UploadedFile 130556063122368337

Fundamentals of Momentum,
Heat, and Mass Transfer

5th Edition
5th Edition
James R. Welty
Department of Mechanical Engineering
harles E. Wic!s
Department of hemical Engineering
Ro"ert E. Wilson
Department of Mechanical Engineering
#regory $. Rorrer
Department of hemical Engineering
%regon &tate 'ni(ersity
John Wiley ) &ons, *nc.
+&&%*+TE ,'-$*&HER
+.'*&*T*%/& ED*T%R
M+R0ET*/# M+/+#ER
RE+T*1E D*RET%R
DE&*#/ER
&E/*%R MED*+ ED*T%R
&E/*%R ,R%D'T*%/ ED*T%R
,R%D'T*%/ M+/+#EME/T &ER1*E&
Daniel &ayre
Jennifer Welter
hristopher Ruel
Harry /olan
Michael &t. Martine
$auren &apira
,atricia McFadden
Thomson Digital
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,reface to the 5 Edition
th
The Frst edition of Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer, pu"lished in
3:;:, 2as 2ritten to "ecome a part of 2hat 2as then !no2n as the GGengineering science
coreHH of most engineering curricula. *ndeed, re?uirements for +-ET accreditation ha(e
stipulated that a signiFcant part of all curricula must "e de(oted to fundamental su"Iects.
The emphasis on engineering science has continued o(er the inter(ening years, "ut the
degree of emphasis has diminished as ne2 su"Iects and technologies ha(e entered the
2orld of engineering education. /onetheless, the su"Iects of momentum transfer AJuid
mechanicsB, heat transfer, and mass transfer remain, at least in part, important components
of all engineering curricula. *t is in this conte8t that 2e no2 present the Ffth edition.
+d(ances in computing capa"ility ha(e "een astonishing since 3:;:. +t that time, the
poc!et calculator 2as ?uite ne2 and not generally in the hands of engineering students.
&u"se?uent editions of this "oo! included increasingly sophisticated solution techni?ues as
technology ad(anced. /o2, more than >6 years since the Frst edition, computer competency
among students is a fait accompli and many home2or! assignments are completed using
computer soft2are that ta!es care of most mathematical comple8ity, and a good deal of
physical insight. We do not Iudge the appropriateness of such approaches, "ut they surely
occur and 2ill do so more fre?uently as soft2are "ecomes more readily a(aila"le, more
sophisticated, and easier to use.
*n this edition, 2e still include some e8amples and pro"lems that are posed in English
units, "ut a large portion of the ?uantitati(e 2or! presented is no2 in &* units. This is
consistent 2ith most of the current generation of engineering te8t"oo!s. There are still some
su"disciplines in the thermalDJuid sciences that use English units con(entionally, so it
remains necessary for students to ha(e some familiarity 2ith pounds, mass, slugs, feet, psi,
and so forth. ,erhaps a Ffth edition, if it materiali<es, 2ill Fnally "e entirely &*.
We, the original three authors AW>B, 2elcome Dr. #reg Rorrer to our team. #reg is a
mem"er of the faculty of the hemical Engineering Department at %regon &tate 'ni(ersity
2ith e8pertise in "iochemical engineering. He has had a signiFcant inJuence on this
editionHs sections on mass transfer, "oth in the te8t and in the pro"lem sets at the end of
hapters 5@ through >3. This edition is un?uestiona"ly strengthened "y his contri"utions,
and 2e anticipate his continued presence on our 2riting team.
We are gratiFed that the use of this "oo! has continued at a signiFcant le(el since the
Frst edition appeared some >6 years ago. *t is our continuing "elief that the transport
phenomena remain essential parts of the foundation of engineering education and practice.
With the modiFcations and moderni<ation of this fourth edition, it is our hope that
Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer 2ill continue to "e an essential
part of studentsH educational e8periences.
or(allis, %regon
March 5666
J.R. Welty
.E. Wic!s
R.E. Wilson
#.$. Rorrer
(
This page intentionally left "lan!
ontents
3. *ntroduction to Momentum Transfer
3.3
3.5
3.>
3.@
3.5
3.;
3
Fluids and the ontinuum3
,roperties at a ,oint5
,oint=to=,oint 1ariation of ,roperties in a Fluid
'nits7
ompressi"ility:
&urface Tension33
3;
5
5. Fluid &tatics
5.3
5.5
5.>
5.@
5.5
,ressure 1ariation in a &tatic Fluid3;
'niform Rectilinear +cceleration3:
Forces on &u"merged &urfaces56
-uoyancy5>
losure55
5: >. Description of a Fluid in Motion
>.3
>.5
>.>
>.@
>.5
Fundamental ,hysical $a2s5:
Fluid=Flo2 FieldsC $agrangian and Eulerian Representations
&teady and 'nsteady Flo2s>6
&treamlines>3
&ystems and ontrol 1olumes>5
>@
5:
@. onser(ation of MassC ontrol=1olume +pproach
@.3
@.5
@.>
*ntegral Relation>@
&peciFc Forms of the *ntegral E8pression
losure>:
>5
5. /e2tonHs &econd $a2 of MotionC ontrol=1olume +pproach
5.3
5.5
5.>
5.@
5.5
@>
*ntegral Relation for $inear Momentum@>
+pplications of the *ntegral E8pression for $inear Momentum
*ntegral Relation for Moment of Momentum55
+pplications to ,umps and Tur"ines5>
losure59
;>
;>
@;
;. onser(ation of EnergyC ontrol=1olume +pproach
;.3
;.5
*ntegral Relation for the onser(ation of Energy
+pplications of the *ntegral E8pression;:
(ii
(iii ontents
;.>
;.@
9.
The -ernoulli E?uation
losure9;
95
&hear &tress in $aminar Flo2
9.3
9.5
9.>
9.@
9.5
73
/e2tonHs 1iscosity Relation73
/on=/e2tonian Fluids75
1iscosity7>
&hear &tress in Multidimensional $aminar Flo2s of a /e2tonian Fluid
losure:6
:5
77
7. +nalysis of a Differential Fluid Element in $aminar Flo2
7.3
7.5
7.>
Fully De(eloped $aminar Flo2 in a ircular onduit of onstant
:5ross &ection
$aminar Flo2 of a /e2tonian Fluid Do2n an *nclined=,lane &urface
losure:9
::
::
:5
:. Differential E?uations of Fluid Flo2
:.3
:.5
:.>
:.@
The Differential ontinuity E?uation
/a(ier=&to!es E?uations363
-ernoulliHs E?uation336
losure333
33> 36. *n(iscid Fluid Flo2
36.3
36.5
36.>
36.@
36.5
36.;
36.9
36.7
36.:
Fluid Rotation at a ,oint33>
The &tream Function33@
*n(iscid, *rrotational Flo2 a"out an *nFnite ylinder
*rrotational Flo2, the 1elocity ,otential339
Total Head in *rrotational Flo233:
'tili<ation of ,otential Flo233:
,otential Flo2 +nalysisK&imple ,lane Flo2 ases
,otential Flo2 +nalysisK&uperposition353
losure35>
355
33;
356
33. Dimensional +nalysis and &imilitude
33.3
33.5
33.>
33.@
33.5
33.;
Dimensions355
Dimensional +nalysis of #o(erning Differential E?uations
The -uc!ingham Method357
#eometric, 0inematic, and Dynamic &imilarity3>3
Model Theory3>5
losure3>@
3>9
3>9
35;
35. 1iscous Flo2
35.3
35.5
ReynoldsHs E8periment
Drag3>7
ontents i8
35.>
35.@
35.5
35.;
35.9
35.7
35.:
35.36
35.33
35.35
35.3>
35.3@
35.35
35.3;
3>.
The -oundary=$ayer oncept3@@
The -oundary=$ayer E?uations3@5
-lasiusHs &olution for the $aminar -oundary $ayer on a Flat ,late
Flo2 2ith a ,ressure #radient356
L L(on 0arman Momentum *ntegral +nalysis355
Description of Tur"ulence355
Tur"ulent &hearing &tresses359
The Mi8ing=$ength Hypothesis357
1elocity Distri"ution from the Mi8ing=$ength Theory3;6
The 'ni(ersal 1elocity Distri"ution3;3
Further Empirical Relations for Tur"ulent Flo23;5
The Tur"ulent -oundary $ayer on a Flat ,late3;>
Factors +ffecting the Transition From $aminar to Tur"ulent Flo2
losure3;5
3;7
3@;
3;5
Flo2 in losed onduits
3>.3
3>.5
3>.>
3>.@
3>.5
3>.;
Dimensional +nalysis of onduit Flo23;7
Friction Factors for Fully De(eloped $aminar, Tur"ulent,
and Transition Flo2 in ircular onduits396
Friction Factor and Head=$oss Determination for ,ipe Flo239>
,ipe=Flo2 +nalysis39;
Friction Factors for Flo2 in the Entrance to a ircular onduit39:
losure375
375 3@. Fluid Machinery
3@.3
3@.5
3@.>
3@.@
3@.5
entrifugal ,umps37;
&caling $a2s for ,umps and Fans3:@
+8ial and Mi8ed Flo2 ,ump onFgurations
Tur"ines3:9
losure3:9
563
3:9
35. Fundamentals of Heat Transfer
35.3
35.5
35.>
35.@
35.5
35.;
onduction563
Thermal onducti(ity565
on(ection569
Radiation56:
om"ined Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
losure53>
539
56:
3;. Differential E?uations of Heat Transfer
3;.3
3;.5
3;.>
3;.@
The #eneral Differential E?uation for Energy Transfer539
&pecial Forms of the Differential Energy E?uation556
ommonly Encountered -oundary onditions553
losure555
8 ontents
39. &teady=&tate onduction
39.3
39.5
39.>
39.@
39.5
55@
%ne=Dimensional onduction55@
%ne=Dimensional onduction 2ith *nternal #eneration of Energy
Heat Transfer from E8tended &urfaces5>>
T2o= and Three=Dimensional &ystems5@6
losure5@;
555
5>6
37. 'nsteady=&tate onduction
37.3
37.5
37.>
37.@
37.5
+nalytical &olutions555
Temperature=Time harts for &imple #eometric &hapes5;3
/umerical Methods for Transient onduction +nalysis5;>
+n *ntegral Method for %ne=Dimensional 'nsteady onduction
losure596
59@
5;;
3:. on(ecti(e Heat Transfer
3:.3
3:.5
3:.>
3:.@
3:.5
3:.;
3:.9
3:.7
Fundamental onsiderations in on(ecti(e Heat Transfer59@
&igniFcant ,arameters in on(ecti(e Heat Transfer595
Dimensional +nalysis of on(ecti(e Energy Transfer59;
E8act +nalysis of the $aminar -oundary $ayer59:
+ppro8imate *ntegral +nalysis of the Thermal -oundary $ayer
Energy= and Momentum=Transfer +nalogies575
Tur"ulent Flo2 onsiderations579
losure5:>
5:9
57>
56. on(ecti(e Heat=Transfer orrelations
56.3
56.5
56.>
56.@
/atural on(ection5:9
Forced on(ection for *nternal Flo2
Forced on(ection for E8ternal Flo2
losure>37
>5>
>65
>33
53. -oiling and ondensation
53.3
53.5
53.>
-oiling>5>
ondensation
losure>>@
>57
55. Heat=Transfer E?uipment
55.3
55.5
55.>
55.@
55.5
55.;
>>;
Types of Heat E8changers>>;
&ingle=,ass Heat=E8changer +nalysisC The $og=Mean Temperature
Difference>>:
rossJo2 and &hell=and=Tu"e Heat=E8changer +nalysis>@>
The /um"er=of=Transfer='nits A/T'B Method of Heat=E8changer
+nalysis and Design>@9
+dditional onsiderations in Heat=E8changer Design>5@
losure>5;
ontents 8i
5>. Radiation Heat Transfer
5>.3
5>.5
5>.>
5>.@
5>.5
5>.;
5>.9
5>.7
5>.:
5>.36
5>.33
5>.35
5>.3>
>5:
/ature of Radiation>5:
Thermal Radiation>;6
The *ntensity of Radiation>;3
,lanc!Hs $a2 of Radiation>;>
&tefan=-olt<mann $a2>;5
Emissi(ity and +"sorpti(ity of &olid &urfaces>;9
Radiant Heat Transfer -et2een -lac! -odies>96
Radiant E8change in -lac! Enclosures>9:
Radiant E8change in Reradiating &urfaces ,resent>76
Radiant Heat Transfer -et2een #ray &urfaces>73
Radiation from #ases>77
The Radiation Heat=Transfer oefFcient>:5
losure>:>
5@. Fundamentals of Mass Transfer
5@.3
5@.5
5@.>
5@.@
Molecular Mass Transfer
The Diffusion oefFcient
on(ecti(e Mass Transfer
losure@5:
>:7
>::
@69
@57
55. Differential E?uations of Mass Transfer
55.3
55.5
55.>
55.@
55.5
@>>
The Differential E?uation for Mass Transfer@>>
&pecial Forms of the Differential Mass=Transfer E?uation
ommonly Encountered -oundary onditions@>7
&teps for Modeling ,rocesses *n(ol(ing Molecular
Diffusion@@3
losure@@7
@>;
5;. &teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
5;.3
5;.5
5;.>
5;.@
5;.5
@55
%ne=Dimensional Mass Transfer *ndependent of hemical Reaction@55
%ne=Dimensional &ystems +ssociated 2ith hemical Reaction@;>
T2o= and Three=Dimensional &ystems@9@
&imultaneous Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer@9:
losure@77
59. 'nsteady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
59.3
59.5
59.>
59.@
59.5
@:;
'nsteady=&tate Diffusion and Fic!Hs &econd $a2@:;
Transient Diffusion in a &emi=*nFnite Medium@:9
Transient Diffusion in a Finite=Dimensional Medium 'nder onditions of
/egligi"le &urface Resistance566
oncentration=Time harts for &imple #eometric &hapes56:
losure535
8ii ontents
57. on(ecti(e Mass Transfer
57.3
57.5
57.>
57.@
57.5
57.;
57.9
57.7
539
Fundamental onsiderations in on(ecti(e Mass Transfer539
&igniFcant ,arameters in on(ecti(e Mass Transfer53:
Dimensional +nalysis of on(ecti(e Mass Transfer553
E8act +nalysis of the $aminar oncentration -oundary $ayer55@
+ppro8imate +nalysis of the oncentration -oundary $ayer5>3
Mass, Energy, and Momentum=Transfer +nalogies5>>
Models for on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer oefFcients5@5
losure5@5
553 5:. on(ecti(e Mass Transfer -et2een ,hases
5:.3
5:.5
5:.>
E?uili"rium553
T2o=Resistance Theory
losure5;>
55@
>6. on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer orrelations
>6.3
>6.5
>6.>
>6.@
>6.5
>6.;
>6.9
>6.7
5;:
Mass Transfer to ,lates, &pheres, and ylinders5;:
Mass Transfer *n(ol(ing Flo2 Through ,ipes576
Mass Transfer in Wetted=Wall olumns573
Mass Transfer in ,ac!ed and Fluidi<ed -eds57@
#as=$i?uid Mass Transfer in &tirred Tan!s575
apacity oefFcients for ,ac!ed To2ers579
&teps for Modeling Mass=Transfer ,rocesses *n(ol(ing on(ection
losure5:5
;6>
577
>3. Mass=Transfer E?uipment
>3.3
>3.5
>3.>
>3.@
>3.5
>3.;
>3.9
Types of Mass=Transfer E?uipment;6>
#as=$i?uid Mass=Transfer %perations in Well=Mi8ed Tan!s;65
Mass -alances for ontinuous ontact To2ersC %perating=$ine E?uations
Enthalpy -alances for ontinuous=ontact To2ers;56
Mass=Transfer apacity oefFcients;53
ontinuous=ontact E?uipment +nalysis;55
losure;>;
;@3
;33
/omenclature
+,,E/D*ME&
+.
-.
.
D.
E.
F.
Transformations of the %perators N and N5 to ylindrical oordinates
&ummary of Differential 1ector %perations in 1arious oordinate &ystems
&ymmetry of the &tress Tensor ;5@
;55
;@7
;53
The 1iscous ontri"ution to the /ormal &tress
The /a(ierO&to!es E?uations for onstant r and m in artesian,
ylindrical, and &pherical oordinates;59
harts for &olution of 'nsteady Transport ,ro"lems ;5:
ontents 8iii
#.
H.
*.
J.
0.
$.
,roperties of the &tandard +tmosphere
,hysical ,roperties of &olids ;95
;95
,hysical ,roperties of #ases and $i?uids ;97
;:3 Mass=Transfer Diffusion oefFcients in -inary &ystems
$ennardOJones onstants
The Error Function ;:9
;:7
966
;:@
M. &tandard ,ipe &i<es
/. &tandard Tu"ing #ages
96>
965
+uthor *nde8
&u"Iect *nde8
5th Edition
hapter
3
*ntroduction to Momentum
Transfer
Momentum transfer in a Juid in(ol(es the study of the motion of Juids and the
forces that produce these motions. From /e2tonHs second la2 of motion it is !no2n
that force is directly related to the time rate of change of momentum of a system.
E8cluding action=at=a=distance forces such as gra(ity, the forces acting on a Juid, such
as those resulting from pressure and shear stress, may "e sho2n to "e the result of
microscopic AmolecularB transfer of momentum. Thus the su"Iect under consideration,
2hich is historically Juid mechanics, may e?ually "e termed momentum transfer.
The history of Juid mechanics sho2s the s!illful "lending of the nineteenth= and
t2entieth century analytical 2or! in hydrodynamics 2ith the empirical !no2ledge in
hydraulics that man has collected o(er the ages. The mating of these separately
de(eloped disciplines 2as started "y $ud2ig ,randtl in 3:6@ 2ith his "oundary=layer
theory, 2hich 2as (eriFed "y e8periment. Modern Juid mechanics, or momentum
transfer, is "oth analytical and e8perimental.
Each area of study has its phraseology and nomenclature. Momentum transfer
"eing typical, the "asic deFnitions and concepts 2ill "e introduced in order to pro(ide a
"asis for communication.
3.3 F$'*D& +/D THE %/T*/''M
+ Juid is deFned as a su"stance that deforms continuously under the action of a shear stress.
+n important conse?uence of this deFnition is that 2hen a Juid is at rest, there can "e no
shear stresses. -oth li?uids and gases are Juids. &ome su"stances such as glass are
technically classiFed as Juids. Ho2e(er, the rate of deformation in glass at normal
temperatures is so small as to ma!e its consideration as a Juid impractical.
oncept of a ontinuum. Fluids, li!e all matter, are composed of molecules 2hose
num"ers stagger the imagination. *n a cu"ic inch of air at room conditions there are some
3656 molecules. +ny theory that 2ould predict the indi(idual motions of these many
molecules 2ould "e e8tremely comple8, far "eyond our present a"ilities.
Most engineering 2or! is concerned 2ith the macroscopic or "ul! "eha(ior of a Juid
rather than 2ith the microscopic or molecular "eha(ior. *n most cases it is con(enient to
thin! of a Juid as a continuous distri"ution of matter or a continuum. There are, of course,
certain instances in 2hich the concept of a continuum is not (alid. onsider, for e8ample, the
num"er of molecules in a small (olume of a gas at rest. *f the (olume 2ere ta!en small
enough, the num"er of molecules per unit (olume 2ould "e time=dependent for the
microscopic (olume e(en though the macroscopic (olume had a constant num"er of
3
5 hapter 3 *ntroduction to Momentum Transfer
molecules in it. The concept of a continuum 2ould "e (alid only for the latter case. The
(alidity of the continuum approach is seen to "e dependent upon the type of information
desired rather than the nature of the Juid. The treatment of Juids as continua is (alid
2hene(er the smallest Juid (olume of interest contains a sufFcient num"er of molecules to
ma!e statistical a(erages meaningful. The macroscopic properties of a continuum are
considered to (ary smoothly AcontinuouslyB from point to point in the Juid. %ur immediate
tas! is to deFne these properties at a point.
3.5 ,R%,ERT*E& +T + ,%*/T
When a Juid is in motion, the ?uantities associated 2ith the state and the motion of the Juid
2ill (ary from point to point. The deFnition of some Juid (aria"les at a point is presented
"elo2.
Density at a ,oint. The density of a Juid is deFned as the mass per unit (olume. 'nder
Jo2 conditions, particularly in gases, the density may (ary greatly throughout the Juid. The
density, r, at a particular point in the Juid is deFned as
r P lim
Dm
D1Qd1 D1
2here Dm is the mass contained in a (olume D1, and d1 is the smallest (olume surrounding
the point for 2hich statistical a(erages are meaningful. The limit is sho2n in Figure 3.3.
Molecular domain ontinuum domain
Rm
R1
S1
R1
Figure 3.3 Density at a point.
The concept of the density at a mathematical point, that is, at D1 P 6 is seen to "e
FctitiousT ho2e(er, ta!ing r P limD1Qd1 ADmDD1B is e8tremely useful, as it allo2s us to
descri"e Juid Jo2 in terms of continuous functions. The density, in general, may (ary
from point to point in a Juid and may also (ary 2ith respect to time as in a punctured
automo"ile tire.
3.5 ,roperties at a ,oint >
Fluid ,roperties and Flo2 ,roperties. &ome Juids, particularly li?uids, ha(e densities
that remain almost constant o(er 2ide ranges of pressure and temperature. Fluids 2hich
e8hi"it this ?uality are usually treated as "eing incompressi"le. The effects of compres=
si"ility, ho2e(er, are more a property of the situation than of the Juid itself. For e8ample, the
Jo2 of air at lo2 (elocities is descri"ed "y the same e?uations that descri"e the Jo2 of
2ater. From a static (ie2point, air is a compressi"le Juid and 2ater incompressi"le. *nstead
of "eing classiFed according to the Juid, compressi"ility effects are considered a property of
the Jo2. + distinction, often su"tle, is made "et2een the properties of the Juid and the
properties of the Jo2, and the student is here"y alerted to the importance of this concept.
RF
RFn
RFs
&tress at a ,oint. onsider the force DF acting on an element D+ of the "ody sho2n in
Figure 3.5. The force DF is resol(ed into components normal and parallel to the surface of
the element. The force per unit area or stress at a point is deFned as the limit of DFDD+ as
D+ Q d+ 2here d+ is the smallest area for 2hich statistical a(erages are meaningful
DFn
P s ii
D+Qd+ D+
lim
DFs
P tiI
D+Qd+ D+
lim
R+
Figure 3.5 Force on an
element of Juid.
Here sii is the normal stress and tiI the shear stress. *n this te8t, the dou"le=su"script
stress notation as used in solid mechanics 2ill "e employed. The student 2ill recall that
normal stress is positi(e in tension. The limiting process for the normal stress is illustrated in
Figure 3.>.
Molecular domain ontinuum domain
RFn
R+
S+
R+
Figure 3.> /ormal stress at a point.
Forces acting on a Juid are di(ided into t2o general groupsC "ody forces and surface
forces. -ody forces are those 2hich act 2ithout physical contact, for e8ample, gra(ity and
electrostatic forces. %n the contrary, pressure and frictional forces re?uire physical contact
for transmission. +s a surface is re?uired for the action of these forces they are called surface
forces. &tress is therefore a surface force per unit area.3
Mathematically, stress is classed as a tensor of second order, as it re?uires magnitude, direction, and
orientation 2ith respect to a plane for its determination.
3
@ hapter 3 *ntroduction to Momentum Transfer
,ressure at a point in a &tatic Fluid. For a static Juid, the normal stress at a point may "e
determined from the application of /e2tonHs la2s to a Juid element as the Juid element
approaches <ero si<e. *t may "e recalled that there can "e no shearing stress in a static Juid.
Thus, the only surface forces present 2ill "e those due to normal stresses. onsider the
element sho2n in Figure 3.@. This element, 2hile at rest, is acted upon "y gra(ity and normal
stresses. The 2eight of the Juid element is rgAD8 Dy D<D5B.
RFs
y
RF8
8
<
?
R8
RFy
Ry
Rs
R<
Figure 3.@ Element in a static Juid.
For a "ody at rest, &F P 6. *n the 8 direction
DF8 U DFs sin u P 6
&ince sin u P DyDDs, the a"o(e e?uation "ecomes
DF8 U DFs
Dy
P6
Ds
Di(iding through "y Dy D< and ta!ing the limit as the (olume of the element approaches
<ero, 2e o"tain
Q
DF8DFs
limUP6
Ds D<D1Q6 Dy D<
Recalling that normal stress is positi(e in tension, 2e o"tain, "y e(aluating the a"o(e
e?uation
s 88 P s ss
*n the y direction, applying &F P 6 yields
DFy U DFs cos u U rg
&ince cos u P D8DDs, one has
DFy U DFs
D8D8 Dy D ,oint=to=,oint 1ariation of ,roperties in a Fluid 5
2hich "ecomes
Us yy V s ss U
or
rg
W6X P 6
5
A3=5B
s yy P s ss
*t may "e noted that the angle u does not appear in e?uation A3=3B or A3=5B, thus the
normal stress at a point in a static Juid is independent of direction, and is therefore a scalar
?uantity.
+s the element is at rest, the only surface forces acting are those due to the normal stress.
*f 2e 2ere to measure the force per unit area acting on a su"merged element, 2e 2ould
o"ser(e that it acts in2ard or places the element in compression. The ?uantity measured is,
of course, pressure, 2hich in light of the preceding de(elopment, must "e the negati(e of the
normal stress. This important simpliFcation, the reduction of stress, a tensor, to pressure, a
scalar, may also "e sho2n for the case of <ero shear stress in a Jo2ing Juid. When shearing
stresses are present, the normal stress components at a point may not "e e?ualT ho2e(er, the
pressure is still e?ual to the a(erage normal stressT that is
, P U3Ws 88 V s yy V s << X>
2ith (ery fe2 e8ceptions, one "eing Jo2 in shoc! 2a(es.
/o2 that certain properties at a point ha(e "een discussed, let us in(estigate the manner
in 2hich Juid properties (ary from point to point.
3.> ,%*/T=T%=,%*/T 1+R*+T*%/ %F ,R%,ERT*E& */ + F$'*D
*n the continuum approach to momentum transfer, use 2ill "e made of pressure, temperature,
density, (elocity, and stress Felds. *n pre(ious studies, the concept of a gra(itational Feld has
"een introduced. #ra(ity, of course, is a (ector, and thus a gra(itational Feld is a (ector Feld. *n
this "oo!, (ectors 2ill "e 2ritten in "oldfaced type. Weather maps illustrating the pressure
(ariation o(er this country are pu"lished daily in our ne2spapers. +s pressure is a scalar
?uantity, such maps are an illustration of a scalar Feld. &calars in this "oo! 2ill "e set in
regular type.
*n Figure 3.5, the lines dra2n are the loci of points of e?ual pressure. The pressure
(aries continuously throughout the region, and one may o"ser(e the pressure le(els and infer
the manner in 2hich the pressure (aries "y e8amining such a map.
Figure 3.5 Weather mapKan e8ample of a scalar Feld.
; hapter 3 *ntroduction to Momentum Transfer
%f speciFc interest in momentum transfer is the description of the point=to=point
(ariation in the pressure. Denoting the directions east and north in Figure 3.5 "y 8 and y,
respecti(ely, 2e may represent the pressure throughout the region "y the general function
,A8, yB.
The change in ,, 2ritten as d,, "et2een t2o points in the region separated "y the
distances d8 and dy is gi(en "y the total differential
d, P
Y,Y,
d8 Vdy
Y8Yy
A3=>B
*n e?uation A3=>B, the partial deri(ati(es represent the manner in 2hich , changes along
the 8 and y a8es, respecti(ely.
+long an ar"itrary path s in the 8y plane the total deri(ati(e is
d, Y, d8 Y, dy
PV
dsY8 ds Yy ds
A3=@B
*n e?uation A3=@B, the term d,Dds is the directional deri(ati(e, and its functional relation
descri"es the rate of change of , in the s direction.
+ small portion of the pressure Feld depicted in Figure 3.5 is sho2n in Figure 3.;. The
ar"itrary path s is sho2n, and it is easily seen that the terms d8Dds and dyDds are the cosine and
sine of the path angle, a, 2ith respect to the 8 a8is. The directional deri(ati(e, therefore, may
"e 2ritten as
d, Y,Y,
Pcos a Vsin a
dsY8Yy
y
A3=5B
,ath s
ds
dy
Z
d8
dy
N sin Z
ds
d8 N cos Z
ds
8
Figure 3.; ,ath s in the 8y
plane.
There are an inFnite num"er of paths to choose from in the 8y planeT ho2e(er, t2o
particular paths are of special interestC the path for 2hich d,Dds is <ero and that for 2hich
d,Dds is ma8imum.
The path for 2hich the directional deri(ati(e is <ero is ?uite simple to Fnd. &etting d,Dds
e?ual to <ero, 2e ha(e

sin a Y,DY8
P tan aPU

cos a d,DdsP6Y,DYyd,DdsP6
3.> ,oint=to=,oint 1ariation of ,roperties in a Fluid 9
or, since tan a P dyDd8, 2e ha(e

dyY,DY8
PU
d8d,DdsP6Y,DYy
A3=;B
+long the path 2hose slope is defined "y e?uation A3=;B, 2e ha(e d, P 6, and thus , is
constant. ,aths along 2hich a scalar is constant are called isolines.
*n order to Fnd the direction for 2hich d,Dds is a ma8imum, 2e must ha(e the deri(ati(e
AdDdaBAd,DdsB e?ual to <ero, or
d d,Y,Y,
P Usin aV cos aP6
da dsY8Yy
or

tan a

Y,DYy
Y,DY8
d,Dds is ma8
P
A3=9B
omparing relations A3=;B and A3=9B, 2e see that the t2o directions deFned "y these
e?uations are perpendicular. The magnitude of the directional deri(ati(e 2hen the direc=
tional deri(ati(e is ma8imum is

d, P Y, cos a V Y, sin a
ds ma8 Y8Yy
2here cos a and sin a are e(aluated along the path gi(en "y e?uation A3=9B. +s the cosine is
related to the tangent "y
3
cos a P
p
3 V tan5 a
2e ha(e

cos a

Y,NY8
P
?
WY,DY8X5 V WY,DYyX5
d,Dds is ma8
E(aluating sin a in a similar manner gi(es

s
5 555d,WY,DY8X V WY,DYyXY,Y,
P
?
PV
ds ma8Y8Yy
WY,DY8X5 V WY,DYyX5
A3=7B
E?uations A3=9B and A3=7B suggest that the ma8imum directional deri(ati(e is a (ector of
the form
Y,Y,
e8 Vey
Y8Yy
2here e8 and ey are unit (ectors in the 8 and y directions, respecti(ely.
The directional deri(ati(e along the path of ma8imum (alue is fre?uently encountered
in the anlaysis of transfer processes and is gi(en a special name, the gradient. Thus the
gradient of ,, grad ,, is
Y,Y,
e8 Veygrad , P
Y8Yy
2here , P ,A8, yB. This concept can "e e8tended to cases in 2hich , P ,A8, y, <B. For this
more general case
grad , P
Y,Y,Y,
e8 Vey Ve<
Y8YyY<
A3=:B
E?uation A3=:B may "e 2ritten in more compact form "y use of the operation N
Apronounced GGdelHHB, gi(ing
N, P
2here
NP
YYY
e8 V ey V e<
Y8YyY<
A3=36B
Y,Y,Y,
e8 Vey Ve<
Y8YyY<
E?uation A3=36B is the deFning relationship for the N operator in artesian coordinates.
This sym"ol indicates that differentiation is to "e performed in a prescri"ed manner. *n other
coordinate systems, such as cylindrical and spherical coordinates, the gradient ta!es on a
different form.5 Ho2e(er, the geometric meaning of the gradient remains the sameT it is a
(ector ha(ing the direction and magnitude of the ma8imum rate of change of the dependent
(aria"le 2ith respect to distance.
3.@ '/*T&
*n addition to the *nternational &tandard A&*B system of units, there are t2o different English
systems of units commonly used in engineering. These systems ha(e their roots in /e2tonHs
second la2 of motionC force is e?ual to the time rate of change of momentum. *n deFning
each term of this la2, a direct relationship has "een esta"lished "et2een the four "asic
physical ?uantities used in mechanicsC force, mass, length, and time. Through the ar"itrary
choice of fundamental dimensions, some confusion has occurred in the use of the English
systems of units. 'sing the &* system of units has greatly reduced these difFculties.
The relationship "et2een force and mass may "e e8pressed "y the follo2ing statement
of /e2tonHs second la2 of motionC
FP
ma
gc
2here gc is a con(ersion factor 2hich is included to ma!e the e?uation dimensionally
consistent.
*n the &* system, mass, length, and time are ta!en as "asic units. The "asic units are mass
in !ilograms A!gB, length in meters AmB, and time in seconds AsB. The corresponding unit of
force is the ne2ton A/B. %ne ne2ton is the force re?uired to accelerate a mass of one
!ilogram at a rate of one meter per second per second A3 mDs5B. The con(ersion factor, gc, is
then e?ual to one !ilogram meter per ne2ton per second per second A3 !g [ mD/ [ s5B.
*n engineering practice, force, length, and time ha(e "een fre?uently chosen as deFning
fundamental units. With this system, force is e8pressed in pounds force Al"fB, length in feet,
and time in seconds. The corresponding unit of mass 2ill "e that 2hich 2ill "e accelerated at
the rate of 3 ftDAsB5 "y 3 l"f.
The forms of the gradient operator in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems are listed in
+ppendi8 -.
5
3.5 ompressi"ility :
This unit of mass ha(ing the dimensions of Al"fBAsB5DAftB is called the slug. The
con(ersion factor, gc, is then a multiplying factor to con(ert slugs into Al"fBAsB5DAftB, and
its (alue is 3 AslugBAftBDAl"fBAsB5.
+ third system encountered in engineering practice in(ol(es all four fundamental units.
The unit of force is 3 l"f, the unit of mass is 3 l"mT length and time are gi(en in units of feet
and seconds, respecti(ely. When 3 l"m at sea le(el is allo2ed to fall under the inJuence of
gra(ity, its acceleration 2ill "e >5.39@ AftBDAsB5. The force e8erted "y gra(ity on 3 l"m at sea
le(el is deFned as 3 l"f. Therefore the con(ersion factor, gc, for this system is >5.39@
Al"mBAftBDAl"fBAsB5.>
+ summary of the (alues of gc is gi(en in Ta"le 3.3 for these three English systems of
engineering units, along 2ith the units of length, time, force, and mass.
Ta"le 3.3
&ystem
3
5
$ength
meter
foot
Time
second
second
Force
ne2ton
l"f
Mass
!ilogram
slug
3
gc
!g [ m
/ [ s5
3 WslugXWftX
Wl"f XWsX5
> foot second l"f l"m
>5C39@ Wl"m XWftX
Wl"f XWsX5
+s all three systems are in current use in the technical literature, the student should "e
a"le to use formulas gi(en in any particular situation. areful chec!ing for dimensional
consistency 2ill "e re?uired in all calculations. The con(ersion factor, gc, 2ill correctly
relate the units corresponding to a system. There 2ill "e no attempt "y the authors to
incorporate the con(ersion factor in any e?uationsT instead, it 2ill "e the readerHs
responsi"ility to use units that are consistent 2ith e(ery term in the e?uation.
3.5 %M,RE&&*-*$*TE
+ Juid is considered compressi"le or incompressi"le depending on 2hether its density is
(aria"le or constant. $i?uids are generally considered to "e incompressi"le 2hereas gases
are certainly compressi"le.
The "ul! modulus of elasticity, often referred to as simply the "ul! modulus, is a Juid
property that characteri<es compressi"ility. *t is deFned according to
"
or as
" U
and has the dimensions /Dm5.
d,
drDr
A3=33"B
d,
d1D1
A3=33aB
>
*n su"se?uent calculations in this "oo!, gc 2ill "e rounded off to a (alue of >5.5 l"mftD5 l"f.
Distur"ances introduced at some location in a Juid continuum 2ill "e propagated at a
Fnite (elocity. The (elocity is designated the acoustic (elocityT that is, the speed of sound in
the Juid. *t is sym"oli<ed .
*t can "e sho2n that the acoustic (elocity is related to changes in pressure and density
according to \
d,
PA3=35B
dr
*ntroducing e?uation A3=33"B into this relationship yields

" \
P U
r
A3=3>B
For a gas, undergoing an isentropic process 2here ,1 ! P , a constant, 2e ha(e
\
!,
PA3=3@B
r
or
P W!RTX\
A3=35B
The ?uestion arises concerning 2hen a gas, 2hich is compressi"le, may "e treated in a
Jo2 situation as incompressi"le, that is, 2hen density (ariations are negligi"ly small. +
common criterion for such a consideration in(ol(es the Mach num"er. The Mach num"er, a
dimensionless parameter, is deFned as the ratio of the Juid (elocity, (, to the speed of sound,
, in the JuidC
(
MPA3=3;B

+ general rule of thum" is that 2hen M ] 6.5 the flo2 may "e treated as incompressi"le
2ith negligi"le error.
EM+M,$E 3 + Iet aircraft is Jying at an altitude of 35,566 m, 2here the air temperature is 5>: 0. Determine
2hether compressi"ility effects are signiFcant at airspeeds of AaB 556 !mDh and A"B ;56 !mDh.
The test for compressi"ility effects re?uires calculating the Mach num"er, M, 2hich, in turn, re?uires
that the acoustic (elocity at each airspeed, "e e(aluated.
For air, ! P 3.@, R P 6.579 !JD!g[0, and
P W!RTX\
P \3C@ W6C579 !JD!g [ 0XW5>: 0XW3666 / [ mD!JXW!g [ mD/ [ s5 X^\
P >36 mDs
AaB +t ( P 556 !mDhr W;3C3 mDsX
MP
( ;3C3 mDs
PP 6C3:9
>36 mDs
The Jo2 may "e treated as incompressi"le.
A"B +t ( P ;56 !mDhr W376C5 mDsX
MP
( 376C5 mDs
PP 6C575
>36 mDs
ompressi"le effects must "e accounted for.
3.; &urface Tension 33
3.; &'RF+E TE/&*%/
The situation 2here a small amount of unconFned li?uid forms a spherical drop is familiar
to most of us. The phenomenon is the conse?uence of the attraction that e8ists "et2een
li?uid molecules. Within a drop a molecule of li?uid is completely surrounded "y many
others. ,articles near the surface, on the contrary, 2ill e8perience an im"alance of net force
"ecause of the nonuniformity in the num"ers of adIacent particles. The e8treme condition is
the density discontinuity at the surface. ,articles at the surface e8perience a relati(ely strong
in2ardly directed attracti(e force.
#i(en this "eha(ior, it is e(ident that some 2or! must "e done 2hen a li?uid particle
mo(es to2ard the surface. +s more Juid is added the drop 2ill e8pand creating additional
surface. The 2or! associated 2ith creating this ne2 surface is the surface tension,
sym"oli<ed, s. .uantitati(ely, s is the 2or! per unit area, /[mDm5 or force per unit length
of interface in /Dm.
+ surface is, in reality, an interface "et2een t2o phases. Thus "oth phases 2ill ha(e the
property of surface tension. The most common materials in(ol(ing phase interfaces are
2ater and air, "ut many others are also possi"le. For a gi(en interfacial composition, the
surface tension property is a function of "oth pressure and temperature, "ut a much stronger
function of temperature. Ta"le 3.5 lists (alues of s for se(eral Juids in air at 3 atm and 567.
For 2ater in air the surface tension is e8pressed as a function of temperature according to
s P 6C35> W3 U 6C663>: TX/Dm
2here T is in 0el(ins.
Ta"le 3.5 &urface tensions of some Juids in air
at latm and 56 7
Fluid
+mmonia
Ethyl alcohol
#asoline
#lycerin
0erosene
Mercury
&oap solution
&+E >6 oil
sA/DmB
6.653
6.657
6.655
6.6;>
6.657
6.@@6
6.65&
6.6>5
A3=39B
&ourceC Hand"oo! of hemistry and ,hysics, ;5nd Ed,
hemical Ru""er ,u"lishing o., le(eland, %H, 3:76.
5prs
pr5R,
*n Figure 3.9 2e sho2 a free "ody diagram of a hemispherical drop of li?uid 2ith the
pressure and surface tension forces in "alance. The condition e8amined is typically used for
this analysis as a sphere represents the minimum surface area for a prescri"ed (olume. The
pressure difference, D,, "et2een the inside and outside of the hemisphere produces a net
pressure force that is "alanced "y the surface tension force. This force "alance can "e
e8pressed as
pr5 D, P 5prs
and the pressure difference is gi(en "y
D, P
5s
r
A3=37B
Figure 3.9 + free "ody
diagram of a hemispherical
li?uid droplet.
For the case of a soap "u""le, 2hich has a (ery thin 2all, there are t2o interfaces and the
pressure difference 2ill "e
D, P
@s
r
A3=3:B
E?uations A3=37B and A3=3:B indicate that the pressure difference is in(ersely proportional
to r. The limit of this relationship is the case of a
fully 2etted surface 2here r 3, and the
#aspressure difference due to surface tension is
<ero.
$i?uid+ conse?uence of the pressure difference
resulting from surface tension is the phenomenon
??
of capillary action. This effect is related to ho2 2ell
a li?uid 2ets a solid "oundary. The indicator for
&olid2etting or non2etting is the contact angle, u,
deFned as illustrated in Figure 3.7. With u measured Figure 3.7 ontact angle for a non=
through the li?uid, a non2etting case, as sho2n in 2etting gasOli?uidOsolid interface.
the Fgure, is associated 2ith u _ :67. For a 2etting
case u ] :67. For mercury in contact 2ith a clean
glass tu"e u 3>67. Water in contact 2ith a clean glass surface 2ill completely 2et the
surface and, for this case, u 6.
*llustrated in Figure 3.: is the case of a small glass tu"e inserted into a pool of AaB 2ater
and A"B mercury. /ote that 2ater 2ill rise in the tu"e and that in mercury the le(el in the tu"e
is depressed.
h
h
AaB A"B
Figure 3.: apillary effects 2ith a tu"e inserted in AaB 2ater and A"B mercury.
For the 2ater case, the li?uid rises a distance h a"o(e the le(el in the pool. This is the
result of attraction "et2een the li?uid molecules and the tu"e 2all "eing greater than
the attraction "et2een 2ater molecules at the li?uid surface. For the mercury case, the
intermolecular forces at the li?uid surface are greater than the attracti(e forces "et2een
3.;
5prs
&urface Tension 3>
li?uid mercury and the glass surface. The mercury is, thus, depressed a distance h "elo2 the
le(el of the pool.
+ free "ody diagram of the 2etting li?uid is sho2n in Figure 3.36. The up2ard force,
due to surface tension
5prs cos u
2ill "e e?ual to the do2n2ard force due to the 2eight of li?uid ha(ing (olume 1 P pr5h.
E?uating these forces 2e o"tain
5pr s cos u P rgpr 5 h
and the (alue of h "ecomes
pr5h
Figure 3.36 Free "ody
diagram of a 2etting
li?uid in a tu"e.
hP
5s cos u
rgr
A3=56B
EM+M,$E 5 Determine the distance h that mercury 2ill "e depressed 2ith a @=mm=diameter glass tu"e inserted
into a pool of mercury at 567 AFigure 3.33B.
E?uation A3=56B applies, so 2e ha(e
hP
Recall that, for mercury and glass, u P 3>67.
5s cos u
rgr
h
Figure 3.33 apillary depression of
mercury in a glass tu"e.
For mercury at 567 r P 3>,576 !gDm>, and for mercury in air s P 6.@@ /Dm ATa"le 3.5B gi(ing
hP
5W6C@@ /DmXWcos3>6 X
W3>576!gDm> XW:C73mDs5 XW5 ` 36U> mX
W5C35 mmX
P 5C35 ` 36U> m
3@ hapter 3 *ntroduction to Momentum Transfer
,R%-$EM&
3.3 The num"er of molecules crossing a unit area per unit time
in one direction is gi(en "y
/P 3 n(
@
and
Ycos u YY
PV sin u
Yyr YuYr
2hen r5 P 85 V y5 and tan u P yD8.
3.36 Transform the operator N to cylindrical coordinates
Ar, u, <B, using the results of ,ro"lems 3.9 and 3.:.
3.33 Find the pressure gradient at point Aa,"B 2hen the pressure
Feld is gi(en "y
8y85, P r3 ( 3 sin sin V 5
a"a
2here r3, ( 3, a, and " are constants.
2here n is the num"er of molecules per unit (olume and ( is the
a(erage molecular (elocity. +s the a(erage molecular (elocity is
appro8imately e?ual to the speed of sound in a perfect gas,
estimate the num"er of molecules crossing a circular hole 36U>
in. in diameter. +ssume that the gas is at standard conditions. +t
standard conditions, there are @ ` 3656 molecules per in.>.
3.5 Which of the ?uantities listed "elo2 are Jo2 properties and
2hich are Juid propertiesa
pressure
density
speciFc heat
temperature
stress
pressure gradient
(elocity
speed of sound
3.35 Find the temperature gradient at point Aa, "B at time
t P A$5DaB ln e 2hen the temperature Feld is gi(en "y
58yT P T6 eUatN@$ sin cosh
a"
2here T6, a, a, and " are constants.
3.3> +re the Felds descri"ed in ,ro"lems 3.33 and 3.35
dimensionally homogeneousa What must the units of r3 "e
in order that the pressure "e in pounds per s?uare foot 2hen ( 3 is
gi(en in feet per second Apro"lem 3.33Ba
3.3@
+ scalar Feld is gi(en "y the function f P >85y V @y5.
a. Find rf at the point A>, 5B.
". Find the component of rf that ma!es a U;67 angle 2ith
the 8 a8is at the point A>, 5B.
3.35 *f the Juid of density r in ,ro"lem 3.> o"eys the perfect
gas la2, o"tain the e?uation of state of the mi8ture, that is,
, P f Ars, ARTDMB, rm, 8B. Will this result "e (alid if a li?uid is
present instead of a solida
3.3; 'sing the e8pression for the gradient in polar coordinates
A+ppendi8 +B, Fnd the gradient of cAr, uB 2hen

