrring
the cornpilation
of materials,
I cxprcss
rrrv grati trrcl e.
Elclon
I{olcomb
I
lL
I
-l
T
h
I
73
. *