a5
c P + r sin u 3 U 5
r
Where is the gradient ma8imuma The terms + and a are constant.
3.39 #i(en the follo2ing e8pression for the pressure Feld
2here 8, y, and < are space coordinates, t is time, and ,6, r,
13 , and $ are constants, Fnd the pressure gradient
8 5 1 t Q8y<35V, P ,6 V 3r13 5 > V >5$$$
3.37 + (ertical cylindrical tan! ha(ing a "ase diameter of 36 m
and a height of 5 m is Flled to the top 2ith 2ater at 567. Ho2
much 2ater 2ill o(erJo2 if the 2ater is heated to 767a
3.3: + li?uid in a cylinder has a (olume of 3566 cm> at 3.55
M,a and a (olume of 3377 cm> at 5.56 M,a. Determine its "ul!
modulus of elasticity.
3.> For a Juid of density r in 2hich solid particles of density rs
are uniformly dispersed, sho2 that if 8 is the mass fraction of
solid in the mi8ture, the density is gi(en "y
rmi8ture P
3.@
rs r
r8 V rs W3 U 8X
+n e?uation lin!ing 2ater density and pressure is
9
,V-r
P
,3 V -r3
2here the pressure is in atmospheres and - P >666 atm. Deter=
mine the pressure in psi re?uired to increase 2ater density "y 3b
a"o(e its nominal (alue.
3.5 What pressure change is re?uired to change the density of
air "y 36b under standard conditionsa
3.; 'sing the information gi(en in ,ro"lem 3.3 and the pro=
perties of the standard atmosphere gi(en in +ppendi8 #,
estimate the num"er of molecules per cu"ic inch at an altitude
of 556,666 ft.
3.9 &ho2 that the unit (ectors er and eu in a cylindrical
coordinate system are related to the unit (ectors e8 and ey "y
er P e8 cos u V ey sin u
and
eu P Ue8 sin u V ey cos u
3.7 'sing the results of ,ro"lem 3.9, sho2 that derDdu P eu and
deu Ddu P Uer .
3.:'sing the geometric relations gi(en "elo2 and the chain
rule for differentiation, sho2 that
Ysin u YY
PUV cos u
Y8r YuYr
,ro"lems
3.56 + pressure of 36 M,a is applied to 6.55 m> of a li?uid,
causing a (olume reduction of 6.665 m>. Determine the "ul!
modulus of elasticity.
3.53 The "ul! modulus of elasticity for 2ater is 5.565 #,a.
Determine the change in pressure re?uired to reduce a gi(en
(olume "y 6.95b.
3.55 Water in a container is originally at 366 !,a. The 2ater is
su"Iected to a pressure of 356 M,a. Determine the percentage
decrease in its (olume.
3.5> Determine the height to 2hich 2ater at ;77 2ill rise in a
clean capillary tu"e ha(ing a diameter of 6.5795 cm.
3.5@ T2o clean and parallel glass plates, separated "y a gap of
3.;55 mm, are dipped in 2ater. *f s P 6.69>5 /Dm, determine
ho2 high the 2ater 2ill rise.
3.55 + glass tu"e ha(ing an inside diameter of 6.55 mm and an
outside diameter of 6.>5 mm is inserted into a pool of mercury at
567 such that the contact angle is 3>67. Determine the up2ard
force on the glass.
35
3.5; Determine the capillary rise for a 2aterOairOglass
interface at @67 in a clean glass tu"e ha(ing a radius of
3 mm.
3.59 Determine the difference in pressure "et2een the inside
and outside of a soap Flm "u""le at 56 7 if the diameter of the
"u""le is @ mm.
3.57 +n open, clean glass tu"e, ha(ing a diameter of > mm, is
inserted (ertically into a dish of mercury at 567. Determine ho2
far the column of mercury in the tu"e 2ill "e depressed for a
contact angle of 3>67.
3.5: +t ;67 the surface tension of 2ater is 6.6;;5 /Dm and
that of mercury is 6.@9 /Dm. Determine the capillary height
changes in these t2o Juids 2hen they are in contact 2ith air in a
glass tu"e of diameter 6.55 mm. ontact angles are 67 for 2ater
and 3>67 for mercury.
3.>6 Determine the diameter of the glass tu"e necessary to
!eep the capillary=height change of 2ater at >67 less than
3 mm.
hapter
5
Fluid &tatics
The deFnition of a Juid (aria"le at a point 2as considered in hapter 3. *n this
chapter, the point=to=point (ariation of a particular (aria"le, pressure, 2ill "e considered
for the special case of a Juid at rest.
+ fre?uently encountered static situation e8ists for a Juid that is stationary on
EarthHs surface. +lthough Earth has some motion of its o2n, 2e are 2ell 2ithin normal
limits of accuracy to neglect the a"solute acceleration of the coordinate system that, in
this situation, 2ould "e F8ed 2ith reference to Earth. &uch a coordinate system is said
to "e an inertial reference. *f, on the contrary, a Juid is stationary 2ith respect to a
coordinate system that has some signiFcant a"solute acceleration of its o2n, the
reference is said to "e noninertial. +n e8ample of this latter situation 2ould "e the Juid
in a railroad tan! car as it tra(els around a cur(ed portion of trac!.
The application of /e2tonHs second la2 of motion to a F8ed mass of Juid reduces
to the e8pression that the sum of the e8ternal forces is e?ual to the product of the mass
and its acceleration. *n the case of an inertial reference, 2e 2ould naturally ha(e the
relation cF P 6T 2hereas the more general statement cF P ma must "e used for the
noninertial case.
5.3 ,RE&&'RE 1+R*+T*%/ */ + &T+T* F$'*D
From the deFnition of a Juid, it is !no2n that there can "e no shear stress in a Juid at rest.
This means that the only forces acting on the Juid are those due to gra(ity and pressure. +s
the sum of the forces must e?ual <ero throughout the Juid, /e2tonHs la2 may "e satisFed "y
applying it to an ar"itrary free "ody of Juid of differential si<e. The free "ody selected,
sho2n in Figure 5.3, is the element of Juid D8 Dy D< 2ith a corner at the point 8y<. The
coordinate system 8y< is an inertial coordinate system.
y
,;
,>
,3
,@
R8
,5
8
<
,5
Ry
R<
Figure 5.3 ,ressure forces on a
static Juid element.
3;
5.3 ,ressure 1ariation in a &tatic Fluid 39
The pressures that act on the (arious faces of the element are num"ered 3 through ;.
To Fnd the sum of the forces on the element, the pressure on each face must Frst "e
e(aluated.
We shall designate the pressure according to the face of the element upon 2hich the
pressure acts. For e8ample, ,3 P ,I8 , ,5 P ,I8VD8 , and so on. E(aluating the forces acting
on each face, along 2ith the force due to gra(ity acting on the element rg D8 Dy D<, 2e Fnd
that the sum of the forces is
rgAD8 Dy D<B V A,I8 U ,I8VD8 B Dy D<e8
V A,Iy U ,IyVDy BD8 D<ey V A,I< U ,I<VD< BD8 Dye< P 6
Di(iding "y the (olume of the element D8 Dy D<, 2e see that the a"o(e e?uation
"ecomes
rg U
,IyVDy U ,Iy,I8VD8 U ,I8
,I
U ,I<
e8 Uey U <VD<e< P 6
D8DyD<
2here the order of the pressure terms has "een re(ersed. +s the si<e of the element
approaches <ero, D8, Dy, and D< approach <ero and the element approaches the point A8, y, <B.
*n the limit
Q
,IyVDy U ,Iy,I8VD8 U ,I8,I<VD< U ,I<
e8 Vey Ve<rg Plim
D8DyD<D8TDyTD<Q6
or
rg P
Y,Y,Y,
e8 Vey Ve<
Y8YyY<
rg P N,
A5=3B
Recalling the form of the gradient, 2e may 2rite e?uation A5=3B as
A5=5B
E?uation A5=5B is the "asic e?uation of Juid statics and states that the ma8imum rate of
change of pressure occurs in the direction of the gra(itational (ector. *n addition, as isolines
are perpendicular to the gradient, constant pressure lines are perpendicular to the gra(ita=
tional (ector. The point=to=point (ariation in pressure may "e o"tained "y integrating
e?uation A5=5B.
EM+M,$E 3 The manometer, a pressure measuring de(ice, may "e analy<ed from the pre(ious discussion. The
simplest type of manometer is the '=tu"e manometer sho2n in Figure 5.5. The pressure in the tan!
at point + is to "e measured. The Juid in the tan! e8tends into the manometer to point -.
hoosing the y a8is in the direction sho2n, 2e see that e?uation A5=5B "ecomes
d,
ey P Urgey
dy
*ntegrating "et2een and D in the manometer Juid, 2e ha(e
,atm U , P Urm gd5
and then integrating "et2een - and + in the tan! Juid, 2e o"tain
,+ U ,- P UrT gd3
37 hapter 5 Fluid &tatics
,atm
g
D
+
d3
-
y
d5
Fluid in tan! O rT
Manometer fluid O rM
Figure 5.5 + '=Tu"e
manometer.
+s ele(ations - and are e?ual, the pressures, ,- and ,, must "e the same. We may, thus,
com"ine the a"o(e e?uations to o"tain
,+ U ,atm P rm gd5 U rT gd3
The '=tu"e manometer measures the difference "et2een the a"solute pressure and the atmo=
spheric pressure. This difference is called the gage pressure and is fre?uently used in pressure
measurement.
EM+M,$E 5 *n the Juid statics of gases, a relation "et2een the pressure and density is re?uired to integrate
e?uation A5=5B. The simplest case is that of the isothermal perfect gas, 2here , P rRTDM. Here R is
the uni(ersal gas constant, M is the molecular 2eight of the gas, and T is the temperature, 2hich is
constant for this case. &electing the y a8is parallel to g, 2e see that e?uation A5=5B "ecomes
d,,Mg
P Urg P U
dyRT
&eparating (aria"les, 2e see that the a"o(e differential e?uation "ecomes
d,Mg
PUdy
,RT
*ntegration "et2een y P 6 A2here , P ,atmB and y P y A2here the pressure is ,B yields
ln
or
,Mgy
PU
,atmRT
)d
,Mgy
P e8p U
,atmRT
*n the a"o(e e8amples, the atmospheric pressure and a model of pressure (ariation
2ith ele(ation ha(e appeared in the results. +s performance of aircraft, roc!ets, and many
types of industrial machinery (aries 2ith am"ient pressure, temperature, and density, a
5.5 'niform Rectilinear +cceleration 3:
standard atmosphere has "een esta"lished in order to e(aluate performance. +t sea le(el,
standard atmospheric conditions are
, P 5:C:5 inC Hg P 533;C5 l"f Dft5 P 3@C;:; l"f DinC5 P 363 >55 /Dm5
T P 53: R P 5: F P 577 0
r P 6C69;53 l"m Dft> P 6C665>97 slugDft> P 3C55; !gDm>
+ ta"le of the standard atmospheric properties as a function of altitude is gi(en in
+ppendi8 #.3
5.5 '/*F%RM RET*$*/E+R +E$ER+T*%/
For the case in 2hich the coordinate system 8y< in Figure 5.3 is not an inertial coordinate
system, e?uation A5=5B does not apply. *n the case of uniform rectilinear acceleration,
ho2e(er, the Juid 2ill "e at rest 2ith respect to the accelerating coordinate system. With a
constant acceleration, 2e may apply the same analysis as in the case of the inertial
coordinate system e8cept that cF P ma P r D8 Dy D<a, as re?uired "y /e2tonHs second
la2 of motion. The result is
N, P rAg U aB
A5=>B
The ma8imum rate of change of pressure is no2 in the g U a direction, and lines of
constant pressure are perpendicular to g U a.
The point=to=point (ariation in pressure is o"tained from integration of e?uation A5=>B.
EM+M,$E > + fuel tan! is sho2n in Figure 5.>. *f the tan! is gi(en a uniform acceleration to the right, 2hat 2ill
"e the pressure at point -a
From e?uation A5=>B the pressure gradient is in the g U a direction, therefore the surface of
the Juid 2ill "e perpendicular to this direction. hoosing the y a8is parallel to g U a, 2e Fnd that
e?uation A5=>B may "e integrated "et2een point - and the surface. The pressure gradient "ecomes
d,Ddy ey 2ith the selection of the y a8is parallel to g U a as sho2n in Figure 5.@. Thus,
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^d,
ey P UrIg U aIey P Ur g5 V a5 ey
dy
1ent
Fuel
g
-
To fuel pump
Figure 5.> Fuel tan! at rest.
These performance standard sea=le(el conditions should not "e confused 2ith gas=la2 standard conditions
of , P 5:.:5 in. Hg P 3@.;:; l"Din.5 P 363 >55 ,a, T P @:57R P >57F P 59> 0.
3
y
?
gOa g
d
Oa
-
a
Figure 5.@ 'niformly
accelerated fuel tan!.
*ntegrating "et2een y P 6 and y P d yields
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
,atm U ,- P r g5 V a5 AU dB
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
g5 V a5 AdB
or
,- U ,atm P r
The depth of the Juid, d, at point - is determined from the tan! geometry and the angle u.
5.> F%RE& %/ &'-MER#ED &'RF+E&
Determination of the force on su"merged surfaces is done fre?uently in Juid statics. +s
these forces are due to pressure, use 2ill "e made of the relations descri"ing the point=to=
point (ariation in pressure 2hich ha(e "een de(eloped in the pre(ious sections. The plane
surface illustrated in Figure 5.5 is inclined at an angle a to the surface of the Juid. The area of
the inclined plane is +, and the density of the Juid is r.
y
a
g
e
e
,#
a
a
"
"
entroid
of area
e
e
1ie2 O
Figure 5.5 + su"merged plane
surface.
5.> Forces on &u"merged &urfaces 53
The magnitude of the force on the element d+ is ,# d+, 2here ,# is the gage pressureT
,# P Urgy P rgh sin a, gi(ing
dF P rgh sin a d+
*ntegration o(er the surface of the plate yields
f
F P rg sin a h d+
+
The deFnition or the centroid of the area is
3
h
+
and thus
f
h d+
+
F P rg sin a h+
A5=@B
Thus, the force due to the pressure is e?ual to the pressure e(aluated at the centroid of the
su"merged area multiplied "y the su"merged area. The point at 2hich this force acts Athe
center of pressureB is not the centroid of the area. *n order to find the center of pressure,
2e must find the point at 2hich the total force on the plate must "e concentrated in order
to produce the same moment as the distri"uted pressure, or
f
FhcCpC Ph,# d+
+
&u"stitution for the pressure yields
FhcCpC P
and since F P rg sin a h+, 2e ha(e
hcCpC
f
rg sin a h5 d+
+
3
P
+h
f
h5 d+ P
+
*aa
+h
A5=5B
The moment of the area a"out the surface may "e translated from an a8is aa located at the
Juid surface to an a8is "" through the centroid "y
*aa P *"" V h5 +
and thus
*""
+h
The center of pressure is located "elo2 the centroid a distance *"" D+h.
hcCpC U h P
EM+M,$E @ + circular (ie2ing port is to "e located 3.5 ft
"elo2the surface of a tan! as sho2n in Figure 5.;.
the magnitude and location of the force acting
Find on the 2indo2.
The force on the 2indo2 is
F P rg sin a +h
2here
a P pD5
and
h P 3C5 ftT
Figure 5.; &u"merged 2indo2.
A5=;B
3.5 ft.
3 ft.
the force is
A;5C@ l"m Dft> BW>5C5 ftDs5 BApD@ ft5 BA3C5 ftB
F P rg+h P
>5C5 l"m ftDs5 l"f
P 9>C5 l"f A>59 /B
The force F acts at h V
*centroid
. For a circular area, *centroid P pR@ D@, so 2e o"tain
+h
pR@
hcCpC P 3C5 Vft P 3C5@5 ft
@pR5 3C5
EM+M,$E 5 Rain2ater collects "ehind the concrete retain=
ing 2all sho2n in Figure 5.9. *f the 2ater=
saturated soil AspeciFc gra(ity P 5.5B acts as
a Juid, determine the force and center of
pressure on a 3=m 2idth of the 2all.
The force on a unit 2idth of the 2all is o"tain=
ed "y integrating the pressure difference
"et2een the right and left sides of the 2all.
Ta!ing the origin at the top of the 2all and
measuring y do2n2ard, the force due to
pressure is
f
F P A, U ,atm BA3B dy
Water 3m
&oil >m
Figure 5.9 Retaining 2all.
The pressure difference in the region in contact 2ith the 2ater is
, U ,atm P rH5 % gy
and the pressure difference in the region in contact 2ith the soil is
, U ,atm P rH5 % gA3B V 5C5 rH5 % gAy U 3B
The force F is
F P rH5 % g
f
6
3
y dy V rH5 % g
f
6
@
\3 V 5C5Ay U 3B^ dy
F P A3666 !gDm> BA:C769 mDs5 BA3 mBA3>C@ m5 B P 3>3 @3@ /A5: 5@; l"f B
The center of pressure of the force on the 2all is o"tained "y ta!ing moments a"out the top of the
2all.
FycCpC
)f
P rH5 % g
3
y dy V
5
f
3
@
d
y\3 V 5C5Wy U 3X^ dy
6
ycCpC P
3
A3666 !gDm> BA:C769 mDs5 BA3 mBA>9C5> m> B P 5C76 m A:C3: ftB
A3>3 @3@ /B
5.@ -uoyancy 5>
The force on a su"merged cur(ed surface may "e o"tained from !no2ledge of the
force on a plane surface and the la2s of statics. onsider the cur(ed surface -
illustrated in Figure 5.7.
% -
F%
g
Force on plane
surface %
W Weight of fluid in
(olume %-
F-
Figure 5.7 &u"merged
cur(ed surface.
-y consideration of the e?uili"rium of the Fctitious "ody -%, the force of the cur(ed
plate on "ody -% may "e e(aluated. &ince cF P 6, 2e ha(e
F- P UW U F%
A5=9B
The force of the fluid on the cur(ed plate is the negati(e of this or W V F%. Thus, the
force on a cur(ed su"merged surface may "e o"tained from the 2eight on the (olume
-% and the force on a su"merged plane surface.
5.@ -'%E+/E
The "ody sho2n in Figure 5.: is su"merged in a Juid 2ith density r. The resultant force F
holds the "ody in e?uili"rium.
The element of (olume h d+ has gra(ity and pressure forces acting on it. The
component of the force due to the pressure on the top of the element is U,5 d&5 cos a ey ,
2here a is the angle "et2een the plane of the element d&5 and the 8< plane. The pro=
duct d&5 cos a then is the proIection of d&5 onto the 8< plane, or simply d+. The net
F
,5
y
d&5
h
8
a
d&3
< ,3
d+
Figure 5.: Forces
on su"merged
(olume.
5@ hapter 5 Fluid &tatics
pressure force on the element is A,3 U ,5 B d+ ey , and the resultant force on the
element is
dF P A,3 U ,5 B d+ ey U r- gh d+ ey
2here r- is the density of the "ody. The difference in pressure ,3 U ,5 may "e e8pressed as
rgh, so
dF P Ar U r- Bgh d+ ey
*ntegration o(er the (olume of the "ody, assuming constant densities, yields
F P Ar U r- Bg1ey
A5=7B
2here 1 is the (olume of the "ody. The resultant force F is composed of t2o parts, the
2eight Ur- g1ey and the "uoyant force rg1ey . The "ody e8periences an up2ard force
e?ual to the 2eight of the displaced Juid. This is the 2ell=!no2n principle of
+rchimedes. When r _ r- , the resultant force 2ill cause the "ody to Joat on the
surface. *n the case of a Joating "ody, the "uoyant force is rg1sey, 2here 1s is the
su"merged (olume.
EM+M,$E ; + cu"e measuring 3 ft on a side is su"merged so that its top face is 36 ft "elo2 the free surface of
2ater. Determine the magnitude and direction of the applied force necessary to hold the cu"e in this
position if it is made of
AaB cor! Ar P 36 l"m Dft>B
A"B steel Ar P @:6 l"m Dft>B.
The pressure forces on all lateral surfaces of the cu"e cancel. Those on the top and "ottom do not, as
they are at different depths.
&umming forces on the (ertical direction, 2e o"tain
cFy P UW V ,A3BI"ottom U ,A3BItop V Fy P 6
2here Fy is the additional force re?uired to hold the cu"e in position.
E8pressing each of the pressures as ,atm V r2 gh, and W as rc g1, 2e o"tain, for our force
"alance
Urc g1 V r2 gW33 ftXW3 ft5 X U r2 gW36 ftXW3 ft5 X V Fy P 6
&ol(ing for Fy, 2e ha(e
Fy P Ur2 g\W33XW3X U 36W3X^ V rc g1 P Ur2 g1 V rc g1
The Frst term is seen to "e a "uoyant force, e?ual to the 2eight of displaced 2ater.
Finally, sol(ing for Fy, 2e o"tain
AaB
rc P 36 l"m Dft>
W;5C@ l"m Dft> XW>5C5 ftDs5 XW3 ft> X W36 l"m ft> XW>5C5 ftDs5 XW3 ft> X
Fy P UV
>5C5 l"m ftDs5 l"f>5C5 l"m ftDs5 l"f
P U55C@ l"f Wdo2n2ardXWU5>> /X
,ro"lems 55
A"B
rc P @:6 l"m Dft>
Fy P U
A;5C@ l"m Dft> BW>5C5 ftDs5 BA3 ft> B A@:6 l"m ft> BA>5C5 ftDs5 BA3 ft> B
V
>5C5 l"m ftDs5 l"f>5C5 l"m ftDs5 Dl"f
P V @59C; l"f Aup2ardBA3:65 /B
*n case AaB, the "uoyant force e8ceeded the 2eight of the cu"e, thus to !eep it su"merged 36 ft "elo2
the surface, a do2n2ard force of o(er 55 l" 2as re?uired. *n the second case, the 2eight e8ceeded the
"uoyant force, and an up2ard force 2as re?uired.
5.5 $%&'RE
*n this chapter the "eha(ior of static Juids has "een e8amined. The application of /e2tonHs
la2s of motion led to the description of the point=to=point (ariation in Juid pressure, from
2hich force relations 2ere de(eloped. &peciFc applications ha(e "een considered, includ=
ing manometry, forces on plane and cur(ed su"merged surfaces, and the "uoyancy of
Joating o"Iects.
The static analyses that ha(e "een considered 2ill later "e seen as special cases of more
general relations go(erning Juid "eha(ior. %ur ne8t tas! is to e8amine the "eha(ior of Juids
in motion to descri"e the effect of that motion. Fundamental la2s other than /e2tonHs la2s
of motion 2ill "e necessary for this analysis.
,R%-$EM&
5.3 %n a certain day the "arometric pressure at sea le(el is >6.3
in. Hg, and the temperature is 967F. The pressure gage in an air=
plane in Jight indicates a pressure of 36.; psia, and the tempera=
ture gage sho2s the air temperature to "e @;7F. Estimate as
accurately as possi"le the altitude of the airplane a"o(e sea le(el.
5.5 The open end of a cylindrical tan! 5 ft in diameter and
> ft high is su"merged in 2ater as sho2n. *f the tan! 2eights
556 l", to 2hat depth h 2ill the tan! su"mergea The air
"arometric pressure is 3@.9 psia. The thic!ness of tan! 2all
may "e neglected. What additional force is re?uired to "ring the
top of the tan! Jush 2ith the 2ater surfacea
5.@ *f the density of sea 2ater is appro8imated "y the e?uation
of state r P r6 e8p\W p U patm XD"X^, 2here " is the compressi=
"ility, determine the pressure and density at a point >5,666 ft
"elo2 the surface of the sea. +ssume " P >66,66 psi.
5.5 The change in density due to temperature causes the ta!e=
off and landing speeds of a hea(ier=than=air craft to increase as
the s?uare root of the temperature. What effect do temperature=
induced density changes ha(e on the lifting po2er of a rigid
lighter=than=air crafta
5.; The practical depth limit for a suited di(er is a"out 375 m.
What is the gage pressure in sea 2ater at that deptha The speciFc
gra(ity of sea 2ater is 3.655.
5.9 Matter is attracted to the center of Earth 2ith a force
proportional to the radial distance from the center. 'sing the
!no2n (alue of g at the surface 2here the radius is ;>>6 !m,
compute the pressure at EarthHs center, assuming the material
"eha(es li!e a li?uid, and that the mean speciFc gra(ity is
5.;9.
5.7 The deepest !no2n point in the ocean is 33,6>@ m in the
Mariana Trench in the ,aciFc. +ssuming sea 2ater to ha(e a
constant density of 3656 !gDm>, determine the pressure at this
point in atmospheres.
+ir
5 ft
h > ft
5.> *n ,ro"lem 5.5 a"o(e, Fnd the depth at 2hich the net force
on the tan! is <ero.
5; hapter 5 Fluid &tatics
5.3> Find the difference in pressure "et2een tan!s + and -, if
d3 P 5 ft, d5 P ; in., d> P 5.@ in., and d@ P @ in.
+ir
5.: Determine the depth change to cause a pressure increase of
3 atm for AaB 2ater, A"B sea 2ater A&# P 3.6556B, and AcB mercury
A&# P 3>.;B.
5.36 Find the pressure at point +.
0erosene
9 in.
-
"
d@
H5%
@5g
Water temp. N 356gF
+
5 in.
5 in.
+
a
d> Hg
d3
d5
Mercury
5.33 'sing a li?uid ha(ing a speciFc gra(ity of 3.5 and
in(erting a tu"e full of this material as sho2n in the Fgure,
2hat is the (alue of h if the (apor pressure of the li?uid is > psiaa
5.3@ What is the pressure difference "et2een points + and - if
d3 P 3.9 ft, d5 P 3 in., and d> P ;.> in.a
d5
H5%
d3
h
+
d>
-
H5%
Hg
5.35 What is the pressure p+ in the Fgurea The speciFc gra(ity
of the oil is 6.7.
+ir
p+
%pen
%il 36d
35d
5.35 + differential manometer is used to measure the pressure
change caused "y a Jo2 constriction in a piping system as
sho2n. Determine the pressure difference "et2een points + and
- in psi. Which section has the higher pressurea
H5%
-
@ in.
+
H5%
3d
Hg
36 in.
Hg
,ro"lems
5.3; The car sho2n in the Fgure is accelerated to the right at a
uniform rate. What 2ay 2ill the "alloon mo(e relati(e to the
cara
Water
59
5.56 + circular log of radius r is to "e used as a "arrier as
sho2n in the Fgure "elo2. *f the point of contact is at %,
determine the re?uired density of the log.
r
a
o
5.39 The tan! is accelerated up2ard at a uniform rate. Does the
manometer le(el go up or do2na
, N 5 psig
5.53 + rectangular "loc! of concrete > ft ` >ft ` ; in. has its ;=
in. side half "uried at the "ottom of a la!e 5> ft deep. What force
is re?uired to lift the "loc! free of the "ottoma What force is
re?uired to maintain the "loc! in this positiona Aoncrete
2eights 356 3"Dft>.B
5.55 + dam spill2ay gate holds "ac! 2ater of depth h.
The gate 2eights 566 3"Dft and is hinged at +. +t 2hat
depth of 2ater 2ill the gate rise and permit 2ater to Jo2
under ita
35 ft
#
h
;6g
+
; ft
5.37 #lass (ie2ing 2indo2s are to "e installed in an a?uarium.
Each 2indo2 is to "e 6.; m in diameter and to "e centered 5 m
"elo2 the surface le(el. Find the force and location of the force
acting on the 2indo2.
5.3: Find the minimum (alue of h for 2hich the gate sho2n
2ill rotate countercloc!2ise if the gate cross section is AaB
rectangular, @ ft ` @ ftT A"B triangular, @ ft at the "ase ` @ ft
high. /eglect "earing friction.
36 ft
5.5> *t is desired to use a 6.95=m diameter "each "all to stop a
drain in a s2imming pool. %"tain an e8pression that relates the
drain diameter D and the minimum 2ater depth h for 2hich the
"all 2ill remain in place.
Water
H5%
; psig
h
D
@ ft +ir
#ate AaB A"B
5.5@ + 2atertight "ul!head 55 ft high forms a temporary dam
for some construction 2or!. The top 35 ft "ehind the "ul!head
consists of sea 2ater 2ith a density of 5 slugsDft>, "ut the "ottom
36 ft "egin a mi8ture of mud and 2ater can "e considered a Juid
of density @ slugsDft>. alculate the total hori<ontal load per unit
5.59 The dam sho2n "elo2 is 366 m 2ide. Determine the
magnitude and location of the force on the inclined surface.
2idth and the location of the center of pressure measured from
the "ottom.
5.55 The circular gate +- has a 3 m radius and is hinged at -.
/eglecting atmospheric pressure, determine the force , Iust
sufFcient to !eep the gate from opening 2hen h P 35 m.
,a
Water
at 59g
357 m
Water ,a
h
+
3m
:; m
-
3m
,
5.57 The Joat in a toilet tan! is a sphere of radius R and is
made of a material 2ith density r. +n up2ard "uoyant
force F is re?uired to shut the "allcoc! (al(e. The density
of 2ater is designated r2. De(elop an e8pression for 8,
the fraction of the Joat su"merged, in terms of R, r, F, g,
and r2 .
5.5: + cu"ical piece of 2ood 2ith an edge $ in length
Joats in the 2ater. The speciFc gra(ity of the 2ood is 6.:6.
What moment M is re?uired to hold the cu"e in the position
sho2na The right=hand edge of the "loc! is Jush 2ith the
2ater.
5.5; The Fgure "elo2 sho2s an open triangular channel in
2hich the t2o sides, +- and +, are held together "y ca"les,
spaced 3 m apart, "et2een - and . Determine the ca"le tension.
a"le
-
Water
7m
+
;m
3m
M
hapter
>
Description of a Fluid in Motion
The de(elopment of an analytical description of Juid Jo2 is "ased upon the
e8pression of the physical la2s related to Juid Jo2 in a suita"le mathematical form.
+ccordingly, 2e shall present the pertinent physical la2s and discuss the methods used
to descri"e a Juid in motion.
>.3 F'/D+ME/T+$ ,HE&*+$ $+W&
There are three fundamental physical la2s that, 2ith the e8ception of relati(istic and nuclear
phenomena, apply to each and e(ery Jo2 independently of the nature of the Juid under
consideration. These la2s are listed "elo2 2ith the designations of their mathematical
formulations.
$a2
3. The la2 of conser(ation of mass
5. /e2tonHs second la2 of motion
>. The Frst la2 of thermodynamics
E?uation
ontinuity e?uation
Momentum theorem
Energy e?uation
The ne8t three chapters 2ill "e de(oted e8clusi(ely to the de(elopment of a suita"le 2or!ing
form of these la2s.3
*n addition to the a"o(e la2s, certain au8iliary or su"sidiary relations are employed in
descri"ing a Juid. These relations depend upon the nature of the Juid under consideration.
'nfortunately, most of these au8iliary relations ha(e also "een termed GGla2s.HH +lready in our
pre(ious studies, Hoo!eHs la2, the perfect gas la2, and others ha(e "een encountered. Ho2e(er
accurate these GGla2sHH may "e o(er a restricted range, their (alidity is entirely dependent
upon the nature of the material under consideration. Thus, 2hile some of the au8iliary
relations that 2ill "e used 2ill "e called la2s, the student 2ill "e responsi"le for noting the
difference in scope "et2een the fundamental physical la2s and the au8iliary relations.
>.5 F$'*D=F$%W F*E$D&C $+#R+/#*+/
+/D E'$ER*+/ RE,RE&E/T+T*%/&
The term Feld refers to a ?uantity deFned as a function of position and time throughout a
gi(en region. There are t2o different forms of representation for Felds in Juid mechanics.
$agrangeHs form and EulerHs form. The difference "et2een these approaches lies in the
manner in 2hich the position in the Feld is identiFed.
*n the $agrangian approach, the physical (aria"les are descri"ed for a particular
element of Juid as it tra(erses the Jo2. This is the familiar approach of particle and
The second la2 of thermodynamics is also fundamental to Juid=Jo2 analysis. +n analytic consideration of
the second la2 is "eyond the scope of the present treatment.
3
5:
>6 hapter > Description of a Fluid in Motion
rigid="ody dynamics. The coordinates A8, y, <B are the coordinates of the element of Juid
and, as such, are functions of time. The coordinates A8, y, <B are therefore dependent
(aria"les in the $agrangian form. The Juid element is identiFed "y its position in the
Feld at some ar"itrary time, usually t P 6. The (elocity Feld in this case is 2ritten in
functional form as
( P (Aa, ", c, tBA>=3B
2here the coordinates Aa, ", cB refer to the initial position of the fluid element. The
other fluid=flo2 (aria"les, "eing functions of the same coordinates, may "e
represented in a similar manner. The $agrangian approach is seldom used in fluid
mechanics, as the type of information desired is usually the (alue of a particular fluid
(aria"le at a fi8ed point in the flo2 rather than the (alue of a fluid (aria"le
e8perienced "y an element of fluid along its traIectory. For e8ample, the determination
of the force on a stationary "ody in a flo2 field re?uires that 2e !no2 the pressure and
shear stress at e(ery point on the "ody. The Eulerian form pro(ides us 2ith this type of
information.
The Eulerian approach gi(es the (alue of a Juid (aria"le at a gi(en point and at a gi(en
time. *n functional form the (elocity Feld is 2ritten as
( P (A8, y, <, tB
A>=5B
2here 8, y, <, and t are all independent (aria"les. For a particular point A83, y3, <5B and t3,
e?uation A>=5B gi(es the (elocity of the fluid at that location at time t3. *n this te8t the
Eulerian approach 2ill "e used e8clusi(ely.
>.> &TE+DE +/D '/&TE+DE F$%W&
*n adopting the Eulerian approach, 2e note that the Juid Jo2 2ill, in general, "e a function
of the four independent (aria"les A8, y, <, tB. *f the Jo2 at e(ery point in the Juid is
independent of time, the Jo2 is termed steady. *f the Jo2 at a point (aries 2ith time, the Jo2
is termed unsteady. *t is possi"le in certain cases to reduce an unsteady Jo2 to a steady Jo2
"y changing the frame of reference. onsider an airplane Jying through the air at constant
speed ( 6 , as sho2n in Figure >.3. When o"ser(ed from the stationary 8, y, < coordinate
system, the Jo2 pattern is unsteady. The Jo2 at the point , illustrated, for e8ample, 2ill
(ary as the (ehicle approaches it.
y
,
(6
8
<
Figure >.3 'nsteady Jo2
2ith respect to a F8ed
coordinate system.
>.@
y
,
yd
8d
(6
&treamlines >3
<d
8
<
Figure >.5 &teady Jo2 2ith
respect to a mo(ing
coordinate system.
/o2 consider the same situation 2hen o"ser(ed from the 86 , y6, <6 coordinate system
2hich is mo(ing at constant (elocity ( 6 as illustrated in Figure >.5.
The Jo2 conditions are no2 independent of time at e(ery point in the Jo2 Feld, and
thus the Jo2 is steady 2hen (ie2ed from the mo(ing coordinate system. Whene(er a "ody
mo(es through a Juid 2ith a constant (elocity, the Jo2 Feld may "e transformed from an
unsteady Jo2 to a steady Jo2 "y selecting a coordinate system that is F8ed 2ith respect to
the mo(ing "ody.
*n the 2ind=tunnel testing of models, use is made of this concept. Data o"tained for a
static model in a mo(ing stream 2ill "e the same as the data o"tained for a model mo(ing
through a static stream. The physical as 2ell as the analytical simpliFcations afforded "y
this transformation are considera"le. We shall ma!e use of this transformation 2hene(er
applica"le.
>.@ &TRE+M$*/E&
+ useful concept in the description of a Jo2ing Juid is that of a streamline. + streamline is
deFned as the line=dra2n tangent to the (elocity (ector at each point in a Jo2 Feld.
Figure >.> sho2s the streamline pattern for ideal Jo2 past a foot"all=li!e o"Iect. *n steady
Jo2, as all (elocity (ectors are in(ariant 2ith time, the path of a Juid particle follo2s a
streamline, hence a streamline is the traIectory of an element of Juid in such a situation. *n
unsteady Jo2, streamline patterns change from instant to instant. Thus, the traIectory of a
Juid element 2ill "e different from a streamline at any particular time. The actual traIectory
of a Juid element as it tra(erses the Jo2 is designated as a path line. *t is o"(ious that path
lines and streamlines are coincident only in steady Jo2.
Figure >.> *llustration of
streamlines.
>5 hapter > Description of a Fluid in Motion
The streamline is useful in relating that Juid (elocity components to the geometry of
the Jo2 Feld. For t2o=dimensional Jo2 this relation is
( y dy
A>=>BP
( 8 d8
as the streamline is tangent to the (elocity (ector ha(ing 8 and y components ( 8 and ( y . *n
three dimensions this "ecomes
d8 dy d<
PPA>=@B
(8 (y (<
The utility of the a"o(e relations is in o"taining an analytical relation "et2een (elocity
components and the streamline pattern.
&ome additional discussion is pro(ided in hapter 36 regarding the mathematical
description of streamlines around solid o"Iects.
>.5 &E&TEM& +/D %/TR%$ 1%$'ME&
The three "asic physical la2s listed in &ection >.3 are all stated in terms of a system.
+ system is deFned as a collection of matter of F8ed identity. The "asic la2s gi(e
the interaction of a system 2ith its surroundings. The selection of the system for
the application of these la2s is ?uite Je8i"le and is, in many cases, a comple8 pro"lem.
+ny analysis utili<ing a fundamental la2 must follo2 the designation of a speciFc system,
and the difFculty of solution (aries greatly depending on the choice made.
+s an illustration, consider /e2tonHs second la2, F P ma. The terms represented are as
follo2sC
F P the resultant force e8erted "y the surroundings on the system.
m P the mass of the system.
a P the acceleration of the center of mass of the system.
*n the piston=and=cylinder arrangement
sho2n in Figure >.@, a con(enient sys=
tem to analy<e, readily identiFed "y
(irtue of its conFnement, is the mass of
material enclosed 2ithin the cylinder
"y the piston.
*n the case of the no<<le sho2n in
Figure >.5, the Juid occupying the no<<le
changes from instant to instant. Thus
different systems occupy the no<<le at
different times.
+ more con(enient method of ana=
lysis of the no<<le 2ould "e to consider
the region "ounded "y the dotted line.
&uch a region is a control (olume. +
control (olume is a region in space
through 2hich Juid Jo2s.5
&ystem
Figure >.@ +n easily identiFa"le system.
Figure >.5 ontrol (olume for analysis of Jo2
through a no<<le.
+ control (olume may "e F8ed or mo(ing uniformly AinertialB, or it may "e accelerating AnoninertialB. ,rimary
consideration here 2ill "e gi(en to inertial control (olumes.
5
>.5 &ystems and ontrol 1olumes >>
The e8treme mo"ility of a Juid ma!es the identiFcation of a particular system a tedious
tas!. -y de(eloping the fundamental physical la2s in a form that applies to a control (olume
A2here the system changes from instant to instantB, the analysis of Juid Jo2 is greatly
simpliFed. The control=(olume approach circum(ents the difFculty in system identiFca=
tion. &ucceeding chapters 2ill con(ert the fundamental physical la2s from the system
approach to a control=(olume approach. The control (olume selected may "e either Fnite or
inFnitesimal.
hapter
@
onser(ation of MassC
ontrol=1olume +pproach
The initial application of the fundamental la2s of Juid mechanics in(ol(es the la2 of
conser(ation of mass. *n this chapter, 2e shall de(elop an integral relationship that
e8presses the la2 of conser(ation of mass for a general control (olume. The integral
relation thus de(eloped 2ill "e applied to some often=encountered Juid=Jo2 situations.
@.3 */TE#R+$ RE$+T*%/
The la2 of conser(ation of mass states that mass may "e neither created nor destroyed. With
respect to a control (olume, the la2 of conser(ation of mass may "e simply stated as
:: 7: 77
rate of__ rate of mass _ _ rate of mass _ _
__ __ __
NN ]N ]]
accumulationflo2 intoefflu8 from
P6VU
_ control _ _ control _ _ of mass 2ithin _
__ __ __
TT CT CC
control (olume(olume(olume
onsider no2 the general control (olume located in a Juid Jo2 Feld, as sho2n in
Figure @.3.
d+
?
n
(
&treamlines
at time t
Figure @.3 Fluid Jo2 through a
control (olume.
For the small element of area d+ on the control surface, the rate of mass efJu8 P
Ar(BAd+ cos uB, 2here d+ cos u is the proIection of the area d+ in a plane normal to the
(elocity (ector, (, and u is the angle "et2een the (elocity (ector, (, and the out2ard directed
unit normal (ector, n, to d+. From (ector alge"ra, 2e recogni<e the product
r( d+ cos u P r d+I(I InI cos u
as the GGscalarHH or GGdotHH product
rA(C nB d+
>@
@.5 &peciFc Forms of the *ntegral E8pression >5
2hich is the form 2e shall use to designate the rate of mass efJu8 through d+. The
product r( is the mass Ju8, often called the mass (elocity, #. ,hysically, this product
represents the amount of mass Jo2ing through a unit cross=sectional area per unit
time.
*f 2e no2 integrate this ?uantity o(er the entire control surface, 2e ha(e
ff
rA(C nB d+
cCsC
2hich is the net out2ard Jo2 of mass across the control surface, or the net mass efJu8 from
the control (olume.
/ote that if mass is entering the control (olume, that is, Jo2ing in2ard across the
control surface, the product (C n P I(I InI cos u is negati(e, since u _ :6 , and cos u is
therefore negati(e. Thus, if the integral is
positi(e, there is a net efJu8 of massT
negati(e, there is a net inJu8 of massT
<ero, the mass 2ithin the control (olume is constant.
The rate of accumulation of mass 2ithin the control (olume may "e e8pressed as
fff
Y
r d1
YtcC(C
and the integral e8pression for the mass "alance o(er a general control (olume "ecomes
fffff
YrA(C nB d+ Vr d1 P 6A@=3B
YtcCsCcC(C
@.5 &,E*F* F%RM& %F THE */TE#R+$ EM,RE&&*%/
E?uation A@=3B gi(es the mass "alance in its most general form. We no2 consider some
fre?uently encountered situations 2here e?uation A@=3B may "e applied.
*f Jo2RRRsteady relati(e to coordinates F8ed to the control (olume, the accumulationis
term, YDYtcC(C r d1, 2ill "e <ero. This is readily seen 2hen one recalls that, "y the
deFnition of steady Jo2, the properties of a Jo2 Feld are in(ariant 2ith time, hence the
partial deri(ati(e 2ith respect to time is <ero. Thus, for this situation the applica"le form of
the continuity e8pression is
ff
rA(C nB d+ P 6A@=5B
cCsC
+nother important case is that of an incompressi"le Jo2 2ith Juid Flling the control
(olume. For incompressi"le Jo2 the density, r, is constant, hence the accumulation term
in(ol(ing the partial deri(ati(e 2ith respect to time is again <ero. +dditionally, the density
term in the surface integral may "e canceled. The conser(ation=of=mass e8pression for
incompressi"le Jo2 of this nature thus "ecomes
ff
A(C nB d+ P 6A@=>B
cCsC
The follo2ing e8amples illustrate the application of e?uation A@=3B to some cases that
recur fre?uently in momentum transfer.
>; hapter @ onser(ation of MassC ontrol=1olume +pproach
+s our Frst e8ample, let us consider the common situation of a control (olume for 2hich mass
efJu8 and inJu8 are steady and one dimensional. &peciFcally, consider the control (olume indi=
cated "y dashed lines in Figure @.5.
EM+M,$E 3
(3
+3
r3 (5
+5
r5
3
5
Figure @.5 &teady one=dimensional Jo2
into and out of a control (olume.
E?uation A@=5B applies. +s mass crosses the control surface at positions A3B and A5B only, our
e8pression is
ffffff
rA(C nB d+ PrA(C nB d+ VrA(C nB d+ P 6
cCsC +3 +5
The a"solute (alue of the scalar product A(C nB is e?ual to the magnitude of the (elocity in each
integral, as the (elocity (ectors and out2ardly directed normal (ectors are collinear "oth at A3B and
A5B. +t A5B these (ectors ha(e the same sense, thus this product is positi(e, as it should "e for an efJu8
of mass. +t A3B, 2here mass Jo2s into the control (olume, the t2o (ectors are opposite in sense,
hence the sign is negati(e. We may no2 e8press the continuity e?uation in scalar form
ffffff
rA(C nB d+ P Ur( d+ Vr( d+ P 6
cCsC +3 +5
*ntegration gi(es the familiar result
r3 ( 3 +3 P r5 ( 5 +5
A@=@B
*n o"taining e?uation A@=@B, it is noted that the Jo2 situation inside the control (olume
2as unspeciFed. *n fact, this is the "eauty of the control=(olume approachT the Jo2
inside the control (olume can "e analy<ed from information AmeasurementsB o"tained on
the surface of the control (olume. The "o8=shaped control (olume illustrated in Figure @.5
is deFned for analytical purposesT the actual system contained in this "o8 could "e as
simple as a pipe or as comple8 as a propulsion system or a distillation to2er.
*n sol(ing E8ample 3, 2e assumed a constant (elocity at sections A3B and A5B. This
situation may "e approached physically, "ut a more general case is one in 2hich the (elocity
(aries o(er the cross=sectional area.
EM+M,$E 5 $et us consider the case of an incompressi"le Jo2, for 2hich the Jo2 area is circular and the
(elocity proFle is para"olic Asee Figure @.>B, (arying according to the e8pression
( P ( ma8 3 U
r 5 Q
R
@.5 &peciFc Forms of the *ntegral E8pression >9
R
c$
r
(ma8
c$
Figure @.> + para"olic (elocity
proFle in a circular Jo2 passage.
2here ( ma8 is the ma8imum (elocity 2hich e8ists at the center of the circular passage
Ai.e., at r P 6B, and R is the radial distance to the inside surface of the circular area consi=
dered.
The a"o(e (elocity=proFle e8pression may "e o"tained e8perimentally. *t 2ill also "e
deri(ed theoretically in hapter 7 for the case of laminar Jo2 in a circular conduit. This
e8pression represents the (elocity at a radial distance, r, from the center of the Jo2 section. +s
the a(erage (elocity is of particular interest in engineering pro"lems, 2e 2ill no2 consider the
means of o"taining the a(erage (elocity from this e8pression.
+t the station 2here this (elocity proFle e8ists, the mass rate of Jo2 is
ff
Ar(Ba(g + Pr( d+
+
For the present case of incompressi"le Jo2, the density is constant. &ol(ing for the a(erage (elocity,
2e ha(e
( a(g
3
P
+
ff
( d+
f
+
5p f R
6
3
P 5
pR
P
( ma8
5
( ma8 3 U
r 5 Q
R
r dr du
6
*n the pre(ious e8amples, 2e 2ere not concerned 2ith the composition of the
Juid streams. E?uation A@=3B applies to Juid streams containing more than one
constituent as 2ell as to the indi(idual constituents alone. This type application is
common to chemical processes in particular. %ur Fnal e8ample 2ill use the la2
of conser(ation of mass for "oth the total mass and for a particular species, in this
case, salt.
EM+M,$E > $et us no2 e8amine the situation illustrated in Figure @.@. + tan! initially contains 3666 !g
of "rine containing 36b salt "y mass. +n inlet stream of "rine containing 56b salt "y mass
Jo2s into the tan! at a rate of 56 !gDmin. The mi8ture in the tan! is !ept uniform "y
stirring. -rine is remo(ed from the tan! (ia an outlet pipe at a rate of 36 !gDmin. Find the
amount of salt in the tan! at any time t, and the elapsed time 2hen the amount of salt in the tan!
is 566 !g.
>7 hapter @ onser(ation of MassC ontrol=1olume +pproach
56 !gDmin
&alt content
56b "y mass
Tan!, initial content 3666 !g
ontrol (olume
36 !gDmin
Figure @.@ + mi8ing
process.
We Frst apply e?uation A@=3B to e8press the total amount of "rine in the tan! as a function of
time. For the control (olume sho2n
ff
rA(C nB d+ P 36 U 56 P U36 !gNmin
cCsC
Y
Yt
ff
cCsC
fff
d
r d1 P
dtcC(C
fff
f
M
dM P
3666
d
AM U 3666B
dt
2here M is the total mass of "rine in the tan! at any time. Writing the complete e8pression, 2e ha(e
YrA(C nB d+ V
Yt
r d1 P U36 V
cC(C
d
AM U 3666B P 6
dt
&eparating (aria"les and sol(ing for M gi(es
M P 3666 V 36t
A!gB
We no2 let & "e the amount of salt in the tan! at any time. The concentration "y 2eight of salt
may "e e8pressed as
&&
P
M 3666 V 36t
ff
cCsC
!g salt
!g "rine
'sing this deFnition, 2e may no2 apply e?uation A@=3B to the salt, o"taining
rA(C nB d+ P
36&
U A6C5BA56B
3666 V 36t
f
!g salt
min
and
Y
Yt
ff
fff
d
r d1 P
dtcC(C
fff
r d1 P
cC(C
&
&6
d& P
d&
dt
!g salt
min
The complete e8pression is no2
YrA(C nB d+ V
YtcCsC
&d&
U@VP6
366 V tdt
,ro"lems
This e?uation may "e 2ritten in the form
d&&
VP@
dt 366 V t
2hich 2e o"ser(e to "e a Frst=order linear differential e?uation. The general solution is
&P
5tA566 V tB
V
366 V t366 V t
>:
The constant of integration may "e e(aluated, using the initial condition that & P 366 at t P 6 to
gi(e P 36,666. Thus the Frst part of the ans2er, e8pressing the amount of salt present as a function
of time, is
&P
36 666 V @66t V 5t5
366 V t
The elapsed time necessary for & to e?ual 566 !g may "e e(aluated to gi(e t P >;.; min.
@.> $%&'RE
*n this chapter 2e ha(e considered the Frst of the fundamental la2s of Juid Jo2C
conser(ation of mass. The integral e8pression de(eloped for this case 2as seen to "e ?uite
general in its form and use.
&imilar integral e8pressions for conser(ation of energy and of momentum for a general
control (olume 2ill "e de(eloped and used in su"se?uent chapters. The student should no2
de(elop the ha"it of al2ays starting 2ith the applica"le integral e8pression and e(aluating
each term for a particular pro"lem. There 2ill "e a strong temptation simply to 2rite do2n an
e?uation 2ithout considering each term in detail. &uch temptations should "e o(ercome.
This approach may seem needlessly tedious at the outset, "ut it 2ill al2ays ensure a
complete analysis of a pro"lem and circum(ent any errors that may other2ise result from a
too=hasty consideration.
,R%-$EM&
@.3 The (elocity (ector in a t2o=dimensional Jo2 is gi(en "y
the e8pression ( P 36e8 V 98ey mNs 2hen 8 is measured in
meters. Determine the component of the (elocity that ma!es
a U>6 angle 2ith the 8 a8is at the point A5, 5B.
@.5 'sing the (elocity (ector of the pre(ious pro"lem, deter=
mine AaB the e?uation of the streamline passing through point
A5, 3BT A"B the (olume of Jo2 that crosses a plane surface
connecting points A3, 6B and A5, 5B.
@.> Water is Jo2ing through a large circular conduit 2ith a
(elocity proFle gi(en "y the e?uation ( P :A3 U r 5 N3;B fps.
What is the a(erage 2ater (elocity in the 3.5=ft pipea
r
>6g
@.@ Water enters a @=in. s?uare channel as sho2n at a (elocity
of 36 fps. The channel con(erges to a 5=in. s?uare conFguration
as sho2n at the discharge end. The outlet section is cut at >67 to
the (ertical as sho2n, "ut the mean (elocity of the discharging
2ater remains hori<ontal. Find the e8iting 2aterHs a(erage
(elocity and total rate of Jo2.
5 in
.
@ in.
5 in
.
7 ft
@ in
d N 3.5 ft
.
@6 hapter @ onser(ation of MassC ontrol=1olume +pproach
5 fps5. Determine the (elocity and acceleration of the smaller
piston.
5 fp
5 fp
s
@.5 Water enters one end of a perforated pipe 6.5 m in diameter
2ith a (elocity of ; mDs. The discharge through the pipe 2all is
appro8imated "y a linear proFle. *f the Jo2 is steady, Fnd the
discharge (elocity.
(
5
s5
d N @ in.
6.5 m
(
%il d N 6.5 in.
; mDs
(
5
@.: &ho2 that in a one=dimensional steady Jo2 the follo2ing
e?uation is (alidC
d+ d( dr
V VP6
+(r
@.36 'sing the sym"ol M for the mass in the control (olume,
sho2 that e?uation A@=;B may "e 2ritten
ff
YM
Vdm P 6h
YtcCsC
@.33 + shoc! 2a(e mo(es do2n a pipe as sho2n "elo2. The Juid
properties change across the shoc!, "ut they are not functions of
time. The (elocity of the shoc! is ( 2. Write the continuity e?uation
and o"tain the relation "et2een r5, r3, ( 5, and ( 2. The mass in the
control (olume at any time is M P r5 +8 V r3 +y. HintC 'se a
control (olume that is mo(ing to the right at (elocity, ( 2.
@.; The (elocities in a circular duct of 56=in. diameter 2ere
measured as follo2sC
Distance from
center Ain.B
6
>.3;
@.@5
5.@7
;.>>
9.69
1elocity
AfpsB
9.5
9.36
;.95
;.@5
;.35
5.73
Distance from
center Ain.B
9.95
7.>9
7.:@
:.@:
36.66
...
1elocity
AfpsB
5.@9
5.36
@.56
>.75
5.@6
...
&hoc!
r5
(5
(2
r3
(3 N 6
8 y
Find AaB the a(erage (elocityT A"B the Jo2 rate in cu"ic feet per
second.
@.9 &alt 2ater containing 3.:5 l"Dgal of salt Jo2s at a F8ed
rate of 5 galDmin into a 366=gal tan!, initially Flled 2ith fresh
2ater. The density of the incoming solution is 93.7 l"Dft>. The
solution, !ept uniform "y stirring, Jo2s out at a F8ed rate of
3:.5 l"Dmin.
Ho2 many pounds of salt 2ill there "e in the tan! at the
end of 3 h and @6 mina
A"B What is the upper limit for the num"er of pounds of
salt in the tan! if the process continues indeFnitelya
AcB Ho2 much time 2ill elapse 2hile the ?uantity of salt in the
tan! changes from 366 to 356 l"a
AaB
@.7 *n the piston and cylinder arrangement sho2n "elo2, the
large piston has a (elocity of 5 fps and an acceleration of
@.35 The (elocity proFle in circular pipe is gi(en "y ( P
( ma8 A3 U rNRB3N9 T 2here R is the radius of the pipe. Find the
a(erage (elocity in the pipe in terms of ( ma8.
@.3> *n the Fgure "elo2, the 8=direction (elocity proFles are
sho2n for a control (olume surrounding a cylinder. *f the Jo2 is
incompressi"le, 2hat must the rate of Jo2 "e across the hor=
i<ontal control=(olume surfacea
8
(8 N (6
;d
d
(6
(8 N (6
(6
,ro"lems
@.3@ T2o (ery long parallel plates of length 5$ are separated a
distance ". The upper plate mo(es do2n2ard at a constant rate 1.
+ Juid Flls the space "et2een the plates. Fluid is s?uee<ed out
"et2een the plates. Determine the mass Jo2 rate and ma8imum
(elocityC
AaB *f the e8it (elocity is uniform.
A"B *f the e8it (elocity is para"olic.
1
? m6
@3
during the stro!e. *f 2 is the "ello2s 2idth into the paper, deri(e
han e8pression for outlet mass Jo2 m6 as a function of
stro!e uAtB.
$
8
5$
@.35 + thin layer of li?uid, draining from an inclined plane,
has a (elocity proFle ( 8 b ( 6 A5yNh U y5 Nh5 BT 2here ( 6 is the
surface (elocity. *f the plane has 2idth 36 cm into the paper,
determine the (olume rate of Jo2 in the Flm. &uppose that h P 5
cm and the Jo2 rate is 5 $Dmin. Estimate ( 6.
y
@.37 Water Jo2s steadily through the piping Iunction, entering
section 3 at 6.663> m>Ds. The a(erage (elocity at section 5 is
5.3 mDs. + portion of the Jo2 is di(erted through the sho2erhead,
2hich contains 366 holes of 3=mm diameter. +ssuming uniform
sho2er Jo2, estimate the e8it (elocity from the sho2erhead Iets.
5 cm
3
3.5 cm
5
h
(8 @ cm
@.3: The Iet pump inIects 2ater at 13 P @6 mDs through a
9.; cm pipe and entrains a secondary Jo2 of 2ater 15 P > mDs in
the annular region around the small pipe. The t2o Jo2s "ecome
fully mi8ed do2nstream, 2here 1> is appro8imately constant.
For steady incompressi"le Jo2, compute 1>.
8
9.; cm
@.3; The 1=shaped tan! has 2idth 2 into the paper and is Flled
from the inlet pipe at (olume Jo2 .. Deri(e e8pressions for AaB
the rate of change dhDdt and A"B the time re?uired for the surface
to rise from h3 to h5.
55 cm
15
13 1>
h
56g 56g
.
@.39 + "ello2s may "e modeled as a deforming 2edge=shaped
(olume. The chec! (al(e on the left ApleatedB end is closed
@.56 + (ertical, cylindrical tan! closed at the "ottom is parti=
ally Flled 2ith an incompressi"le li?uid. + cylindrical rod of
diameter di Aless than tan! diameter, d6B is lo2ered into the li?uid
at a (elocity 1. Determine the a(erage (elocity of the Juid
escaping "et2een the rod and the tan! 2alls AaB relati(e to
the "ottom of the tan! and A"B relati(e to the ad(ancing rod.
@5 hapter @ onser(ation of MassC ontrol=1olume +pproach
@.5> +n incompressi"le Juid Jo2s past a Jat plate, as in the
Fgure "elo2, 2ith a uniform inlet proFle and a polynomial e8it
proFle

>h U h>y
(8 P (62here h P
d5
ompute the (olume Jo2 . across the top surface of the control
(olume. The plate has 2idth " into the paper.
y
(6
.
(6
@.53 The hypodermic needle sho2n "elo2 contains a li?uid
serum Ar P 3 gDcm>B. *f the serum is to "e inIected steadily at
; cm>Ds, ho2 fast should the plunger "e ad(anced AaB if lea!age in
the plunger clearance is neglected and A"B if lea!age is 36b of the
needle Jo2a
1
6.7 mm
5 cm
@.55 *ncompressi"le steady Jo2 in the inlet "et2een parallel
plates is uniform, 16 P 7 cmDs, 2hile do2nstream, the Jo2
de(elops into the para"olic proFle ( 8 P a<A<6 U <X, 2here a is a
constant. What is the ma8imum (alue of ( 8a
<
d
8
16 <6
8
@.5@ Re2or! ,ro"lem @.3@ if the plates are circular and ha(e
radius $.
hapter
5
/e2tonHs &econd $a2 of MotionC
The second of the fundamental physical la2s upon 2hich Juid=Jo2 analyses are
"ased is /e2tonHs second la2 of motion. &tarting 2ith /e2tonHs second la2, 2e shall
de(elop integral relations for linear and angular momentum. +pplications of these
e8pressions to physical situations 2ill "e considered.
5.3 */TE#R+$ RE$+T*%/ F%R $*/E+R M%ME/T'M
/e2tonHs second la2 of motion may "e stated as follo2sC
The time rate of change of momentum of a system is e?ual to the net force acting on
the system and ta!es place in the direction of the net force.
We note at the outset t2o (ery important parts of this statementC Frst, this la2 refers
to a speciFc system, and second, it includes direction as 2ell as magnitude and is therefore
a (ector e8pression. *n order to use this la2, it 2ill "e necessary to recast its statement
into a form applica"le to control (olume 2hich contains different Juid particles Ai.e., a
different systemB 2hen e8amined at different times.
*n Figure 5.3, o"ser(e the control (olume located in a Juid=Jo2 Feld. The system
considered is the material occupying the control (olume at time t, and its position is sho2n
"oth at time t and at time t V Dt.
Referring to the Fgure, 2e see that
Region * is occupied "y the system only at time t.
Region ** is occupied "y the system at t V Dt.
Region *** is common to the system "oth at t and at t V Dt.
-oundary of system
at time t
&treamlines
at time t
*
***
**
-oundary of system
at time t i Rt
&tationary control (olume
Figure 5.3 Relation "et2een
a system and a control (olume
in a Juid=Jo2 Feld.
@>
@@ hapter 5 /e2tonHs &econd $a2 of MotionC ontrol=1olume +pproach
Writing /e2tonHs second la2 for such a situation, 2e ha(e
dd
cF P Am(B P ,
dtdt
A5=3B
2here the sym"ols F, m, and ( ha(e their usual meanings and , represents the total linear
momentum of the system.
+t time t V Dt, the linear momentum of the system that no2 occupies regions ** and ***
may "e e8pressed as
,ItVDt P ,** ItVDt V ,*** ItVDt
and at time t 2e ha(e
,It P ,* It V ,*** It
&u"tracting the second of these e8pressions from the Frst and di(iding "y the time inter(al
Dt gi(es
,ItVDt U ,It ,** ItVDt V ,*** ItVDt U ,* It U ,*** It
P
DtDt
We may rearrange the right=hand side of this e8pression and ta!e the limit of the resulting
e?uation to get
,ItVDt U ,It,*** ItVDt U ,*** It,** ItVDt U ,* It
P limV lim
DtDtDtDtQ6DtQ6DtQ6
lim
,ItVDt U ,Itd
P ,
dtDtDtQ6
lim
2hich is the form speciFed in the statement of /e2tonHs second la2, e?uation A5=3B.
The Frst limit on the right=hand side of e?uation A5=5B may "e e(aluated as
,*** ItVDt U ,*** Itd
P ,***
dtDtDtQ6
lim
This 2e see to "e the rate of change of linear momentum of the control (olume itself, since,
as DtQ6, region *** "ecomes the control (olume.
The ne8t limiting process
,** ItVDt U ,* It
lim
DtDtQ6
e8presses the net rate of momentum efJu8 across the control surface during the time inter(al
Dt. +s Dt approaches <ero, regions * and ** "ecome coincident 2ith the control=(olume surface.
onsidering the physical meaning of each of the limits in e?uation A5=5B and /e2tonHs
second la2, e?uation A5=3B, 2e may 2rite the follo2ing 2ord e?uation for the conser(ation
of linear momentum 2ith respect to a control (olumeC

:7

: _: 7: 77rate of_

__ __ _ rate of_ sum of _ _ rate of

___ _ accumulation __ __ __

NN ]N ]N ]]

momentummomentumforces acting

V of momentumUP
_ on control _ _ out of control _ _ into control _ _

__ _ 2ithin control __ __ __

_T _T CT CC

__(olume(olume(olumeTC

(olumej
k<
l
net rate of momentum efflu8 from
control (olume
A5=>B
A5=5B
onsidering each of the limiting processes separately, 2e ha(e, for the left=hand side
5.3 *ntegral Relation for $inear Momentum @5
d+
?
n
(
&treamlines
at time t
Figure 5.5 Fluid Jo2 through a
control (olume.
We shall no2 apply e?uation A5=>B to a general control (olume located in a fluid=flo2
field as sho2n in Figure 5.5 and e(aluate the (arious terms.
The total force acting on the control (olume consists "oth of surface forces due to
interactions "et2een the control=(olume Juid, and its surroundings through direct contact,
and of "ody forces resulting from the location of the control (olume in a force Feld. The
gra(itational Feld and its resultant force are the most common e8amples of this latter type.
We 2ill designate the total force acting on the control (olume as cF.
*f the small area d+ on the control surface is considered, 2e may 2rite
rate of momentum efflu8 P (Ar(BAd+ cos uB
%"ser(e that the product Ar(BAd+ cos uB is the rate of mass efJu8 from the control (olume
through d+, as discussed in hapter @. Recall further that d+ cos u is the area, d+ proIected
in a direction normal to the (elocity (ector, (, 2here u is the angle "et2een ( and the
out2ardly directed normal (ector, n. We may then multiply the rate of mass efJu8 "y ( to
gi(e the rate of momentum efJu8 through d+. From (ector alge"ra this product may "e
2ritten as
The term in s?uare "rac!ets is the scalar or dot product, (C n and the momentum efJu8 term
"ecomes
r(A(C nB d+
(Ar(BAd+ cos uB P (Ar d+B\I(I InI cos u^
*ntegrating this ?uantity o(er the entire control surface, 2e ha(e
ff
(rA(C nB d+
cCsC
2hich is the net momentum efJu8 from the control (olume.
*n its integral form the momentum Ju8 term stated a"o(e includes the rate of
momentum entering the control (olume as 2ell as that lea(ing. *f mass is entering the
control (olume, the sign of the product (C n is negati(e, and the associated momentum Ju8 is
an input. on(ersely, a positi(e sign of the product (C n is associated 2ith a momentum
efJu8 from the control (olume. Thus, the Frst t2o terms on the right=hand side of e?uation
A5=>B may "e 2ritten
7: 7:
] rate of momentum N ] rate of momentum N f f
(rA(C nB d+out of controlUinto controlP
CT CTcCsC(olume(olume
@; hapter 5 /e2tonHs &econd $a2 of MotionC ontrol=1olume +pproach
The rate of accumulation of linear momentum 2ithin the control (olume may "e
e8pressed as
fff
Y
(r d1
YtcC(C
and the o(erall linear=momentum "alance for a control (olume "ecomes
fffff
Y(rA(C nB d+ Vr( d1cF P
YtcCsCcC(C
A5=@B
This e8tremely important relation is often referred to in Juid mechanics as the
momentum theorem. /ote the great similarity "et2een A5=@B and A@=3B in the form
of the integral termsT o"ser(e, ho2e(er, that e?uation A5=@B is a (ector e8pression
opposed to the scalar form of the o(erall mass "alance considered in hapter @. *n
rectangular coordinates the single=(ector e?uation, A5=@B, may "e 2ritten as three
scalar e?uations
fffff
Y
cF8 P( 8 rA(C nB d+ Vr( 8 d1A5=5aB
YtcCsCcC(C
fffff
Y( y rA(C nB d+ Vr( y d1A5=5"BcFy P
YtcCsCcC(C
fffff
Y( < rA(C nB d+ Vr( < d1A5=5cBcF< P
YtcCsCcC(C
When applying any or all of the a"o(e e?uations, it must "e remem"ered that each
term has a sign 2ith respect to the positi(ely deFned 8, y, and < directions. The
determination of the sign of the surface integral should "e considered 2ith special
care, as "oth the (elocity component A( 8B and the scalar product A(C nB ha(e signs. The
com"ination of the proper sign associated 2ith each of these terms 2ill gi(e the correct
sense to the integral. *t should also "e remem"ered that as e?uations A5=5aOcB are 2ritten
for the Juid in the control (olume, the forces to "e employed in these e?uations are those
acting on the Juid.
+ detailed study of the e8ample pro"lems to follo2 should aid in the understanding of,
and afford facility in using, the o(erall momentum "alance.
5.5 +,,$*+T*%/& %F THE */TE#R+$ EM,RE&&*%/
F%R $*/E+R M%ME/T'M
*n applying e?uation A5=@B, it is Frst necessary to deFne the control (olume that 2ill ma!e
possi"le the simplest and most direct solution to the pro"lem at hand. There are no general
rules to aid in this deFnition, "ut e8perience in handling pro"lems of this type 2ill ena"le
such a choice to "e made readily.
EM+M,$E 3 onsider Frst the pro"lem of Fnding the force e8erted on a reducing pipe "end resulting from a
steady Jo2 of Juid in it. + diagram of the pipe "end and the ?uantities signiFcant to its analysis are
sho2n in Figure 5.>.
The Frst step is the deFnition of the control (olume. %ne choice for the control (olume, of
the se(eral a(aila"le, is all Juid in the pipe at a gi(en time. The control (olume chosen in this
manner is designated in Figure 5.@, sho2ing the e8ternal forces imposed upon it. The e8ternal
5.5 +pplications of the *ntegral E8pression for $inear Momentum @9
3
(3
W
y
5
(5
8
?
Figure 5.> Flo2 in a reducing pipe "end.
forces imposed on the Juid include the pressure forces at sections A3B and A5B, the "ody force
due to the 2eight of Juid in the control (olume, and the forces due to pressure and shear stress, ,2
and t2, e8erted on the Juid "y the pipe 2all. The resultant force on the Juid Adue to ,2 and t2B "y
the pipe is sym"oli<ed as -, and its 8 and y components as -8 and -y , respecti(ely.
onsidering the 8= and y=directional component e?uations, A5=5aB and A5=5"B, of the o(erall
momentum "alance, the e8ternal forces acting on the Juid in the control (olume are
cF8 P ,3 +3 U ,5 +5 cos u V -8
and
cFy P ,5 +5 sin u U W V -y
Each component of the un!no2n force - is assumed to ha(e a positi(e sense. The actual signs for these
components, 2hen a solution is o"tained, 2ill indicate 2hether or not this assumption is correct.
E(aluating the surface integral in "oth the 8 and y directions, 2e ha(e
ff
( 8 rA(C nB d+ P A( 5 cos uBAr5 ( 5 +5 B V A( 3 BAUr3 ( 3 +3 B
ff
cCsC
cCsC
( y rA(C nB d+ P AU( 5 sin uBA p5 ( 5 +5 B
The accumulation term is <ero in "oth e?uations, as, for the pro"lem considered, Jo2 is steady.
,2
3
m2
,3
W
5
,2
m2
,5
?
Figure 5.@ ontrol
(olume deFned "y
pipe surface.
@7 hapter 5 /e2tonHs &econd $a2 of MotionC ontrol=1olume +pproach
The complete momentum e8pressions in the 8 and y directions are
-8 V ,3 +3 U ,5 +5 cos u P A( 5 cos uBAr5 ( 5 +5 B V ( 3 AUr3 ( 3 +3 B
and
-y V ,5 +5 sin u U W P WU( 5 sin uBAr5 ( 5 +5 B
&ol(ing for the un!no2n force components -8 and -y, 2e ha(e
-8 P ( 5 r5 +5 cos u U ( 5 r3 +3 U ,3 +3 V ,5 +5 cos u53
and
-y P U( 5 r5 +5 sin u U ,5 +5 sin u V W5
Recall that 2e 2ere to e(aluate the force e8erted on the pipe rather than that on the Juid.
The force sought is the reaction to - and has components e?ual in magnitude and opposite in
sense to -8 and -y. The components of the reaction force, R, e8erted on the pipe are
R8 P ( 5 r5 +5 cos u V ( 5 r3 +3 V ,3 +3 U ,5 +5 cos u53
and
Ry P ( 5 r5 +5 sin u V ,5 +5 sin u U W5
&ome simpliFcation in form may "e achie(ed if the Jo2 is steady. +pplying e?uation A@=>B, 2e
ha(e
hr3 ( 3 +3 P r5 ( 5 +5
P m
h2here m is the mass Jo2 rate.
The Fnal solution for the components of R may no2 "e 2ritten as
hR8 P mA( 3 U ( 5 cos uB V ,3 +3 U ,5 +5 cos u
Ry P m( 5 sin u V ,5 +5 sin u U Wh
The control (olume sho2n in Figure 5.@ for 2hich the a"o(e solution 2as o"tained
represents only possi"le choice. +nother is depicted in Figure 5.5. This control (olume is
"ounded simply "y the straight planes cutting through the pipe at sections A3B and A5B. The fact
that a control (olume such as this can "e used indicates the (ersatility of this approach, that is,
that the results of complicated processes occurring internally may "e analy<ed ?uite simply "y
considering only those ?uantities of transfer across the control surface.
3
-y
,3
W
-8
5
,5
Figure 5.5 ontrol
(olume including Juid
and pipe.
5.5 +pplications of the *ntegral E8pression for $inear Momentum @:
For this control (olume, the 8= and y=directional momentum e?uations are
-8 V ,3 +3 U ,5 +5 cos u P A( 5 cos uBAr5 ( 5 +5 B V ( 3 AU( 3 r3 +3 B
and
-y V ,5 +5 sin u U W P AU( 5 sin uBAr5 ( 5 +5 B
2here the force ha(ing components -8 and -y is that e8erted on the control (olume "y the section
of pipe cut through at sections A3B and A5B. The pressures at A3B and A5B in the a"o(e e?uations are
gage pressures, as the atmospheric pressures acting on all surfaces cancel.
/ote that the resulting e?uations for this control (olume are identical to those o"tained for
the one deFned pre(iously. Thus, a correct solution may "e o"tained for each of se(eral chosen
control (olumes so long as they are analy<ed carefully and completely.
EM+M,$E 5 +s our second e8ample of the application of the control=(olume e8pression for linear momentum
Athe momentum theoremB, consider the steam locomoti(e tender schematically illustrated in
Figure 5.;, 2hich o"tains 2ater from a trough "y means of a scoop. The force on the train due
to the 2ater is to "e o"tained.
(6
h
Figure 5.; &chematic of
locomoti(e tender
scooping 2ater from a
trough.
The logical choice for a control (olume in this case is the 2ater=tan!Dscoop com"ination. %ur
control=(olume "oundary 2ill "e selected as the interior of the tan! and scoop. +s the train is mo(ing
2ith a uniform (elocity, there are t2o possi"le choices of coordinate systems. We may select a
coordinate system either F8ed in space or mo(ing3 2ith the (elocity of the train, ( 6. $et us Frst
analy<e the system "y using a mo(ing coordinate system.
The mo(ing control (olume is sho2n in Figure 5.9 2ith the 8y coordinate system mo(ing at
(elocity (6. +ll (elocities are determined 2ith respect to the 8 and y a8es.
y
F8
h
(6
8 Figure 5.9 Mo(ing coordinate system
and control (olume.
3
Recall that a uniformly translating coordinate system is an inertial coordinate system, hence /e2tonHs
second la2 and the momentum theorem may "e employed directly.
56 hapter 5 /e2tonHs &econd $a2 of MotionC ontrol=1olume +pproach
The applica"le e8pression is e?uation A5=5aB
ff
cF8 P
Y( 8 rA(C nB d+ V
YtcCsC
fff
( 8 r d1
cC(C
*n Figure 5.9, cF8 is represented as F8 and is sho2n in the positi(e sense. +s the forces due to
pressure and shear are to "e neglected, F8 is the total force e8erted on the Juid "y the train and scoop.
The momentum Ju8 term is
ff
( 8 r A(C nB d+ P rAU( 6 BAU3BA( 6 BWhX Aper unit lengthB
cCsC
and the rate of change of momentum 2ithin the control (olume is <ero, as the Juid in the control
(olume has <ero (elocity in the 8 direction.
Thus,
F8 P r( 5 h6
This is the force e8erted "y the train on the Juid. The force e8erted "y the Juid on the train is the
opposite of this, or Ur( 5 h.6
/o2 let us consider the same pro"lem 2ith a stationary coordinate system Asee Figure 5.7B.
Employing once again the control=(olume relation for linear momentum
fffff
Y
cF8 P( 8 rA(C nB d+ V( 8 r d1
YtcCsCcC(C
2e o"tain
Y
F8 P 6 V
Yt
fff
( 8 r d1
cC(C
2here the momentum Ju8 is <ero, as the entering Juid has <ero (elocity. There is, of course, no JuidRRR
lea(ing the controlRRR
(olume. The terms YNYtcC(C ( 8 r d1, as the (elocity, ( 8 P ( 6 P constant, may "e
2ritten as ( 6 YNYthcC(C r d1 or ( 6 AYmNYtB, 2here m is the mass of Juid entering the control (olume
at the rate YmNYt P r( 6 h so that F8 P r( 5 h as "efore.6
y
F8
h
8
(6
Figure 5.7 &tationary
coordinate system and
mo(ing control (olume.
The student should note that, in the case of a stationary coordinate system and a mo(ing control
(olume, care must "e e8ercised in the interpretation of the momentum Ju8
ff
(rA(C nB d+
cCsC
Regrouping the terms, 2e o"tain
ff
cCsC
(rW(C nX d+
ff
h(d m
cCsC
Thus, it is o"(ious that 2hile ( is the (elocity relati(e to F8ed coordinates, (C n is the (elocity relati(e
to the control=(olume "oundary.
5.5
EM+M,$E >
+pplications of the *ntegral E8pression for $inear Momentum 53
+ Iet of Juid e8its a no<<le and stri!es a
(ertical plane surface as sho2n in Figure 5.:.
AaB Determine the force re?uired to hole
the plate stationary if the Iet is
composed of
i. 2ater
ii. air.
A"B Determine the magnitude of the rest
the restraining force for a 2ater Iet
2hen the plate is mo(ing to the right
2ith a uniform (elocity of @ mDs.
Figure 5.: + Juid Iet stri!ing a (ertical plate.
The control (olume to "e used in this analysis is sho2n Figure 5.36.
The coordinates are F8ed 2ith the control (olume
2hich, for parts AaB and A"B of this e8ample, is stationary.
Writing the 8=directional scalar form of the momen=
tum theroem, 2e ha(e
ff
cF8 P
cCsC
,late
+I N 6.665 m5
F
1I N 35 mDs
5
.1.
.
8
Y( 8 rA(C nB d+ V
fff
( 8 r d(
cC(C
y
3
F
Yt
E(aluation of each term in this e8pression yields
ff
cCsC
cF8 P UF
( 8 rA(C nB d+ P ( I rAU( I + I B
>
Y
Yt
fff
( 8 r d( P 6
cC(C
Figure 5.36 ontrol (olume for
E8ample >.
and the go(erning e?uation is
F P r+ I ( 5I
We may no2 introduce the appropriate numerical (alues and sol(e for F. For case AaB
AiB r2 P 3666 !gDm>
F P A3666 !gDm> BA6C665 m5 BA35 mDsB5
P 956 /
AiiB r2 P 3C56; !gDm>
F P A3C56; !gDm> BA6C665 m5 BA35 mDsB5
P 6C7;7 /
For case A"B, the same control (olume 2ill "e used. *n this case, ho2e(er, the control (olume and the
coordinate system are mo(ing to the right at a (elocity of @ mDs. from the perspecti(e of an o"ser(er
mo(ing the control (olume, the (elocity of the incoming 2ater Iet is A( I U ( 6 B P 7 mDs.
The 8=directional component form of the momemtum theorem 2ill yield the e8pression
F P r + I A( I U ( 6 B5
&u"stitution of appropriate numerical (alues yields
F P A3666 !gDm> BA6C665 m5 BA35 U @ mDsX5
P >56 /
5.> */TE#R+$ RE$+T*%/ F%R M%ME/T %F M%ME/T'M
The integral relation for the moment of momentum of a control (olume is an e8tension
of the considerations Iust made for linear momentum.
&tarting 2ith e?uation A5=3B, 2hich is a mathematical e8pression of /e2tonHs second
la2 of motion applied to a system of particles AFigure 5.33B
cF P
dd
Am(B P ,
dtdt
A5=3B
y
m(
r
nF
8
<
Figure 5.33 + system and its
displacement (ector r.
2e ta!e the (ector or GGcrossHH product of a position (ector, r, 2ith each term and get
r ` cF P r `
dd
Am(B P r ` ,
dtdt
A5=;B
The ?uantity on the left=hand side of e?uation A5=;B, r ` &F, is the resultant moment, cM,
a"out the origin as sho2n in Figure 5.33, due to all forces applied to the system. learly, 2e
may 2rite
r ` cF P cr ` F P cM
2here cM is, again, the total moment a"out the origin of all forces acting on the
system.
The right=hand side of e?uation A5=;B is the moment of the time rate of change of linear
momentum. This 2e can 2rite as
dddd
m( P Ar ` m(B P Ar ` ,B P H
dtdtdtdt
Thus, this term is also the time rate of change of the moment of momentum of the sys=
tem. We shall use the sym"ol H to designate moment of momentum. The complete
e8pression is no2
r`
cM P
d
H
dt
A5=9B
+s 2ith its analogous e8pression for linear momentum, e?uation A5=3B, e?uation A5=9B
applies to a speciFc system. -y the same limit process as that used for linear momentum,
5.@ +pplications to ,umps and Tur"ines 5>
2e may recast this e8pression into a form applica"le to a control (olume and achie(e a
2ord e?uation

:7

rate of__
:: 77__

: _ accumulation _7__rate ofsum of _ _____

__ __ __rate of__ _
_ __ __

__ _ of moment __ moments _ _ moment of _ ]NN ]NN ]]

moment of

V of momenUUmomentumacting on P
_

__ __ __ __ control _ _ out of control _ _ momentum into _ _ tum 2ithin __T __ C_ __

____ __control (olume_TT CC

__ control ___(olume(olume_

TCj
k<
l _

(olume
net rate of efflu8 of moment of
momentum from control (olume
A5=7B
E?uation A5=7B may "e applied to a general control (olume to yield the follo2ing
e?uationC
fffff
Y
cM PAr ` (BrA(C nB d+ VAr ` (Br d1A5=:B
YtcCsCcC(C
The term on the left=hand side of e?uation A5=:B is the total moment of all forces acting on
the control (olume. The terms on the right=hand side represent the net rate of efJu8 of
moment of momentum through the control surface and the rate of accumulation of
moment of momentum 2ithin the control (olume, respecti(ely.
This single=(ector e?uation may "e e8pressed as three scalar e?uations for the
orthogonal inertial coordinate directions 8, y, and < as
ff
cM8 P
ff
cMy P
and
ff
cM< P
YAr ` (B< rA(C nB d+
V
YtcCsC
fff
Ar ` (B< r d1
cC(C
YAr ` (B8 rA(C nB d+
V
YtcCsC
fff
Ar ` (B8 r d1
fff
cC(C
A5=36aB
A5=36"B
YAr ` (By rA(C nB d+
V
YtcCsC
Ar ` (By r d1
cC(C
A5=36cB
The directions associated 2ith M8 and Ar ` (B are those considered in mechanics
in 2hich the right=hand rule is used to determine the orientation of ?uantities ha(ing
rotational sense.
5.@ +,,$*+T*%/& T% ,'M,& +/D T'R-*/E&
The moment=of=momentum e8pression is particularly applica"le to t2o types of de(ices,
generally classiFed as pumps and tur"ines. We shall, in this section, consider those ha(ing
rotary motion only. *f energy is deri(ed from a Juid acting on a rotating de(ice, it is
designated a tur"ine, 2hereas a pump adds energy to a Juid. The rotating part of a tur"ine is
called a runner and that of a pump an impeller.
The follo2ing t2o e8amples illustrate ho2 moment=of=momentum analysis is used to
generate e8pressions for e(aluating tur"ine performance. &imilar approaches 2ill "e used in
hapter 3@ to e(aluate operating characteristics of fans and pumps.
5@ hapter 5 /e2tonHs &econd $a2 of MotionC ontrol=1olume +pproach
$et us Frst direct our attention to a type of tur"ine !no2n as the ,elton 2heel. &uch a de(ice is
represented in Figure 5.35. *n this tur"ine, a Iet of Juid, usually 2ater, is directed from a no<<le
stri!ing a system of "uc!ets on the periphery of the runner. The "uc!ets are shaped so that the 2ater is
di(erted in such a 2ay as to e8ert a force on the runner 2hich 2ill, in turn, cause rotation. 'sing the
moment=of=momentum relation, 2e may determine the tor?ue resulting from such a situation.
EM+M,$E @
2
(6
2or
-ottom (ie2 of "uc!et
Figure 5.35 ,elton 2heel.
y
,at
8
(6 Figure 5.3> ontrol (olume for
analysis of ,elton 2heel.
We must initially deFne our control (olume. The dashed lines in Figure 5.3> illustrates the
control (olume chosen. *t encloses the entire runner and cuts the Iet of 2ater 2ith (elocity (6 as
sho2n. The control surface also cuts through the shaft on "oth sides of the runner.
The applica"le scalar form of the general moment=of=momentum e8pression is e?ua=
tion A5=36cB 2ritten for the < direction. +ll rotation is in the 8y plane, andKaccording to the
right=hand ruleKthe (ector representation of a ?uantity ha(ing angular motion, or a tendency
to produce angular motion, has a sense normal to the 8y plane, that is, the < direction. Recall
that a positi(e angular sense is that conforming to the direction in 2hich the thum" on the right
hand 2ill point 2hen the Fngers of the right hand are aligned 2ith the direction of counter=
cloc!2ise angular motion.
ff
cM< P
YAr ` (B< rA(C nB d+ V
YtcCsC
fff
r Ar ` (B< d1
cC(C
E(aluating each term separately, 2e ha(e, for the e8ternal moment
cM< P Mshaft
5.@ +pplications to ,umps and Tur"ines 55
2here Mshaft, the moment applied to the runner "y the shaft, is the only such moment acting on
the control (olume.
The surface integral
ff
Ar ` (B< rA(C nB d+
cCsC
is the net rate of efJu8 of moment of momentum. The Juid lea(ing the control (olume is illustrated
in Figure 5.3@. The 8=direction component of the Juid lea(ing the control (olume is
fr( U A( 6 U r(B cos uge8
Tur"ine "uc!et
y
/o<<le
(6
(6 O 2 o r
?
2or
8
Figure 5.3@ 1elocity
(ectors for tur"ine "uc!et.
Here it is assumed that the < components of the (elocity are e?ual and opposite. The lea(ing (elocity
is the (ector sum of the (elocity of the tur"ine "uc!et, r(, and that of the e8iting Juid relati(e to the
"uc!et and lea(ing at an angle u to the direction of motion of the "uc!et, A( 6 U r(B cos u. These
(elocity (ectors are sho2n in the Fgure. The Fnal e8pression for the surface integral is no2
ff
cCsC
Ar ` (B< rA(C nB d+ P r\r( U A( 6 U r(B cos u^r. U r( 6 r.
The last term, r( 6r., is the moment of momentum of the incoming Juid stream of (elocity ( 6 and
density r, 2ith a (olumetric Jo2 rate ..
+s the pro"lem under consideration is one in 2hich the angular (elocity, (, of the 2heel is
constant, the term e8pressing the time deri(ati(e of moment of momentum of the control (olume,RRR
YDYtcC(C Ar ` (B< r d1 P 6. Replacing each term in the complete e8pression "y its e?ui(alent, 2e
ha(e
fffff
C nB d+ V YcM< P Mshaft PAr ` (B< r A(rAr ` (B< d1
YtcCsCcC(C
P r\r( U A( 6 U r(B cos u^r. U r( 6 r. P UrA( 6 U r(BA3 V cos uBr.
The tor?ue applied to the shaft is e?ual in magnitude and opposite in sense to Mshaft. Thus our Fnal
result is
Tor?ue P UMshaft P rA( 6 U r(BA3 V cos uBr.
5; hapter 5 /e2tonHs &econd $a2 of MotionC ontrol=1olume +pproach
The radial=Jo2 tur"ine illustrated in
Figure 5.35 may "e analy<ed 2ith the aid of
the moment=of=momentum e8pression. *n
this de(ice, the Juid Ausually 2aterB enters
the guide (anes, 2hich impart a tangential
(elocity and hence angular momentum to
the Juid "efore it enters the re(ol(ing
runner 2hich reduces the angular momen=
tum of the Juid 2hile deli(ering tor?ue to
the runner.
The control (olume to "e used is
illustrated "elo2 in Figure 5.3;. The outer
"oundary of the control (olume is at radius
r3, and the inner "oundary is at r5. The
2idth of the runner is h.
We 2ill use e?uation A5=:B in order to
determine the tor?ue. For steady Jo2 this
e?uation "ecomes
ff
cM P
cCsC
EM+M,$E 5
Figure 5.35 Radial=Jo2 tur"ine.
2
h
r3
r5
a
(3
Ar ` (BrA(C nB d+
y
E(aluating each term separately, 2e ha(e,
for the e8ternal moment of the runner on
the Juid
cM P Mfluid e< P UTe<
8
2here T is the shaft tor?ue. The surface
integral re?uires the e(aluation of the (ector product Ar ` (B at the outer "oundary r3 and at the inner
"oundary r5. *f 2e e8press the (elocity of the 2ater in polar coordinates ( P ( r er V ( u eu , so that
Ar ` (B P rer ` A( r er V ( u eu B P r( u e< . Thus the surface integral, assuming uniform (elocity dis=
tri"ution, is gi(en "y
ff
Ar ` (BrA(C nB d+ P fr3 ( u3 rAU( r3 B 5pr3 h V r5 ( u5 r( r5 5pr5 hge<
cCsC
Figure 5.3; Radial=Jo2 tur"ine=runner control
(olume.
The general result is
U[55UTe< P Ur( r3 ( u3 5pr3 h V r( r5 ( u5 5pr5 h e<
The la2 of conser(ation of mass may "e used
hr( r3 5pr3 h P m P r( r5 5pr5 h
so that the tor?ue is gi(en "y
T P mAr3 ( u3 U r5 ( u5 Bh
The (elocity at r3 is seen from Figures 5.35 and 5.3; to "e determined "y the Jo2 rate
and the guide (ane angle a. The (elocity at r5, ho2e(er, re?uires !no2ledge of Jo2 conditions
on the runner.
The (elocity at r 5 may "e determined "y the follo2ing analysis. *n Figure 5.39, the Jo2
conditions at the outlet of the runner are s!etched. The (elocity of the 2ater ( 5 is the (ector
6
sum of the (elocity 2ith respect to the runner ( 5 and the runner (elocity r 5 (.
,ro"lems
The (elocity ( u5 , the tangential (elocity of the
2ater lea(ing the runner, is gi(en "y
( u5 P r5 ( U ( 6 sin"6
2here " is the "lade angle as sho2n. The Juid is
assumed to Jo2 in the same direction as the "lade. The
radial component of the Jo2 may "e determined from
conser(ation of mass
hm( r5 P ( 6 cos " P5
5prr5 h
Thus,
Q
hm tan "
T P m r3 ( u 3 U r5 r5 ( Uh
5prr5 h
r5 2
2
59
(5
p(5
"
Figure 5.39 1elocity at runner e8it
Aonly one "lade is sho2nB.
*n practice, the guide (anes are adIusta"le to
ma!e the relati(e (elocity at the runner entrance
tangent to the "lades.
5.5 $%&'RE
*n this chapter, the "asic relation in(ol(ed has "een /e2tonHs second la2 of motion. This
la2, as 2ritten for a system, 2as recast so that it could apply to a control (olume. The result
of a consideration of a general control (olume led to the integral e?uations for linear
momentum, e?uation A5=@B, and moment of momentum, e?uation A5=:B. E?uation A5=@B
is often referred to as the momentum theorem of Juid mechanics. This e?uation is one of
the most po2erful and often=used e8pressions in this Feld.
The student is again urged to start al2ays 2ith the complete integral e8pression 2hen
2or!ing a pro"lem. + term="y=term analysis from this "asis 2ill allo2 a correct solution,
2hereas in a hasty consideration certain terms might "e e(aluated incorrectly or neglected
completely. +s a Fnal remar!, it should "e noted that the momentum theorem e8pression, as
de(eloped, applies to an inertial control (olume only.
,R%-$EM&
5.3 + t2o=dimensional o"Iect is placed in a @=ft=2ide 2ater
tunnel as sho2n. The upstream (elocity, ( 3 , is uniform across the
cross section. For the do2nstream (elocity proFle as sho2n, Fnd
the (alue of ( 5 .
5.5 *f, in the system for ,ro"lem 5.3, the total drag on the
o"Iect is measured to "e 766 /Dm of length normal to
the direction of Jo2, and frictional forces at the 2alls are
neglected, Fnd the pressure difference "et2een inlet and outlet
sections.
5.> Re2or! ,ro"lem 5.3 if the e8it (elocity proFle is gi(en "y
py
( P ( 5 3 U cos
@
2hen y is measure (ertically from the center line of the 2ater
tunnel.
(3 N 56 fps
(5
5 ft @ ft
5.@ + stationary Iet engine is sho2n. +ir 2ith a density
of 6.6765 l"mDft> enters as sho2n. The inlet and outlet
5.: + 2ater Iet pump has an area + I P 6C6; ft5 and a Iet
(elocity ( I P :6 fps, 2hich entrains a secondary stream of 2ater
ha(ing a (elocity ( s P 36 fps in a constant=area pipe of total
area + P 6.; ft5. +t section 5, the 2ater is thoroughly mi8ed.
+ssuming one=dimensional Jo2 and neglecting 2all shear
AaB Fnd the a(erage (elocity of mi8ed Jo2 at section 5T
A"B Fnd the pressure rise W,5 U ,3 X, assuming the pressure of
the Iet and secondary stream to "e the same at section 3.
+I
3
(s
5
cross=sectional areas are "oth 36.7 ft5. The mass of fuel
consumed is 5b of the mass of air entering the test section.
For these conditions, calculate the thurst de(eloped "y the
engine tested.
(3
>66 fps
(5
:66 fps
Fuel
5.5
Determine the magnitude of the 8 and y components of the
force e8erted on the F8ed "lade sho2n "y a >=ft>Ds Iet of
2ater Jo2ing at 55 fps.
A"B *f the "lade is mo(ing to the right at 35 fps, Fnd the
magnitude and (elocity of the 2ater Iet lea(ing the "lade.
AaB
55 fps
>6g
(I
(5
5.36 *f the plate sho2n is inclined at an angle as sho2n, 2hat
are the forces F8 and Fy necessary to maintain its positiona The
Jo2 is frictionless.
@
5.; The pump in the "oat sho2n pumps ; ft>Ds of 2ater through
a su"merged 2ater passage, 2hich has an area of 6.55 ft5 at the "o2
of the "oat and 6.35 ft5 at the stern. Determine the tension in the res=
training rope, assuming that the inlet and e8it pressures are e?ual.
( N 366 fps
m N 5 slugsDs
Fy
q
>
F8
>6g
5.33 + steady, incompressi"le, frictionless, t2o=dimensional
Iet of Juid 2ith "readth h, (elocity (, and unit 2idth impringes
on a Jat plate held at an angle a to its a8is. #ra(itational forces
are to "e neglected.
AaB Determine the total forceon the plate, and the "readths
a, ", of the t2o "ranches.
A"B Determine the distance 3 to the center of pressure Ac.p.B
along the plate from the point 6. AThe center of pressure is
the point at 2hich the plate can "e "alanced 2ithout
re?uiring an additional moment.B
,ump
5.9 %il Asp. gr. P 6.7B Jo2s smoothly through the circular
reducing section sho2n at > ft>Ds. *f the entering and lea(ing
(elocity proFles are uniform, estimate the force 2hich must "e
applied to the reducer to hold it in place.
3
5
1
h
, N 56 psig
D N 35 in.
, N 5 psig
D N 5.5 in.
5.7 +t the end of a 2ater pipe of >=in. diameter is a no<<le
that discharges a Iet ha(ing a diameter of 3\ in. into the open
atmosphere. The pressure in the pipe is ;6 psig Apounds per
s?uare inch gageB, and the rate of discharge is @66 galDmin. What
are the magnitude and direction of the force necessary to hold the
no<<le to the pipea
a
6
l
a
"
,ro"lems
5.35 + plate mo(es perpendicularly to2ard a discharging Iet
at the rate of 5 fps. The Iet discharges 2ater at the rate of > ft>Ds
and a speed of >6 fps. Find the force of the Juid on the plate and
compare it 2ith 2hat it 2ould "e if the plate 2ere stationary.
+ssume frictionless Jo2.
5.3> The shoc! 2a(e illustrated "elo2 is mo(ing to the right at
( 2 fps. The properties in front and in "ac! of the shoc! are not a
function of time. -y using the illustrated control (olume, sho2
that the pressure difference across the shoc! is
,5 U ,3 P r3 ( 2 ( 5
5:
5, the diameter is 6.>7 m and the pressure is 3@5 !,a gage.
Determine the forces F8 and F< necessary to hold the pipe "end
stationary.
8
<
5
>6g
3
,5
r5
(5
(2
,3
r3
(3 N 6
5.39 The roc!et no<<le sho2n "elo2 consists of three
2elded sections. Determine the a8ial stress at Iunctions 3
and 5 2hen the roc!et is operating at sea le(el. The mass Jo2
rate is 996 l"mDs.
3 5
Welds
> Thic!ness N >D7 in.
8 y
5.3@ *f the shoc!=2a(e (elocity in ,ro"lem 5.3> is appro8i=
mated "y the speed of sound, deterine the pressure change
causing a (elocity change of 36 fps in
AaB air at standard conditionsT
A"B 2ater.
5.35 onsider the differential control (olume sho2n "elo2. -y
applying the conser(ation of mass and the momentum theorem,
sho2 that
d, V r( d( V g dy P 6
(
D
,
:66 fps >@66 fps
37 in.35 in.
::6 psia 5>6 psia
;966 fps
5@ in.
5; psia
5.37 The pressure on the control (olume illustrated "elo2 is
constant. The 8 components of (elocity are as illustrated. Deter=
mine the force e8erted on the cylinder "y the Juid. +ssume
incompressi"le Jo2.
(8 N (6
5
,5, r5
(5, +5
(6
;d
d
(6
Rs
3
Ry
(8 N (6
,3, r3
(3, +3
5.3: Water Jo2s in a pipe at > mDs. + (al(e at the end of the
pipe is suddenly closed. Determine the pressure rise in the
pipe.
5.56 + dam discharge into a channel of constant 2idth as
sho2n. *t is o"ser(ed that a region of still 2ater "ac!s up "ehind
the Iet to a height H. The (elocity and height of the Jo2 in the
channel are gi(en as ( and h, respecti(ely, and the density of
5.3; Water Jo2s steadily through the hori<ontal >67 pipe
"end sho2n "elo2. +t station 3, the diameter is 6.> m, the
(elocity is 35 mDs, and the pressure is 357 !,a gage. +t station
;6 hapter 5 /e2tonHs &econd $a2 of MotionC ontrol=1olume +pproach
is h P 57 cm, estimate the total force resisted "y the Jange
"olts.
3
5
Water
13
the 2ater is r. 'sing the momentum theroem and the control
surface indicted, determine H. /eglect the hori<ontal momen=
tum of the Jo2 that is entering the control (olume from a"o(e
and assume friction to "e negligi"le. The aire pressure in the
ca(ity "elo2 the crest of falling 2ater is to "e ta!en as atmo=
spheric.
h
H
h (
Hg
5.53 + li?uid of density r Jo2s through a sluice gate as sho2n.
The upstream and do2nstream Jo2s are uniform and parallel, so
that the pressure (ariations at stations 3 and 5 may "e considered
hydrostatic.
AaB Determine the (elocity at station 5.
A"B Determine the force per unit 2idth, R, necessary to hold
the sluice gate in place.
, N ,atm
R
h 13
, N ,atm
$
3 5
15
5.5@ +n open tan! car as sho2n tra(els to the right at a
uniform (elocity of @.5 mDs. +t the instant sho2n the car passes
under a Iet of 2ater issuing from a stationary 6.3=m=diameter
pipe 2ith a (elocity of 56 mDs. What force is e8erted on the
tan! "y the 2ater Ieta
@5g
@.5 mDs
5.55 +s can often "e seen in a !itchen sin! 2hen the faucet is
running, a high=speed channel Jo2 A( 3 , h3B may GGIumpHH to a
lo2=speed, lo2=energy condition A( 5 , h5B. The pressure at sec=
tions 3 and 5 is appro8imately hydrostatic, and 2all friction is
negligi"le. 'se the continuity and momentum relations to Fnd h5
and ( 5 in terms of Ah3, ( 3 B.
5.55 +n open tan! $ ft long as sho2n "elo2 tra(els to the right
at a (elocity ( c fps. + Iet of area +I e8hausts Juid of density r at a
(elocity ( I fps relati(e to the car. The tan! car, at the same time,
collects Juids from an o(erhead sprin!ler 2hich directs Juid
do2n2ard 2ith (elocity ( s. +ssuming that the sprin!ler Jo2 is
uniform o(er the car area, +c, determine the net force of the Juid
on the tan! car.
h5
13 h3
15
(s
(I
+I
$
(c
5.5> For the pipe=Jo2=reducing section D3 P 7 cm, D5 P
5 cm, and p5 P 3 atm. *f ( 3 P 5 mDs and the manometer reading
,ro"lems
5.5; + li?uid column of height h is conFned in a (ertical tu"e
of cross=sectional area + "y a stopper. +t t P 6, the stopper is
suddenly remo(ed, e8posing the "ottom of the li?uid to atmo=
spheric pressure. 'sing a control=(olume analysis of mass and
(ertical momentum, deri(e the differential e?uation for the
do2n2ard motion (AtB of the li?uid. +ssume one=dimensional,
incompressi"le, frictionless Jo2.
;3
lea(es at 56 fps, 2hat tor?ue 2ould "e necessary to hold the
sprin!ler in placea
>6g
35 in.
1AtB
hAtB
5.59 &ea 2ater, r P ;@ l"mDft>, Jo2s through the impeller of
a centrifugal pump at the rate of 766 galDmin. Determine the
tor?ue e8erted on the impeller "y the Juid and the po2er
re?uired to dri(e the pump. +ssume that the a"solute (elocity
of the 2ater entering the impeller is radial. The dimensions are
as follo2sC
( P 3376 rpm t5 P 6C; inC
u5 P 3>5r3 P 5 inC
r5 P 7 inCt3 P 6C7 inC
t3
t5
?5
5.>6 + la2n sprin!ler consists of t2o sections of cur(ed
pipe rotating a"out a (ertical a8is as sho2n. The sprin!ler
rotates 2ith an angular (elocity (, and the effecti(e discharge
area is +, thus the 2ater is discharged at a rate . P 5(yr +,
2here (r is the (elocity of the 2ater relati(e to the rotating
pipe. + constant friction tor?ue Mf resists the motion of the
sprin!ler. Find an e8pression for the speed of the sprin!ler in
terms of the signiFcant (aria"les.
2
(r
R
a
r5
r3
?3
5.>3 The pipe sho2n "elo2 has a slit of thic!ness 3D@ in. so
shaped that a sheet of 2ater of uniform thic!ness 3D@ in. issues
out radially from the pipe. The (elocity is constant along the pipe
as sho2n and a Jo2 rate of 7 ft>Ds enters at the top. Find the
moment on the tu"e a"out the a8is -- from the Jo2 of 2ater
inside the pipe system.
-
+ N @ in.5
-
> ft
2
; ft
5.57 *n ,ro"lem 5.59 determine
AaB the angle u3 such that the entering Jo2 is parallel to the
(anesT
A"B the a8ial load on the shaft if the shaft diameter is 3 in. and
the pressure at the pump inlet is atmospheric.
5.5: + 2ater sprin!ler consists of t2o 3D5=in. diameter Iets
at the ends of a rotating hollo2 rod as sho2n. *f the 2ater
5.>5 Water Jo2s at >6 galDmin through the 6.95=in.=diameter
dou"le=pipe "end. The pressures are p3 P >6 l"fDin.5 and
;5 hapter 5 /e2tonHs &econd $a2 of MotionC ontrol=1olume +pproach
AaB +ssume that the (ane is mounted on rails as sho2n in the
s!etch. &ho2 that the po2er transmitted to the cart is
ma8imum 2hen ( c D( P 3D>
A"B +ssuming that the are a large num"er of such (anes attached
to a rotating 2heel 2ith peripheral speed, ( c , sho2 that the
po2er transmitted is ma8imum 2hen ( c D( P 3D5.
p5 P 5@ l"fDin.5. ompute the tor?ue T at point - necessary to
!eep the pipe from rotating.
-
3
56g
> ft
?
5
(
(c
5.>> The illustration "elo2 sho2s a (ane 2ith a turning
angle u 2hich mo(es 2ith a steady speed ( c . The (ane recei(es
a Iet that lea(es a F8ed no<<le 2ith speed (.
hapter
;
onser(ation of EnergyC
The third fundamental la2 to "e applied to Juid=Jo2 analyses is the Frst la2 of
thermodynamics. +n integral e8pression for the conser(ation of energy applied to a
control (olume 2ill "e de(eloped from the Frst la2 of thermodynamics, and e8amples
of the application of the integral e8pression 2ill "e sho2n.
;.3 */TE#R+$ RE$+T*%/ F%R THE %/&ER1+T*%/ %F E/ER#E
The Frst la2 of thermodynamics may "e stated as follo2sC
*f a system is carried through a cycle, the total heat added to the system from its
surroundings is proportional to the 2or! done "y the system on its surroundings.
/ote that this la2 is 2ritten for a speciFc group of particlesKthose comprising the
deFned system. The procedure 2ill then "e similar to that used in hapter 5, that is,
recasting this statement into a form applica"le to a control (olume 2hich contains
different Juid particles at different times. The statement of the Frst la2 of thermo=
dynamics in(ol(es only scalar ?uantities ho2e(er, and thus, unli!e the momentum
e?uations considered in hapter 5, the e?uations resulting from the Frst la2 of thermo=
dynamics 2ill "e scalar in form.
The statement of the Frst la2 gi(en a"o(e may "e 2ritten in e?uation form as
2here the sym"ol b refers to a GGcyclic integralHH or the integral of the ?uantity e(alu=
ated o(er a cycle. The sym"ols d. and dW represent differential heat transfer and 2or!
done, respecti(ely. The differential operator, d, is used as "oth heat transfer and 2or!
are path functions and the e(aluation of integrals of this type re?uires a !no2ledge of
the path. The more familiar differential operator, d, is used 2ith a GGpointHH function.
Thermodynamic properties are, "y definition, point functions, and the integrals of
such functions may "e e(aluated 2ithout a !no2ledge of the path "y 2hich the change in
the property occurs "et2een the initial and final states.3 The ?uantity J is the so=called
GGmechanical e?ui(alent of heat,HH numerically e?ual to 997.39 ft l"D-tu in engineering
units. *n the &* system, J P 3 / mDJ. This factor 2ill not "e 2ritten henceforth, and the
student is reminded that all e?uations must "e dimensionally homogeneous.
3
bd. P 3 bdW
J
A;=3B
For a more complete discussion of properties, point functions and path fuctions, the reader is referred to
#. /. Hatsopoulos and J. H. 0eenan, ,rinciples of #eneral Thermodynamics. Wiley, /e2 Eor!, 3:;5, p. 3@.
;>
;@ hapter ; onser(ation of EnergyC ontrol=1olume +pproach
We no2 consider a general thermo=
dynamic cycle, as sho2n in Figure ;.3.
The cycle a occurs "et2een points 3 and 5
"y the paths indicated. 'tili<ing e?uation
A;=3B, 2e may 2rite, for cycle a
f 5f 3
d. Vd.
3a5a
A;=5aBf 5f 3
P dW V
dW
5a 3a
5
a
a
,
"
3
r
+ ne2 cycle "et2een points 3 and 5 is thermodynamic cycles.
postulated as follo2sC the path "et2een
points 3 and 5 is identical to that
considered pre(iouslyT ho2e(er, the cycle
is completed "y path " "et2een points 5 and 3, 2hich is any path other than a "et2een
these points. +gain e?uation A;=3B allo2s us to 2rite
f 5f 3f 5f 3
d. Vd. PdW VdWA;=5"B
3a 5" 3a 5"
Figure ;.3 Re(ersi"le and irre(ersi"le
&u"tracting e?uation A;=5"B from e?uation A;=5aB gi(es
f 3f 3f 3f
d. Ud. PdW U
5a 5" 5a
3
dW
5"
2hich may "e 2ritten
f
3
5a
f
Wd. U dWX P
3
Wd. U dWX
A;=>B
5"
+s each side of e?uation A;=>B represents the integrand e(aluated "et2een the
same t2o points "ut along different paths, it follo2s that the ?uantity, d. O dW, is
e?ual to a point function or a property. This property is designated dE, the total energy
of the system. +n alternate e8pression for the Frst la2 of thermodynamics may "e
2ritten
d. U dW P dE
A;=@B
The signs of d. and dW 2ere speciFed in the original statement of the Frst la2T d.
is positi(e 2hen heat is added to the system, dW is positi(e 2hen 2or! is done "y the
system.
For a system undergoing a process occurring in time inter(al dt, e?uation A;=@B may "e
2ritten as
d. dW dE
UP
dtdtdt
A;=5B
onsider no2, as in hapter 5, a general control (olume F8ed in inertial space located in
a Juid=Jo2 Feld, as sho2n in Figure ;.5. The system under consideration, designated "y
dashed lines, occupies the control (olume at time t, and its position is also sho2n after a
period of time Dt has elapsed.
;.3
-oundary of system
at time t
&tationary
control
(olume
*
***
**
*ntegral Relation for the onser(ation of Energy ;5
&treamlines
at time t
-oundary of system
at time t i Rt
Figure ;.5 Relation
"et2een a system and a
control (olume in a Juid=
Jo2 Feld.
*n this Fgure, region * is occupied "y the system at time t, region ** is occupied
"y the system at t V Dt, and region *** is common to the system "oth at t and at
t V Dt.
+t time t V Dt the total energy of the system may "e e8pressed as
EItVDt P E** ItVDt V E*** ItVDt
and at time t
EIt P E* It V E*** It
&u"tracting the second e8pression from the Frst and di(iding "y the elapsed time inter(al,
Dt, 2e ha(e
EItVDt U EIt E*** ItVDt V E** ItVDt U E*** It U E* It
P
DtDt
Rearranging and ta!ing the limit as Dt Q 6 gi(es
EItVDt U EItE*** ItVDt U E*** ItE** ItVDt U E* It
P limV lim
DtDtDtDt Q 6Dt Q 6Dt Q 6
lim
E(aluating the limit of the left=hand side, 2e ha(e
EItVDt U EIt dE
P
dtDtDt Q 6
lim
2hich corresponds to the right=hand side of the Frst=la2 e8pression, e?uation A;=5B.
%n the right=hand side of e?uation A;=;B the Frst limit "ecomes
E*** ItVDt U E*** It dE***
P
DtdtDt Q 6
lim
2hich is the rate of change of the total energy of the system, as the (olume occupied "y the
system as Dt Q 6 is the control (olume under consideration.
The second limit on the right of e?uation A;=;B
E** ItVDt U E* It
DtDt Q 6 lim
represents the net rate of energy lea(ing across the control surface in the time inter=
(al Dt.
A;=;B
;; hapter ; onser(ation of EnergyC ontrol=1olume +pproach
Ha(ing gi(en physical meaning to each of the terms in e?uation A;=;B, 2e may no2
recast the Frst la2 of thermodynamics into a form applica"le to a control (olume e8pressed
"y the follo2ing 2ord e?uationC
:7:7
: _ rate of energy __ rate of addition _ 7
__ ] rate of 2or! done N __
N]N]
out of controlof heat to control
U "y control (olume P
T _ (olume due to __ (olume from _ C
____on its surroundingsTCTC
fluid flo2its surroundingsA;=9B7: 7:
] rate of energy into N ] rate of accumulation N
U control (olume due Vof energy 2ithin
CT CT
to fluid flo2control (olume
E?uation A;=9B 2ill no2 "e applied to the general control (olume sho2n in Figure ;.>.
d+
?
n
(
&treamlines
at time t
Figure ;.> Fluid Jo2 through a
control (olume.
The rates of heat addition to and 2or! done "y the control (olume 2ill "e e8pressed
as d.Ddt and dWDdt.
onsider no2 the small area d+ on the control surface. The rate of energy lea(ing
the control (olume through d+ may "e e8pressed as
rate of energy efflu8 P eAr(BAd+ cos uB
The product Ar(BAd+ cos uB is the rate of mass efJu8 from the control (olume
through d+, as discussed in the pre(ious chapters. The ?uantity e is the speciFc energy
or the energy per unit mass. The speciFc energy includes the potential energy, gy, due
to the position of the Juid continuum in the gra(itational FeldT the !inetic energy of the
Juid, ( 5 D5, due to its (elocityT and the internal energy, u, of the Juid due to its thermal
state.
The ?uantity d+ cos u represents the area, d+, proIected normal to the (elocity (ector, (.
Theta AuB is the angle "et2een ( and the out2ardly directed normal (ector, n. We may no2
2rite
eAr(BAd+ cos uB P er d+\I(I InI^ cos u P erA(C nBd+
2hich 2e o"ser(e to "e similar in form to the e8pressions pre(iously o"tained for mass and
momentum. The integral of this ?uantity o(er the control surface
ff
erA(C nBd+
cCsC
represents the net efJu8 of energy from the control (olume. The sign of the scalar product,
(C n, accounts "oth for efJu8 and for inJu8 of mass across the control surface as considered
;.3 *ntegral Relation for the onser(ation of Energy ;9
pre(iously. Thus, the Frst t2o terms on the right=hand side of e?uation A;=9B may "e
e(aluated as
7: 7:
] rate of energy N ] rate of energy N f f
out of control Uinto controlPerA(C nBd+
CT CTcCsC(olume(olume
The rate of accumulation of energy 2ithin the control (olume may "e e8pressed as
fff
Y
er d1
YtcC(C
E?uation A;=9B may no2 "e 2ritten as
fffff
d. dWY
UPerA(C nB d+ Ver d1
dtdtYtcCsCcC(C
A;=7B
+ Fnal form for the Frst=la2 e8pression may "e o"tained after further consideration of
the 2or!=rate or po2er term, dWDdt.
There are three types of 2or! included in the 2or!=rate term. The Frst is the shaft
2or!, Ws, 2hich is that done "y the control (olume on its surroundings that could cause
a shaft to rotate or accomplish the raising of a 2eight through a distance. + second !ind
of 2or! done is Jo2 2or!, Ws , 2hich is that done on the surroundings to o(ercome normal
stresses on the control surface 2here there is Juid Jo2. The third type of 2or! is
designated shear 2or!, Wt , 2hich is performed on the surroundings to o(ercome shear
stresses at the control surface.
E8amining our control (olume for Jo2 and shear 2or! rates, 2e ha(e, as sho2n in
Figure ;.@, another effect on the elemental portion of control surface, d+. 1ector & is the
force intensity AstressB ha(ing components sii and tiI in the directions normal and tangential
to the surface, respecti(ely. *n terms of &, the force on d+ is & d+, and the rate of 2or! done
"y the Juid Jo2ing through d+ is & d+C (.
&
d+
?
n
(
Figure ;.@ Flo2 and shear 2or! for
a general control (olume.
The net rate of 2or! done "y the control (olume on its surroundings due to the presence
of & isff
U
cCsC
(C & d+
2here the negati(e sign arises from the fact that the force per unit area on the surroundings
is O&.
;7 hapter ; onser(ation of EnergyC ontrol=1olume +pproach
The Frst=la2 e8pression, e?uation A;=7B, may no2 "e 2ritten as
fffffff
d. dWsY
UV(C & d+ PerA(C nB d+ Ver d1
dtYtdtcCsCcCsCcC(C
A;=:B
2here dWs Ddt is the shaft 2or! rate.
Writing the normal stress components of & as siin, 2e o"tain, for the net rate of 2or!
done in o(ercoming normal stress
f fffff
(C & d+P(C s ii n d+ Ps ii W(C nX d+
cCsC normal cCsC cCsC
The remaining part of the 2or! to "e e(aluated is the part necessary to o(ercome
shearing stresses. This portion of the re?uired 2or! rate, dWt Ddt, is transformed into
a form that is una(aila"le to do mechanical 2or!. This term, representing a loss of
mechanical energy, is included in the deri(ati(e form gi(en a"o(e and its analysis is
included in E8ample >, to follo2. The 2or! rate no2 "ecomes
ff
dW dWs dWsdWt dWsdWt
PVVPUs ii A(C nB d+ V
dtdtdtdtdtdtcCsC
&u"stituting into e?uation A;=:B, 2e ha(e
fffffff
d.dWsdWtY
UVPs ii W(C nXd+ VerW(C nXd+ Ver d1
dtYtdtdtcCsCcCsCcC(C
The term in(ol(ing normal stress must no2 "e presented in a more usa"le form. +
complete e8pression for sii is stated in hapter :. For the present, 2e may say simply that
the normal stress term is the sum of pressure effects and (iscous effects. Just as 2ith shear
2or!, the 2or! done to o(ercome the (iscous portion of the normal stress is una(aila"le
to do mechanical 2or!. We shall thus com"ine the 2or! associated 2ith the (iscous portion
of the normal stress 2ith the shear 2or! to gi(e a single term, dWmDdt, the 2or! rate
accomplished in o(ercoming (iscous effects at the control surface. The su"script, m, is used
to ma!e this distinction.
The remaining part of the normal stress term, that associated 2ith pressure, may "e
2ritten in slightly different form if 2e recall that the "ul! stress, sii, is the negati(e of the
thermodynamic pressure, ,. The shear and Jo2 2or! terms may no2 "e 2ritten as
follo2sC
ffff
dWtdWm
PUs ii A(C nBd+ U,A(C nB d+ U
dtdtcCsCcCsC
om"ining this e?uation 2ith the one 2ritten pre(iously and rearranging slightly 2ill yield
the Fnal form of the Frst=la2 e8pressionC
fffff
d. dWs,YdWm
UPA;=36BeVer d1 VrA(C nB d+ V
dtrYtdtdtcCsCcC(C
E?uations A;=36B, A@=3B, and A5=@B constitute the "asic relations for the analysis of
Juid Jo2 (ia the control=(olume approach. + thorough understanding of these three
e?uations and a mastery of their application places at the disposal of the student (ery
po2erful means of analy<ing many commonly encountered pro"lems in Juid Jo2.
The use of the o(erall energy "alance 2ill "e illustrated in the follo2ing e8ample
pro"lems.
;.5 +pplications of the *ntegral E8pression ;:
;.5 +,,$*+T*%/& %F THE */TE#R+$ EM,RE&&*%/
EM+M,$E 3 +s a Frst e8ample, let us choose a control (olume as sho2n in Figure ;.5 under the conditions of
steady Juid Jo2 and no frictional losses.
For the speciFed conditions the o(erall energy e8pression, e?uation A;=36B, "ecomes
d.dWs
UP
dtdt
ff fff
,
C nBd+ V YA(r eV
rYtcCsCcC(C
d.
dt
5
r3, +3, r3
r5, +5, r5
er d1
V
dWm
dt
Q
6Usteady flo2
Q
6
3
dWs
dt
Figure ;.5 ontrol (olume 2ith
one=dimensional Jo2 across
"oundaries.
onsidering no2 the surface integral, 2e recogni<e the product rA(C nB d+ to "e the mass Jo2
rate 2ith the sign of this product indicating 2hether mass Jo2 is into or out of the control (olume,
dependent upon the sense of (C n. The factor "y 2hich the mass=Jo2 rate is multiplied, e V ,Dr,
represents the types of energy that may enter or lea(e the control (olume per mass of Juid. The
speciFc total energy, e, may "e e8panded to include the !inetic, potential, and internal energy
contri"utions, so that
eV
,(5,
P gy V V u V
rr5
+s mass enters the control (olume only at section A3B and lea(es at section A5B, the surface
integral "ecomes
Qff
(5,,55
A(C nB d+ PVgy5 V u5 VAr ( 5 +5 Br eV
r5r5 5cCsC
Q
(5,33Vgy3 V u3 VUAr ( 3 +3 B
5r3 3
The energy e8pression for this e8ample no2 "ecomes
QQ
(5(5d.dWs,5,3
UP 5 V gy5 V u5 VAr ( 5 +5 B U 3 Vgy3 V u3 VAr ( 3 +3 B
dtdt5r5 55r3 3
*n hapter @, the mass "alance for this same situation 2as found to "e
hm P r3 ( 3 +3 P r3 ( 5 +5
*f each term in the a"o(e e8pression is no2 di(ided "y the mass Jo2 rate, 2e ha(e
QQ
h(5(5? U Ws,5,353PV gy5 V u5 VV gy3 V u3 VU
hm5r55r3
96 hapter ; onser(ation of EnergyC ontrol=1olume +pproach
or, in more familiar form
h(5? (5Ws3V gy3 V h3 V P 5 V gy5 V h5
V
hhmm55
2here the sum of the internal energy and Jo2 energy, u V ,Dr, has "een replaced "y the enthalpy, h,
2hich is e?ual to the sum of these ?uantities "y deFnition h u V ,Dr.
EM+M,$E 5 +s a second e8ample, consider the situation sho2n in Figure ;.;. *f 2ater Jo2s under steady
conditions in 2hich the pump deli(ers > horsepo2er to the Juid, Fnd the mass Jo2 rate if frictional
losses may "e neglected.
&haft 2or!
5
35 in. 3 ,ump ; in.
Hg
; in.
Figure ;.; + control
(olume for pump analysis.
DeFning the control (olume as sho2n "y the dashed lines, 2e may e(aluate e?uation A;=36B
term "y term as follo2sC
d.
P6
dt
U
dWs
P A> hpBA55@5 -tu D hpUhBA997 ftUl"f D -tuBAh D>;66 sB
dt
P 3;56 ft l"f Ds
ff
cCsC
ff ff U
,,,rA(C nBd+ PrA(C nBd+ VrA(C nB d+eVeVeV
rrr+5+3
5
(5,5
V gy5 V u5 VPAr5 ( 5 +5 B
5r5
5
(3,3
V gy3 V u3 VAr3 ( 3 +3 BU
5r3
Q
(5 U (5,5 ,353V gA y5 U y3 B V Au5 U u3 B VAr(+BUP
5r5r3
Here it may "e noted that the pressure measured at station A3B is the static pressure 2hile the
pressure measured at station A5B is measured using a pressure port that is oriented normal to
the oncoming Jo2, that is, 2here the (elocity has "een reduced to <ero. &uch a pressure is designated
the stagnation pressure, 2hich is greater than the static pressure "y an amount e?ui(alent to the
change in !inetic energy of the Jo2. The stagnation pressure is, thus, e8pressed as
3
,stagnation P ,6 P ,static V r( 5
5
;.5 +pplications of the *ntegral E8pression 93
for incompressi"le Jo2, hence the energy Ju8 term may "e re2ritten as
ff
,,65 U ,3 ( 5rA(C nB d+ PU 3 Ar(+BeV
rr5cCsCA
;A3 U 3D3>C;B inC HgA3@C9 l"DinC5 BA3@@ inC5 Dft5 B
P
A;5C@ l"m Dft> BA5:C:5 inC HgB
B
(53fA;5C@ l"m Dft> BA( 3 BApD@ ft5 BgU
;@C@Al"m ft Ds5 l"f B

(53P ;C>6 UA@:( 3 B ft l"f Ds
;@C@
fff
Y
er d1 P 6
YtcC(C
dWm
P6
dt
*n the e(aluation of the surface integral the choice of the control (olume coincided 2ith the
location of the pressure taps at sections A3B and A5B. The pressure sensed at section A3B is the static
pressure, as the manometer opening is parallel to the Juid=Jo2 direction. +t section A5B, ho2e(er,
the manometer opening is normal to the Jo2ing Juid stream. The pressure measured "y such an
arrangement includes "oth the static Juid pressure and the pressure resulting as a Juid Jo2ing 2ith
(elocity ( 5 is "rought to rest. The sum of these t2o ?uantities is !no2n as the impact or stagnation
pressure.
The potential energy change is <ero "et2een sections A3B and A5B and as 2e consider the Jo2 to
"e isothermal, the (ariation in internal energy is also <ero. Hence, the surface integral reduces to the
simple form indicated.
The Jo2 rate of 2ater necessary for the stated conditions to e8ist is achie(ed "y sol(ing the
resulting cu"ic e?uation. The solution is
( 3 P 3;C5: fps A5C659 mDsB
hm P r+( P 73> l"m Ds A>96 !gDsB
EM+M,$E > + shaft is rotating at constant angular (elocity ( in the "earing sho2n in Figure ;.9. The shaft
diameter is d and the shear stress acting on the shaft is t. Find the rate at 2hich energy must "e
remo(ed from the "earing in order that the lu"ricating
D
oil "et2een the rotating shaft and the stationary "earing
d
surface remains at constant temperature.
The shaft is assumed to "e lightly loaded and concentric
2ith the Iournal.The control (olume selected consists of
a unit length of the Juid surrounding the shaft as sho2n
in Figure ;.9. The Frst la2 of thermodynamics for the
control (olume is
ff
d. dWs,
UA( C nBd+Pr eV
dtrdtcCsC
fff
YdWm
re d1 VV
dtYtcC(C
2
d.
dt
Figure ;.9 -earing and control
(olume for "earing analysis.
From the Fgure 2e may o"ser(e the follo2ingC
3. /o Juid crosses the control surface.
5. /o shaft 2or! crosses the control surface.
>. The Jo2 is steady.
Thus d.Ddt N dWmDdt N dWtDdt. The (iscous 2or! rate must "e determined. *n this case all of theRR(iscous 2or! is
done to o(ercome shearing stressesT thus the (iscous 2or! is cCsC tA(C et B d+. +t the
RRouter "oundary, ( P 6 and at the inner "oundary cCsC tA(C et Bd+ P UtA(dD5B+, 2here
et indicates
the sense of the shear stress, t, on the surroundings. The resulting sign is consistent 2ith the concept
of 2or! "eing positi(e 2hen done "y a system on its surroundings. Thus,
d.( d5 p
P Ut
dt5
2hich is the heat transfer rate re?uired to maintain the oil at a constant temperature.
*f energy is not remo(ed from the system then d.Ddt P 6, and
fff
YdWm
er d1 P U
YtdtcC(C
+s only the internal energy of the oil 2ill increase 2ith respect to time
Y
Yt
fff 5
D U d 5 dmdWmd5 p
PUter d1 P rpP(
dt5@dtcC(C
or, 2ith constant speciFc heat c
c
dT5t( d 5
P
dtrAD5 U d 5 B
2here D is the outer "earing diameter.
*n this e8ample the use of the (iscous=2or! term has "een illustrated. /ote that
3. The (iscous=2or! term in(ol(es only ?uantities on the surface of the control (olume.
5. When the (elocity on the surface of the control (olume is <ero, the (iscous=2or! term is <ero.
;.> THE -ER/%'$$* E.'+T*%/
'nder certain Jo2 conditions, the e8pression of the Frst la2 of thermodynamics applied
to a control (olume reduces to an e8tremely useful relation !no2n as the -ernoulli
e?uation.
*f e?uation A;=36B is applied to a control (olume as sho2n in Figure ;.7, in 2hich Jo2
is steady, incompressi"le, and in(iscid, and in 2hich no heat transfer or change in internal
energy occurs, a term="y=term e(aluation of e?uation A;=36B gi(es the follo2ingC
d.
P6
dt
dWs
P6
dt
;.> The -ernoulli E?uation 9>
&treamlines
5
ontrol (olume
+3
3
+5
Figure ;.7 ontrol (olume for steady, incompressi"le, in(iscid, isothermal Jo2.
ff ff
,,
r eVr eVA(C nB d+ PA(C nB d+
rrcCsC+3
ff
,
r eVVA(C nB d+
r
+5

( 5 ,3
P gy3 V 3 VAU r3 ( 3 +3 B
5 r3

( 5 ,5
Ar5 ( 5 +5 BV gy5 V 5 V
5 r5
fff
Y
er d1 P 6
YtcC(C
The Frst=la2 e8pression no2 "ecomes

( 5 ,5( 5 ,3
Ar( 5 +5 B U gy3 V 3 VAr( 3 +3 B6 P gy5 V 5 V
5r5r
+s Jo2 is steady, the continuity e?uation gi(es
r 3 ( 3 +3 P r 5 ( 5 +5
2hich may "e di(ided through to gi(e
( 5 ,3( 5 ,53P gy5 V 5 Vgy3 V V
5r5r
Di(iding through "y g, 2e ha(e
y3 V
( 5 ,3( 5 ,53VP y5 V 5 V
5g rg5g rg
A;=33"B
A;=33aB
Either of the a"o(e e8pressions is designated the -ernoulli e?uation.
/ote that each term in e?uation A;=33"B has the unit of length. The ?uantities are often
designated GGheadsHH due to ele(ation, (elocity, and pressure, respecti(ely. These terms, "oth
indi(idually and collecti(ely, indicate the ?uantities 2hich may "e directly con(erted to
produce mechanical energy.
E?uation A;=33B may "e interpreted physically to mean that the total mechanical energy
is conser(ed for a control (olume satisfying the conditions upon 2hich this relation is "ased,
that is, steady, incompressi"le, in(iscid, isothermal Jo2, 2ith no heat transfer or 2or! done.
These conditions may seem o(erly restricti(e, "ut they are met, or approached, in many
physical systems. %ne such situation of practical (alue is for Jo2 into and out of a stream
9@ hapter ; onser(ation of EnergyC ontrol=1olume +pproach
tu"e. +s stream tu"es may (ary in si<e, the -ernoulli e?uation can actually descri"e the
(ariation in ele(ation, (elocity, and pressure head from point=to=point in a Juid=Jo2 Feld.
+ classic e8ample of the application of the -ernoulli e?uation is depicted in Figure ;.:,
in 2hich it is desired to Fnd the (elocity of the Juid e8iting the tan! as sho2n.
onstant le(el
maintained in tan!
y3
5
u5
3
Figure ;.: ontrol
(olume for -ernoulli
e?uation analysis.
The control (olume is deFned as sho2n "y dashed lines in the Fgure. The upper
"oundary of the control (olume is Iust "elo2 the Juid surface, and thus can "e considered
to "e at the same height as the Juid. There is Juid Jo2 across this surface, "ut the surface
area is large enough that the (elocity of this Jo2ing Juid may "e considered negligi"le.
'nder these conditions, the proper form of the Frst la2 of thermodynamics is
e?uation A;=33B, the -ernoulli e?uation. +pplying e?uation A;=33B, 2e ha(e
,atm ( 5 ,atm
y3 VP 5V
rg5grg
from 2hich the e8iting (elocity may "e e8pressed in the familiar form
p
(5 P 5gy
+s a Fnal illustration of the use of the control=(olume relations, an e8ample using all
three e8pressions is presented "elo2.
EM+M,$E @ *n the sudden enlargement sho2n "elo2 in Figure ;.36, the pressure acting at section A3B is
considered uniform 2ith (alue ,3. Find the change in internal energy "et2een stations A3B and A5B for
steady, incompressi"le Jo2. /eglect shear stress at the 2alls and e8press u5 U u3 in terms of ( 3, +3,
and +5. The control (olume selected is indicated "y the dotted line.
,d N ,3
u3, u3
+3, r3
+5
3 5
Figure ;.36 Flo2 through a
sudden enlargement.
onser(ation of Mass
ff
cCsC
YrA(C nBd+ V
fff
r d1 P 6
cC(C
Yt
;.> The -ernoulli E?uation 95
*f 2e select station A5B, a considera"le distance do2nstream from the sudden enlargement, the
continuity e8pression, for steady, incompressi"le Jo2, "ecomes
r3 ( 3 +3 P r5 ( 5 +5
or
(5 P (3
Momentum
ff
cCsC
+3
+5
fff
r( d1
cC(C
A;=35B
cF P
and thus
Yr(A(C nBd+ V
Yt
,3 +5 U ,5 +5 P r( 5 +5 U r( 5 +353
or

,3 U ,555 +3
P (5 U (3
r+5
ff fff
,YdWm
r eVre d1 VA(C nB d+ V
dtrYtcCsCcC(C
A;=3>B
Energy
d. dWs
PU
dtYt
Thus,

,3,5
Ar( 3 +3 B P e5 VAr( 5 +5 Be3 V
rr
,3,5
P e5 V
rr
(5
V gy V u
5
or, since r( 3 +3 P r( 5 +5 ,
e3 V
The speciFc energy is
eP
Thus our energy e8pression "ecomes
(5,3 ( 5,53V gy3 V u3 VP 5 V gy5 V u5 V
5r5r
A;=3@B
The three control=(olume e8pressions may no2 "e com"ined to e(aluate u5 U u3. From e?uation
A;=3@B, 2e ha(e
u5 U u3 P
,3 U ,5 ( 5 U ( 55V 3V gA y3 U y5 B
r5
A;=3@aB
&u"stituting e?uation A;=3>B for A,3 U ,5 BDr and e?uation A;=35B for ( 5 and noting that y3 P y5,
2e o"tain
5
( 5 ( 5 +3 55 +35 +333u5 U u3 P ( 3U( 3V U
+5+5 55 +5
s 5 4Q
(5(5+3+3+3 533PPVA;=35B3U53U
5+5+55+5
9; hapter ; onser(ation of EnergyC ontrol=1olume +pproach
E?uation A;=35B sho2s that the internal energy increases in a sudden enlargement. The
temperature change corresponding to this change in internal energy is insigniFcant, "ut from
e?uation A;=3@aB it can "e seen that the change in total head,

,3 ( 5,5 ( 535V V gy3 UV V gy5
r5r5
is e?ual to the internal energy change. +ccordingly, the internal energy change in an incompressi"le
Jo2 is designated as the head loss, h$, and the energy e?uation for steady, adia"atic, incompressi"le
Jo2 in a stream tu"e is 2ritten as
,3 ( 5,5 ( 5
V 3 V y3 P h$ VV 5 V y5A;=3;B
rg 5grg 5g
/ote the similarity to e?uation A;=33B.
;.@ $%&'RE
*n this chapter the Frst la2 of thermodynamics, the third of the fundamental relations
upon 2hich Juid=Jo2 analyses are "ased, has "een used to de(elop an integral e8pression
for the conser(ation of energy 2ith respect to a control (olume. The resulting e8pression,
e?uation A;=36B, is, in conIunction 2ith e?uations A@O3B and A5O@B, one of the fundamental
e8pressions for the control=(olume analysis of Juid=Jo2 pro"lems.
+ special case of the integral e8pression for the conser(ation of energy is the -ernoulli
e?uation, e?uation A;=33B. +lthough simple in form and use, this e8pression has "road
application to physical situations.
,R%-$EM&
;.3 The (elocity proFle in the annular control (olume of
E8ample > is appro8imately linear, (arying from a (elocity of
<ero at the outer "oundary to a (alue of (dD5 at the inner
"oundary. De(elop an e8pression for the Juid (elocity, (ArB,
2here r is the distance from the center of the shaft.
;.5 &ea 2ater, r P 3655 !gDm> , Jo2s through a pump at
6C53 m> Ds. The pump inlet is 6.55 m in diameter. +t the inlet
the pressure is O6.35 m of mercury. The pump outlet, 6.355 m in
diameter, is 3.7 m a"o(e the inlet. The outlet pressure is 395 !,a.
*f the inlet and e8it temperature are e?ual, ho2 much po2er does
the pump add to the Juida
;.> +ir at 967F, Flo2s into a 36=ft reser(oir at a (elocity of
336 fps. *f the reser(oir pressure is 3@ psig and the reser(oir
temperature 967F, Fnd the rate of temperature increase in the
reser(oir. +ssume the incoming air is at reser(oir pressure and
Jo2s through a 7=in.=diameter pipe.
;.@ Water Jo2s through a 5=in.=diameter hori<ontal pipe at a
Jo2 rate of >5 galDmin. The heat transfer to the pipe can "e
neglected, and frictional forces result in a pressure drop of 36 psi.
What is the temperature change of the 2atera
;.; During the test of a centrifugal pump, a -ourdon pres=
sure gage Iust outside the casing of the 35=in.=diameter suction
pipe reads U; psig Ai.e., (acuumB. %n the 36=in.=diameter discharge
>
;.5 During the Jo2 of 566 ft>Ds of 2ater through the hydraulic
tur"ine sho2n, the pressure indicated "y gage + is 35 psig. What
should gage - read if the tur"ine is deli(ering ;66 hp at 75b
efFciencya #age - is designed to measure the total pressure, that
is, , i r( 5D5 for an incompressi"le Juid.
+
Tur"ine
D N 5 ft
35 ft
-
,ro"lems
pipe another gage reads @6 psig. The discharge pipe is 5 ft a"o(e the
suction pipe. The discharge of 2ater through the pump is measured
to "e @ ft>Ds. ompute the horsepo2er input of the test pump.
;.9 + fan dra2s air from the atmosphere through a 6.>6=m=
diameter round duct that has a smoothly rounded entrance. +
differential manometer connected to an opening in the 2all of the
duct sho2s a (acuum pressure of 5.5 cm of 2ater. The density of
air is 3.55 !gDm>. Determine the (olume rate of air Jo2 in the duct
in cu"ic feet per second. What is the horsepo2er output of the fana
Fan
6.>6 m
5 in.
; ft
99
;.35 The pressuri<ed tan! sho2n has a circular cross section of
; ft in diameter. %il is drained through a no<<le 5 in. in diameter
in the side of the tan!. +ssuming that the air pressure is
maintained constant, ho2 long does it ta!e to lo2er the oil
surface in the tan! "y 5 fta The speciFc gra(ity of the oil in the
tan! is 6.75 and that of mercury is 3>.;.
, O ,atm N @ in. Hg
%il
5 ft
5.5 cm
;.7 Find the change in temperature "et2een stations A3B and
A5B in terms of the ?uantities +3, +>, ( 3, ( >, c(, and u. The internal
energy is gi(en "y c(T. The Juid is 2ater and T3 P T>, ,3 P ,>.
3 5
;.3> +n automo"ile is dri(ing into a @5=mph head2ind at
@6 mph. *f the "arometer reads 5: in. Hg and the temperature is
@67F, 2hat is the pressure at a point on the auto 2here the 2ind
(elocity is 356 fps 2ith respect to the autoa
;.3@ Water is discharged from a 3.6=cm=diameter no<<le
that is inclined at a >67 angle a"o(e the hori<ontal. *f the Iet
stri!es the ground at a hori<ontal distance of >.; m and a
(ertical distance of 6.; m from the no<<le as sho2n, 2hat is
the rate of Jo2 in cu"ic meters per seconda What is the total
head of the Ieta A&ee e?uation A;=33"B.B
?
Top (ie2
>
6.;6 m
>6g
;.: + li?uid Jo2s from + to - in a hori<ontal pipe line sho2n at a
rate of > ft>Ds 2ith a friction loss of 6.@5 ft of Jo2ing Juid. For a
pressure head at - of 5@ in., 2hat 2ill "e the pressure head at +a
>.; m
,+
5@ in.
35 in. ; in.
;.35 The pump sho2n in the Fgure deli(ers 2ater at 5:7F at
a rate of 556 galDmin. The inlet pipe has an inside diameter
of 5.:5 in. and it is 36 ft long. The inlet pipe is su"merged ; ft
into the 2ater and is (ertical. Estimate the pressure inside the
pipe at the pump inlet.
+ -
;.36 *n ,ro"lem ;.5;, compute the up2ard force on the de(ice
from 2ater and air. 'se the results of ,ro"lem ;.5; as 2ell as any
other data gi(en in that pro"lem that you may need. E8plain 2hy
you cannot proFta"ly use -ernoulliHs e?uation here for a force
calculation.
;.33 + 1enturi meter 2ith an inlet diameter of 6.; m is
designed to handle ; m>Ds of standard air. What is the re?uired
throat diameter if this Jo2 is to gi(e a reading of 6.36 m of alco=
hol in a differential manometer connected to the inlet and the
throata The speciFc gra(ity of alcohol may "e ta!en as 6.7.
compressor to the air. +ssume that the air speeds 2ithin the
cushion are (ery lo2.
;.3; *n the pre(ious pro"lem, determine the Jo2 rate at
2hich the pump inlet pressure is e?ual to the (apor pressure
of the 2ater. +ssume that friction causes a head loss of @ ft. The
(apor pressure of 2ater at 5:7F is 6.5@9 psi.
;.39 'sing the data of ,ro"lem 5.59, determine the (elocity
head of the Juid lea(ing the impeller. What pressure rise 2ould
result from such a (elocity heada
;.37 *n order to maneu(er a large ship 2hile doc!ing, pumps
are used to issue a Iet of 2ater perpendicular to the "o2 of
the ship as sho2n in the Fgure. The pump inlet is located
far enough a2ay from the outlet that the inlet and outlet do not
interact. The inlet is also (ertical so that the net thrust of the
Iets on the ship is independent of the inlet (elocity and
pressure. Determine the pump horsepo2er re?uired per pound
of thrust. +ssume that the inlet and outlet are at the same
depth. Which 2ill produce more thrust per horsepo2er, a
lo2=(olume, high=pressure pump or a high=(olume, lo2=
pressure pumpa
;.55 The solution to ,ro"lem 5.55 is
s3N5 4
7( 5h3
U33V 3h5 P
5gh3
&ho2 that -ernoulliHs e?uation applied "et2een sections 3 and 5
does not gi(e this result. Deri(e all e8pressions for the change in
total head across a hydraulic Iump.
;.5> Residential 2ater use, e8clusi(e of Fre protection, runs a"out
76 gallons per person per day. *f the 2ater is deli(ered to a residence
at ;6 psig, estimate the monthly energy re?uired to pump the 2ater
from atmospheric pressure to the deli(ery pressure. /eglect line
losses and ele(ation changes. +ssume the pumps are 95b efFcient
and are dri(en "y electric motors 2ith :6b efFciency.
;.5@ + 3:;7 1ol!s2agen sedan is dri(ing o(er a 9>66=ft=high
mountain pass at a speed of ( mDs into a head2ind of W mDs.
ompute the gage pressure in m,a at a point on the auto 2here
the (elocity relati(e to the auto is ( O W mDs. The local air density
is 6.:7@ !gDm>.
;.55 + li?uid is heated in a (ertical tu"e of constant diameter,
35 m long. The Jo2 is up2ard. +t the entrance the a(erage
(elocity is 3 mDs, the pressure >@6,666 ,a, and the density is 3663
!gDm>. *f the increase in internal energy is 566,666 JD!g, Fnd the
heat added to the Juid.
;.5; Water Jo2s steadily up the (ertical pipe and is then
deJected to Jo2 out2ard 2ith a uniform radial (elocity. *f
friction is neglected, 2hat is the Jo2 rate of 2ater through
the pipe if the pressure at + is 36 psiga
35 in.
Jet
&ide
Top
;.3: Determine the head loss "et2een stations A3B and A5B in
,ro"lem 5.9.
;.56 Multnomah Falls in %regon has sheer drop of 3;5 m.
Estimate the change in 2ater temperature caused "y this
drop.
;.53 +n GGair cushionHH (ehicle is designed to tra(erse
terrain 2hile Joating on a cushion of air. +ir, supplied "y
a compressor, escapes through the clearing "et2een the
ground and the s!irt of the (ehicle. *f the s!irt has a
rectangular shape > ` : m, the (ehicle mass is 7366 !g
and the ground clearance is > cm, determine the airJo2 rate
needed to maintain the cushion and the po2er gi(en "y the
3
5
in.
7 in.
5 ft
+
;.59 Water Jo2s through the pipe contraction sho2n at a rate of
3 ft>Ds. alculate the differential manometer reading in inches of
,ro"lems
mercury, assuming no energy loss in the Jo2. -e sure to gi(e the
correct direction of the manometer reading.
9:
and the pressure head at - if the pipe has a uniform diameter of 3
in. Ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for the 2ater le(el to decrease "y > fta
The tan! diameter is 36 ft.
-
@ ft
; in.
a
@ in.
;.57 The Fgure illustrates the operation of an air lift pump.
ompressed air is forced into a perforated cham"er to mi8 2ith the
2ater so that the speciFc gra(ity of the airO2ater mi8ture a"o(e
the air inlet is 6.5. /eglecting any pressure drop across section A3B,
compute the discharge (elocity ( of the airO2ater mi8ture. an
-ernoulliHs e?uation "e used across section A3Ba
uNa
6.:6 m
ompressed
air
H5%
36 ft
;.>5 *n ,ro"lem ;.>3, Fnd the rate of discharge if the fric=
tional head loss in the pipe is >.5 ( 5Dg 2here ( is the Jo2
(elocity in the pipe.
;.>> +ssume that the le(el of 2ater in the tan! remains the
same and that there is no friction loss in the pipe, entrance, or
no<<le. Determine
AaB the (olumetric discharge rate from the no<<leT
A"B the pressure and (elocity at points +, -, , and D.
3.7 m
3
;.5: Re2or! ,ro"lem 2ith the assumption that the momentum
of the incoming air at section A3B is <ero. Determine the e8it
(elocity, (, and the magnitude of the pressure drop at section A3B.
;.>6 +ir of density 3.53 !gDm> is Jo2ing as sho2n. *f
( P 35 mDs, determine the readings on manometers AaB and
A"B in the Fgures "elo2.
+ir
u
56 ft
5> ft
-
> ft
+
@ in. Diameter
56 ft
5 in.
Diameter
D
;.>@ Water in an open cylindrical tan! 35 ft in diameter dis=
charges into the atmosphere through a no<<le 5 in. in diameter.
/eglecting friction and the unsteadiness of the Jo2, Fnd the time
re?uired for the 2ater in the tan! to drop from a le(el of 57 ft a"o(e
the no<<le to the @=ft le(el.
;.>5 + Juid of density r3 enters a cham"er 2here the Juid
is heated so that the density decreases to r5. The Juid then escapes
through a (ertical chimney that has a height $. /eglecting friction
and treating the Jo2 processes as incompressi"le e8cept for the
heating, determine the (elocity, (, in the stac!. The Juid (elocity
entering the heating cham"er may "e neglected and the chimney is
immersed in Juid of density r3.
1
H5%
AaB
u
5@ mDs
r5
%il
r3
&.#. N 6.7;
$5
A"B
;.>3 Referring to the Fgure, assume the Jo2 to "e frictionless
in the siphon. Find the rate of discharge in cu"ic feet per second,
r3
Heating section
pro"lem if a head loss of > ( 5 Dg occurs in the pipe 2here ( is the
Jo2 (elocity in the pipe.
;.>7 The tan! in the pre(ious pro"lem feeds t2o lines, a @=cm
pipe that e8its 36 m "elo2 the 2ater le(el in the tan! and a second
line, also @ cm in diameter runs from the tan! to a station 56 m
"elo2 the 2ater le(el in the tan!. The e8its of "oth lines are open
to the atmosphere. +ssuming frictionless Jo2, 2hat is the mass
Jo2 rate in each linea
;.>; Repeat the pre(ious pro"lem 2ithout the assumption that
the (elocity in the heating section is negligi"le. The ratio of the
Jo2 area of the heating section to the chimney Jo2 area is R.
;.>9 onsider a @=cm pipe that runs "et2een a tan! open to the
atmosphere and a station open to the atmosphere 36 m "elo2 the
2ater surface in the tan!. +ssuming frictionless Jo2, 2hat 2ill
"e the mass Jo2 ratea *f a no<<le 2ith a 3=cm diameter is placed
at the pipe e8it, 2hat 2ill "e the mass Jo2 ratea Repeat the
hapter
9
&hear &tress in $aminar Flo2
*n the analysis of Juid Jo2 thus far, shear stress has "een mentioned, "ut it has not
"een related to the Juid or Jo2 properties. We shall no2 in(estigate this relation for
laminar Jo2. The shear stress acting on a Juid depends upon the type of Jo2 that
e8ists. *n the so=called laminar Jo2, the Juid Jo2s in smooth layers or lamina, and
the shear stress is the result of the Anono"ser(a"leB microscopic action of the molecules.
Tur"ulent Jo2 is characteri<ed "y the large scale, o"ser(a"le Juctuations in Juid and
Jo2 properties, and the shear stress is the result of these Juctuations. The criteria for
laminar and tur"ulent Jo2s 2ill "e discussed in hapters 35 and 3>. The shear stress
in tur"ulent Jo2 2ill "e discussed in hapter 3>.
9.3 /EWT%/H& 1*&%&*TE RE$+T*%/
*n a solid, the resistance to deformation is the modulus of elasticity. The shear modulus of an
elastic solid is gi(en "y
shear modulus P
shear stress
shear strain
A9=3B
Just as the shear modulus of an elastic solid is a property of the solid relating shear
stress and shear strain, there e8ists a relation similar to A9=3B, 2hich relates the shear
stress in a parallel, laminar Jo2 to a property of the Juid. This relation is /e2tonHs la2 of
(iscosity
(iscosity P
shear stress
rate of shear strain
A9=5B
Thus, the (iscosity is the property of a fluid to resist the rate at 2hich deformation ta!es
place 2hen the fluid is acted upon "y shear forces. +s a property of the fluid, the (iscosity
depends upon the temperature, composition, and pressure of the fluid, "ut is independent
of the rate of shear strain.
The rate of deformation in a simple Jo2 is illustrated in Figure 9.3. The Jo2 parallel
to the 8 a8is 2ill deform the element if the (elocity at the top of the element is dif=
ferent than the (elocity at the "ottom.
The rate of shear strain at a point is deFned as UddDdt. From Figure 9.3, it may "e seen that
U
dItVDt U dItdd
P Ulim
DtD8,Dy,DtQ6dt

fpD5 U arctan \A(IyVDy U (Iy BDtDDy^g U pD5
P Ulim
DtD8,Dy,DtQ6
A9=>B
*n the limit, UddDdt P d(Ddy P rate of shear strainC
73
75 hapter 9 &hear &tress in $aminar Flo2
y
Au yiRy O u yB Rt
Ry
d
R8
Element at
time t
Element at
time t i Rt
u, 8
Figure 9.3 Deformation of a
Juid element.
om"ining e?uations A9=5B and A9=>B and denoting the (iscosity "y m, 2e may 2rite
/e2tonHs la2 of (iscosity as
d(
A9=@BtPm
dy
The (elocity profile and shear stress (ariation in a fluid flo2ing "et2een t2o parallel plates
is illustrated in Figure 9.5. The (elocity profile3 in this case is para"olicT as the shear stress is
proportional to the deri(ati(e of the (elocity, the shear stress (aries in a linear manner.
h
h
u t
Figure 9.5 1elocity and
shear stress proFles for
Jo2 "et2een t2o parallel
plates.
9.5 /%/=/EWT%/*+/ F$'*D&
/e2tonHs la2 of (iscosity does not pre=
dict the shear stress in all Juids. Fluids
are classiFed as /e2tonian or non=
/e2tonian, depending upon the rela=
tion "et2een shear stress and the rate
of shearing strain. *n /e2tonian Juids,
the relation is linear, as sho2n in Figure
9.>.
*n non=/e2tonian Juids, the shear
stress depends upon the rate of shear
strain. While Juids deform continuously
under the action of shear stress, plastics
2ill sustain a shear stress "efore defor=
mation occurs. The GGideal plasticHH has a
3
t
a*de
la
lp
a
csti
csti
o
spla
tic Re
la
lp
e,s
Eield
stress
ud
luid
an f
toni
/e2
tant
Dila
Rate of strain
Figure 9.> &tress rate=of=strain relation for
/e2tonian and non=/e2tonian Juids.
The deri(ation of (elocity proFles is discussed in hapter 7.
9.> 1iscosity 7>
linear stress rate=of=strain relation for stresses greater than the yield stress. Thi8otropic
su"stances such as printerHs in! ha(e a resistance to deformation that depends upon
deformation rate and time.
The /o=&lip ondition
+lthough the su"stances a"o(e differ in their stress rate=of=strain relations, they
are similar in their action at a "oundary. *n "oth /e2tonian and non=/e2tonian
Juids, the layer of Juid adIacent to the "oundary has <ero (elocity relati(e to the
"oundary. When the "oundary is a stationary 2all, the layer of Juid ne8t to the 2all is
at rest. *f the "oundary or 2all is mo(ing, the layer of Juid mo(es at the (elocity of
the "oundary, hence the name no=slip A"oundaryB condition. The no=slip condition is
the result of e8perimental o"ser(ation and fails 2hen the Juid no longer can "e treated
as a continuum.
The no=slip condition is a result of the (iscous nature of the Juid. *n Jo2 situations in
2hich the (iscous effects are neglectedKthe so called in(iscid Jo2sKonly the component
of the (elocity normal to the "oundary is <ero.
9.> 1*&%&*TE
The (iscosity of a Juid is a measure of its resistance to deformation rate. Tar and molasses
are e8amples of highly (iscous JuidsT air and 2ater, 2hich are the su"Iect of fre?uent
engineering interest, are e8amples of Juids 2ith relati(ely lo2 (iscosities. +n under=
standing of the e8istence of the (iscosity re?uires an e8amination of the motion of Juid on a
molecular "asis.
The molecular motion of gases can "e descri"ed more simply than that of li?uids. The
mechanism "y 2hich a gas resists deformation may "e illustrated "y e8amination of the
motion of the molecules on a microscopic "asis. onsider the control (olume sho2n in
Figure 9.@.
y
u8 N u8AyB
t
Ry
R8
t
8
Figure 9.@ Molecular motion at the surface of a control (olume.
7@ hapter 9 &hear &tress in $aminar Flo2
The top of the control (olume is enlarged to sho2 that, e(en though the top of the
element is a streamline of the Jo2, indi(idual molecules cross this plane. The paths of
the molecules "et2een collisions are represented "y the random arro2s. -ecause the top
of the control (olume is a streamline, the net molecular Ju8 across this surface must
"e <ero, hence the up2ard molecular Ju8 must e?ual the do2n2ard molecular Ju8. The
molecules that cross the control surface in an up2ard direction ha(e a(erage (elocities
in the 8 direction corresponding to their points of origin. Denoting the y coordinate of
the top of the control surface as y6, 2e shall 2rite the 8=directional a(erage (elocity of the
up2ard molecular Ju8 as ( 8 IyU , 2here the minus sign signiFes that the a(erage (elo=
city is e(aluated at some point "elo2 y6. The 8=directional momentum carried across
the top of the control surface is then m( 8 IyU per molecule, 2here m is the mass of the
molecule. *f f molecules cross the plane per unit time, then the net 8=directional
momentum Ju8 2ill "e
c mn A( 8 IyU U ( 8 IyV B
f
A9=5B
nP3
The Ju8 of 8=directional momentum on a molecular scale appears as a shear stress
2hen the Juid is o"ser(ed on a macroscopic scale. The relation "et2een the molecular
momentum Ju8 and the shear stress may "e seen from the control=(olume e8pression for
linear momentum
fffff
Y
cF Pr(W(C nX d+ Vr( d1A5=@B
YtcCsCcC(C
The Frst term on the right=hand side of e?uation A5=@B is the momentum Ju8. When a
control (olume is analy<ed on a molecular "asis, this term includes "oth the macroscopic
and molecular momentum Ju8es. *f the molecular portion of the total momentum Ju8 is to
"e treated as a force, it must "e placed on the left=hand side of e?uation A5=@B. Thus the
molecular momentum Ju8 term changes sign. Denoting the negati(e of the molecular
momentum Ju8 as t, 2e ha(e
t P U c mn A( 8 IyU U ( 8 IyV B
nP3
f
A9=;B
We shall treat shear stress e8clusi(ely as a force per unit area.
The "rac!eted term, A( 8 IyU U ( 8 IyV B in e?uation A9=;B, may "e e(aluated "y noting that
( 8 IyU P ( 8 Iy6 U Ad( 8 DdyIy6 Bd, 2here yU P y6 U d. 'sing a similar e8pression for yV, 2e
o"tain, for the shear stress

f
d( 8
dnt P 5 c mn
dy y6
nP3
*n the a"o(e e8pression d is the y component of the distance "et2een molecular
collisions. -orro2ing from the !inetic theory of gases, the concept of the mean free path, l,
as the a(erage distance "et2een collisions, and also noting from the same source that
d P 5D>l, 2e o"tain, for a pure gas,

@d( 8
t P mlfA9=9B
>
dy y6
as the shear stress.
9.> 1iscosity 75
omparing e?uation A9=9B 2ith /e2tonHs la2 of (iscosity, 2e see that
@
m P mlf
>
The !inetic theory gi(es f P /D@, 2here
/ P molecules per unit (olume
P a(erage random molecular (elocity
and thus
3rl
m P /ml P
>>
or, using5
3
l P p
5p/d 5
and

r
7!T
P
pm
A9=7B
2here d is the molecular diameter and ! is the -olt<mann constant, 2e ha(e
p
m!T5
m P >N5
d5>p
A9=:B
E?uation A9=:B indicates that m is independent of pressure for a gas. This has "een
sho2n, e8perimentally, to "e essentially true for pressures up to appro8imately 36
atmospheres. E8perimental p e(idence indicates that at lo2 temperatures the (iscosity
(aries more rapidly than T . The constant=diameter rigid=sphere model for the gas
molecule is responsi"le for the less=than=ade?uate (iscosity=temperature relation. E(en
though the preceding de(elopment 2as some2hat crude in that an indeFnite property,
the molecular diameter, 2as introduced, the interpretation of the (iscosity of a gas
"eing due to the microscopic momentum Ju8 is a (alua"le result and should not "e
o(erloo!ed. *t is also important to note that e?uation A9=:B e8presses the (iscosity entirely
in terms of Juid properties.
+ more realistic molecular model utili<ing a force Feld rather than the rigid=
sphere approach 2ill yield a (iscosity=temperature relationship much more consis=p
tent 2ith e8perimental data than the T result. The most accepta"le e8pression
for nonpolar molecules is "ased upon the $ennardOJones potential energy func=
tion. This function and the de(elopment leading to the (iscosity e8pression 2ill
not "e included here. The interested reader may refer to Hirschfelder, urtiss, and
-ird> for the details of this approach. The e8pression for (iscosity of a pure gas that
results is
p
MT
A9=36B
m P 5C;;:> ` 36U; 5
s 1m
5
*n order of increasing comple8ity, the e8pressions for mean free path are presented in R. Resnic! and
D. Halliday, ,hysics, ,art *, Wiley, /e2 Eor!, 3:;;, hapter 5@, and E. H. 0ennard, 0inetic Theory of #ases,
Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:>7, hapter 5.
>J. %. Hirschfelder, . F. urtiss, and R. -. -ird, Molecular Theory of #ases and $i?uids, Wiley, /e2
Eor!, 3:5@.
7; hapter 9 &hear &tress in $aminar Flo2
2here m is the (iscosity, in pascal=secondsT T is a"solute temperature, in 0T M is the
t
molecular 2eightT s is the GGcollision diameter,HH a $ennardOJones parameter, in +
A+ngstromsBT 1m is the GGcollision integral,HH a $ennardOJones parameter that (aries in a
relati(ely slo2 manner 2ith the dimensionless temperature !TDeT ! is the -olt<mann
constant, 3.>7 [ 36U3; ergsD0T and e is the characteristic energy of interaction "et2een
molecules. 1alues of s and e for (arious gases are gi(en in +ppendi8 0, and a ta"le of 1m
(ersus !TDe is also included in +ppendi8 0.
For multicomponent gas mi8tures at lo2 density, Wil!e@ has proposed this empirical
formula for the (iscosity of the mi8tureC
mmi8ture P c
8 i mi
iP3 c8 I fi I
n
A9=33B
2here 8i, 8I are mole=fractions of species i and I in the mi8ture, and
5QD5 >5
3
D5U3M I 3D@ 5
3Mimi@3 Vfi I P p 3 V
MImIMi7
A9=35B
2here Mi, MI are the molecular 2eights of species i and I, and mi, mI are the (iscosities of
species i and I. /ote that 2hen i P I, 2e ha(e fi I P 3.
E?uations A9=36B, A9=33B, and A9=35B are for nonpolar gases and gas mi8tures at lo2
density. For polar molecules, the preceding relation must "e modiFed.5
+lthough the !inetic theory of gases is 2ell de(eloped, and the more sophisticated
models of molecular interaction accurately predict (iscosity in a gas, the molecular theory
of li?uids is much less ad(anced. Hence, the maIor source of !no2ledge concerning the
(iscosity of li?uids is e8periment. The difFculties in the analytical treatment of a li?uid are
largely inherent in nature of the li?uid itself. Whereas in gases the distance "et2een
molecules is so great that 2e consider gas molecules as interacting or colliding in pairs, the
close spacing of molecules in a li?uid results in the interaction of se(eral molecules
simultaneously. This situation is some2hat a!in to an /="ody gra(itational pro"lem. *n spite
of these difFculties, an appro8imate theory has "een de(eloped "y Eyring, 2hich illustrates
the relation of the intermolecular forces to (iscosity.; The (iscosity of a li?uid can "e
considered due to the restraint caused "y intermolecular forces. +s a li?uid heats up, the
molecules "ecome more mo"ile. This results in less restraint from intermolecular forces.
E8perimental e(idence for the (iscosity of li?uids sho2s that the (iscosity decreases 2ith
temperature in agreement 2ith the concept of intermolecular adhesi(e forces "eing the
controlling factor.
'nits of 1iscosity
The dimensions of (iscosity may "e o"tained from /e2tonHs (iscosity relation
mP
t
d(Ddy
. R. Wil!e, J. hem. ,hys., 37, 539O53: A3:56B.
J. %. Hirschfelder, . F. urtiss, and R. -. -ird, Molecular Theory of #ases and $i?uids, Wiley, /e2 Eor!,
3:5@.
;For a description of EyringHs theory, see R. -. -ird, W. E. &te2art, and E. /. $ightfoot, Transport
,henomena, Wiley, /e2 Eor!, 3:;6, hap. 3.
5
@
9.> 1iscosity 79
or, in dimensional form
FD$5Ft
P 5
A$DtBA3D$B $
2here F P force, $ P length, t P time.
'sing /e2tonHs second la2 of motion to relate force and mass AF P M$Dt5 B, 2e Fnd
that the dimensions of (iscosity in the massOlengthOtime system "ecome MD$t.
The ratio of the (iscosity to the density occurs fre?uently in engineering pro"lems.
This ratio, mDr, is gi(en the name !inematic (iscosity and is denoted "y the sym"ol (. The
origin of the name !inematic (iscosity may "e seen from the dimensions of (C
mMD$t $5
( uP
rMD$>t
The dimensions of ( are those of !inematicsC length and time. Either of the t2o names,
a"solute (iscosity or dynamic (iscosity, is fre?uently employed to distinguish m from the
!inematic (iscosity, (.
*n the &* system, dynamic (iscosity is e8pressed in pascal=seconds A3 pascal=second P
3 / n [ sDm5 P 36 poise P 6.6567: slugsDft [ s P 6.6567: l"f [ sDft5 P 6.;956 l"mDft [ sB.
0inematic (iscosity in the metric system is e8pressed in AmetersB5 per second A3 m5Ds P 36@
sto!es P 36.9; ft5DsB.
+"solute and !inematic (iscosities are sho2n in Figure 9.5 for three common gases
and t2o li?uids as functions of temperature. + more e8tensi(e listing is contained in
+ppendi8 *.
3666
766
;66
566
@66
>66
566
366
76
;6
56
@6
>6
56
H5
36
7
;
5
@
>
5
%5
3
6
556 >66>56
Temperature, 0
@66 @56
0erosene
1iscosity, m o
365, ,avs
Water
+ir
Figure 9.5 1iscosityOtemperature
(ariation for some li?uids and
gases.
77 hapter 9 &hear &tress in $aminar Flo2
9.@ &HE+R &TRE&& */ M'$T*D*ME/&*%/+$ $+M*/+R
F$%W& %F + /EWT%/*+/ F$'*D
/e2tonHs (iscosity relation, discussed pre(iously, is (alid for only parallel, laminar Jo2s.
&to!es e8tended the concept of (iscosity to three=dimensional laminar Jo2. The "asis of
&to!esH (iscosity relation is e?uation A9=5B
(iscosity P
shear stress
rate of shear strain
A9=5B
2here the shear stress and rate of shear strain are those of a three=dimensional element.
+ccordingly, 2e must e8amine shear stress and strain rate for a three=dimensional "ody.
&hear &tress
The shear stress is a tensor ?uantity re?uiring magnitude, direction, and orientation 2ith
respect to a plane for identiFcation. The usual method of identiFcation of the shear stress
in(ol(es a dou"le su"script, such as t8y. The tensor component, tiI, is identiFed as follo2sC
t P magnitude
first su"script P direction of a8is to 2hich plane of action of shear stress
is normal
second su"script P direction of action of the shear stressC
Thus t8y acts on a plane normal to the 8 a8is Athe y< planeB and acts in the y direction. *n
addition to the dou"le su"script, a sense is re?uired. The shear stresses acting on an element
D8 Dy D<, illustrated in Figure 9.;, are indicated in the positi(e sense. The deFnition of
positi(e shear stress can "e generali<ed for use in other coordinate systems. + shear stress
component is positi(e 2hen "oth the (ector normal to the surface of action and the shear
stress act in the same direction A"oth positi(e or "oth negati(eB.
For e8ample, in Figure 9.;AaB, the shear stress ty8 at the top of the element acts on
surface D8 D<. The (ector normal to this area is in the positi(e y direction. The stress ty8 acts
in the positi(e 8 direction, hence ty8 as illustrated in Figure 9.;AaB is positi(e. The student
may apply similar reasoning to ty8 acting on the "ottom of the element and conclude that ty8
is also positi(e as illustrated.
+s in the mechanics of solids, t i I P t Ii Asee +ppendi8 B.
Rate of &hear &train
The rate of shear strain for a three=dimensional element may "e e(aluated "y determining the
shear strain rate in the 8y, y<, and 8< planes. *n the 8y plane illustrated in Figure 9.9, the shear
strain rate is again UddDdtT ho2e(er, the element may deform in "oth the 8 and the y directions.
Hence, as the element mo(es from position 3 to position 5 in time Dt
U
dItVDt U dItdd
P Ulim
dt D8,Dy,DtQ6Dt
)
pD 5 U arctanfwA( 8 IyVDy U ( 8 Iy BDtxDDyg
P Ulim
DtD8,Dy,DtQ6
d
UarctanfwA( y I8VD8 U ( y I8 BDtxDD8g U pD5
Dt
9.@
y
&hear &tress in Multidimensional $aminar Flo2s of a /e2tonian Fluid 7:
ty8
t8y Ry
R8
ty8
t8y
8
AaB
< 8
t<y t8<
ty< R<
Ry
t<y
ty< t<8 R8
R<
t8<
t<8
y <
Figure 9.; &hear stress
acting in a positi(e
sense.
+s the shear strain e(aluated a"o(e is in the 8y plane, it 2ill "e su"scripted 8y. *n the limit,
Udd8y Ddt P Y( 8 DYy V Y( y DY8. *n a similar manner, the shear strain rates in the y< and 8<
planes may "e e(aluated as
ddy< Y( y Y( <
UPV
dtY<Yy
dd8< Y( 8 Y( <
PVU
dtY<Y8
y
uy
Au8 yiRy O u8 yB Rt
u8
t
Ry
d
R8
t i Rt
Auy 8iR8 O uy 8B Rt
3 5
8
Figure 9.9 &hear strain
in the 8y plane.
:6 hapter 9 &hear &tress in $aminar Flo2
&to!esHs 1iscosity Relation
A+B &hear &tress. &to!esHs (iscosity relation for the shear=stress components in
laminar Jo2 may no2 "e stated 2ith the aid of the preceding de(elopments for rate
of shear strain. 'sing e?uation A9=5B, 2e ha(e, for the shear stresses 2ritten in
rectangular coordinate form

Y( 8 Y( y
t8y P t y8 P mV
YyY8

Y( y Y( <
VtycB
A9=3>aB
A9=3>"B
A-B /ormal &tress. The normal stress may also "e determined from a stress rate=of=strain
relationT the strain rate, ho2e(er, is more difFcult to e8press than in the case of shear strain.
For this reason the de(elopment of normal stress, on the "asis of a generali<ed Hoo!eHs la2
for an elastic medium, is included in detail in +ppendi8 D, 2ith only the result e8pressed
"elo2 in e?uations A9=3@aB, A9=3@"B, and A9=3@cB.
The normal stress in rectangular coordinates 2ritten for a ne2tonian Juid is
gi(en "y
s 88

Y( 8 5U NC ( U ,Pm 5
Y8 >

Y( y 5U NC ( U ,Pm 5
Yy >
A9=3@aB
s yy
and
A9=3@"B

Y( < 5U NC ( U ,s <
A9=3@cB
*t is to "e noted that the sum of these three e?uations yields the pre(iously mentioned
resultC the "ul! stress, s P As 88 V s yy V s <T is the negati(e of the pressure, ,.
9.5 $%&'RE
The shear stress in laminar Jo2 and its dependence upon the (iscosity and !inematic
deri(ati(es has "een presented for a cartesian coordinate system. The shear stress in other
coordinate systems, of course, 2ill occur fre?uently, and it is to "e noted that e?uation A9=5B
forms the general relation "et2een shear stress, (iscosity, and the rate of shear strain. The
shear stress in other coordinate systems may "e o"tained from e(aluating the shear=strain
rate in the associated coordinate systems. &e(eral pro"lems of this nature are included at the
end of this chapter.
,ro"lems :3
,R%-$EM&
9.3 &!etch the deformation of a Juid element for the follo2ing
casesC
AaB Y( 8 DYy is much larger than Y( y DY8T
A"B Y( y DY8 is much larger than Y( 8 DYy.
9.5 For a t2o=dimensional, incompressi"le Jo2 2ith (elocity
( 8 P ( 8 AyB, s!etch a three=dimensional Juid element and illus=
trate the magnitude, direction, and surface of action of each
stress component.
9.> &ho2 that the a8ial strain rate in a one=dimensional Jo2,
( 8 P ( 8 A8B, is gi(en "y Y( 8 DY8C What is the rate of (olume
changea #enerali<e for a three=dimensional element, and deter=
mine the rate of (olume change.
9.@ 'sing a cylindrical element, sho2 that &to!esHs (iscosity
relation yields the follo2ing shear stress components.
Q
Y ( u 3 Y( r
t ru P t ur P m rV
Yr rr Yu
Q
Y( u 3 Y( <
Vt u5670 and compare
2ith the (alue gi(en in +ppendi8 *.
9.9 What is the percentage change in the (iscosity of 2ater
2hen the 2ater temperature rises from ;6 to 3567Fa
9.7 +t 2hat temperature is the !inematic (iscosity of glycerin
the same as the !inematic (iscosity of heliuma
9.: +ccording to the HagenO,oiseuille laminar Jo2 model,
the (olumetric Jo2 rate is in(ersely proportional to the (iscosity.
What percentage change in (olumetric Jo2 rate occurs in a
laminar Jo2 as the 2ater temperature changes from near free<=
ing to 3@67Fa
9.36 Repeat the preceding pro"lem for air.
9.33 +n automo"ile cran!shaft is >.395 cm in diameter.
+ "earing on the shaft is >.37> cm in diameter and 5.7 cm
long. The "earing is lu"ricated 2ith &+E >6 oil at a temperature
of >;5 0. +ssuming that the shaft is centrally located in the
"earing, determine ho2 much heat must "e remo(ed to maintain
the "earing at constant temperature. The shaft is rotating at 3966
rpm, and the (iscosity of the oil is 6.63 ,a [ s.
9.35 *f the speed of the shaft is dou"led in ,ro"lem 9.33, 2hat
2ill "e the percentage increase in the heat transferred from the
"earinga +ssume that the "earing remains at constant tempera=
ture.
9.39 For 2ater Jo2ing in a 6.3=in.=diameter tu"e, the (elocity
distri"ution is para"olic Asee E8ample @.5B. *f the a(erage
(elocity is 5 fps, determine the magnitude of the shear stress
at the tu"e 2all.
9.37 What pressure drop per foot of tu"e is caused "y the shear
stress in ,ro"lem 9.39a
9.3: The rate of shear 2or! per unit (olume is gi(en "y the
product t(. For a para"olic (elocity proFle in a circular tu"e
Asee E8ample @.5B, determine the distance from the 2all at 2hich
the shear 2or! is ma8imum.
5a
h
D
9.3> T2o ships are tra(eling parallel to each other and
are connected "y Je8i"le hoses. Fluid is transferred from
one ship to the other for processing and then returned. *f the
Juid is Jo2ing at 366 !gDs, and at a gi(en instant the Frst ship
is ma!ing @ mDs 2hereas the second ship is ma!ing >.3 mDs,
2hat is the net force on ship one 2hen the a"o(e (elocities
e8ista
9.3@ +n auto lift consists of >;.65=cm=diameter ram that slides
in a >;.6@=cm=diameter cylinder. The annular region is Flled
2ith oil ha(ing a !inematic (iscosity of 6.666>9 m5Ds and a
speciFc gra(ity of 6.75. *f the rate of tra(el of the ram is 6.35 mDs,
estimate the frictional resistance 2hen >.3@ m of the ram is
engaged in the cylinder.
9.35 *f the ram and auto rac! in the pre(ious pro"lem
together ha(e a mass of ;76 !g, estimate the ma8imum sin!=
ing speed of the ram and rac! 2hen gra(ity and (iscous fric=
tion are the only forces acting. +ssume 5.@@ m of the ram
engaged.
9.3; The conical pi(ot sho2n in the Fgure has angular
(elocity ( and rests on an oil Flm of uniform thic!ness h.
Determine the frictional moment as a function of the angle a,
the (iscosity, the angular (elocity, the gap distance, and the
shaft diameter.
2
hapter
7
+nalysis of a Differential Fluid
Element in $aminar Flo2
The analysis of a Juid=Jo2 situation may follo2 t2o different paths. %ne type of
analysis has "een discussed at length in hapters @O; in 2hich the region of interest
has "een a deFnite (olume, the macroscopic control (olume. *n analy<ing a pro"lem
from the standpoint of a macroscopic control (olume, one is concerned only 2ith gross
?uantities of mass, momentum, and energy crossing the control surface and the total
change in these ?uantities e8hi"ited "y the material under consideration. hanges
occurring 2ithin the control (olume "y each differential element of Juid cannot "e
o"tained from this type of o(erall analysis.
*n this chapter, 2e shall direct our attention to elements of Juid as they approach
differential si<e. %ur goal is the estimation and description of Juid "eha(ior from a
differential point of (ie2T the resulting e8pressions from such analyses 2ill "e
differential e?uations. The solution to these differential e?uations 2ill gi(e Jo2
information of a different nature than that achie(ed from a macroscopic e8amination.
&uch information may "e of less interest to the engineer needing o(erall design
information, "ut it can gi(e much greater insight into the mechanisms of mass,
momentum, and energy transfer.
*t is possi"le to change from one form of analysis to the other, that is, from a
differential analysis to an integral analysis "y integration and (ice (ersa, rather easily.3
+ complete solution to the differential e?uations of Juid Jo2 is possi"le only if the
Jo2 is laminarT for this reason only laminar=Jo2 situations 2ill "e e8amined in this
chapter. + more general differential approach 2ill "e discussed in hapter :.
7.3 F'$$E DE1E$%,ED $+M*/+R F$%W */ + *R'$+R
%/D'*T %F %/&T+/T R%&& &ET*%/
Engineers are often confronted 2ith Jo2 of Juids inside circular conduits or pipes. We shall
no2 analy<e this situation for the case of incompressi"le laminar Jo2. *n Figure 7.3, 2e
ha(e a section of pipe in 2hich the Jo2 is laminar and fully de(elopedT that is, it is not
inJuenced "y entrance effects and represents a steady=Jo2 situation. Fully de(eloped Jo2 is
deFned as that for 2hich the (elocity proFle does not (ary along the a8is of Jo2.
We no2 consider the cylindrical control (olume of Juid ha(ing an inside radius, r,
thic!ness Dr, and length D8. +pplying /e2tonHs second la2 to this control (olume, 2e may
This transformation may "e accomplished "y a (ariety of methods, among 2hich are the methods of (ector
calculus. We shall use a limiting process in this te8t.
3
:5
7.3 Fully De(eloped $aminar Flo2 in a ircular onduit of onstant ross &ection :>
Rr
, 8
8
, 8iR8
R8
Figure 7.3 ontrol (olume
for Jo2 in a circular conduit.
e(aluate the appropriate force and momentum terms for the 8 direction. &tarting 2ith the
control=(olume e8pression for linear momentum in the 8 direction
fffff
Y
cF8 Pr( 8 A(C nB d+ Vr( 8 d1A5=5aB
YtcCsCcC(C
and e(aluating each term as it applies to the control (olume sho2n, 2e ha(e
ff
cCsC
cF8 P ,A5pr DrBI8 U ,A5pr DrBI8VD8 V t r8 A5pr D8BIrVDr U tr8 A5pr D8BIr
( 8 rA(C nB d+ P Ar( 8 BA5pr Dr( 8 BI8VD8 U Ar( 8 BA5pr Dr( 8 BI8
fff
( 8 r d1 P 6
cC(C
and
Y
Yt
in steady Jo2.
The con(ecti(e momentum Ju8
Ar( 8 BA5pr Dr( 8 BI8VD8 U Ar( 8 BA5p Dr( 8 BI8
is e?ual to <ero as, "y the original stipulation that Jo2 is fully de(eloped, all terms are
independent of 8. &u"stitution of the remaining terms into e?uation A5=5aB gi(es
Uw,A5pr DrBI8VD8 U ,A5pr DrBI8 x V tr8 A5pr D8BIrVDr U tr8 A5pr D8BIr P 6
anceling terms 2here possi"le and rearranging, 2e Fnd that this e8pression reduces to the
form
Ur
,I8VD8 U ,I8 Art r8 BIrVDr U Art r8 BIr
VP6
D8Dr
E(aluating this e8pression in the limit as the control (olume approaches differential si<e,
that is, as D8 and Dr approach <ero, 2e ha(e
Ur
d, d
V Artr8 B P 6
d8 dr
A7=3B
/ote that the pressure and shear stress are functions only of 8 and r, respecti(ely, and thus
the deri(ati(es formed are total rather than partial deri(ati(es. *n a region of fully
de(eloped flo2, the pressure gradient, d,Dd8, is constant.
The (aria"les in e?uation A7=3B may "e separated and integrated to gi(e

d, r 3
Vtr8 P
d8 5r
:@ hapter 7 +nalysis of a Differential Fluid Element in $aminar Flo2
The constant of integration 3 may "e e(aluated "y !no2ing a (alue of t r8 at some r. &uch a
condition is !no2n at the center of the conduit, r P 6, 2here for any Fnite (alue of 3, the
shear stress, tr8 , 2ill "e inFnite. +s this is physically impossi"le, the only realistic (alue for
3 is <ero. Thus, the shear=stress distri"ution for the conditions and geometry speciFed is

d, r
A7=5Bt r8 P
d8 5
We o"ser(e that the shear stress (aries linearly across the conduit from a (alue of 6 at
r P 6, to a ma8imum at r P R, the inside surface of the conduit.
Further information may "e o"tained if 2e su"stitute the /e2tonian (iscosity relation=
ship, that is, assuming the Juid to "e /e2tonian and recalling that the Jo2 is laminar
t r8 P m
d( 8
dr
A7=>B
&u"stituting this relation into e?uation A7=5B gi(es

d( 8d, r
Pm
d8 5dr
2hich "ecomes, upon integration,
(8 P

d, r 5
V 5
d8 @m
The second constant of integration, 5, may "e e(aluated, using the "oundary condition that
the (elocity, ( 8 , is <ero at the conduit surface Athe no=slip conditionB, r P R. Thus,
5
d, R
5 P U
d8 @m
and the (elocity distri"ution "ecomes

d, 3 5
AR U r 5 B(8 P U
d8 @m
A7=@B
or
5 r 5 Qd, R
3U(8 P U
d8 @mR
A7=5B
E?uations A7=@B and A7=5B indicate that the (elocity profile is para"olic and that the
ma8imum (elocity occurs at the center of the circular conduit 2here r P 6. Thus,
5
d, R
A7=;B( ma8 P U
d8 @m
and e?uation A7=5B may "e 2ritten in the form
( 8 P ( ma8 3 U
r 5 Q
R
A7=9B
/ote that the (elocity profile 2ritten in the form of e?uation A7=9B is identical to that used
in E8ample @.5. We may, therefore, use the result o"tained in E8ample @.5 that
5
( ma8d, R
PUA7=7B( a(g P
d8 7m5
7.5 $aminar Flo2 of a /e2tonian Fluid Do2n an *nclined=,lane &urface :5
E?uation A7=7B may "e rearranged to e8press the pressure gradient, Ud,Dd8, in terms
of ( a(g
d, 7m( a(g >5m( a(g
PUPA7=:B
d8R5D5
E?uation A7=:B is !no2n as the HagenO,oiseuille e?uation, in honor of the t2o men
credited 2ith its original deri(ation. This e8pression may "e integrated o(er a gi(en
length of conduit to find the pressure drop and associated drag force on the conduit
resulting from the flo2 of a (iscous fluid.
The conditions for 2hich the preceding e?uations 2ere deri(ed and apply should "e
remem"ered and understood. They are as follo2sC
3. The Juid AaB is /e2tonian,
A"B "eha(es as a continuum.
5. The Jo2 is AaB laminar,
A"B steady,
AcB fully de(eloped,
AdB incompressi"le.
7.5 $+M*/+R F$%W %F + /EWT%/*+/ F$'*D
D%W/ +/ */$*/ED=,$+/E &'RF+E
The approach used in &ection 7.3 2ill no2 "e applied to a slightly different situation, that of
a /e2tonian Juid in laminar Jo2 do2n an inclined=plane surface. This conFguration and
associated nomenclature are depicted in Figure 7.5. We 2ill e8amine the t2o=dimensional
case, that is, 2e consider no signiFcant (ariation in the < direction.
y
$
8 Ry
R8
?
g
Figure 7.5 $aminar Jo2 do2n an inclined=plane surface.
The analysis again in(ol(es the application of the control=(olume e8pression for linear
momentum in the 8 direction, 2hich is
fffff
Y
cF8 P( 8 rA( [ nB d+ Vr( 8 d1A5=5aB
YtcCsCcC(C
E(aluating each term in this e8pression for the fluid element of (olume WD8XWDyXW3X as
sho2n in the figure, 2e ha(e
cF8 P , DyI8 U , DyI8VD8 V t y8 D8IyVDy U t y8 D8Iy V rg D8 Dy sin u
ff
r( 8 A(C nB d+ P r( 5 DyI8VD8 U r( 5 DyI888
cCsC
:; hapter 7 +nalysis of a Differential Fluid Element in $aminar Flo2
and
Y
Yt
fff
r( 8 d1 P 6
cC(C
/oting that the con(ecti(e=momentum terms cancel for fully de(eloped Jo2 and that the
pressureOforce terms also cancel "ecause of the presence of a free li?uid surface, 2e see that
the e?uation resulting from the su"stitution of these terms into e?uation A5=5aB "ecomes
ty8 D8IyVDy U ty8 D8Iy V rg D8 Dy sin u P 6
Di(iding "y AD8BADyBA3B, the (olume of the element considered, gi(es
t y8 IyVDy U ty8 Iy
Dy
V rg sinu P 6
*n the limit as Dy Q 6, 2e get the applica"le differential e?uation
d
t y8 V rg sinu P 6
dy
A7=36B
&eparating the (aria"les in this simple e?uation and integrating 2e o"tain for the shear
stress
ty8 P Urg sinuy V 3
The integration constant, 3, may "e e(aluated "y using the "oundary condition that the
shear stress, ty8 , is <ero at the free surface, y P $. Thus the shear=stress (ariation "ecomes
hyi
A7=33Bty8 P rg$ sinu 3 U
$
The consideration of a /e2tonian fluid in laminar flo2 ena"les the su"stitution of
mAd( 8 DdyB, to "e made for ty8, yielding
d( 8 rg$ sinu hyi
3UP
m$dy
2hich, upon separation of (aria"les and integration, "ecomes
Q
rg$ sinuy5
yU(8 PV 5
m5$
'sing the no=slip "oundary condition, that is, ( 8 P 6 at y P 6, the constant of integration,
5, is seen to "e <ero. The Fnal e8pression for the (elocity proFle may no2 "e 2ritten as
Q
rg$5 sinu y 3 y 5
U(8 PA7=35B
m$ 5 $
The form of this solution indicates the (elocity (ariation to "e para"olic, reaching the
ma8imum (alue
( ma8
rg$5 sinu
P
5m
A7=3>B
at the free surface, y P $.
+dditional calculations may "e performed to determine the a(erage (elocity as 2as
indicated in &ection 7.3. /ote that there 2ill "e no counterpart in this case to the HagenO
,oiseuille relation, e?uation A7=:B, for the pressure gradient. The reason for this is the
,ro"lems :9
presence of a free li?uid surface along 2hich the pressure is constant. Thus, for our present
case, Jo2 is not the result of a pressure gradient "ut rather the manifestation of the
gra(itational acceleration upon a Juid.
7.> $%&'RE
The method of analysis employed in this chapter, that of applying the "asic relation for linear
momentum to a small control (olume and allo2ing the control (olume to shrin! to
differential si<e, ena"les one to Fnd information of a sort different from that o"tained
pre(iously. 1elocity and shear=stress proFles are e8amples of this type of information. The
"eha(ior of a Juid element of differential si<e can gi(e considera"le insight into a gi(en
transfer process and pro(ide an understanding a(aila"le in no other type of analysis.
This method has direct counterparts in heat and mass transfer, 2here the element may
"e su"Iected to an energy or a mass "alance.
*n hapter :, the methods introduced in this chapter 2ill "e used to deri(e differential
e?uations of Juid Jo2 for a general control (olume.
,R%-$EM&
7.3 E8press e?uation A7=:B in terms of the Jo2 rate and the pipe
diameter. *f the pipe diameter is dou"led at constant pressure
drop, 2hat percentage change 2ill occur in the Jo2 ratea
7.5 + @6=!m=long pipeline deli(ers petroleum at a rate of @666
"arrels per day. The resulting pressure drop is >C@5 ` 36; ,a. *f a
parallel line of the same si<e is laid along the last 37 !m of the
line, 2hat 2ill "e the ne2 capacity of this net2or!a Flo2 in "oth
cases is laminar and the pressure drop remains >C@5 ` 36; ,a.
7.> + 6.;>5=cm hydraulic line suddenly ruptures 7 m from a
reser(oir 2ith a gage pressure of 569 !,a. ompare the laminar
and in(iscid Jo2 rates from the ruptured line in cu"ic meters per
second.
7.@ + common type of (iscosimeter for li?uids consists of a
relati(ely large reser(oir 2ith a (ery slender outlet tu"e, the rate
of outJo2 "eing determined "y timing the fall in the surface
le(el. *f oil of constant density Jo2s out of the (iscosimeter
sho2n at the rate of 6.59> cm>Ds, 2hat is the !inematic (iscosity
of the Juida The tu"e diameter is 6.37 cm.
7.5 Deri(e the e8pressions for the (elocity distri"ution and for
the pressure drop for a /e2tonian Juid in fully de(eloped
laminar Jo2 in the annular space "et2een t2o hori<ontal,
concentric pipes. +pply the momentum theorem to an annular
Juid shell of thic!ness Dr and sho2 that the analysis of such a
control (olume leads to
dD,
ArtB P r
dr$
The desired e8pressions may then "e o"tained "y the su"stitu=
tion of /e2tonHs (iscosity la2 and t2o integrations.
7.; + thin rod of diameter d is pulled at constant (elocity
through a pipe of diameter D. *f the 2ire is at the center of the
pipe, Fnd the drag per unit length of 2ire. The Juid Flling the
space "et2een the rod and the inner pipe 2all has density r and
(iscosity m.
7.9 The (iscosity of hea(y li?uids, such as oils, is fre?uently
measured 2ith a de(ice that consists of a rotating cylinder inside
a large cylinder. The annular region "et2een these cylinders is
Flled 2ith li?uid and the tor?ue re?uired to rotate the inner
cylinder at constant speed is computed, a linear (elocity proFle
"eing assumed. For 2hat ratio of cylinder diameters is the
assumption of a linear proFle accurate 2ithin 3b of the true
proFlea
7.7 T2o immisci"le Juids of different density and (iscosity are
Jo2ing "et2een t2o parallel plates. E8press the "oundary
conditions at the interface "et2een the t2o Juids.
7.: Determine the (elocity proFle for Juid Jo2ing "et2een
t2o parallel plates separated "y a distance 5h. The pressure drop
is constant.
%il
7 cm
55 cm
:7 hapter 7 +nalysis of a Differential Fluid Element in $aminar Flo2
+ssume the Jo2 to "e laminar. Find the pressure rise and
efFciency as a function of the Jo2 rate per unit depth.
7.36 Fluid Jo2s "et2een t2o parallel plates, a distance h apart.
The upper plate mo(es at (elocity, ( 6 T the lo2er plate is
stationary. For 2hat (alue of pressure gradient 2ill the shear
stress at the lo2er 2all "e <eroa
7.33 Deri(e the e?uation of motion for a one=dimensional,
in(iscid, unsteady compressi"le Jo2 in a pipe of constant cross=
sectional area neglect gra(ity.
7.35 + continuous "elt passes up2ard through a chemical "ath
at (elocity ( 6 and pic!s up a Flm of li?uid of thic!ness h, density,
r, and (iscosity m. #ra(ity tends to ma!e the li?uid drain do2n,
"ut the mo(ement of the "elt !eeps the Juid from running off
completely. +ssume that the Jo2 is a 2ell=de(eloped laminar
Jo2 2ith <ero pressure gradient, and that the atmosphere
produces no shear at the outer surface of the Flm.
AaB &tate clearly the "oundary conditions at y P 6 and y P h to
"e satisFed "y the (elocity.
A"B alculate the (elocity proFle.
AcB Determine the rate at 2hich Juid is "eing dragged up 2ith
the "elt in terms of mT rT hT ( 6 C
7.3> The de(ice in the schematic diagram "elo2 is a (iscosity
pump. *t consists of a rotating drum inside of a stationary case.
The case and the drum are concentric. Fluid enters at +, Jo2s
through the annulus "et2een the case and the drum, and lea(es at
-. The pressure at - is higher than that at +, the difference "eing
DrC The length of the annulus is $. The 2idth of the annulus h is
(ery small compared to the diameter of the drum, so that the Jo2
in the annulus is e?ui(alent to the Jo2 "et2een t2o Jat plates.
+ -
h
R
y
Drum
ase
7.3@ %il is supplied at the center of t2o long plates. The
(olumetric Jo2 rate per unit length is . and the plates remain
a constant distance, ", apart. Determine the (ertical force per unit
length as a function of the ., m, $, and ".
7.35 +(iscous Flm drains uniformly do2n the side of a (ertical
rod of radius R. +t some distance do2n the rod, the Flm
approaches a terminal or fully de(eloped Jo2 such that the
Flm thic!ness, h, is constant and ( < P fArB. /eglecting the shear
resistance due to the atmosphere, determine the (elocity dis=
tri"ution in the Flm.
7.3; Determine the ma8imum Flm (elocity in ,ro"lem 7.35.
hapter
:
Differential E?uations
of Fluid Flo2
The fundamental la2s of Juid Jo2, 2hich ha(e "een e8pressed in mathematical form
for an ar"itrary control (olume in hapters @O;, may also "e e8pressed in mathematical
form for a special type of control (olume, the differential element. These differential
e?uations of Juid Jo2 pro(ide a means of determining the point=to=point (ariation of
Juid properties. hapter 7 in(ol(ed the differential e?uations associated 2ith some
one=dimensional, steady, incompressi"le laminar Jo2s. *n hapter :, 2e shall e8press
the la2 of conser(ation of mass and /e2tonHs second la2 of motion in differential
form for more general cases. The "asic tools used to deri(e these differential e?uations
2ill "e the control=(olume de(elopments of hapters @ and 5.
:.3 THE D*FFERE/T*+$ %/T*/'*TE E.'+T*%/
The continuity e?uation to "e de(eloped in this section is the la2 of conser(ation of mass
e8pressed in differential form. onsider the control (olume D8 Dy D< sho2n in Figure :.3.
y
ruy yiRy
ru< <
ru8 8
ru8 8iR8
Ry
R8
ru< <iR<
R<
8
ruy y
<
Figure :.3 Mass Ju8
through a differential
control (olume.
The control (olume e8pression for the conser(ation of mass is
fffff
Y
rW( nXd+ Vr d1 P 6
Yt
2hich states that
7: 7:
net rate of massN ]rate of accumulationN]
flu8 out ofVof mass 2ithinP6
CT CT
control (olumecontrol (olume
A@=3B
::
366 hapter : Differential E?uations of Fluid Flo2
The mass flu8 rA( nB at each face of the control (olume is illustrated in Figure :.3. The
mass 2ithin the control (olume is r D8 Dy D<, and thus the time rate of change of mass
2ithin the control (olume is
Y
Wr D8 Dy D<X
Yt
The student is reminded that the density in general can (ary from point to point, that is,
r P rA8, y, <, tB.
The net mass Ju8 out of the control (olume in the 8 direction is
Wr( 8 I8VD8 U r( 8 I8 XDy D<
in the y direction
Wr( y IyVDy U r( y Iy XD8 D<
and in the < direction
Wr( < I<VD< U r( < I< XD8 Dy
The total net mass Ju8 is the sum of the a"o(e three terms. &u"stituting into e?uation A@=3B
yields
Wr( 8 I8VD8 U r( 8 I8 XDy D< V Wr( y IyVDy U r( y Iy XD8 D<
V Wr( < I<VD< U r( < I< XD8 Dy V
Y
Wr D8 Dy D<X P 6
Yt
The (olume does not change 2ith time, so 2e may di(ide the a"o(e e?uation "y D8 Dy D<.
*n the limit as D8, Dy, and D< approach <ero, 2e o"tain
YYYYr
Wr( 8 X V Wr( y X V Wr( < X VP6
Y8YyY<Yt
A:=3B
The first three terms comprise the di(ergence of the (ector r(. The di(ergence of a (ector
is the dot product 2ith N
di( + N +
The student may (erify that the Frst three terms in e?uation A:=3B may "e 2ritten as N r(,
and thus a more compact statement of the continuity e?uation "ecomes
N r( V
Yr
P6
Yt
A:=5B
The continuity e?uation a"o(e applies to unsteady, three=dimensional flo2. *t is apparent
that, 2hen flo2 is incompressi"le, this e?uation reduces to
N ( P 6
A:=>B
2hether the flo2 is unsteady or not.
E?uation A:=5B may "e arranged in a slightly different form to illustrate the use of
the su"stantial deri(ati(e. arrying out the differentiation indicated in A:=3B, 2e ha(e

YrYrYrYrY( 8 Y( y Y( <
V (8V (yV (<VrVVP6
YtY8YyY<Y8YyY<
:.5 /a(ierO&to!es E?uations 363
The Frst four terms of the a"o(e e?uation comprise the su"stantial deri(ati(e of the density,
sym"oli<ed as DrDDt, 2here
DYYYY
P V (8 V (y V (<
Dt YtY8YyY<
in cartesian coordinates. The continuity e?uation may, thus "e 2ritten as
Dr
V rN ( P 6
Dt
A:=5B
A:=@B
When considering the total differential of a ?uantity, three different approaches may
"e ta!en. *f, for instance, 2e 2ish to e(aluate the change in atmospheric pressure, ,, the
total differential 2ritten in rectangular coordinates is
d, P
Y,Y,Y,Y,
dt Vd8 Vdy Vd<
YtY8YyY<
2here d8, dy, and d< are ar"itrary displacements in the 8, y, and < directions. The rate of
pressure change is o"tained "y di(iding through "y dt, gi(ing
d, Y, d8 Y, dy Y, d< Y,
PVVV
dtYt dt Y8 dt Yy dt Y<
A:=;B
+s a first approach, the instrument to measure pressure is located in a 2eather station,
2hich is, of course, fi8ed on EarthHs surface. Thus, the coefficients d8Ddt, dyDdt, d<Ddt
are all <ero, and for a fi8ed point of o"ser(ation the total deri(ati(e, d,Ddt, is e?ual to the
local deri(ati(e 2ith respect to time Y,DYt.
+ second approach in(ol(es the pressure=measuring instrument housed in an aircraft
2hich, at the pilotHs discretion, can "e made to clim" or descend, or Jy in any chosen 8, y, <
direction. *n this case, the coefFcients d8Ddt, dyDdt, d<Ddt are the 8, y, and < (elocities of the
aircraft, and they are ar"itrarily chosen, "earing only coincidental relationship to the air
currents.
The third situation is one in 2hich the pressure indicator is in a "alloon that rises, falls,
and drifts as inJuenced "y the Jo2 of air in 2hich it is suspended. Here the coefFcients d8D
dt, dyDdt, d<Ddt are those of the Jo2 and they may "e designated ( 8, ( y, and ( <, respecti(ely.
This latter situation corresponds to the su"stantial deri(ati(e and the terms may "e grouped
as designated "elo2
d, D,Y,Y,Y,Y,
PPV (8V (yV (<
dtDtYtY8YyY<
j k< l j
k<
l
localrate of change
rate ofof pressure
change ofdue to motion
pressure
A:=9B
The deri(ati(e DDDt may "e interpreted as the time rate of change of a fluid or flo2
(aria"le along the path of a fluid element. The su"stantial deri(ati(e 2ill "e applied to
"oth scalar and (ector (aria"les in su"se?uent sections.
:.5 /+1*ERO&T%0E& E.'+T*%/&
The /a(ierO&to!es e?uations are the differential form of /e2tonHs second la2 of motion.
onsider the differential control (olume illustrated in Figure :.3.
The "asic tool 2e shall use in de(eloping the /a(ierO&to!es e?uations is /e2tonHs
second la2 of motion for an ar"itrary control (olume as gi(en in hapter 5
fffff
,Y
r(W( nXd+ Vr(d1FPA5=@BYtcCsCcC(C
2hich states that
AB )d A time rate of change Bsum of the e8ternal
net rate of linear
forces acting on the PV of linear momentum
momentum efflu8
cC(C2ithin the cC(C
+s the mathematical e8pression for each of the a"o(e terms is rather lengthy, each 2ill "e
e(aluated separately and then su"stituted into e?uation A5=@B.
The de(elopment may "e further simpliFed "y recalling that 2e ha(e, in the prior case,
di(ided "y the (olume of the control (olume and ta!en the limit as the dimensions approach
<ero. E?uation A5=@B can also "e 2ritten
RRRRR,
FYDYtr( d1r(W( nX d+
PlimlimVlim
A:=7B
D8TDyTD< Q 6 D8 Dy D<D8 Dy D<D8 Dy D<D8TDyTD< Q 6D8TDyTD< Q 6
33 53 >3
33 &um of the e8ternal forces. The forces acting on the control (olume are those due to
the normal stress and to the shear stress, and "ody forces such as that due to gra(ity. Figure :.5
y
syy yiRy
ty8 yiRy
s88 8
t8y 8
ty8 y
syy y
8
<
s<< <iR<
t<y <iR<
syy y
ty< y
t<y <
s<< <
y
ty< yiRy
syy yiRy
s<< <
t<8 <
t8< 8
s88 8
<
8
s88 8iR8
t8< 8iR8
t<8 <iR<
s<< <iR<
t8y 8iR8
s88 8iR8
Figure :.5 Forces acting on a differential control (olume.
:.5 /a(ierO&to!es E?uations 36>
illustrates the (arious forces acting on the control (olume. &umming the forces in the
8 direction, 2e o"tain
,
F8 PWs 88 I8VD8 U s 88 I8 XDy D< V Wty8 IyVDy U t y8 Iy XD8 D<
V Wt <8 I<VD< U t<8 I< XD8 Dy V g8 r D8 Dy D<
2here g8 is the component of the gra(itational acceleration in the 8 direction. *n the limit
as the dimensions of the element approach <ero this "ecomes
,
F8Ys 88 Yty8 Yt<8
PVVV rg8A:=:Blim
Y8YyY<D8TDyTD< Q 6 D8 Dy D<
&imilar e8pressions are o"tained for the force summations in the y and < directions
,
FyYt8y Ys yy Yt<y
PVVV rgylimA:=36B
,
F<Yt8< Yty< Ys <<
limPVVV rg<A:=33B
53 /et momentum Ju8 through the control (olume. The net momentum Ju8 through
the control (olume illustrated in Figure :.> is
U[RR
r(( 8 I8VD8 U r(( 8 I8 Dy D<r(W( nXd+
Plimlim
D8 Dy D<D8 Dy D<D8TDyTD< Q 6D8TDyTD< Q 6
V
Wr(( y IyVDy U r(( y Iy XD8 D<
U
D8 Dy D<
A:=35B
[
r(( < I<VD< U r(( < I< D8 Dy
V
D8 Dy D<
[ YYYU
r(( y V Wr(( < XP Wr(( 8 X V
Y8YyY<
,erforming the indicated differentiation of the right=hand side of e?uation A:=35B yields
RRQ
r(W( nXd+YYY
limP (Wr( 8 X V Wr( y X Wr( < X
D8 Dy D<Y8YyY<D8TDyTD< Q 6
Q
Y(Y(Y(
V r ( 8 V( y V( <
Y8YyY<
y
r(uy y i Ry
r(u< <
r(u8 8
r(u8 8 i R8
r(u< Momentum
Ju8 through a
differential control
(olume.
36@ hapter : Differential E?uations of Fluid Flo2
The a"o(e term may "e simplified 2ith the aid of the continuity e?uation
YrYYY
VWr( 8 X V Wr( y X V Wr( < X P 6
YtY8YyY<
2hich, upon su"stitution, yields
RRQ
r(W( nXd+YrY(Y(Y(
V r (8V (yV (B
>3 Time rate of change of momentum 2ithin the control (olume. The time rate of
change of momentum 2ithin the control (olume may "e e(aluated directly
RRR
YDYt(r d1 WYDYtXr( D8 Dy D< YY(Yr
P r( P r V (A:=3@BPlim
D8 Dy D<YtYtYtD8 Dy D<D8TDyTD< Q 6
We ha(e no2 e(aluated all terms in e?uation :=7
7 :
__ Ys 88 Yty8 Yt<8
__
_
_
_ Y8 V Yy V Y< Vrg8 e8 ___
__
__
__
___, _
N] YtYs yy Yt<yF8y
limVVVrgy eyP
__ Y8YyY<D8TDyTD< Q 6 D8 Dy D<__
__
__
_ ___
__ Yt__Yty< Ys <<8<
__
_VVVrg< e< _TC
Y8YyY<
RR
5
3
W:=:X
W:=36X
W:=33X
3
3
D8TDyTD< Q 6
lim

r(W( nXd+YrY(Y(Y(
V r (8V (yV (B
>
3
A:=3@B
*t can "e seen that the forces are e8pressed in components, 2hereas the rate=of=change=of=
momentum terms are e8pressed as (ectors. When the momentum terms are e8pressed as compo=
nents, 2e o"tain three differential e?uations that are the statements of /e2tonHs second la2 in the 8,
y, and < directions

Y( 8Y( 8Y( 8Y( 8Ys 88 Yt y8 Yt<8
rV (8V (yV (<VVP rg8 V
YtY8YyY<Y8YyY<

Y( yY( yY( yY( yYt8y Ys yy Yt <y
V (8V (yV (<VVrP rgy V
YtY8YyY<Y8YyY<

Y( <Y( <Y( <Y( <Yt 8< Yt y< Ys <<
rV (8V (yV (<VVP rg< V
YtY8YyY<Y8YyY<
A:=35aB
A:=35"B
A:=35cB
*t 2ill "e noted that in e?uations A:=35B a"o(e, the terms on the left=hand side represent
the time=rate of change of momentum, and the terms on the right=hand side represent the
forces. Focusing our attention on the left=hand terms in e?uation A:=35aB, 2e see that

Y( 8Y( 8Y( 8Y( 8YYYY
V (8
V (y V (<V (yV (<V (8(8P

YtY8YyY<YtY8YyY<
j k< lj
k< l
localrate of change in
of change( 8 due to motion
of ( 8
The Frst term, Y( 8 NYt, in(ol(es the time rate of change of ( 8 at a point and is called the
local acceleration. The remaining terms in(ol(e the (elocity change from point to point,
that is, the con(ecti(e acceleration. The sum of these t2o "rac!eted terms is the total
acceleration. The reader may (erify that the terms on the left=hand side of e?uations A:=35B
are all of the form

YYYY
V (8 V (y V (<(i
YtY8YyY<
2here ( i P ( 8, ( y, or ( <. The a"o(e term is the su"stantial deri(ati(e of ( i.
When the su"stantial deri(ati(e notation is used, e?uations A:=35B "ecome
r
r
and
r
D( <Yt 8< Yt y< Ys <<
P rg< VVV
DtY8YyY<
A:=3;cB
D( 8Ys 88 Yty8 Yt<8
P rg8 VVV
DtY8YyY<
D( yYt8y Ys yy Yt<y
P rgy VVV
DtY8YyY<
A:=3;aB
A:=3;"B
E?uations A:=3;B are (alid for any type of Juid, regardless of the nature of the stress
rate=of=strain relation. *f &to!esHs (iscosity relations, e?uations A9=3>B and A9=3@B, are used
for the stress components, e?uations A:=3;B "ecome

D( 8Y, Y 5Y(
UmN ( V N mP rg8 UrA:=39aBV N WmN( 8 X
Y8 Y8 >Y8Dt

D( yY, Y 5Y(
UmN ( V N mP rgy UA:=39"BV N WmN( y Xr
Yy Yy >YyDt
and

D( <Y, Y 5Y(
UmN ( V N mP rg< UV N WmN( < Xr
Y< Y< >Y<Dt
A:=39cB
The a"o(e e?uations are called the /a(ierO&to!es3 e?uations and are the differential
e8pressions of /e2tonHs second la2 of motion for a /e2tonian fluid. +s no assumptions
L$. M. H. /a(ier, Memoire sur les $ois du Mou(ements des Fluides, Mem. de lH+cad. d. &ci., ;, >:7 A3755BT
. #. &to!es, %n the Theories of the *nternal Friction of Fluids in Motion, Trans. am"ridge ,hys. &oc., 7
A37@5B.
3
36; hapter : Differential E?uations of Fluid Flo2
relating to the compressi"ility of the fluid ha(e "een made, these e?uations are (alid for
"oth compressi"le and incompressi"le flo2s. *n our study of momentum transfer 2e shall
restrict our attention to incompressi"le flo2 2ith constant (iscosity. *n an incompressi"le
flo2, N ( P 6. E?uations A:=39B thus "ecome
5
D( 8Y,Y (8 Y 5 (8 Y 5(8
P rg8 UVmr
V 5 V 5
DtY85YyY<Y8
5
D( yY (y Y 5 (y Y 5(yY,
P rgy UVmV 5 V 5
r
DtY85YyY<Yy
5
D( <Y,Y (< Y5(< Y5(<
P rg< UVmr
V 5 V 5
DtY85YyY<Y<
A:=37aB
A:=37"B
A:=37cB
These e?uations may "e e8pressed in a more compact form in the single (ector
e?uation
r
D(
P r g U N, V mN5 (
Dt
A:=3:B
The a"o(e e?uation is the /a(ierO&to!es e?uation for an incompressi"le Jo2. The
/a(ierO&to!es e?uations are 2ritten in cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate
forms in +ppendi8 E. +s the de(elopment has "een lengthy, let us re(ie2 the assumptions
and, therefore, the limitations of e?uation A:=3:B. The assumptions are
3. incompressi"le Jo2,
5. constant (iscosity,
>. laminar Jo2.5
+ll of the a"o(e assumptions are associated 2ith the use of the &to!es (iscosity
relation. *f the Jo2 is in(iscid Wm P 6X, the /a(ierO&to!es e?uation "ecomes
r
D(
P r g U N,
Dt
A:=56B
2hich is !no2n as EulerHs e?uation. EulerHs e?uation has only one limitation, that "eing
in(iscid flo2.
EM+M,$E 3 E?uation A:=3:B may "e applied to numerous Jo2 systems to pro(ide information regarding
(elocity (ariation, pressure gradients, and other information of the type achie(ed in hapter 7.
Many situations are of sufFcient comple8ity to ma!e the solution e8tremely difFcult and are
"eyond the scope of this te8t. + situation for 2hich a solution can "e o"tained is illustrated in
Figure :.@.
Figure :.@ sho2s the situation of an incompressi"le Juid conFned "et2een t2o parallel, (ertical
surfaces. %ne surface, sho2n to the left, is stationary, 2hereas the other is mo(ing up2ard at a
constant (elocity ( 6. *f 2e consider the Juid /e2tonian and the Jo2 laminar, the go(erning e?uation
5
&trictly spea!ing, e?uation A:=3:B is (alid for tur"ulent Jo2, as the tur"ulent stress is included in the
momentum Ju8 term. This 2ill "e illustrated in hapter 35.
of motion is the /a(ierO&to!es e?uation in the form gi(en "y e?uation A:=3:B. The reduction of each
term in the (ector e?uation into its applica"le form is sho2n "elo2.
)d
D(Y(Y(Y(Y(
PrV (8V ( y V( <P6r
DtYtY8YyY<
Fluid r g P Urgey
d,
N, Pey
dy
2here d,Ddy is constant, and
$
y
mN5 ( P m
The resulting e?uation to "e sol(ed is
d5 ( y
ey
d85
8
u6
6 P Urg U
Figure :.@ Fluid "et2een
t2o (ertical plates 2ith
This differential e?uation is separa"le. The Frst integration yields
the one on the left
stationary and the other
)don the right mo(ing
d( y 8d,
VUrg UP 3(ertically up2ard 2ith
d8 mdy
(elocity ( 6 C *ntegrating once more, 2e o"tain
)d
85d,
(y VUrg UP 3 8 V 5
5mdy
The integration constants may "e e(aluated, using the "oundary conditions that ( y P 6 at 8 P 6, and
( y P ( 6 at 8 P $. The constants thus "ecome
)d
(6$d,
Urg U3 P V
$ 5mdy
The (elocity proFle may no2 "e e8pressed as
)d

z3d, {8
(y PUrg U$8 U 85 V ( 6
5mdy$j^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^k<^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l
jk<l
33 53
d5 ( yd,
Vm 5
d8dy
and
5 P 6
A:=53B
53*t is interesting to note, in e?uation A:=53B, the effect of the terms
la"eled 3 and 3, 2hich are
added. The Frst term is the e?uation for a symmetric para"ola, the second for a straight line. E?uation
A:=53B is (alid 2hether ( 6 is up2ard, do2n2ard, or <ero. *n each case, the terms may "e added to yield
the complete (elocity proFle. These results are indicated in Figure :.5. The resulting (elocity proFle
o"tained "y superposing the t2o parts is sho2n in each case.
u6
i
i i
N
N
N
u6
Figure :.5 1elocity
proFles for one surface
mo(ing up2ard, do2n2ard,
or stationary.
EulerHs e?uation may also "e sol(ed to determine (elocity proFles, as 2ill "e sho2n in
hapter 36. The (ector properties of EulerHs e?uation are illustrated "y the e8ample "elo2, in
2hich the form of the (elocity proFle is gi(en.
EM+M,$E 5 + rotating shaft, as illustrated in Figure :.;, causes the Juid to mo(e in circular streamlines 2ith a
(elocity that is in(ersely proportional to the distance from the shaft. Find the shape of the free surface
if the Juid can "e considered in(iscid.
&treamlines
Figure :.; Rotating shaft in a
Juid.
+s the pressure along the free surface 2ill "e constant, 2e may o"ser(e that the free surface is
perpendicular to the pressure gradient. Determination of the pressure gradient, therefore, 2ill ena"le
us to e(aluate the slope of the free surface.
Rearranging e?uation A:=56B, 2e ha(e
D(
A:=56B
Dt
The (elocity ( P +eu Dr, 2here + is a constant, 2hen using the coordinate system sho2n in
Figure :.9. +ssuming that there is no slip "et2een the Juid and the shaft at the surface of the
N, P rg U r
:.5
e<
2
/a(ierO&to!es E?uations 36:
<
r
e?
er
?
Figure :.9 ylindrical coordinate system for
rotating shaft and Juid.
shaft, 2e ha(e
(WRX P (R P
and thus + P (R5 and
(P
(R5
eu
r
+
R
The su"stantial deri(ati(e D(DDt may "e e(aluated "y ta!ing the total deri(ati(e
d((R5(R5 deu
hP U 5 eu r V
rr dtdt
h2here deu Ddt P Uuer . The total deri(ati(e "ecomes
d((R5(R5 hu erhePU 5 r uU
rrdt
|
/o2 the Juid (elocity in the r direction is <ero, and u for the Juid is (Dr, so

d(D((R5(5 R@
PP U 5 (er P U > er
rrdt fluid Dt
This result could ha(e "een o"tained in a more direct manner "y o"ser(ing that D(DDt is the local
Juid acceleration, 2hich for this case is U( 5 er Dr. The pressure gradient "ecomes
(5 R@ er
N, P Urge< V r
r>
From Figure :.7, it can "e seen that the free surface ma!es an angle " 2ith the r a8is so that
tan " P
r(5 R@
r > rg
(5 R@
P
gr >
<
Free surface
,
Orge< "
r25R@
r>
er
r Figure :.7 Free=surface slope.
:.> -ER/%'$$*H& E.'+T*%/
EulerHs e?uation may "e integrated directly for a particular case, Jo2 along a streamline. *n
integrating EulerHs e?uation, the use of streamline coordinates is e8tremely helpful.
&treamline coordinates s and n are illustrated in Figure :.:. The s direction is parallel
to the streamline and the n direction is perpendicular to the streamline, directed a2ay from
the instantaneous center of cur(ature. The Jo2 and Juid properties are functions of position
and time. Thus, ( P (As, n, tB, and , P ,As, n, tB. The su"stantial deri(ati(es of the (elocity
and pressure gradients in e?uation A:=56B must "e e8pressed in terms of streamline
coordinates so that e?uation A:=56B may "e integrated.
y
en
&treamlines
(
es
8
<
Figure :.: &treamline
coordinates.
Follo2ing the form used in e?uations A:=;B to o"tain the su"stantial deri(ati(e, 2e ha(e
d( Y(Y(Y(
||PVs Vn
dtYtYsYn
||+s the (elocity of the Juid element has components s P (T n P 6, the
su"stantial deri(ati(e
of the (elocity in streamline coordinates is
D( Y(Y(
PV(
DtYtYs
A:=55B
:.@ losure 333
The pressure gradient in streamline coordinates may "e 2ritten as
N, P
Y,Y,
es Ven
YsYn
A:=5>B
Ta!ing the dot product of e?uation A:=56B 2ith es ds, and using e?uations A:=55B and
A:=5>B, 2e o"tain

Y(Y(Y,Y,
es ds V ( es dsres Ven es dsP rg es ds U
YtYsYsYn
or, as Y(DYs es P YDYsW( es X P Y(DYs, 2e ha(e
) d
Y(Y (5Y,
es ds Vdsds P rg es ds Ur
YtYs 5Ys
A:=5@B
&electing g to act in the Uy direction, 2e ha(e g es ds P Ug dy. For steady incom=
pressi"le flo2, e?uation A:=5@B may "e integrated to yield
(5,
V gy V P constant
5r
2hich is !no2n as -ernoulliHs e?uation. The limitations are
3. in(iscid Jo2,
5. steady Jo2,
>. incompressi"le Jo2,
@. the e?uation applies along a streamline.
$imitation @ 2ill "e rela8ed for certain conditions to "e in(estigated in hapter 36.
-ernoulliHs e?uation 2as also de(eloped in hapter ; from energy considerations for
steady incompressi"le Jo2 2ith constant internal energy. *t is interesting to note that the
constant internal energy assumption and the in(iscid Jo2 assumption must "e e?ui(alent, as
the other assumptions 2ere the same. We may note, therefore, that the (iscosity in some 2ay
2ill effect a change in internal energy.
A:=55B
:.@ $%&'RE
We ha(e de(eloped the differential e?uations for the conser(ation of mass and /e2tonHs
second la2 of motion. These e?uations may "e su"di(ided into t2o special groups
Yr
V N r( P 6
Yt
*n(iscid flo2
r
*ncompressi"le, (iscous flo2
N
r
A:=5;B
Acontinuity e?uationB
A:=59B
AEulerHs e?uationB
A:=57B
Acontinuity e?uationB
A:=5:B
A/a(ierO&to!es e?uation
for incompressi"le flo2B
D(
P rg U N,
Dt
(P6
D(
P rg U N, V mN5 (
Dt
*n addition, the student should note the physical meaning of the su"stantial deri(ati(e
and appreciate the compactness of the (ector representation. *n component form, for
e8ample, e?uation A:=5:B comprises some 59 terms in cartesian coordinates.
,R%-$EM&
:.3 +pply the la2 of conser(ation of mass to an element in a
polar coordinate system and o"tain the continuity e?uation for a
steady, t2o=dimensional, incompressi"le Jo2.
:.5 *n cartesian coordinates, sho2 that
YYY
(8 V (y V (<
Y8YyY<
may "e 2ritten W( NX. What is the physical meaning of the term
W( NXa
:.> *n an incompressi"le Jo2, the (olume of the Juid is
constant. 'sing the continuity e?uation, N ( P 6, sho2 that
the Juid (olume change is <ero.
:.@ Find D(DDt in polar coordinates "y ta!ing the deri(ati(e of
the (elocity. AHintC ( P ( r WrT uT tXer V ( u WrT uT tXeu C Remem"er
that the unit (ectors ha(e deri(ati(es.B
:.5 For Jo2 at (ery lo2 speeds and 2ith large (iscosity Athe
so=called creeping Jo2sB such as occur in lu"rication, it is
possi"le to delete the inertia terms, D(DDt, from the /a(ierO
&to!es e?uation. For Jo2s at high (elocity and small (iscosity, it
is not proper to delete the (iscous term (N5 (. E8plain this.
:.; 'sing the /a(ierO&to!es e?uations and the continuity
e?uation, o"tain an e8pression for the (elocity proFle "et2een
t2o Jat, parallel plates.
:.9 Does the (elocity distri"ution in E8ample 5 satisfy con=
tinuitya
:.7 The atmospheric density may "e appro8imated "y the
relation r P r6 e8pA U yD"B, 2here " P 55,666 ft. Determine
the rate at 2hich the density changes 2ith respect to "ody falling
at ( fps. *f ( P 56,666 fps at 366,666 ft, e(aluate the rate of
density change.
:.: *n a (elocity Feld 2here ( P @66wAyD$B5 e8 V A8D$B5 ey x fps,
determine the pressure gradient at the point A$, 5$B. The y a8is is
(ertical, the density is ;@C@ l"m Dft> and the Jo2 may "e con=
sidered in(iscid.
:.36 Write e?uations A:=39B in component form for cartesian
coordinates.
:.33 Deri(e e?uation A5=>B from e?uation A:=59B.
:.35 *n polar coordinates, the continuity e?uation is
3 Y3 Y( u
Wr( r X VP6
r Yrr Yu
&ho2 that
AaB if ( u P 6, then ( r P FAuBDrT
A"B if ( r P 6, then ( u P f ArB.
:.3> 'sing the la2s for the addition of (ectors and e?uation AB,
sho2 that in the a"sence of gra(ity,
the Juid acceleration, pressure force, and (iscous force all
lie in the same planeT
A"B in the a"sence of (iscous forces the Juid accelerates in the
direction of decreasing pressureT
AcB a static Juid 2ill al2ays start to mo(e in the direction of
decreasing pressure.
AaB
:.3@ %"tain the e?uations for a one=dimensional steady, (is=
cous, compressi"le Jo2 in the 8 direction from the /a(ierO
&to!es e?uations. AThese e?uations, together 2ith an e?uation of
state and the energy e?uation, may "e sol(ed for the case of 2ea!
shoc! 2a(es.B
:.35 %"tain the e?uations for one=dimensional in(iscid,
unsteady, compressi"le Jo2.
:.3; 'sing the /a(ierO&to!es e?uations as gi(en in +ppendi8
E 2or! ,ro"lems 7.39 and 7.37.
:.39 'sing the /a(ierO&to!es e?uations, Fnd the differential
e?uation for a radial Jo2 in 2hich ( .
:.3: For the Jo2 descri"ed in ,ro"lem 7.3>, o"tain the
differential e?uation of motion if ( u P f ArT tB.
:.56 Determine the (elocity proFle in a Juid situated "et2een
t2o coa8ial rotating cylinders. $et the inner cylinder ha(e radius
R3, and angular (elocity 13 T let the outer cylinder ha(e radius R5
and angular (elocity 15.
hapter
36
*n(iscid Fluid Flo2
+n important area in momentum transfer is in(iscid Jo2, in 2hich, "y (irtue of the
a"sence of shear stress, analytical solutions to the differential e?uations of Juid Jo2
are possi"le.
The su"Iect of in(iscid Jo2 has particular application in aerodynamics and
hydrodynamics and general application to Jo2 a"out "odiesKthe so called e8ternal
Jo2s. *n this chapter, 2e shall introduce the fundamentals of in(iscid Jo2 analysis.
36.3 F$'*D R%T+T*%/ +T + ,%*/T
onsider the element of Juid sho2n in Figure 36.3. *n time Dt the element 2ill mo(e in the
8y plane as sho2n. *n addition to translation, the element may also deform and rotate. We
ha(e discussed the deformation pre(iously in hapter 9. /o2 let us focus our attention on
the rotation of the element. +lthough the element may deform, the orientation 2ill "e gi(en
"y the a(erage rotation of the line segments %- and %+ or "y denoting the rotation "y

d aV"
(< P
dt5
2here the countercloc!2ise sense is positi(e. From Figure 36.3, 2e see that
(
33@ hapter 36 *n(iscid Fluid Flo2
2hich "ecomes, in the limit,

3 Y( y Y( 8
(< PU
Yy5 Y8
A36=3B
The su"script < indicates that the rotation is a"out the < a8is.
*n the 8< and y< planes the rotation at a point is gi(en "y

3 Y( 8 Y( <
U(y P
Y85 Y<
and

3 Y( < Y( y
(8 PU
Y<5 Yy
A36=5B
A36=>B
The rotation at a point is related to the (ector cross product of the (elocity. +s the
student may (erify

Y( y Y( 8Y( < Y( yY( 8 Y( <
Ue8 VUey VUe<N`(P
YyY<Y<Y8Y8Yy
and thus
N ` ( P 5(
A36=@B
The (ector N ` ( is also !no2n as the (orticity. When the rotation at a point is <ero
the Jo2 is said to "e irrotational. For irrotational Jo2 N ` ( P 6, as can "e seen from
e?uation A36=@B. The signiFcance of Juid rotation at a point may "e e8amined "y a
different approach. The /a(ierO&to!es e?uation for incompressi"le Jo2, e?uation A:=5:B,
may also "e 2ritten in the form
r
D(
P UN, V rg U m\N ` WN ` (X^
Dt
A:=5:B
*t may "e o"ser(ed from the a"o(e e?uation that if (iscous forces act on a fluid, the flo2
must "e rotational.
The !inematic condition N ` ( P 6 is not the Frst time 2e ha(e encountered a
!inematic relation that satisFes one of the fundamental physical la2s of Juid mechanics.
The la2 of conser(ation of mass for an incompressi"le Jo2, N ( P 6T is also e8pressed as a
!inematic relation. The use of this relation is the su"Iect of the ne8t section.
36.5 THE &TRE+M F'/T*%/
For a t2o=dimensional, incompressi"le Jo2, the continuity e?uation is
N ( P
Y( 8 Y( y
VP6
Y8Yy
A:=>B
E?uation A:=>B indicates that ( 8 and ( y are related in some 2ay so that Y( 8 DY8 P
UWY( y DYyXC ,erhaps the easiest 2ay to e8press this relation is "y ha(ing ( 8 and ( y "oth
related to the same function. onsider the function FA8T yBT if ( 8 P FA8T yB, then
Y( yYF
PU
YyY8
f
or ( y P U
YF
dy
Y8
36.5 The &tream Function 335
'nfortunately, the selection of ( 8 P FA8T yB results in an integral for ( y. We can easily
remo(e the integral sign if 2e ma!e the original FA8,yB e?ual to the deri(ati(e of some
function 2ith respect to y. For e8ample, if FA8T yB P AYA8T yBDYyxT then
(8 P
+s Y( 8 DY8 P UAY( y DYyBT 2e may 2rite

Y( yY Y
PU
Y8 YyYy
for this to "e true in general
(y P U
Y
Y8
Y
Yy

YY
(y VP6
YyY8
or
*nstead of ha(ing t2o un!no2ns, ( 8 and ( y, 2e no2 ha(e only one un!no2n, . The
un!no2n, , is called the stream function. The physical signiFcance of can "e seen from
the follo2ing considerations. +s P A8T yBT the total deri(ati(e is
d P
+lso
Y
P U( y
Y8
and thus
d P U( y d8 V ( 8 dy
A36=5B
onsider a path in the 8y plane such that P constantC +long this path, d P 6T and
thus e?uation A36=5B "ecomes

(ydy
PA36=;B
d8 Pconstant ( 8
The slope of the path P constant is seen to "e the same as the slope of a streamline as
discussed in hapter >. The function A8T yB thus represents the streamlines. Figure 36.5
illustrates the streamlines and (elocity components for Jo2 a"out an airfoil.
The differential e?uation that go(erns is o"tained "y consideration of the Juid
rotation, (, at a point. *n a t2o=dimensional Jo2, (< P \ wAY( y DY8B U AY( 8 DYyBx, and thus if
and
Y
P (8
Yy
YY
d8 Vdy
Y8Yy
Figure 36.5 &treamlines
and the stream function.
33; hapter 36 *n(iscid Fluid Flo2
the (elocity components ( y and ( 8 are e8pressed in terms of the stream function , 2e
o"tain, for an incompressi"le, steady Jo2
Y5 Y5
U5( */1*&*D, *RR%T+T*%/+$ F$%W +-%'T
+/ */F*/*TE E$*/DER
*n order to illustrate the use of the stream function, the in(iscid, irrotational Jo2 pattern
a"out a cylinder of inFnite length 2ill "e e8amined. The physical situation is illustrated in
Figure 36.>. + stationary circular cylinder of radius a is situated in uniform, parallel Jo2 in
the 8 direction.
y
r
u
a
?
8
Figure 36.> ylinder in a uniform
Jo2.
+s there is cylindrical symmetry, polar coordinates are employed. *n polar coordi=
nates,3 e?uation A36=7B "ecomes
Y 5 3 Y 3 Y 5
VVP6
Yr 5r Yr r 5 Yu5
2here the (elocity components ( r and ( u are gi(en "y
(r P
3 Y
r Yu
(u P U
Y
Yr
A36=36B
A36=:B
The solution for this case must meet four "oundary conditions. These are as follo2sC
3. The circle r P a must "e a streamline. +s the (elocity normal to a streamline is
<ero, ( r IrPa P 6 or YDYuIrPa P 6C
5. From symmetry, the line u P 6 must also "e a streamline. Hence ( u IuP6 P 6 or
YDYrIuP6 P 6C
>. +s r Q 3 the (elocity must "e Fnite.
@. The magnitude of the (elocity as r Q 3 is ( 3 T a constant.
3
The operator N5 in cylindrical coordinates is de(eloped in +ppendi8 +.
36.@ *rrotational Flo2, the 1elocity ,otential 339
The solution to e?uation A36=:B for this case is
a5
WrT uX P ( 3 r sinu 3 U 5
r
Q
A36=33B
The (elocity components ( r and ( u are o"tained from e?uation A36=36B,
Q
3 Ya5
P ( 3 cosu 3 U 5(r P
r Yur
and
Ya5
P U( 3 sinu 3 V 5(u P U
Yrr
Q
A36=35B
A36=3>B
-y setting r P a in the a"o(e e?uations, the (elocity at the surface of the cylinder may "e
determined. This results in
(r P 6
and
( u P U5( 3 sinu
A36=3@B
The (elocity in the radial direction is, of course, <ero, as the cylinder surface is a
streamline. The (elocity along the surface is seen to "e <ero at u P 6 and u P 376 C These
points of <ero (elocity are !no2n as stagnation points. The for2ard stagnation point is at
u P 376 T and the aft or rear2ard stagnation point is at u P 6 C The student may (erify
that each of the "oundary conditions for this case are satisfied.
36.@ *RR%T+T*%/+$ F$%W, THE 1E$%*TE ,%TE/T*+$
*n a t2o=dimensional irrotational Jo2 N ` ( P 6T and thus Y( 8 DYy P Y( y T DY8C The
similarity of this e?uation to the continuity e?uation suggests that the type of relation
used to o"tain the stream function may "e used again. /ote, ho2e(er, that the order of
differentiation is re(ersed from the continuity e?uation. *f 2e let ( 8 P YfA8T yBDY8, 2e
o"ser(e that
Y( yY( 8Y5f
PP
Y8YyYyY8
or

Y Yf
U (y P 6
Y8 Yy
Yf
Yy
and for the general case
(y P
The function f is called the (elocity potential. *n order for f to e8ist, the Jo2 must "e
irrotational. +s the condition of irrotationality is the only condition re?uired, the (elocity
potential can also e8ist for compressi"le, unsteady Jo2s. The (elocity potential is
commonly used in compressi"le Jo2 analysis. +dditionally, the (elocity potential, f e8ists
for three=dimensional Jo2s, 2hereas the stream function does not.
337 hapter 36 *n(iscid Fluid Flo2
The (elocity (ector is gi(en "y
( P ( 8 e8 V ( y ey V ( < e< P
and thus, in (ector notation
( P Nf
A36=35B
The differential e?uation defining f is o"tained from the continuity e?uation. onsidering
a steady incompressi"le flo2, 2e ha(e N ( P 6T thus, using e?uation A36=35B for (, 2e
o"tain
N Nf P N5 f P 6
A36=3;B
YfYfYf
e8 Vey Ve<
Y8YyY<
2hich is again $aplaceHs e?uationT this time the dependent (aria"le is f. learly, and f
must "e related. This relation may "e illustrated "y a consideration of isolines of and f.
+n isoline of is, of course, a streamline. +long the isolines
YY
d8 Vdyd P
Y8Yy
or

(ydy
P

d8 Pconstant ( 8
YfYf
df Pd8 Vdy
Y8Yy
+ccordingly

dy (8PU
(yd8 dfP6
and

3
dyDd8fPconstant P U
dyDd8
A36=39B
Pconstant
and thus and f are orthogonal. The orthogonality of the stream function and the
(elocity potential is a useful property, particularly 2hen graphical solutions to
e?uations A36=7B and A36=3;B are employed.
Figure 36.@ illustrates the in(iscid, irrotational, steady incompressi"le Jo2 a"out an
inFnite circular cylinder. -oth the streamlines and constant=(elocity potential lines are
sho2n.
Figure 36.@ &treamlines and constant
(elocity potential lines for steady,
incompressi"le, irrotational, in(iscid Jo2
a"out a cylinder.
36.; 'tili<ation of ,otential Flo2 33:
36.5 T%T+$ HE+D */ *RR%T+T*%/+$ F$%W
The condition of irrotationality has "een sho2n to "e of aid in o"taining analytical solutions
in Juid Jo2. The physical meaning of irrotational Jo2 can "e illustrated "y the relation
"et2een the rotation or (orticity, N ` (, and the total head, ,Dr V ( 5 D5 V gyC For an in(iscid
Jo2 2e may 2rite
D(N,
PgU
Dtr
and
5
D( Y((
U ( ` WN ` (XPVN
5DtYt
AEulerHs e?uationB
A1ector identityB
+s the gradient of the potential energy is Ug, EulerHs e?uation "ecomes, for incompressi"le
Jo2
)d
, (5Y(
NV V gy P ( ` WN ` (X U CA36=37B
r 5Yt
*f the Jo2 is steady, it is seen from e?uation A36=37B that the gradient of the total head
depends upon the (orticity, N ` (C The (ector WN ` (X is perpendicular to the (elocity
(ectorT hence, the gradient of the total head has no component along a streamline. Thus,
along a streamline in an incompressi"le, in(iscid, steady Jo2,
, (5
V V gy P constant
r 5
A36=3:B
This is, of course, -ernoulliHs e?uation, 2hich 2as discussed in hapters ; and :. *f the
Jo2 is irrotational and steady, e?uation A36=37B yields the result that -ernoulliHs e?uation is
(alid throughout the Jo2 Feld. +n irrotational, steady, incompressi"le Jo2, therefore, has a
constant total head throughout the Jo2 Feld.5
36.; 'T*$*f+T*%/ %F ,%TE/T*+$ F$%W
,otential Jo2 has great utility in engineering for the prediction of pressure Felds, forces, and
Jo2 rates. *n the Feld of aerodynamics, for e8ample, potential Jo2 solutions are used to
predict force and moment distri"utions on 2ings and other "odies.
+n illustration of the determination of the pressure distri"ution from a potential Jo2
solution may "e o"tained from the solution for the Jo2 a"out a circular cylinder presented in
&ection 36.>. From the -ernoulli e?uation
, (5
V P constant
r 5
A36=56B
We ha(e deleted the potential energy term in accordance 2ith the original assumption of
uniform (elocity in the 8 direction. +t a great distance from the cylinder the pressure is
,3 , and the (elocity is ( 3, so e?uation A36=56B "ecomes>
,V
r( 5r( 5
P , 3 V 3 P ,6
55
A36=53B
5
+ more general result, roccoHs theorem, relates the (orticity to the entropy. Thus it can "e sho2n that a
steady, in(iscid, irrotational Jo2, either compressi"le or incompressi"le, is isentropic.
>The stagnation pressure as gi(en in e?uation A36=53B applies to incompressi"le Jo2 only.
2here ,6 is designated the stagnation pressure Ai.e., the pressure at 2hich the (elocity
is <eroB. *n accordance 2ith e?uation A36=3:B, the stagnation pressure is constant
throughout the field in an irrotational flo2. The (elocity at the surface of the "ody is
( u P U5( 3 sinu, thus the surface pressure is
, P ,6 U 5r( 5 sin5 u3
A36=55B
+ plot of the potential flo2 pressure distri"ution a"out a cylinder is sho2n in Figure
36.5.
5
,
u
?
3
A, O , B D 3 ru 5
6
5
O3
O5
O>
6 >6 ;6 :6
?
356 356 376
Figure 36.5 ,ressure distri"ution
on a cylinder in an in(iscid,
incompressi"le, steady Jo2.
36.9 ,%TE/T*+$ F$%W +/+$E&*&K&*M,$E ,$+/E F$%W +&E&
*n this section, a num"er of cases 2ill "e considered in 2hich solutions are achie(ed for
t2o=dimensional, incompressi"le irrotational Jo2. We "egin 2ith some (ery straightfor=
2ard Jo2 situations.
ase 3. 'niform Jo2 in the 8 direction.
For a uniform Jo2 parallel to the 8 a8is, 2ith (elocity ( 3 P constantT the stream
function and (elocity potential relationships are
(8 P (3 P
(y P 6 P
2hich integrate to yield
P (3y
f P (38
ase 5. + line source or sin!.
+ line source, in t2o dimensions, is a Jo2 2hich is radially out2ard from the source
2hich is the origin in this e8ample. The re(erse, or sin! Jo2, has the Jo2 directed in2ard.
Y Yf
P
YyY8
Y Yf
P
Y8Yy
36.7 ,otential Flo2 +nalysisK&uperposition 353
The source strength is the (olume Jo2 rate per unit depth, . P 5pr( r C The radial (elocity
associated 2ith a source is
.
(r P
5pr
and the a<imuthal (elocity is gi(en "y ( u P 6C The stream function and (elocity potential
are e(aluated from the e8pressions
.3 Y Yf
PP(r P
5pr r YuYr
Y 3 Yf
P(u P 6 P U
Yrr Yu
*ntegrating these e8pressions, 2e o"tain for the line source
.
uP
5p
.
ln rfP
5p
For sin! Jo2, the sign of the radial (elocity is negati(e Ain2ardB and thus . is negati(e.
The e8pressions for a line source or sin! present a pro"lem at r P 6, the origin, 2hich
is a singular point. +t r P 6, the radial (elocity approaches inFnity. ,hysically this is
unrealistic, and 2e use only the concept of line source or sin! Jo2 under conditions 2here
the singularity is e8cluded from consideration.
ase >. + line (orte8.
1orte8 Jo2 is that 2hich occurs in a circular fashion around a central point, such as a
2hirlpool. + free (orte8 is one 2here Juid particles are irrotational, i.e., they do not rotate as they
mo(e in concentric circles a"out the a8is of the (orte8. This 2ould "e analogous to people sitting
in ca"ins on a ferris 2heel. For an irrotational Jo2 in polar coordinates Asee +ppendi8 -B, the
product r( u must "e constant. The stream function and (elocity potential can "e 2ritten directly,
3 Y Yf
(r P 6 PP
r YuYr
0Y 3 Yf
PUP(u P
5prYrr Yu
2hich, upon integration, "ecome
PU
fP
0
ln r
5p
0
u
5p
2here 0 is referred to as the (orte8 strength. When 0 is positi(e, the Jo2 is o"ser(ed to "e
countercloc!2ise a"out the (orte8 center.
36.7 ,%TE/T*+$ F$%W +/+$E&*&K&',ER,%&*T*%/
*t 2as sho2n earlier that "oth the stream function and the (elocity potential satisfy $aplaceHs
e?uation for t2o=dimensional, irrotational, incompressi"le Jo2. +s $aplaceHs e?uation is
linear 2e can use !no2n solutions to achie(e e8pressions for "oth and 2 for more comple8
situations using the principle of superposition. &uperposition, simply put, is the process of
adding !no2n solutions to achie(e another, i.e., if 3 and 5 are solutions to N5 P 6, then
so is > P 3 V 5 a solution.
The reader is reminded that the solutions o"tained for these (ery speciali<ed Jo2
conditions are ideali<ations. They apply for in(iscid Jo2 2hich is a reasona"le appro8=
imation for conditions outside the region, near a solid "ody, 2here (iscous effects are
manifested. This region, the "oundary layer, 2ill "e considered in some depth in hapter 35.
&ome cases 2ill no2 "e considered 2here the elementary plane Jo2s of the pre(ious
section gi(e some interesting and useful results through the process of superposition.
ase @. The dou"let.
+ useful case is achie(ed from considering a source=sin! pair on the 8 a8is as the
separation distance, 5a, approaches <ero. #eometrically, 2e can note that the streamlines
and (elocity potential lines are circles 2ith centers on the y and 8 a8es "ut 2ith all circles
passing through the origin that is a singular point.
The strength of a dou"le, designated l, is deFned as the Fnite limit of the ?uantity
5a. as a Q 6. For our case, the source is placed on the 8 a8is at Ua and the sin! is placed on
the 8 a8is at Va. The resulting e8pressions for and f in polar coordinates are
PU
l sinu
r
l cosu
fP
r
ase 5. Flo2 past a half "odyKsuperposition of uniform Jo2 and a source.
The stream function and (elocity potentials for uniform Jo2 in the 8 direction and for a
line source are added together, yielding
P uniform flo2 V source
..
uP ( 3 y V u P ( 3 r sinu V
5p5p
f P funiform flo2 V fsource
..
ln r P ( 3 r cosu V ln rP (38 V
5p5p
ase ;. Flo2 past a cylinderKsuperposition of uniform Jo2 and a dou"let.
+s a Fnal illustration of the superposition method, 2e 2ill consider a case of
considera"le utility. When the solutions for uniform Jo2 and the dou"let are superposed,
the result, similar to the past case, deFnes a streamline pattern inside and around the outside
surface of a "ody. *n this case the "ody is closed and the e8terior Jo2 pattern is that of ideal
Jo2 o(er a cylinder. The e8pressions for and 2 are
P uniform flo2 V dou"let
P (3y U
l sinul sinu
P ( 3 r sinu U
rr
Q
l
P ( 3 r U sinu
r
l cosul cosu
P ( 3 r cosu V
rr
Q
l
P ( 3 r V cosu
r
f P funiform flo2 V fdou"let
P (38 V
36.: losure 35>
*t is useful, at this point, to e8amine the a"o(e e8pressions in more detail. First, for the
stream functionQ
l
P ( 3 r U sinu
r
Q
lD( 3
P ( 3 r 3 U 5 sinu
r 2here, as 2e recall, l is the dou"let strength. *f 2e choose l such that
l
P a5
(3
2here a is the radius of our cylinder, 2e o"tain
a5
WrT uX P ( 3 r sinu 3 U 5
r
Q
2hich is the e8pression used earlier, designated as e?uation A36=33B.
36.: $%&'RE
*n this chapter, 2e ha(e e8amined potential Jo2. + short summary of the properties of the
stream function and the (elocity potential is gi(en "elo2.
&tream function
3. + stream function A8T yB e8ists for each and e(ery t2o=dimensional, steady,
incompressi"le Jo2, 2hether (iscous or in(iscid.
5. $ines for 2hich A8T yB P constant are streamlines.
>. *n cartesian coordinates
YY
(8 P(y P U
YyY8
and in general
(s P
Y
Yn
A36=5>"B
A36=5>aB
2here n is :67 countercloc!2ise from s.
@. The stream function identically satisFes the continuity e?uation.
5. For an irrotational, steady incompressi"le Jo2
N5 P 6
A36=5@B
1elocity potential
3. The (elocity potential e8ists if and only if the Jo2 is irrotational. /o other
restrictions are re?uired.
5. Nf P (C
>. For irrotational, incompressi"le Jo2, N5 f P 6C
@. For steady, incompressi"le t2o=dimensional Jo2s, lines of constant (elocity
potential are perpendicular to the streamlines.
35@ hapter 36 *n(iscid Fluid Flo2
,R%-$EM&
36.3 *n polar coordinates, sho2 that
N`(P
3 YWr( u X Y( r
Ue<
rYrYu
Q
For this Jo2 Feld, plot se(eral streamlines for 6 u pN>C
36.35 For the case of a source at the origin 2ith a uniform free=
stream plot the streamline c P 6.
36.3> *n ,ro"lem 36.35, ho2 far upstream does the Jo2 from
the source reacha
36.3@ Determine the pressure gradient at the stagnation point
of ,ro"lem 36.36AaB.
36.35 alculate the total lift force on the +rctic hut sho2n
"elo2 as a function of the location of the opening. The lift force
results from the difference "et2een the inside pressure and the
outside pressure. +ssume potential Jo2 and the hut is in the
shape of a half=cylinder.
6pening
u
?
36.5 Determine the Juid rotation at a point in polar coordi=
nates, using the method illustrated in Figure 36.3.
36.> Find the stream function for a Jo2 2ith a uniform free=
stream (elocity ( 3 C The free=stream (elocity intersects the 8 a8is
at an angle a.
36.@ *n polar coordinates, the continuity e?uation for steady
incompressi"le Jo2 "ecomes
3 Y3 Y( u
P6Wr( r X V
r Yrr Yu
Deri(e e?uations A36=36B, using this relation.
36.5 The (elocity potential for a gi(en t2o=dimensional Jo2
Feld is
5 >
fP8 U 58y5
>
&ho2 that the continuity e?uation is satisFed and determine the
corresponding stream function.
36.; Ma!e an analytical model of a tornado using an irrota=
tional (orte8 A2ith (elocity in(ersely proportional to distance
from the centerB outside a central core A2ith (elocity directly
proportional to distanceB. +ssume that the core diameter is 566 ft
and the static pressure at the center of the core is >7 psf "elo2
am"ient pressure. Find
AaB the ma8imum 2ind (elocityT
A"B the time it 2ould ta!e a tornado mo(ing at ;6 mph to lo2er
the static pressure from U36 to U>7 psfgT
AcB the (ariation in stagnation pressure across the tornado.
EulerHs e?uation may "e used to relate the pressure gra=
dient in the core to the Juid acceleration.
36.9 For the Jo2 a"out a cylinder, Fnd the (elocity (ariation
along the streamline leading to the stagnation point. What is the
(elocity deri(ati(e Y( r DYr at the stagnation pointa
36.7 *n ,ro"lem 36.9, e8plain ho2 one could o"tain Y( u DYu at
the stagnation point, using only r and Y( r DYrC
36.: +t 2hat point on the surface of the circular cylinder in a
potential Jo2 does the pressure e?ual the free=stream pressurea
36.36 For the (elocity potentials gi(en "elo2, Fnd the stream
function and s!etch the streamlines
8 > >8y5 Q
U >AaB f P ( 3 $
$$
8y
A"B f P ( 3
$
[(3 $ U 5
AcB f Pln 8 V y5 C
5
36.33 The stream function for an incompressi"le, t2o=dimen=
sional Jo2 Feld is
c P 5r > sin >u
36.3; onsider three e?ually spaced sources of strength m
placed at A8, yB P AU a, 6B,A6, 6B, and Aa, 6B. &!etch the resulting
streamline pattern. +re there any stagnation pointsa
36.39 &!etch the streamlines and potential lines of the Jo2 due
to a line source of at Aa, 6B plus an e?ui(alent sin! at AUa, 6B.
36.37 The stream function for an incompressi"le, t2o=
dimensional Jo2 Feld is
c P >85 y V y
For this Jo2 Feld, s!etch se(eral streamlines.
36.3: + line (orte8 of strength 0 at A8, yB P A6, aB is com"ined
2ith opposite strength (orte8 at A6, U aBC ,lot the streamline pattern
and Fnd the (elocity that each (orte8 induces on the other (orte8.
36.56 + source of strength 3C5 m5 Ds at the origin is com"ined
2ith a uniform stream mo(ing at : mDs in the 8 direction. For the
half="ody 2hich results, Fnd
AaB the stagnation pointT
A"B the "ody height as it crosses the y a8isT
AcB the "ody height at large 8T
AdB the ma8imum surface (elocity and its position A8, yB.
36.53 When a dou"let is added to a uniform stream so that the
source part of the dou"let faces the stream, a cylinder Jo2
results. ,lot the streamlines 2hen the dou"let is re(ersed so that
the sin! faces the stream.
36.55 + 5=m=diameter hori<ontal cylinder is formed "y "olting
t2o semicylindrical channels together on the inside. There are
35 "olts per meter of 2idth holding the top and "ottom together.
The inside pressure is ;6 !,a AgageB. 'sing potential theory for
the outside pressure, compute the tension force in each "olt if the
free stream Juid is sea=le(el air and the free=stream 2ind speed is
55 mDs.
hapter
33
Dimensional +nalysis
and &imilitude
+n important consideration in all e?uations 2ritten thus far has "een dimensional
homogeneity. +t times it has "een necessary to use proper con(ersion factors in order
that an ans2er "e correct numerically and ha(e the proper units. The idea of
dimensional consistency can "e used in another 2ay, "y a procedure !no2n as
dimensional analysis, to group the (aria"les in a gi(en situation into dimensionless
parameters that are less numerous than the original (aria"les. &uch a procedure is (ery
helpful in e8perimental 2or! in 2hich the (ery num"er of signiFcant (aria"les presents
an imposing tas! of correlation. -y com"ining the (aria"les into a smaller num"er of
dimensionless parameters, the 2or! of e8perimental data reduction is considera"ly
reduced.
This chapter 2ill include means of e(aluating dimensionless parameters "oth in
situations in 2hich the go(erning e?uation is !no2n, and in those in 2hich no e?uation
is a(aila"le. ertain dimensionless groups emerging from this analysis 2ill "e familiar,
and some others 2ill "e encountered for the Frst time. Finally, certain aspects of
similarity 2ill "e used to predict the Jo2 "eha(ior of e?uipment on the "asis of
e8periments 2ith scale models.
33.3 D*ME/&*%/&
*n dimensional analysis, certain dimensions must "e esta"lished as fundamental, 2ith all
others e8pressi"le in terms of these. %ne of these fundamental dimensions is length,
sym"oli<ed $. Thus, area and (olume may dimensionally "e e8pressed as $5 and $>,
respecti(ely. + second fundamental dimension is time, sym"oli<ed t. The !inematic
?uantities, (elocity and acceleration, may no2 "e e8pressed as $Dt and $Dt5, respecti(ely.
+nother fundamental dimension is mass, sym"oli<ed M. +n e8ample of a ?uantity
2hose dimensional e8pression in(ol(es mass is the density that 2ould "e e8pressed as
MD$>. /e2tonHs second la2 of motion gi(es a relation "et2een force and mass and
allo2s force to "e e8pressed dimensionally as F P Ma P M$Dt5 . &ome te8ts re(erse this
procedure and consider force fundamental, 2ith mass e8pressed in terms of F, $, and t
according to /e2tonHs second la2 of motion. Here, mass 2ill "e considered a fundamental
unit.
The signiFcant ?uantities in momentum transfer can all "e e8pressed dimensionally in
terms of M, $, and tT thus these comprise the fundamental dimensions 2e shall "e concerned
2ith presently. The dimensional analysis of energy pro"lems in hapter 3: 2ill re?uire the
addition of t2o more fundamental dimensions, heat and temperature.
355
35; hapter 33 Dimensional +nalysis and &imilitude
&ome of the more important (aria"les in momentum transfer and their dimensional
representations in terms of M, $, and t are gi(en in Ta"le 33.3.
Ta"le 33.3 *mportant (aria"les in momentum transfer
1aria"le
Mass
$ength
Time
1elocity
#ra(itational acceleration
Force
,ressure
Density
1iscosity
&urface tension
&onic (elocity
&ym"ol
M
$
t
(
g
F
,
r
m
s
a
Dimension
M
$
t
$Dt
$Dt5
M$Dt5
MD$t5
MD$>
MD$t
MDt5
$Dt
33.5 D*ME/&*%/+$ +/+$E&*& %F #%1ER/*/# D*FFERE/T*+$ E.'+T*%/&
The differential e?uations that descri"e Juid "eha(ior as de(eloped in hapter : are
po2erful tools for analy<ing and predicting Juid phenomena and their effects. The /a(ierO
&to!es e?uations ha(e "een sol(ed analytically for a fe2 simple situations. For more
comple8 applications, these relationships pro(ide the "asis for a num"er of sophisticated
and po2erful numerical codes.
*n this section, 2e 2ill use the differential forms of the continuity and momentum
A/a(ierO&to!esB e?uations to de(elop some useful dimensionless parameters that 2ill "e
(alua"le tools for su"se?uent analysis. This process 2ill no2 "e illustrated as 2e e8amine
t2o=dimensional incompressi"le Jo2.
The go(erning differential e?uations are the follo2ing.
ontinuityC
Y( 8 Y( y
VP6A:=>B
Y8Yy
MomentumC
5
Y(Y(Y(Y ( Y5(
rVV (8V (yP rg U Nr V m
YtY8YyY85 Yy5
A:=3:B
We no2 stipulate the reference (alues for length and (elocity
reference length$
reference (elocity ( 3
and, accordingly, specify nondimensional ?uantities for the (aria"les in e?uations A:=>B and
A:=3:B as
8} P 8D$( } P ( 8 D( 38
}y P yD$( } P ( y D( 3y
t( 3
(} P (D( 3t} P
$
N} P $ N
33.5 Dimensional +nalysis of #o(erning Differential E?uations 359
The last ?uantity in this list, N} , is the dimensionless gradient operator. +s N is composed
of Frst deri(ati(es 2ith respect to space coordinates, the product $N is seen to "e
dimensionless.
The ne8t step is to nondimensionali<e our go(erning e?uations "y introducing the
speciFed dimensionless (aria"les. This process in(ol(es the chain rule for differentiationT
for e8ample, the t2o terms in e?uation A:=>B are transformed as follo2sC
Y( 8 Y( } Y( 8 Y8} Y( }( 3 Y( }888P } }P } W( 3 XW3N$X
P}Y8Y8 Y( 8 Y8Y8$ Y8
Y( y Y( } Y( y Yy} ( 3 ( }y8P } }P
YyYy Y( y Yy$ Y8}
&u"stitution into e?uation A:=>B gi(es
}Y( } Y( y8VP6
Y8} Yy}
A33=3B
and 2e see that the continuity e?uation has the same form in terms of dimensionless
(aria"les as it had originally.
'tili<ing the chain rule in the same manner as Iust discussed, the e?uation of motion
"ecomes

r( 5 Y(}Y(}Y(}3 }m( 3 Y 5 (} Y 5 (}3
A33=5B
V ( } } V ( } } P rg V N , V 5V8y}
$YtY8Yy$Y8}5 Yy}5$
*n e?uation A33=5B, 2e note that each term has the units MD$5 t5 or FD$>. +lso, it
should "e o"ser(ed that each term represents a certain !ind of force, that is
r( 5
3
is an inertial force
$
m( 5
3
is a (iscous force
$
rg is a gra(itational force
,D$ is a pressure force
*f 2e ne8t di(ide through "y the ?uantity, r( 5 D$, our dimensionless e?uation "ecomes
3
5 }}}Y(}$N} ,mY (Y 5 (}} Y(} Y(
A33=>B
V (8 } V (y } P g 5 U 5 VV
Yt}Y8Yy( 3 r( 3 $( 3 r Y8}5 Yy}5 This resulting dimensionless e?uation has the same general characteristics as its original
e8cept that, as a result of its transformation into dimensionless form, each of the original force
terms Athose on the right=hand sideB has a coefficient composed of a com"ination of (aria"les.
+n e8ample of these coefficients re(eals that each is dimensionless. +dditionally, "ecause of
the manner in 2hich they 2ere formed, the parameters can "e interpreted as a ratio of forces.
onsideration of the Frst term, g$D( 5 , re(eals that it is, indeed, dimensionless. The
3
choice of g$D( 5 or ( 5 Dg$ is ar"itraryT clearly "oth forms are dimensionless.33
The con(entional choice is the latter form. The Froude num"er is deFned as
Fr ( 5 Dg$3
A33=@B
This parameter can "e interpreted as a measure of the ratio of inertial to gra(itational
forces. The Froude num"er arises in analy<ing flo2s in(ol(ing a free li?uid surface. *t is
an important parameter 2hen dealing 2ith open=channel flo2s.
357 hapter 33 Dimensional +nalysis and &imilitude
The ne8t parameter, ,Dr( 5 , is o"ser(ed to "e the ratio of pressure forces to inertial
3
forces. *n this form it is designated the Euler num"er,
Eu ,Nr( 53
FD+
r( 5 N53
A33=5B
+ modified form of e?uation A33=5B, also clearly dimensionless, is the coefficient of drag
D P
A33=;B
2hich, 2e 2ill see directly, has application to "oth internal and e8ternal flo2s.
The third dimensionless ratio that has "een generated is the Reynolds num"er, 2hich is
con(entionally e8pressed as
Re $( 3 rNm
A33=9B
*n this form the Reynolds num"er is o"ser(ed to represent the ratio of inertial forces to
(iscous forces. The Reynolds num"er is generally considered the most important
dimensionless parameter in the field of fluid mechanics. *t is u"i?uitous in all of the
transport processes. We 2ill encounter it fre?uently throughout the remainder of this te8t.
*f e?uation A33=>B can "e sol(ed, the results 2ill pro(ide the functional relationships
"et2een applica"le dimensionless parameters. *f direct solution is not possi"le then one
must resort to numerical modeling or e8perimental determination of these functional
relationships.
33.> THE -'0*/#H+M METH%D
The procedure introduced in the pre(ious section is, o"(iously, ?uite po2erful 2hen one
!no2s the differential e?uation that pertains to a speciFc Juid Jo2 process. There are,
ho2e(er, many situations of interest in 2hich the go(erning e?uation is not !no2n. *n these
cases, 2e need an alternati(e method for dimensional analysis. *n this section, 2e discuss a
more general approach for generating dimensionless groups of (aria"les. This procedure
2as proposed "y -uc!ingham3 in the early part of the t2entieth century. *t is generally
referred to as the -uc!ingham method.
The initial step in applying the -uc!ingham method re?uires the listing of the (aria"les
signiFcant to a gi(en pro"lem. *t is then necessary to determine the num"er of dimensionless
parameters into 2hich the (aria"les may "e com"ined. This num"er may "e determined
using the -uc!ingham pi theorem, 2hich states
The num"er of dimensionless groups used to descri"e a situation in(ol(ing n
(aria"les is e?ual to n O r, 2here r is the ran! of the dimensional matri8 of
the (aria"les.
Thus,
iPnUr
2here
i P the num"er of independent dimensionless groups
n P the num"er of (aria"les in(ol(ed
A33=7B
and
r P the ran! of the dimensional matri8
3
E. -uc!ingham, ,hys. Re(. 5, >@5 A3:3@B.
33.> The -uc!ingham Method 35:
The dimensional matri8 is simply the matri8 formed "y ta"ulating the e8ponents
of the fundamental dimensions M, $, and t, 2hich appear in each of the (aria"les
in(ol(ed.
+n e8ample of the e(aluation of r and i, as 2ell as the application of the -uc!ingham
method, follo2s.
EM+M,$E 3 Determine the dimensionless groups formed from the (aria"les in(ol(ed in the Jo2 of Juid e8ternal
to a solid "ody. The force e8erted on the "ody is a function of (, r, m, and $ Aa signiFcant dimension of
the "odyB.
+ usual Frst step is to construct a ta"le of the (aria"les and their dimensions.
1aria"le
Force
1elocity
Density
1iscosity
$ength
&ym"ol
F
(
r
m
$
Dimensions
M$Dt5
$Dt
MD$>
MD$t
$
-efore determining the num"er of dimensionless parameters to "e formed, 2e must !no2 r. The
dimensional matri8 that applies is formed from the follo2ing ta"ulationC
F
M
$
t
3
3
(
6
3
r
3
U>
6
m
3
U3
U3
$
6
3
6
U5 U3
The num"ers in the ta"le represent the e8ponents of M, $, and t in the dimensional e8pression
for each (aria"le in(ol(ed. For e8ample, the dimensional e8pression of F is M$ Dt5 , hence the
e8ponents 3, 3, and U5 are ta"ulated (ersus M, $, and t, respecti(ely, the ?uantities 2ith 2hich
they are associated. The matri8 is then the array of num"ers sho2n "elo2
6 3
3633 6
Y 33 U> U3 3 +
U5 U36 U3 6
The ran!, r, of a matri8 is the num"er of ro2s AcolumnsB in the largest non<ero determinant
that can "e formed from it. The ran! is > in this case. Thus, the num"er of dimensionless
parameters to "e formed may "e found "y applying e?uation A33=@B. *n this e8ample
i P 5 U > P 5.
The t2o dimensionless parameters 2ill "e sym"oli<ed p3 and p5 and may "e formed in se(eral
2ays. *nitially, a core group of r (aria"les must "e chosen, 2hich 2ill consist of those (aria"les that
2ill appear in each pi group and, among them, contain all of the fundamental dimensions. %ne 2ay
to choose a core is to e8clude from it those (aria"les 2hose effect one desires to isolate. *n the
present pro"lem it 2ould "e desira"le to ha(e the drag force in only one dimensionless group,
hence it 2ill not "e in the core. $et us ar"itrarily let the (iscosity "e the other e8clusion from the
core. %ur core group no2 consists of the remaining (aria"les (, r, and $, 2hich, 2e o"ser(e,
include M, $, and t among them.
3>6 hapter 33 Dimensional +nalysis and &imilitude
We no2 !no2 that p3 and p5 "oth include r, $, and ( T that one of them includes F and the other
mT and that they are "oth dimensionless. *n order that each "e dimensionless, the (aria"les must "e
raised to certain e8ponents. Writing
p3 P ( a r" $c F
and
p5 P ( d re $ f m
2e shall e(aluate the e8ponents as follo2s. onsidering each p group independently, 2e 2rite
p3 P ( a r" $c F
and dimensionally

$ a M " c M$
A$B 5
M $ t P3P
t$>t
6 6 6
E?uating e8ponents of M, $, and t on "oth sides of this e8pression, 2e ha(e, for M
6P"V3
for $
6 P a U >" V c V 3
and for t
6 P Ua U 5
From these 2e Fnd that a P U5, " P U3, and c P U5, gi(ing
p3 P
FFD$5
PP Eu
$5 r( 5r( 5
&imilarly for p5 2e ha(e, in dimensional form

$ d M e fM
A$B3P
t$>$t
and for e8ponents of M
6PeV3
for $
6 P d U >e V f U 3
and for t
6 P Ud U 3
gi(ing d P U3, e P U3 and f P U3. Thus, for our second dimensionless group 2e ha(e
p5 P mDr($ P 3DRe
Dimensional analysis has ena"led us to relate the original F(e (aria"les in terms of only t2o
dimensionless parameters in the form
Eu P fAReB
D P f AReB
A33=:B
A33=36B
33.@ #eometric, 0inematic, and Dynamic &imilarity 3>3
The t2o parameters, Eu and D, 2ere also generated in the pre(ious section "y an
alternate method. The functions fAReB and f AReB must "e determined "y e8periment.
Ta"le 33.5 lists se(eral dimensionless groups that pertain to Juid Jo2. &imilar ta"les
2ill "e include in later chapters that list dimensionless parameters common to heat transfer
and to mass transfer.
Ta"le 33.5 ommon dimensionless parameters in momentum transfer
/ameD&ym"ol
Reynolds num"er, Re
Dimensionless
group
$(rDm
,hysical
meaning
*nertial force
1iscous force
+rea of application
Widely applica"le in a
host of Juid Jo2
situations
Flo2s in(ol(ing pressure
differences due to
frictional effects
Flo2s in(ol(ing free
li?uid surfaces
Flo2s 2ith signiFcant
surface tension effects
Flo2s 2ith signiFcant
compressi"ility effects
Euler num"er, Eu
oefFcient of s!in
friction, f
Froude num"er, Fr
,Dr( 5
FD+
r( 5 D5
( 5 Dg$
,ressure Force
*nertial force
*nertial force
#ra(itational force
*nertial force
&urface tension force
*nertial force
ompressi"ility force
We"er num"er, We
Mach num"er, M
r( 5 $
s
(D
33.@ #E%METR*, 0*/EM+T*, +/D DE/+M* &*M*$+R*TE
+n important application and use of the dimensionless parameters listed in Ta"le 33.5 is in
using e8perimental results o"tained using models to predict the performance of full=si<e
prototypical systems. The (alidity of such scaling re?uires that the models and prototypes
possess similarity. Three types of similarity are important in this regardT they are geometric,
!inematic, and dynamic similarity.
#eometric similarity e8ists "et2een t2o systems if the ratio of all signiFcant dimen=
sions is the same for each system. For e8ample, if the ratio aD" for the diamond=shaped
section in Figure 33.3 is e?ual in magnitude to the ratio aD" for the larger section, they are
geometrically similar. *n this e8ample, there are only t2o signiFcant dimensions. For more
comple8 geometries, geometric similarity 2ould "e achie(ed 2hen all geometric ratios
"et2een model and prototype are e?ual.
3
a
5
"
Figure 33.3 T2o
geometrically
similar o"Iects.
3>5 hapter 33 Dimensional +nalysis and &imilitude
30inematic similarity similarly e8ists 2hen, in geometrically similar
systems 3 and
53 , the (elocities at the same locations are related according to

(8(8(8(8
PP
(y 3(y 5 (< 3(< 5
The third type of similarity, dynamic similarity, e8ists 2hen, in geometrically and
!inematically similar systems, the ratios of signiFcant forces are e?ual "et2een model and
prototype. These force ratios that are important in Juid Jo2 applications include the
dimensionless parameters listed in Ta"le 33.5.
The process of scaling using these similarity re?uirements 2ill "e presented in
&ection 33.5.
33.5 M%DE$ THE%RE
*n the design and testing of large e?uipment in(ol(ing Juid Jo2, it is customary to "uild
small models geometrically similar to the larger prototypes. E8perimental data achie(ed
for the models are then scaled to predict the performance of full=si<ed prototypes accord=
ing to the re?uirements of geometric, !inematic, and dynamic similarity. The follo2ing
e8amples 2ill illustrate the manner of utili<ing model data to e(aluate the conditions for a
full=scale de(ice.
EM+M,$E 5 + cylindrical mi8ing tan! is to "e scaled up to a larger si<e such that the (olume of the larger
tan! is F(e times that of the smaller one. What 2ill "e the ratios of diameter and height
"et2een the t2oa
#eometric similarity "et2een tan!s a and " in Figure 33.3 re?uires that
Da D"
P
hah"
or
h" D"
P
ha Da
The (olumes of the t2o tan!s are
1a P
p 5
D ha
@ a
and
1" P
p 5
D h"
@ "
ha
h"
Da
D"
+
The scaling ratio "et2een the t2o is stipulated as,
1"1a P 5T thus,
1"
P
1a
ApD@BD5 h""
ApD@BD5 ha"
P5
-
Figure 33.5 ylindrical mi8ing tan!s for
E8ample 5.
and 2e get
5
D" h"
P5
Da ha
33.5
We no2 su"stitute the geometric similarity re?uirement that gi(es
D"
Da
> >
$"
PP5
$a
Model Theory 3>>
and the t2o ratios of interest "ecome
D" $"
PP 53D> P 3C93
Da $a
EM+M,$E > Dynamic similarity may "e o"tained "y using a cryogenic 2ind tunnel in 2hich nitrogen at lo2
temperature and high pressure is employed as the 2or!ing Juid. *f nitrogen at 5 atm and 37> 0 is used
to test the lo2 speed aerodynamics of a prototype that has a 5@.>7 m 2ing span and is to Jy at standard
sea=le(el conditions at a speed of ;6 mDs, determine
A3B The scale of the model to "e tested.
A5B The ratio of forces "et2een the model and the full=scale aircraft.
onditions of dynamic similarity should pre(ail. The speed of sound in nitrogen at 37> 0 is
595 mDs.
For dynamic similarity to e8ist, 2e !no2 that "oth model and prototype must "e geometrically
similar and that the Reynolds num"er and the Mach num"er must "e the same. + ta"le such as the
follo2ing is helpful.
Model
haracteristic length
1elocity
1iscosity
Density
&peed of sound
$
(
m
r
595 mDs
,rototype
5@.>7 m
;6 mDs
3C97: [ 36U5 ,a [ s
3C555 !gDm>
>@6 mDs
The conditions listed for the prototype ha(e "een o"tained from +ppendi8 *. E?uating Mach num"ers
2e o"tain
Mm P M p
(P
595
;6 P @7C5 mDs
>@6
E?uating the Reynolds num"ers of the model and the prototype 2e o"tain
Rem P Re p
r @7C5$ 3C555 [ ;6 [ 5@C>7
P 3C665 ` 367P
U5
m3C97: [ 36
3>@ hapter 33 Dimensional +nalysis and &imilitude
'sing e?uation A9=36B, 2e may e(aluate m for nitrogen. From +ppendi8 0, eD! P :3C5 0 and
ts P >C;73 + for nitrogen so that !TD e P 5 and 1m P 3C395 A+ppendi8 0B. Thus,
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
57[37>P 3C566[36U5 ,a[sm P 5C;;:>[36U;
A>C;73B5 A3C395B
The density may "e appro8imated from the perfect gas la2
rP
so that

57577
3C555 P 9C;67 !gDm>rP5
57C:; 37>
&ol(ing for the 2ing span of the model, 2e o"tain
$ P >C5; m W36C9 ftX
The ratio of the forces on the model to the forces e8perienced "y the prototype may "e determined
e?uating (alues of Eu "et2een the model and the prototype. Hence
F
r1 5 +R
P
model
, M T3
r
,3 M3 T 3
F
r1 5 +R
prototype
2here +R is a suita"le reference area. For an aircraft, this reference area is the proIected 2ing area.
The ratio of model force to prototype force is then gi(en "y
5Fm rm 1m +RTm Ar1 5 Bm lm 5
PP
F p r p 1 5 +RT p Ar1 5 Bp l pp
2here the ratio of reference areas can "e e8pressed in terms of the scale ratio. &u"stituting num"ers

Fm 9C;67 @7C5 5 >C5; 5
PP 6C695;
5@C>7F p 3C555 ;6C6
The forces on the model are seen to "e 9.5;b the prototype forces.
33.; $%&'RE
The dimensional analysis of a momentum=transfer pro"lem is simply an application of the
re?uirement of dimensional homogeneity to a gi(en situation. -y dimensional analysis the
2or! and time re?uired to reduce and correlate e8perimental data are decreased su"stan=
tially "y the com"ination of indi(idual (aria"les into dimensionless p groups, 2hich are
fe2er in num"er than the original (aria"les. The indicated relations "et2een dimensionless
parameters are then useful in e8pressing the performance of the systems to 2hich they apply.
*t should "e !ept in mind that dimensional analysis cannot predict 2hich (aria"les are
important in a gi(en situation, nor does it gi(e any insight into the physical transfer
mechanism in(ol(ed. E(en 2ith these limitations, dimensional analysis techni?ues are a
(alua"le aid to the engineer.
,ro"lems 3>5
*f the e?uation descri"ing a gi(en process is !no2n, the num"er of dimensionless
groups is automatically determined "y ta!ing ratios of the (arious terms in the e8pression to
one another. This method also gi(es physical meaning to the groups thus o"tained.
*f, on the contrary, no e?uation applies, an empirical method, the -uc!ingham method,
may "e used. This is a (ery general approach "ut gi(es no physical meaning to the
dimensionless parameters o"tained from such an analysis.
The re?uirements of geometric, !inematic, and dynamic similarity ena"le one to use
model date to predict the "eha(ior of a prototype or full=si<e piece of e?uipment. Model
theory is thus an important application of the parameters o"tained in a dimensional analysis.
,R%-$EM&
33.3 The po2er output of a hydraulic tur"ine depends on the
diameter D of the tur"ine, the density r of 2ater, the height H of
2ater surface a"o(e the tur"ine, the gra(itational acceleration g,
the angular (elocity ( of the tur"ine 2heel, the discharge . of
2ater through the tur"ine, and the efFciency h of the tur"ine. -y
dimensional analysis, generate a set of appropriate dimension=
less groups.
33.5 Through a series of tests on pipe Jo2, H. Darcy deri(ed an
e?uation for the friction loss in pipe Jo2 as
$ (5
h$ P fT
D 5g
in 2hich f is a dimensionless coefFcient that depends on AaB the
a(erage (elocity ( of the pipe Jo2T A"B the pipe diameter DT
AcB the Juid density rT AdB the Juid (iscosity mT and AeB the
a(erage pipe 2all une(eness e AlengthB. 'sing the -uc!ingham p
theorem, Fnd a dimensionless function for the coefFcient f.
33.> The pressure rise across a pump , Athis term is propor=
tional to the head de(eloped "y the pumpB may "e considered to
"e affected "y the Juid density r, the angular (elocity (, the
impeller diameter D, the (olumetric rate of Jo2 ., and the Juid
(iscosity m. Find the pertinent dimensionless groups, choosing
them so that ,, ., and m each appear in one group only. Find
similar e8pressions, replacing the pressure rise Frst "y the po2er
input to the pump, then "y the efFciency of the pump.
33.@ The ma8imum pitching moment that is de(eloped "y the
2ater on a Jying "oat as it lands is noted as cma8 The follo2ing
are the (aria"les in(ol(ed in this actionC
a P angle made "y Jight path of plane 2ith hori<ontal,
" P angle deFning attitude of plane,
M P mass of plane,
$ P length of hull,
r P density of 2ater,
g P acceleration of gra(ity,
R P radius of gyration of plane a"out a8is of pitching.
AaB +ccording to the -uc!ingham p theorem, ho2 many inde=
pendent dimensionless groups should there "e 2hich char=
acteri<e this pro"lema
A"B What is the dimensional matri8 of this pro"lema What is its
ran!a
AcB E(aluate the appropriate dimensionless parameters for this
pro"lem.
33.5 The rate at 2hich metallic ions are electroplated from
a dilute electrolytic solution onto a rotating dis! electrode is
usually go(erned "y the mass diffusion rate of ions to the
dis!. This process is "elie(ed to "e controlled "y the follo2=
ing (aria"lesC
Dimensions
$Dt
$5Dt
$
3Dt
MD$>
MD$t
! P mass=transfer coeFcient
D P diffusion coefFcient
d P dis! diameter
a P angular (elocity
r P density
m P (iscosity
%"tain the set of dimensionless groups for these (aria"les 2here
!, m, and D are !ept in separate groups. Ho2 2ould you
accumulate and present the e8perimental data for this systema
33.; The performance of a Iournal "earing around a rotating
shaft is a function of the follo2ing (aria"lesC ., the rate of Jo2
lu"ricating oil to the "earing in (olume per unit timeT D, the
"earing diameterT /, the shaft speed in re(olutions per minuteT m,
the lu"ricant (iscosityT r, the lu"ricant densityT and s, the surface
tension of the lu"ricating oil. &uggest appropriate parameters to
"e used in correlating e8perimental data for such a system.
33.9 The mass M of drops formed "y li?uid discharging "y
gra(ity from a (ertical tu"e is a function of the tu"e diameter D,
li?uid density,surface tension, and the acceleration of gra(ity.
Determine the independent dimensionless groups that 2ould
allo2 the surface=tension effect to "e analy<ed./eglect any
effects of (iscosity.
33.7 The functional fre?uency n of a stretched string is a
function of the string length $, its diameter D, the mass density
r, and the applied tensile force T. &uggest a set of dimensionless
parameters relating these (aria"les.
3>; hapter 33 Dimensional +nalysis and &imilitude
33.39 + 55b scale model of an undersea (ehicle that has a
ma8imum speed of 3; mDs is to "e tested in a 2ind tunnel 2ith a
pressure of ; atm to determine the drag characteristics of the full=
scale (ehicle. The model is > m long. Find the air speed re?uired
to test the model and Fnd the ratio of the model drag to the full=
scale drag.
33.37 +n estimate is needed on the lift pro(ided "y a hydrofoil
2ing section 2hen it mo(es through 2ater at ;6 mph. Test data
are a(aila"le for this purpose from e8periments in a pressuri<ed
2ind tunnel 2ith an airfoil section model geometrically similar
to "ut t2ice the si<e of the hydrofoil. *f the lift F3 is a function
of the density r of the Juid, the (elocity ( of the Jo2, the angle of
attac! u, the chord length D, and the (iscosity m, 2hat (elocity of
Jo2 in the 2ind tunnel 2ould correspond to the hydrofoil
(elocity for 2hich the estimate is desireda +ssume the same
angle of attac! in "oth cases, that the density of the air in the
pressuri<ed tunnel is 5C6 ` 36U> slugsDft> T that its !inematic
(iscosity is 7C6 ` 36U5 ft5 DsT and that the !inematic (iscosity
of the 2ater is appro8imately 3C6 ` 36U5 ft5 DsC Ta!e the density
of 2ater to "e 3C:@ slugsDft> C
33.3: + model of a har"or is made on the length ratio of >;6C3.
&torm 2a(es of 5 m amplitude and 7 mDs (elocity occur on
the "rea!2ater of the prototype har"or. &igniFcant (aria"les are
the length scale, (elocity, and g, the acceleration of gra(ity. The
scaling of time can "e made 2ith the aid of the length scale and
(elocity scaling factors.
AaB /eglecting friction, 2hat should "e the si<e and speed of the
2a(es in the modela
A"B *f the time "et2een tides in the prototype is 35 h, 2hat
should "e the tidal period in the modela
33.56 + @6b scale model of an airplane is to "e tested in a Jo2
regime 2here unsteady Jo2 effects are important. *f the full=
scale (ehicle e8periences the unsteady effects at a Mach num"er
of 3 at an altitude of @6,666 ft, 2hat pressure must the model "e
tested at to produce an e?ual Reynolds num"era The model is to
"e tested in air at 967F. What 2ill the timescale of the Jo2 a"out
the model "e relati(e to the full=scale (ehiclea
33.53 + model ship propeller is to "e tested in 2ater at the
same temperature that 2ould "e encountered "y a full=scale
propeller. %(er the speed range considered, it is assumed that
there is no dependence on the Reynolds or Euler num"ers, "ut
only on the Froude num"er A"ased on for2ard (elocity 1 and
propeller diameter dB. *n addition, it is thought that the ratio of
for2ard to rotational speed of the propeller must "e constant Athe
ratio 1D/d, 2here / is propeller rpmB.
AaB With a model 6@3 m in diameter, a for2ard speed of
5.57 mDs and a rotational speed of @56 rpm is recorded.
What are the for2ard and rotational speeds corresponding
to a 5.@5=m diameter prototypea
A"B + tor?ue of 56 / [ m is re?uired to turn the model, and the
model thrust is measured to "e 5@5 /. What are the tor?ue
and thrust for the prototypea
33.: The po2er , re?uired to run a compressor (aries 2ith
compressor diameter D, angular (elocity (, (olume Jo2 rate .,
Juid density r, and Juid (iscosity m. De(elop a relation "et2een
these (aria"les "y dimensional analysis, 2here Juid (iscosity
and angular (elocity appear in only one dimensionless para=
meter.
33.36 + large amount of energy E is suddenly released in the
air as in a point of e8plosion. E8perimental e(idence suggests the
radius r of the high=pressure "last 2a(e depends on time t as 2ell
as the energy E and r the density of the am"ient air.
AaB 'sing the -uc!ingham method, Fnd the e?uation for r as a
function of t, r, and E.
A"B &ho2 that the speed of the 2a(e front decreases as r in=
creases.
33.33 The si<e d of droplets produced "y a li?uid spray
no<<le is thought to depend upon the no<<le diameter D, Iet
(elocity 1, and the properties of the li?uid r, m, and s. Re2rite
this relation in dimensionless form. Ta!e D, r, and 1 as
repeating (aria"les.
33.35 *dentify the (aria"les associated 2ith ,ro"lem 7.3> and
Fnd the dimensionless parameters.
33.3> + car is tra(eling along a road at 55.5 mDs alculate the
Reynolds num"er
AaB "ased on the length of the car,
A"B "ased on the diameter of the radio antenna.
The car length is 5.7 m and the antenna diameter is ;.@ mm.
33.3@ *n natural=con(ection pro"lems, the (ariation of density
due to the temperature difference DT creates an important
"uoyancy term in the momentum e?uation. *f a 2arm gas at
TH mo(es through a gas at temperature T6 and if the density
change is only due to temperature changes, the e?uation of
motion "ecomes

D(TH5U3rP UN, V mN ( V rg
T6Dt
&ho2 that the ratio of gra(ity A"uoyancyB to inertial forces acting
on a Juid element is

$g TH
U3
516 T6
2here $ and 16 are reference lengths and (elocity, respecti(ely.
33.35 + 3D;=scale model of a torpedo is tested in a 2ater tunnel
to determine drag characteristics. What model (elocity corre=
sponds to a torpedo (elocity of 56 !notsa *f the model resistance
is 36 l", 2hat is the prototype resistancea
33.3; During the de(elopment of a >66=ft ship, it is desired to
test a 36b scale model in a to2ing tan! to determine the drag
characteristics of the hull. Determine ho2 the model is to "e
tested if the Froude num"er is to "e duplicated.
hapter
35
1iscous Flo2
The concept of Juid (iscosity 2as de(eloped and (iscosity deFned in hapter 9.
learly, all Juids are (iscous, "ut in certain situations and under certain conditions, a
Juid may "e considered ideal or in(iscid, ma!ing possi"le an analysis "y the methods
of hapter 36.
%ur tas! in this chapter is to consider (iscous Juids and the role of (iscosity as it
affects the Jo2. %f particular interest is the case of Jo2 past solid surfaces and the
interrelations "et2een the surfaces and the Jo2ing Juid.
35.3 REE/%$D&H& EM,ER*ME/T
The e8istence of t2o distinct types of (iscous Jo2 is a uni(ersally accepted phenomenon.
The smo!e emanating from a lighted cigarette is seen to Jo2 smoothly and uniformly for a
short distance from its source and then change a"ruptly into a (ery irregular, unsta"le
pattern. &imilar "eha(ior may "e o"ser(ed for 2ater Jo2ing slo2ly from a faucet.
The 2ell=ordered type of Jo2 occurs 2hen adIacent Juid layers slide smoothly o(er one
another 2ith mi8ing "et2een layers or lamina occurring only on a molecular le(el. *t 2as for
this type of Jo2 that /e2tonHs (iscosity relation 2as deri(ed, and in order for us to measure
the (iscosity, m, this laminar Jo2 must e8ist.
The second Jo2 regime, in 2hich small pac!ets of Juid particles are transferred
"et2een layers, gi(ing it a Juctuating nature, is called the tur"ulent Jo2 regime.
The e8istence of laminar and tur"ulent Jo2, although recogni<ed earlier, 2as Frst
descri"ed ?uantitati(ely "y Reynolds in 377>. His classic e8periment is illustrated in Figure
35.3. Water 2as allo2ed to Jo2 through a transparent pipe, as sho2n, at a rate controlled "y
a (al(e. + dye ha(ing the same speciFc gra(ity as 2ater 2as introduced at the pipe opening
and its pattern o"ser(ed for progressi(ely larger Jo2 rates of 2ater. +t lo2 rates of Jo2, the
dye pattern 2as regular and formed a single line of color as sho2n in Figure 35.3AaB. +t high
Jo2 rates, ho2e(er, the dye "ecame dispersed throughout the pipe cross section "ecause of
Water
Dye
1al(e
Water
Dye
1al(e
AaB Re ] 5>66
A"B Re _ 5>66
Figure 35.3 ReynoldsHs e8periment.
3>9
3>7 hapter 35 1iscous Flo2
the (ery irregular Juid motion. The difference in the appearance of the dye strea! 2as, of
course, due to the orderly nature of laminar Jo2 in the Frst case and to the Juctuating
character of tur"ulent Jo2 in the latter case.
The transition from laminar to tur"ulent Jo2 in pipes is thus a function of the Juid
(elocity. +ctually, Reynolds found that Juid (elocity 2as the only one (aria"le determin=
ing the nature of pipe Jo2, the others "eing pipe diameter, Juid density, and Juid (iscosity.
These four (aria"les, com"ined into the single dimensionless parameter
Re
Dr(
m
A35=3B
form the Reynolds num"er, sym"oli<ed Re, in honor of %s"orne Reynolds and his
important contri"utions to fluid mechanics.
For Jo2 in circular pipes, it is found that "elo2 a (alue for Reynolds num"er of 5>66
the Jo2 is laminar. +"o(e this (alue the Jo2 may "e laminar as 2ell, and indeed, laminar
Jo2 has "een o"ser(ed for Reynolds num"ers as high as @6,666 in e8periments 2herein
e8ternal distur"ances 2ere minimi<ed. +"o(e a Reynolds num"er of 5>66, small
distur"ances 2ill cause a transition to tur"ulent Jo2 2hereas "elo2 this (alue distur=
"ances are damped out and laminar Jo2 pre(ails. The critical Reynolds num"er for pipe
Jo2 thus is 5>66.
35.5 DR+#
ReynoldsHs e8periment clearly demonstrated the t2o different regimes of Jo2C laminar and
tur"ulent. +nother manner of illustrating these different Jo2 regimes and their dependence
upon Reynolds num"er is through the consideration of drag. + particularly illustrati(e case
is that of e8ternal Jo2 Ai.e., Jo2 around a "ody as opposed to Jo2 inside a conduitB.
The drag force due to friction is caused "y the shear stresses at the surface of a solid
o"Iect mo(ing through a (iscous Juid. Frictional drag is e(aluated "y using the e8pression
Fr( 5
f 3
+5
A35=5B
2here F is the force, + is the area of contact "et2een the solid "ody and the fluid, f is
the coefficient of s!in friction, r is the fluid density, and ( 3 is the free=stream fluid
(elocity.
The coefFcient of s!in friction, f 2hich is deFned "y e?uation A35=5B, is dimension=
less.
The total drag on an o"Iect may "e due to pressure as 2ell as frictional effects. *n such a
situation another coefFcient, D, is deFned as
Fr( 5
D 3
+,5
2here F, r, and ( 3 are as descri"ed a"o(e and, additionally
D P the drag coefficient
and
+, P the proIected area of the surface
The (alue of +, used in e8pressing the drag for "lunt "odies is normally the ma8imum
proIected area for the "ody.
A35=>B
35.5 Drag 3>:
The ?uantity r( 5 D5 appearing in e?uations A35=5B and A35=>B is fre?uently called the
3
dynamic pressure.
,ressure drag arises from t2o principal sources.3 %ne is induced drag, or drag due
to lift. The other source is 2a!e drag, 2hich arises from the fact that the shear stress
causes the streamlines to de(iate from their in(iscid Jo2 paths, and in some cases to sepa=
rate from the "ody altogether. This de(iation in streamline pattern pre(ents the pressure o(er
the rest of a "ody from reaching the le(el it 2ould attain other2ise. +s the pressure at the
front of the "ody is no2 greater than that at the rear, a net rear2ard force de(elops.
*n an incompressi"le Jo2, the drag coefFcient depends upon the Reynolds num"er and
the geometry of a "ody. + simple geometric shape that illustrates the drag dependence upon
the Reynolds num"er is the circular cylinder. The in(iscid Jo2 a"out a circular cylinder
2as e8amined in hapter 36. The in(iscid Jo2 a"out a cylinder of course, produced no
drag, as there e8isted neither frictional nor pressure drag. The (ariation in the drag
coefFcient 2ith the Reynolds num"er for a smooth cylinder is sho2n in Figure 35.5. The
Jo2 pattern a"out the cylinder is illustrated for se(eral different (alues of Re. The Jo2
pattern and general shape of the cur(e suggest that the drag (ariation, and hence the effects
of shear stress on the Jo2, may "e su"di(ided into four regimes. The features of each
regime 2ill "e e8amined.
366
36
D
3
6.3
Regimes
*
6.63
36 O3 36 O 6 36 3
**
36 @
r(D
Reynolds num"er N m
36 5 36 >
***
36 5
*1
36 ;
Figure 35.5 Drag coefFcient for circular cylinders as a function of Reynolds num"er. &haded
regions indicate areas inJuenced "y shear stress.
Regime 3
*n this regime the entire Jo2 is laminar and the Reynolds num"er small, "eing less than 3.
Recalling the physical signiFcance of the Reynolds num"er from hapter 33 as the ratio of
the inertia forces to the (iscous forces, 2e may say that in regime 3 the (iscous forces
predominate. The Jo2 pattern in this case is almost symmetric, the Jo2 adheres to the "ody,
3
+ third source of pressure drag, 2a(e drag, is associated 2ith shoc! 2a(es.
3@6 hapter 35 1iscous Flo2
and the 2a!e is free from oscillations. *n this regime of the so=called creeping Jo2, (iscous
effects predominate and e8tend throughout the Jo2 Feld.
Regime 5
T2o illustrations of the Jo2 pattern are sho2n in the second regime. +s the Reynolds num"er
is increased, small eddies form at the rear stagnation point of the cylinder. +t higher (alues of
the Reynolds num"er, these eddies gro2 to the point at 2hich they separate from the "ody and
are s2ept do2nstream into the 2a!e. The pattern of eddies sho2n in regime 5 is called a (on
L L0arman (orte8 trail. This change in the character of the 2a!e from a steady to an unsteady
nature is accompanied "y a change in the slope of the drag cur(e. The paramount features of
this regime are AaB the unsteady nature of the 2a!e and A"B Jo2 separation from the "ody.
Regime >
*n the third regime the point of Jo2 separation sta"ili<es at a point a"out 767 from the
for2ard stagnation point. The 2a!e is no longer characteri<ed "y large eddies, although it
remains unsteady. The Jo2 on the surface of the "ody from the stagnation point to the point
of separation is laminar, and the shear stress in this inter(al is apprecia"le only in a thin layer
near the "ody. The drag coefFcient le(els out at a near=constant (alue of appro8imately 3.
Regime @
+t a Reynolds num"er near 5 ` 365, the drag coefFcient suddenly decreases to 6.>.
When the Jo2 a"out the "ody is e8amined, it is o"ser(ed that the point of separation
has mo(ed past :67. *n addition, the pressure distri"ution a"out the cylinder Asho2n in
Figure 35.>B up to the point of separation is fairly close to the in(iscid Jo2 pressure
distri"ution depicted in Figure 36.5. *n the Fgure it 2ill "e noticed that the pressure
(ariation a"out the surface is a changing function of Reynolds num"er. The minimum
point on the cur(es for Reynolds num"ers of 365 and ; ` 365 are "oth at the point of Jo2
5
3
(
,
~
6
A, O , BD 3 ( 5
Re N 365
O3
5
O5
*n(iscid flo2
O>
Re N ;
365
O@
6 >6 ;6 :6356
?, degrees
356 376
Figure 35.> ,ressure distri"ution
on a circular cylinder at (arious
Reynolds num"ers.
35.5 Drag 3@3
separation. From this Fgure it is seen that separation occurs at a larger (alue of u for
Re P ; ` 365 than it does for Re P 365.
The layer of Jo2 near the surface of the cylinder is tur"ulent in this regime,
undergoing transition from laminar Jo2 close to the for2ard stagnation point. The
mar!ed decrease in drag is due to the change in the point of separation. *n general, a
tur"ulent Jo2 resists Jo2 separation "etter than a laminar Jo2. +s the Reynolds num"er
is large in this regime, it may "e said that the inertial forces predominate o(er the (iscous
forces.
The four regimes of Jo2 a"out a cylinder illustrate the decreasing realm of inJu=
ence of (iscous forces as the Reynolds num"er is increased. *n regimes > and @, the Jo2
pattern o(er the for2ard part of the cylinder agrees 2ell 2ith the in(iscid Jo2 theory.
For other geometries, a similar (ariation in the realm of inJuence of (iscous forces is
o"ser(ed and, as might "e e8pected, agreement 2ith in(iscid=Jo2 predictions at a gi(en
Reynolds num"er increases as the slenderness of the "ody increases. The maIority of
cases of engineering interest in(ol(ing e8ternal Jo2s ha(e Jo2 Felds similar to those of
regimes > and @.
Figure 35.@ sho2s the (ariation in the drag coefFcient 2ith the Reynolds num"er for a
sphere, for inFnite plates, and for circular dis!s and s?uare plates. /ote the similarity in
form of the cur(e of D for the sphere to that for a cylinder in Figure 35.5. &peciFcally, one
may o"ser(e the same sharp decrease in D to a minimum (alue near a Reynolds num"er
(alue of 5 ` 365 . This is again due to the change from laminar to tur"ulent Jo2 in the
"oundary layer.
566
366
56
56
36
5
D
5
3
6.5
6.5
6.3
6.65
6.65
6.3 6.5 6.5 3 5
&tro!es drag
D N 5@DRe
&phere
*nfinite plates
(
(
(
D &pheres
*nfinite
plates
ircular
D dis! and
s?uare plates
D
ircular dis!s and s?uare plates
5 36 56 56566366636,666
Reynolds num"er N r(DDm
366,666 3,666,666
Figure 35.@ Drag coefFcient (ersus Reynolds num"er for (arious o"Iects.
EM+M,$E 3 E(aluate the terminal (elocity of a 9.5=mm=diameter glass sphere falling freely through
AaB air at >66 0T A"B 2ater at >66 0T and AcB glycerin at >66 0. The density of glass is
5556 !gDm>.
The terminal Asteady stateB (elocity of a falling "ody is reached 2hen the force due to
Juid drag matches the "odyHs 2eight. *n this case the 2eight of the glass sphere can "e e8pressed
as
rs
The Juid drag force is gi(en "y
rf ( 5 pd 53
D
5@
and a force "alance yields
D ( 5 P3
@ rs
dg
> rf
pd >
g
;
The drag coefFcient, D, is plotted as a function of Reynolds num"er, Red, in Figure 35.@. +s D
is a function of ( 3, 2e are una"le to sol(e e8plicitly for ( 3 unless Red ] 3, 2hich 2ould permit
the use of &to!esH la2 in e8pressing D. + trial=and=error solution is, thus, re?uired. The condi=
tions to "e satisFed are our force "alance e8pression and the graphical relation "et2een D and Red
in Figure 35.@.
For air at >66 0
n P 3C5;: ` 36U5 m5 Ds
r P 3C399 !gDm>
d( 3 A9C5 ` 36U> mB( 3
PRed P
n3C5;: ` 36U5 m5 Ds
P @97C6 ( 3
*nserting !no2n (alues into our force "alance e8pression, 2e ha(e
D ( 5 P3
@ 5556 !gDm>
A9C5 ` 36U> mBA:C73 mDs5 B
> 3C399 !gDm>
A+B
A-B
P 379C5 m5 Ds5
/ormally the trial=and=error procedure to achie(e a solution 2ould "e straightfor2ard. *n this case,
ho2e(er, the shape of the D (s. Red cur(e, gi(en in Figure 35.@, poses a "it of a pro"lem. &peciFcally,
the (alue of D remains nearly uniform, that is, 6C@ ] D ] 6C5, o(er a range in Red "et2een
566 ] Red ] 365 T o(er > orders of magnitudeQ
*n such a speciFc case, 2e 2ill assume D ^ 6C@, and sol(e e?uation A-B for ( 3C
(3
E?uation A"B then yields
Red P A@97C6BA53C;5B P 3C6>5 ` 36@
These results are compati"le 2ith Figure 35.@ although the a"solute accuracy is o"(iously not
great.
Q
379C5 5 5 3D5
PP 53C;5 mDsm Ds
6
35.5
Finally, for air, 2e determine the terminal (elocity to "e, appro8imately
( 3 ^ 53C; mDs
For 2ater at >66 0
n P 6C79: ` 36U; m5 Ds
r P ::;C3 !gDm>
Red P
D ( 5 P3
A9C5 ` 36U> mB( 3
P 75>6 ( 3
6C79: ` 36U; m5 Ds
@ 5556 !gDm>
>> ::; !gDm
Drag 3@>
AaB
P 6C6:73
+s in part AaB, 2e 2ill initially assume D ^ 6C@, and achie(e the result that
( 3 P 6C@:5 mDs
Red P @556
These results, again, satisfy Figure 35.@. Thus, in 2ater
( 3 P 6C@:5 mDs
Finally, for glycerin at >66 0
n P 9C67 ` 36U@ m5 Ds
r P 35;6 !gDm>
Red P
D ( 5 P3
A9C5 ` 36U> mB( 3
P 36C5: ( 3
9C67 ` 36U@ m5 Ds
@ 5556 !gDm>
>> 35;6 !gDm
A"B
P 6C3955
*n this case 2e suspect the Reynolds num"er 2ill "e ?uite small. +s an initial guess 2e 2ill
assume &to!esH la2 applies, thus D P 5@DReC
&ol(ing for ( 3 for this case, 2e ha(e
5@n 5
D ( 5 P( P 6C3955 m5 Ds53d( 3 3
(3 P
A6C3955 m5 Ds5 BA9C5 ` 36U> mB
5@A9C67 ` 36U@ m5 DsB
P 6C699> mDs
To (alidate the use of &to!esH la2, 2e chec! the (alue of Reynolds num"er and get
Red P
A9C5 ` 36U> mBA6C699> mDsB
9C67 ` 36U@ m5 Ds
P 6C73:
2hich is in the allo2a"le range. The terminal (elocity in glycerin thus
( 3 P 6C699> mDs
AcB
3@@ hapter 35 1iscous Flo2
35.> THE -%'/D+RE=$+EER %/E,T
The o"ser(ation of a decreasing region of inJuence of shear stress as the Reynolds num"er is
increased led $ud2ig ,randtl to the "oundary=layer concept in 3:6@. +ccording to ,randtlHs
hypothesis, the effects of Juid friction at high Reynolds num"ers are limited to a thin layer
near the "oundary of a "ody, hence the term "oundary layer. Further, there is no signiFcant
pressure change across the "oundary layer. This means that the pressure in the "oundary
layer is the same as the pressure in the in(iscid Jo2 outside the "oundary layer. The
signiFcance of the ,randtl theory lies in the simpliFcation that it allo2s in the analytical
treatment of (iscous Jo2s. The pressure, for e8ample, may "e o"tained from e8periment or
in(iscid Jo2 theory. Thus the only un!no2ns are the (elocity components.
The "oundary layer on a Jat plate is sho2n in Figure 35.5. The thic!ness of the
"oundary layer, d, is ar"itrarily ta!en as the distance a2ay from the surface 2here the
(elocity reaches ::b of the free=stream (elocity. The thic!ness is e8aggerated for clarity.
Region of transition
$aminar
"oundary=layer
region
n
&treamline
S
8
$aminar su"layer
Tur"ulent
"oundary=layer
region
Figure 35.5 -oundary layer
on a Jat plate. AThe thic!ness
is e8aggerated for clarity.B
Figure 35.5 illustrates ho2 the thic!ness of the "oundary layer increases 2ith
distance 8 from the leading edge. +t relati(ely small (alues of 8, Jo2 2ithin the
"oundary layer is laminar, and this is designated as the laminar "oundary=layer
region. +t larger (alues of 8 the transition region is sho2n 2here Juctuations
"et2een laminar and tur"ulent Jo2s occur 2ithin the "oundary layer. Finally, for
a certain (alue of 8, and a"o(e, the "oundary layer 2ill al2ays "e tur"ulent. *n the
region in 2hich the "oundary layer is tur"ulent, there e8ists, as sho2n, a (ery thin Flm
of Juid called the laminar su"layer, 2herein Jo2 is still laminar and large (elocity
gradients e8ist.
The criterion for the type of "oundary layer present is the magnitude of Reynolds
num"er, Re8, !no2n as the local Reynolds num"er, "ased on the distance 8 from the leading
edge. The local Reynolds num"er is deFned as
8(r
A35=@BRe8
m
For Jo2 past a Jat plate, as sho2n in Figure 35.5, e8perimental data indicate that for
AaB Re8 ] 5 ` 365
A"B 5 ` 365 ] Re8 ] > ` 36;
AcB > ` 36; ] Re8
the "oundary layer is laminar,
the "oundary layer may "e either laminar or tur"ulent,
the "oundary layer is tur"ulent
35.@ The -oundary=$ayer E?uations 3@5
35.@ THE -%'/D+RE=$+EER E.'+T*%/&
The concept of a relati(ely thin "oundary layer at high Reynolds num"ers leads to some
important simpliFcations of the /a(ierO&to!es e?uations. For incompressi"le, t2o=
dimensional Jo2 o(er a Jat plate, the /a(ierO&to!es e?uations are
)d
Y( 8Y( 8Y( 8Ys 88 Yty8
V (8V (yVA35=5BrP
YtY8YyY8Yy
and
)d
Y( yY( yY( yYt 8y Ys yy
V (8V (yVrP
YtY8YyY8Yy
A35=;B
2here t8y P ty8 P mAY( 8 DYy V Y( y DY8B, s 88 P U, V 5mAY( 8 DY8B and s yy P U,V 5mAY( y D
YyB. The shear stress in a thin "oundary layer is closely appro8imated "y mAY( 8 DYyB. This
can "e seen "y considering the relati(e magnitudes of Y( 8 DYy and Y( y DY8 From Figure 35.5,
2e may 2rite ( 8 Id D( y Id u %A8DdB, 2here % signiFes the order of magnitude. Then

Y( y( y IdY( 8( 8 Id
u%u%
YydY88
so
85Y( 8 DYy
u%
Y( y DY8d
2hich, for a relati(ely thin "oundary layer, is a large num"er, and thus Y( 8 DYy B
Y( y DY8C The normal stress at a large Reynolds num"er is closely appro8imated "y
the negati(e of the pressure as mAY( 8 DY8B u %Am( 3 D8B P %Ar( 5 DRe8 BT therefore3
s 88 H s yy H U ,C When these simpliFcations in the stresses are incorporated, the
e?uations for Jo2 o(er a Jat plate "ecome

Y( 8Y( 8Y( 8Y,Y 5 (8
Vm 5V (8V (yrA35=9BPU
Y8YtY8YyYy
and

Y( yY( yY( yY5(yY,
VmV (8V (yrPU
YyYtY8YyY85
A35=7B
Furthermore,5 the terms in the second e?uation are much smaller than those in the Frst
e?uation, and thus Y,DYy H 6T hence Y,DY8 P d,Dd8T 2hich according to -ernoulliHs
e?uation is e?ual to Ur( 3 d( 3 Dd8C
The Fnal form of e?uation A35=9B "ecomes
Y( 8Y( 8Y( 8d( 3Y5(8
V (8V (yP (3Vn 5
YtY8Yyd8Yy
A35=:B
5
The order of magnitude of each term may "e considered as a"o(e. For e8ample, ( 8 AY( y DY8B u %A( 3 A( 3 D8B
AdD8BB P %A( 5 dD85 BC3
3@; hapter 35 1iscous Flo2
The a"o(e e?uation, and the continuity e?uation
Y( 8 Y( y
VP6
Y8Yy
are !no2n as the "oundary=layer e?uations.
A35=36B
35.5 -$+&*'&H& &%$'T*%/ F%R THE $+M*/+R
-%'/D+RE $+EER %/ + F$+T ,$+TE
%ne (ery important case in 2hich an analytical solution of the e?uations of motion has "een
achie(ed is that for the laminar "oundary layer on a Jat plate in steady Jo2.
For Jo2 parallel to a Jat surface, ( 3 A8B P ( 3 and d,Dd8 P 6, according to the
-ernoulli e?uation. The e?uations to "e sol(ed are no2 the follo2ingC
Y( 8Y( 8Y5(8
V (yPn 5(8
Y8YyYy
and
Y( 8 Y( y
VP6
Y8Yy
A35=33"B
A35=33aB
2ith "oundary conditions ( 8 P ( y P 6 at y P 6, and ( 8 P ( 3 at y P 3.
-lasius> o"tained a solution to the set of e?uations A35=33B "y Frst introducing the
stream function, , as descri"ed in hapter 36, 2hich automatically satisFes the t2o=
dimensional continuity e?uation, e?uation A35=33"B. This set of e?uations may "e reduced
to a single ordinary differential e?uation "y transforming the independent (aria"les 8, y, to h
and the dependent (aria"les from A8, yB to fAhB
2here
y ( 3 3D5
hA8T yB PA35=35B
5 n8
and
f AhB P
A8T yB
An8( B3D5
3
A35=3>B
The appropriate terms in e?uation A35=33aB may "e determined from e?uations A35=35B
and A35=3>B. The follo2ing e8pressions 2ill result. The reader may 2ish to (erify the
mathematics in(ol(ed.
Y ( 3 6
P(8 Pf AhBA35=3@B
Yy5
Y 3 n( 3 3D5
P(y P UAh f 6 U f BA35=35B
Y85 8
Y( 8( 3 h 66
fPUA35=3;B
@8Y8
Y( 8 ( 3 ( 3 3D5 66
PfA35=39B
Yy@ n8
Y 5 ( 8 ( 3 ( 3 666
fPA35=37B
Yy57 n8
>
H. -lasius, #ren<shichten in Flussig!eiten mit !leiner Rei"ung, f. Math. '. ,hys. &ci., 3, 3:67.
35.5 -lasiusHs &olution for the $aminar -oundary $ayer on a Flat ,late 3@9
&u"stitution of A35=3@B through A35=37B into e?uation A35=33aB and cancellation gi(es, as
a single ordinary differential e?uation
f 666 V f f 66 P 6
2ith the appropriate "oundary conditions
f P f6 P 6
f6 P 5
at h P 6
at h P 3
A35=3:B
%"ser(e that this differential e?uation, although ordinary, is nonlinear and that, of
the end conditions on the (aria"le f AhB, t2o are initial (alues and the third is a "oundary
(alue. This e?uation 2as sol(ed Frst "y -lasius, using a series e8pansion to e8press the
function, f AhB, at the origin and an asymptotic solution to match the "oundary condition
at h P 3. Ho2arth@ later performed essentially the same 2or! "ut o"tained more
accurate results. Ta"le 35.3 presents the signiFcant numerical results of Ho2arth. + plot
of these (alues is included in Figure 35.;.
+ simpler 2ay of sol(ing e?uation A35=3:B has "een suggested in #oldstein5 2ho
presented a scheme 2here"y the "oundary conditions on the function f are initial (alues.
Ta"le 35.3 1alues of f, f 6 , f 66 , and (8 D(3 for laminar Jo2 parallel to a Jat plate Aafter Ho2arthB
r^^^^^^^
(8y (3
hP666
fff(35 n8
6
6.5
6.@
6.;
6.7
3.6
3.5
3.@
3.;
3.7
5.6
5.5
5.@
5.;
5.7
>.6
>.5
>.@
>.;
>.7
@.6
5.6
6
6.65;;
6.36;3
6.5>76
6.@56>
6.;566
6.:55>
3.5>36
3.5;:3
3.:5:5
5.>657
5.;:5@
>.675>
>.@73:
>.776>
@.59:;
@.;9:@
5.69:>
5.@9:>
5.79:5
;.59:5
7.59:5
6
6.5;55
6.55:@
6.979;
3.6>>;
3.55:;
3.@576
3.;5>6
3.9555
3.7@;;
3.:336
3.:537
3.:95;
3.:775
3.::56
3.::76
3.:::5
3.:::7
5.6666
5.6666
5.6666
5.6666
3.>575@
3.>5;6
3.>6:;
3.5;;@
3.37;9
3.6;96
6.:35@
6.9>;6
6.55;5
6.>:5@
6.5596
6.3557
6.6795
6.6@5@
6.6539
6.66:;
6.66>:
6.6635
6.6665
6.6665
6.6666
6.6666
6
6.3>57
6.5;@9
6.>:>7
6.53;7
6.;5:7
6.95:6
6.7335
6.79;3
6.:5>>
6.:555
6.:95:
6.:797
6.::@>
6.::35
6.:::6
6.:::;
6.::::
3.6666
3.6666
3.6666
3.6666
$. Ho2arth, GG%n the solution of the laminar "oundary layer e?uations,HH ,roc. Roy. &oc. $ondon, +3;@ 5@9
A3:>7B.
5&. #oldstein, Modern De(elopments in Fluid Dynamics, %8ford 'ni(. ,ress, $ondon, 3:>7, p. 3>5.
@
3.6
6.7
n8 D(
6.;
6.@
-lasius theory
6.5
6
6 3.6
h N
3
5
5.6
y
(
n8
>.6
Figure 35.; 1elocity distri"ution in the laminar "oundary layer o(er a Jat plate. E8perimental
data "y J. /i!uradse Amonograph, fentrale F. 2iss. -erichts2esen, -erlin, 3:@5B for the Reynolds
num"er range from 3C67 ` 365 to 9C57 ` 365 .
*f 2e deFne t2o ne2 (aria"les in terms of the constant, , so that
f P f D
and
I P h
then the terms in e?uation A35=3:B "ecome
f AhB P fAIB
f 6 P 5 f6
f 66 P > f66
and
f 666 P @ f666
The resulting differential e?uation in fAIB "ecomes
f666 V ff66 P 6
and the initial conditions on f are
fP6
f6 P 6 f66 P a
at I P 6
A35=5;B
A35=55B
A35=55B
A35=5>B
A35=5@B
A35=53B
A35=56B
The other "oundary condition may "e e8pressed as follo2sC
f 6 AhB5
f AIB P 5 P 5

6
at I P 3
+n initial condition may "e matched to this "oundary condition if 2e let f 66 Ah P 6B e?ual
some constant +T then f66 AI P 6B P +D> C The constant + must ha(e a certain (alue to
35.5 -lasiusHs &olution for the $aminar -oundary $ayer on a Flat ,late 3@:
satisfy the original "oundary condition on f 6 . +s an estimate 2e let f66 AI P 6B P 5T gi(ing
+ P 5 > C Thus initial (alues of f, f6 , and f66 are no2 speciFed. The estimate on f66 A6B
re?uires that
5D>
55
f6 A3B P 5 P 5
A35=59B
+
Thus e?uation A35=5;B may "e sol(ed as an initial=(alue pro"lem 2ith the ans2er scaled
according to e?uation A35=59B to match the "oundary condition at h P 3.
The signiFcant results of -lasiusHs 2or! are the follo2ingC
AaB The "oundary thic!ness, d, is o"tained from Ta"le 35.3. When h P 5C5, 2e ha(e
( 8 D( 3 6C:: thus, designating y P d at this point, 2e ha(e
r r
y (3 d (3
hPPP 5C5
5 n85 n8
and thus
r
n8
dP5
(3
d55
P r P
p
8(38Re8
n
A"B The (elocity gradient at the surface is gi(en "y e?uation A35=59BC
r
Y( 8 ( 3 ( 3 3D5 66(3Pf A6B P 6C>>5 ( 3
Yy yP6@ n8n8
or
A35=57B
A35=5:B
+s the pressure does not contri"ute to the drag for flo2 o(er a flat plate, all the drag is
(iscous. The shear stress at the surface may "e calculated as

Y( 8

t6 P m
Yy
yP6
&u"stituting e?uation A35=5:B into this e8pression, 2e ha(e
r
(3
t6 P m 6C>>5 ( 3
n8
A35=>6B
The coefFcient of s!in friction may "e determined "y employing e?uation A35=5B as
follo2sCr
(3
6C>>5m( 3
tFd D+n8
f8 5 P 5 P
r( 3 D5 r( 3 D5r( 5 D5
3
r
n
P 6C;;@
8( 3
6C;;@
f8 P
p
Re8
W35=>3X
E?uation A35=>3B is a simple e8pression for the coefFcient of s!in friction at a particular
(alue of 8. For this reason the sym"ol f8 is used, the 8 su"script indicating a local coefFcient.
356 hapter 35 1iscous Flo2
While it is of interest to !no2 (alues of f8, it is seldom that a local (alue is usefulT most
often one 2ishes to calculate the total drag resulting from (iscous Jo2 o(er some surface of
Fnite si<e. The mean coefFcient of s!in friction that is helpful in this regard may "e
determined ?uite simply from f8 according to
f
r( 5r( 5
33PFd P +f$f8 d+
55 +
or the mean coefFcient, designated f$, is related to f8 "y
f
3
f$ Pf8 d+
+ +
For the case sol(ed "y -lasius, consider a plate of uniform 2idth W, and length $, for 2hich
r ff
3 $3 $
n U3D5
f$ Pf8 d8 P6C;;@d88
$ 6$ 6(3
r
n
P 3C>57
$( 3
3C>57
f$ P p A35=>5B
Re$
35.; F$%W W*TH + ,RE&&'RE #R+D*E/T
*n -lasiusHs solution for laminar Jo2 o(er a Jat plate, the pressure gradient 2as <ero. +
much more common Jo2 situation in(ol(es Jo2 2ith a pressure gradient. The pressure
gradient plays a maIor role in Jo2 separation, as can "e seen 2ith the aid of the "oundary=
layer e?uation A35=9B. *f 2e ma!e use of the "oundary, conditions at the 2all ( 8 P ( y P 6, at
y P 6 e?uation 35=9 "ecomes

Y5(8d,
A35=>>B
m 5 P
Yy yP6 d8
2hich relates the cur(ature of the (elocity profile at the surface to the pressure gradient.
Figure 35.9 illustrates the (ariation in ( 8, Y( 8 DYy, and Y 5 ( 8 DYy5 across the "oundary layer
for the case of a <ero=pressure gradient.
y y y
(8
(8
y
O
5 (8
y 5
i
Figure 35.9 1ariation in (elocity and (elocity deri(ati(es across the laminar "oundary layer
2hen d,Dd8 P 6.
35.; Flo2 2ith a ,ressure #radient 353
When d,Dd8 P 6, the second deri(ati(e of the (elocity at the 2all must also "e <eroT
hence the (elocity proFle is linear near the 2all. Further, out in the "oundary layer, the
(elocity gradient "ecomes smaller and gradually approaches <ero. The decrease in
the (elocity gradient means that the second deri(ati(e of the (elocity must "e negati(e.
The deri(ati(e Y 5 ( 8 DYy5 is sho2n as "eing <ero at the 2all, negati(e 2ithin the "oundary
layer, and approaching <ero at the outer edge of the "oundary layer. *t is important to note
that the second deri(ati(e must approach <ero from the negati(e side as y Q d. For (alues of
d,Dd8 ;P 6, the (ariation in ( 8 and its deri(ati(es is sho2n in Figure 35.7.
y y y
d,
d8
d,
d8
d,
d8 d,
d8
(8
y
d,
d8
d,
d8
O
5 (8
y5
(8
i
Figure 35.7 1ariation in ( 8 and its deri(ati(es across the "oundary layer for (arious pressure
gradients.
+ negati(e pressure gradient is seen to produce a (elocity (ariation some2hat similar to
that of the <ero=pressure=gradient case. + positi(e (alue of d,Dd8, ho2e(er, re?uires a
positi(e (alue of Y 5 ( 8 DYy5 at the 2all. +s this deri(ati(e must approach <ero from the
negati(e side, at some point 2ithin the "oundary layer the second deri(ati(e must e?ual <ero.
+ <ero second deri(ati(e, it 2ill "e recalled, is associated 2ith an inJection point. The
inJection point is sho2n in the (elocity proFle of Figure 35.7. We may no2 turn our
attention to the su"Iect of Jo2 separation.
*n order for Jo2 separation to occur, the (elocity in the layer of Juid adIacent to the
2all must "e <ero or negati(e, as sho2n in Figure 35.:. This type of (elocity proFle is seen
d
&eparated
region
&eparation point
Figure 35.: 1elocity
proFles in separated=
Jo2 region.
to re?uire a point of inJection. +s the only type of "oundary=layer Jo2 that has an
inJection point is Jo2 2ith a positi(e pressure gradient, it may "e concluded that a
positi(e pressure gradient is necessary for Jo2 separation. For this reason a positi(e
pressure gradient is called an ad(erse pressure gradient. Flo2 can remain unseparated
2ith an ad(erse pressure gradient, thus d,Dd8 _ 6 is a necessary "ut not a sufFcient
condition for separation. *n contrast a negati(e pressure gradient, in the a"sence of sharp
corners, cannot cause Jo2 separation. Therefore, a negati(e pressure gradient is called a
fa(ora"le pressure gradient.
The presence of a pressure gradient also affects the magnitude of the s!in friction
coefFcient, as can "e inferred from Figure 35.7. The (elocity gradient at the 2all increases as
the pressure gradient "ecomes more fa(ora"le.
LL
35.9 1%/ 0+RM+/ M%ME/T'M */TE#R+$ +/+$E&*&
The -lasius solution is o"(iously ?uite restricti(e in application, applying only to the case of
a laminar "oundary layer o(er a Jat surface. +ny situation of practical interest more
comple8 than this in(ol(es analytical procedures that ha(e, to the present time, pro(ed
inferior to e8periment. +n appro8imate method pro(iding information for systems in(ol(=
ing other types of Jo2 and ha(ing other geometries 2ill no2 "e considered.
onsider the control (olume in Figure 35.36. The control (olume to "e analy<ed is
of unit depth and is "ounded in the 8y plane "y the 8 a8is, here dra2n tangent to the
surface at point 6T the y a8is, the edge of the "oundary layer, and a line parallel to the y
a8is a distance D8 a2ay. We shall consider the case of t2o=dimensional, incompressi"le
steady Jo2.
(y
ontrol (olume
(8
y
&tream lines
8
8
d 6
Figure 35.36 ontrol (olume for integral analysis of the "oundary layer.
+ momentum analysis of the deFned control (olume in(ol(es the application of the
8=directional scalar form of the momentum theorem
fffff
Y( 8 rA(C nB d+ V( 8 r d1A5=5aBcF8 P
YtcCsCcC(C
+ term="y=term analysis of the present pro"lem yields the follo2ingC

,I8VD8 U ,I8
AdI8VD8 U dI8 B U t6 D8cF8 P ,dI8 U ,dI8VD8 V ,I8 V
5
2here d represents the "oundary=layer thic!ness, and "oth forces are assumed
negligi"le. The a"o(e terms represent the 8=directional pressure forces on the
35.9 L L1on 0arman Momentum *ntegral +nalysis 35>
left, right, and top sides of the control (olume, and the frictional force on the "ottom,
respecti(ely.
The surface integral term "ecomes
ff
cCsC
( 8 rA(C nBd+ P
f
6
d

r( 5 dy
8
f
8VD8
U
6
d

hr( 5 dy U( 3 mtop
8
8
and the accumulation term is
Y
Yt
fff
( 8 r d1 P 6
cC(C
as this is a steady=Jo2 situation.
+n application of the integral e?uation for conser(ation of mass 2ill gi(e
fffff
YrA(C nB d+ Vr d1 P 6
YtcCsCcC(C
ff
cCsC
A@=3B
rA(C nB d+ P
f
6
d
f

r( 8 dy
U
8VD8
d
6

r( 8 dy Umtop
h
8
Y
Yt
fff
r d1 P 6
cC(C
hand the mass=Jo2 rate into the top of the control (olume, mtop , may
"e e(aluated as
f df d

hr( 8 dyUr( 8 dyA35=>@Bmtop P

6
8VD8
6
8
The momentum e8pression, including e?uation A35=>@B, no2 "ecomes

,I8VD8 U ,I8
V ,I8 AdI8VD8 U dI8 B U t 6 D8UA,dI8VD8 U ,dI8 B V
5
f df df df d

Pr( 5 dy8VD8 Ur( 5 dy U( 3r( 8 dyUr( 8 dy88
8VD8
6 6
8
6 6
8
Rearranging this e8pression and di(iding through "y D8, 2e get

,I8VD8 U ,I8,I8VD8 U ,I8dI8VD8 U dI8,dI8 U ,dI8
UdI8VD8 VV
D85D8D8
QQRdRdRd 5Rd
r( 8 dyI8VD8 U 6 r( 5 dyI8r( 8 dyI8VD8 U 6 r( 8 dyI886PU (3 6V t6
D8D8
Ta!ing the limit as D8Q6 2e o"tain
d,d
P t6 VUd
d8d8
f
6
d
d
r( 5 dy U ( 38
d8
f
6
d
r( 8 dy A35=>5B
35@ hapter 35 1iscous Flo2
The "oundary=layer concept assumes in(iscid Jo2 outside the "oundary layer, for
2hich 2e may 2rite -ernoulliHs e?uation
d,d( 3
V r( 3P6
d8d8
2hich may "e rearranged to the form
d d,dd
P Ad( 5 B U ( 3 Ad( 3 B3
r d8 d8d8
A35=>;B
/otice that the left=hand sides of e?uations A35=>5B and A35=>;B are similar. We may thus
relate the right=hand sides and, 2ith proper rearrangement, get the result
t6
P
r
d
(3
d8
f
6
d
d
A( 3 U ( 8 B dy V
d8
f
6
d
( 8 A( 3 U ( 8 B dy
A35=>9B
L LE?uation A35=>9B is the (on 0arman momentum integral e8pression, named in
honor of
L LTheodore (on 0arman 2ho Frst de(eloped it.
E?uation A35=>9B is a general e8pression 2hose solution re?uires a !no2ledge of the
(elocity, ( 8 , as a function of distance from the surface, y. The accuracy of the Fnal result 2ill
depend on ho2 closely the assumed (elocity proFle approaches the real one.
+s an e8ample of the application of e?uation A35=>9B, let us consider the case
of laminar Jo2 o(er a Jat plate, a situation for 2hich an e8act ans2er is !no2n. *n
this case the free=stream (elocity is constant, therefore AdDd8B( 3 P 6 and e?uation
A35=>;B simpliFes to
t6d
P
d8r
f
6
d
( 8 A( 3 U ( 8 B dy
A35=>7B
+n early solution to e?uation A35=>7B 2as achie(ed "y ,ohlhausen, 2ho assumed for
the (elocity proFle a cu"ic function
( 8 P a V "y V cy5 V dy>
A35=>:B
The constants a, ", c, and d may "e e(aluated if 2e !no2 certain "oundary conditions that
must "e satisFed in the "oundary layer. These are
A3B
A5B
A>B
and
A@B
Y5(8
P 6 at y P 6
Yy5
(8 P 6
(8 P (3
Y( 8
P6
Yy
at y P 6
at y P d
at y P d
-oundary condition A@B results from e?uation A35=>>B, 2hich states that the second
deri(ati(e at the 2all is e?ual to the pressure gradient. +s the pressure is constant in this case,
Y 5 ( 8 DYy5 P 6. &ol(ing for a, ", c, and d from these conditions, 2e get
aP6 "P
>
(3
5d
cP6 dPU
(3
5d>
35.7 Description of Tur"ulence 355
2hich, 2hen su"stituted in e?uation A35=>:B, gi(e the form of the (elocity proFle
(8> y 3 y>
PU
5 d(3 5 d
'pon su"stitution, e?uation A35=>7B "ecomes
>( ( 3d
P
5 d3 d8
or, after integrating
> (3>: d 5
(A( dBP
5 d576 d8 3
+s the free=stream (elocity is constant, a simple ordinary differential e?uation in d results
d dd P
This, upon integration, yields
d@C;@
P
p
8Re8
The local s!in=friction coefficient, f8 , is gi(en "y
f8 3
t65( > ( 3 6C;@;
P p P
55(3 5 dRe85r( 3
A35=@5B
A35=@3B
3@6 ( d8
3> ( 3
f
6
d
A35=@6B
(53
> y 3 y>
U
5d 5 d

> y 3 y>
V3Udy
5d 5 d
*ntegration of the local s!in=friction coefficient "et2een 8 P 6 and 8 P $ as in e?uation
A35=>5B yields
3C5:5
f$ P
p
Re$
A35=@>B
omparing e?uations A35=@3B, A35=@5B, and A35=@>B 2ith e8act results o"tained "y -lasius
for the same situation, e?uations A35=57B, A35=>3B, and A35=>5B, 2e o"ser(e a difference of
a"out 9b in d and >b in f . This difference could, of course, ha(e "een smaller had the
assumed (elocity profile "een a more accurate representation of the actual profile.
This comparison has sho2n the utility of the momentum integral method for the
solution of the "oundary layer and indicates a procedure that may "e used 2ith reasona"le
accuracy to o"tain (alues for "oundary=layer thic!ness and the coefFcient of s!in friction
2here an e8act analysis is not feasi"le. The momentum integral method may also "e used to
determine the shear stress from the (elocity proFle.
35.7 DE&R*,T*%/ %F T'R-'$E/E
Tur"ulent Jo2 is the most fre?uently encountered type of (iscous Jo2, yet the analytical
treatment of tur"ulent Jo2 is not nearly 2ell de(eloped as that of laminar Jo2. *n this
section, 2e e8amine the phenomenon of tur"ulence, particularly 2ith respect to the
mechanism of tur"ulent contri"utions to momentum transfer.
*n a tur"ulent Jo2 the Juid and Jo2 (aria"les (ary 2ith time. The instantaneous
(elocity (ector, for e8ample, 2ill differ from the a(erage (elocity (ector in "oth magnitude
and direction. Figure 35.33 illustrates the type of time dependence e8perienced "y the
35; hapter 35 1iscous Flo2
( (
h
(A8, y, <B
t
AaB
h
(A8, y, <, tB
t
A"B
Figure 35.33 Time dependence of (elocity in a tur"ulent Jo2C AaB steady mean Jo2T
A"B unsteady mean Jo2.
a8ial component of the (elocity for tur"ulent Jo2 in a tu"e. While the (elocity in Figure
35.33a is seen to "e steady in its mean (alue, small random Juctuations in (elocity occur
a"out the mean (alue. +ccordingly, 2e may e8press the Juid and Jo2 (aria"les in terms of a
mean (alue and a Juctuating (alue. For e8ample, the 8=directional (elocity is e8pressed as
( 8 P ( 8 A8T yT <B V ( 6 A8T yT <T tB8
Here (8 A8T yT <B represents the time=a(eraged (elocity at the point A8, y, <B
f
3 t3
(8 P( 8 A8T yT <T tB dt
t3 6
A35=@@B
A35=@5B
2here t3 is a time that is (ery long in comparison 2ith the duration of any fluctuation.
The mean (alue of ( 6 A8T yT <T tB is <ero, as e8pressed "y8
f
3 t3 6
(6 P( A8T yT <T tB dt P 6A35=@;B
8t3 6 8
Hereafter, . 2ill R used to designate the time a(erage of the general property, .,"e
taccording to . P 3Dt3 63 .A8T yT <T tBdt. While the mean (alue of the tur"ulent Juctuations
is <ero, these Juctuations contri"ute to the mean (alue of certain Jo2 ?uantities. For
e8ample, the mean !inetic energy per unit (olume is
3
660E P r\A( 8 V ( 8 B5 V A( y V ( y B5 V A( < V ( <6 B5 ^
5
The a(erage of a sum is the sum of the a(eragesT hence the !inetic energy "ecomes
[ U[ U[o3 nU
6656650E P r ( 5 V 5( 8 ( 8 V ( 8 V ( 5 V 5( y ( y V ( y V ( 5 V 5( < ( <6 V ( <658y<
5
66or, since ( 8 ( 8 P ( 8 ( 8 P 6T
[3 U
65650E P r ( 5 V ( 5 V ( 5 V ( 8 V ( y V (
<658y<
5
A35=@9B
+ fraction of the total !inetic energy of a tur"ulent flo2 is seen to "e associated 2ith the
magnitude of the tur"ulent fluctuations. *t can "e sho2n that the rms Aroot mean s?uareB
6565(alue of the fluctuations, A( 8 V ( y V ( <65 B3D5 is a significant ?uantity. The le(el or
intensity of tur"ulence is defined as

?
[U
6565( 8 V ( y V ( <65 D>
A35=@7B*
(3
35.: Tur"ulent &hearing &tresses 359
2here ( 3 is the mean (elocity of the flo2. The intensity of tur"ulence is a measure of
the !inetic energy of the tur"ulence and is an important parameter in flo2 simulation. *n
model testing, simulation of tur"ulent flo2s re?uires not only duplication of Reynolds
num"er "ut also duplication of the tur"ulent !inetic energy. Thus, the measurement of
tur"ulence is seen to "e a necessity in many applications.
The general discussion so far has indicated the Juctuating nature of tur"ulence. The
random nature of tur"ulence lends itself to statistical analysis. We shall no2 turn our
attention to the effect of the tur"ulent Juctuations on momentum transfer.
35.: T'R-'$E/T &HE+R*/# &TRE&&E&
*n hapter 9, the random molecular motion of the molecules 2as sho2n to result in a net
momentum transfer "et2een t2o adIacent layers of Juid. *f the AmolecularB random motions
gi(e rise to momentum transfer, it seems reasona"le to e8pect that large=scale Juctuations,
such as those present in a tur"ulent Jo2, 2ill also result in a net transfer of momentum.
'sing an approach similar to that of &ection 9.>, let us consider the transfer of momentum in
the tur"ulent Jo2 illustrated in Figure 35.35.
y
O ((8 N O8 A yB
(yd
(8d
y
8
8
Figure 35.35 Tur"ulent motion at the surface of a control (olume.
The relation "et2een the macroscopic momentum Ju8 due to the tur"ulent Juctuations
and the shear stress may "e seen from the control=(olume e8pression for linear momentum
fffff
Y
cF P(rA(C nB d+ V(r d1A5=@B
YtcCsCcC(C
The flu8 of 8=directional momentum across the top of the control surface is
ffff
(rA(C nB d+ P( 6 rA( 8 V ( 6 B d+y8
top top
A35=@:B
*f the mean (alue of the momentum flu8 o(er a period of time is e(aluated for the case of
steady mean flo2, the time deri(ati(e in e?uation A5=@B is <eroT thus
6ffffff
cF8 P( 6 rA( 8 V ( 6 Bd+ P( 6 r( 8 d+ Vr( 6 ( 6 d+A35=56B
y8yy 8
b
The presence of the tur"ulent fluctuations is seen to contri"ute a mean 8 directional
6 6
momentum flu8 of r( 8 ( y s per unit area. +lthough the tur"ulent fluctuations are functions
of position and time, their analytical description has not "een achie(ed, e(en for the
simplest case. The close analogy "et2een the molecular e8change of momentum in
laminar flo2 and the macroscopic e8change of momentum in tur"ulent flo2 suggests that
the term r( 6 ( 6 "e regarded as a shear stress. Transposing this term to the left=hand side of8 y
e?uation A5=@B and incorporating it 2ith the shear stress due to molecular momentum
transfer, 2e see that the total shear stress "ecomes
t y8 P m
d (8
6 6U r( 8 ( y
dy
A35=53B
The tur"ulent contri"ution to the shear stress is called the Reynolds stress. *n tur"ulent
flo2s it is found that the magnitude of the Reynolds stress is much greater than the
molecular contri"ution e8cept near the 2alls.
+n important difference "et2een the molecular and tur"ulent contri"utions to the shear
stress is to "e noted. Whereas the molecular contri"ution is e8pressed in terms of a property
of the Juid and a deri(ati(e of the mean Jo2, the tur"ulent contri"ution is e8pressed solely
in terms of the Juctuating properties of the Jo2. Further, these Jo2 properties are not
e8pressi"le in analytical terms. While Reynolds stresses e8ist for multidimensional
Jo2s,; the difFculties in analytically predicting e(en the one=dimensional case ha(e pro(ed
insurmounta"le 2ithout the aid of e8perimental data. The reason for these difFculties may
"e seen "y e8amining the num"er of e?uations and the num"er of un!no2ns in(ol(ed. *n the
incompressi"le tur"ulent "oundary layer, for e8ample, there are t2o pertinent e?uations,
66
momentum and continuity, and four un!no2ns, ( 8 , ( y , ( 8 , and ( y .
+n early attempt to formulate a theory of tur"ulent shear stress 2as made "y
-oussines?.9 -y analogy 2ith the form of /e2tonHs (iscosity relation, -oussines?
introduced the concept relating the tur"ulent shear stress to the shear strain rate. The shear
stress in laminar Jo2 is ty8 P mAd( 8 DdyBT thus "y analogy, the Reynolds stress "ecomes
Aty8 Btur" P +t
d (8
dy
2here +t is the eddy (iscosity. &u"se?uent reFnements ha(e led to the introduction of the
eddy diffusi(ity of momentum, eM +t Dr, and thus
Aty8 Btur" P reM
d (8
dy
A35=55B
The difficulties in analytical treatment still e8ist, ho2e(er, as the eddy diffusi(ity, eM , is a
property of the flo2 and not of the fluid. -y analogy 2ith the !inematic (iscosity in a
laminar flo2, it may "e o"ser(ed that the units of the eddy diffusi(ity are $5Dt.
35.36 THE M*M*/#=$E/#TH HE,%THE&*&
+ general similarity "et2een the mechanism of transfer of momentum in tur"ulent Jo2
and that in laminar Jo2 permits an analog to "e made for tur"ulent shear stress. The analog
to the mean free path in molecular momentum e8change for the tur"ulent case is the
mi8ing length proposed "y ,randtl7 in 3:55. onsider the simple tur"ulent Jo2 sho2n in
Figure 35.3>.
The e8istence of the Reynolds stresses may also "e sho2n "y ta!ing the time a(erage of the /a(ierO&to!es
e?uations.
9J. -oussines?, Mem. ,re. par di(. &a(., MM***, A3799B.
7$. ,randtl, f+MM, 5, 3>; A3:55B.
;
35.36
y
The Mi8ing=$ength Hypothesis 35:
$
y
(8
Figure 35.3> The ,randtl mi8ing
length.
6
The (elocity Juctuation ( 8 is hypothesi<ed as "eing due to the y=directional motion of a
GGlumpHH of Juid through a distance $. *n undergoing translation the lump of Juid retains the
mean (elocity from its point of origin. 'pon reaching a destination, a distance $ from the
point of origin, the lump of Juid 2ill differ in mean (elocity from that of the adIacent Juid "y
an amount ( 8 IyU$ U ( 8 Iy . *f the lump of Juid originated at y V $, the (elocity difference
2ould "e ( 8 IyV$ U ( 8 Iy . The instantaneous (alue of ( 6 Iy is then ( 8 Iy$ U ( 8 Iy , the sign of $,8
of course, depending on the point of origin 2ith respect to y. Further, the mi8ing length,
although Fnite, is assumed to "e small enough to permit the (elocity difference to "e 2ritten
as and thus
( 8 Iy$ U ( 8 Iy P $
and thus
( 6 P $8
d( 8
dy
d( 8
dy
A35=55B
The concept of the mi8ing length is some2hat a!in to that of the mean free path of a
gas molecule. The important differences are its magnitude and dependence upon Jo2
properties rather than Juid properties. With an e8pression for ( 6 at hand, an e8pression for ( 68y
6( 6.is necessary to determine the tur"ulent shear stress, Ur( 8 y
666,randtl assumed that ( 6 must "e proportional to ( y . *f ( 8 and ( y 2ere
completely8
independent, then the time a(erage of their product 2ould "e <ero. -oth the continuity
6
e?uation and e8perimental data sho2 that there is some degree of proportionality "et2een ( 8
6666 6and ( y . 'sing the fact that ( y u ( 8 , ,randtl e8pressed the time a(erage, ( 8 ( y , as

5 d ( 8 d ( 86 6
A35=5>B
( 8 ( y P UAconstantB$ dy dy
66
The constant represents the un!no2n proportionality "et2een ( 8 and ( y as 2ell as their
correlation in ta!ing the time a(erage. The minus sign and the a"solute (alue 2ere
6 6
introduced to ma!e the ?uantity ( 8 ( y agree 2ith e8perimental o"ser(ations. The constant
in A35=5>B, 2hich is un!no2n, may "e incorporated into the mi8ing length, 2hich is also
un!no2n, gi(ing

5 d ( 8 d ( 86 6
A35=5@B
( 8 ( y P U$ dy dy
omparison 2ith -oussines?Hs e8pression for the eddy diffusi(ity yields

d ( 8
e M P $5
dy
A35=55B
3;6 hapter 35 1iscous Flo2
+t Frst glance it appears that little has "een gained in going from the eddy (iscosity to
the mi8ing length. There is an ad(antage, ho2e(er, in that assumptions regarding the nature
and (ariation of the mi8ing length may "e made on an easier "asis than assumptions
concerning the eddy (iscosity.
35.33 1E$%*TE D*&TR*-'T*%/ FR%M THE M*M*/#=$E/#TH THE%RE
%ne of the important contri"utions of the mi8ing=length theory is its use in correlating
(elocity proFles at large Reynolds num"ers. onsider a tur"ulent Jo2 as illustrated in
Figure 35.3>. *n the neigh"orhood of the 2all the mi8ing length is assumed to (ary
directly 2ith y, and thus $ P 0y, 2here 0 remains a dimensionless constant to "e
determined (ia e8periment. The shear stress is assumed to "e entirely due to tur"ul=
ence and to remain constant o(er the region of interest. The (elocity ( 8 is assumed to
increase in the y direction, and thus d ( 8 Ddy P Id ( 8 DdyI. 'sing these assumptions, 2e may
2rite the tur"ulent shear stress as
t y8
or

p
d (8t6 Dr
P
0ydy

d (8 5
P r0 yP t6 Aa constantB
dy
5 5
The ?uantity
yields
p
t 6 Dr is o"ser(ed to ha(e units of (elocity. *ntegration of the a"o(e e?uation
p
t6 Dr
*n y V (8 P
0
A35=5;B
2here is a constant of integration. This constant may "e e(aluated "y setting ( 8 P
( 8 ma8 at y P h, 2here"y
( 8 ma8 U ( 83h yi
p P Uln
0ht6 Dr
A35=59B
The constant 0 2as e(aluated "y ,randtl: and /i!uradse36 from data on tur"ulent
Jo2 in tu"es and found to ha(e a (alue of 6.@. The agreement of e8perimental data for
tur"ulent Jo2 in smooth tu"es 2ith e?uation A35=59B is ?uite good, as can "e seen from
Figure 35.3@.
The empirical nature of the preceding discussion cannot "e o(erloo!ed. &e(eral
assumptions regarding the Jo2 are !no2n to "e incorrect for Jo2 in tu"es, namely
that the shear stress is not constant and that the geometry 2as treated from a t2o=
dimensional (ie2point rather than an a8isymmetric (ie2point. *n (ie2 of these o"(ious
difFculties, it is remar!a"le that e?uation A3>=35B descri"es the (elocity proFle so
2ell.
:
36
$. ,randtl, ,roc. *ntern. ongr. +ppl. Mech., 5nd ongr., furich A3:59B, ;5.
J. /i!uradse, 1D*=Forschungsheft, >5;, 3:>5.
35.35
35
33
Data at Re N 36;
36
:
7
A(8 ma8 O (8B
9
t6 Dr
;
5
E?uation A35=59B
@
>
5
3
6
6 6.5 6.@
yDh
6.; 6.7
The 'ni(ersal 1elocity Distri"ution 3;3
3.6
Figure 35.3@ omparison of
data for Jo2 in smooth tu"e
2ith e?uation A35=59B.
35.35 THE '/*1ER&+$ 1E$%*TE D*&TR*-'T*%/
For tur"ulent Jo2 in smooth tu"es, e?uation A35=59B may "e ta!en as a "asis for a
morep
general de(elopment. Recalling that the term t 6 Dr has the units of (elocity, 2e mayp
introduce a dimensionless (elocity ( 8 D t6 Dr. DeFning
(8
( V p A35=57B
t 6 Dr
2e may 2rite e?uation A35=5;B as
(V P
3
\ln y^ V
0
A35=5:B
The left=hand side of A35=5:B is, of course, dimensionlessT therefore the right=hand side of
this e?uation must also "e dimensionless. + pseudo=Reynolds num"er is found useful in
this regard. Defining
p
t6 DrV
yA35=;6By
n
2e find that e?uation A35=5:B "ecomes
(V P
3nyV3
ln p V P Aln y V V ln "B
00t6 Dr
A35=;3B
2here the constant " is dimensionless.
E?uation A35=;3B indicates that for Jo2 in smooth tu"es ( V P f AyV B or
p d)
(8y t 6 DrV( p P f ln
nt6 Dr
(V
A35=;5B
The range of (alidity of e?uation A3>=3:B may "e o"ser(ed from a plot Asee Figur 35.35B
of(ersus ln yi, using the data of /i!uradse and Reichardt.
3;5 hapter 35 1iscous Flo2
55
$aminar
layer
-uffer
layer
Tur"ulant
layer
56
35
(i
E?uation A35=;5B
36
E?uation
A35=;>B
E?uation A35=;@B
5
/i!uradse
Reichardt
6
3 5 5 36 56
yi
56 366 566 566 3666
Figure 35.35 1elocity correlation for Jo2 in circular smooth tu"es at high Reynolds num"er
AH. Reichardt, /++ TM36@9, 3:@>B.
Three distinct regions are apparentC a tur"ulent core, a "uffer layer, and a laminar
su"layer. The (elocity is correlated as follo2sC
for tur"ulent core, yV Q >6
( V P 5C5 V 5C5 ln yV
for the "uffer layer, >6 Q yV Q 5
( V P U>C65 V 5 ln yV
for the laminar su"layer, 5 _ yV _ 6
( V P yV
A35=;5B
A35=;@B
A35=;>B
E?uations A35=;>B through A35=;5B deFne the uni(ersal (elocity distri"ution. -ecause
of the empirical nature of these e?uations, there are, of course, inconsistencies. The (elocity
gradient, for e8ample, at the center of the tu"e predicted "y A35=;>B is not <ero. *n spite of
this and other inconsistencies, these e?uations are e8tremely useful for descri"ing Jo2 in
smooth tu"es.
*n rough tu"es, the scale of the roughness e is found to affect the Jo2 in the tur"ulent
core, "ut not laminar su"layer. The constant " in e?uation A3>=3:B "ecomes ln " Pp
in the
>C@ U ln \Ae t6 DrBDn^ for rough tu"es. +s the 2all shear stress appears in the re(ised
e8pression for ln ", it is important to note that 2all roughness affects the magnitude of the
shear stress in a tur"ulent Jo2.
35.3> F'RTHER EM,*R*+$ RE$+T*%/& F%R T'R-'$E/T F$%W
T2o important e8perimental results that are helpful in studying tur"ulent Jo2s are the
po2er=la2 relation for (elocity proFles and a tur"ulent=Jo2 shear=stress relation due to
-lasius. -oth of these relations are (alid for Jo2 adIacent to smooth surfaces.
35.3@ The Tur"ulent -oundary $ayer on a Flat ,late 3;>
For Jo2 in smooth circular tu"es, it is found that o(er much of the cross section the
(elocity proFle may "e correlated "y
y 3Dn(8
PA35=;;B
( 8 ma8R
2here R is the radius of the tu"e and n is a slo2ly (arying function of Reynolds num"er. The
e8ponent n is found to (ary from a (alue of ; at Re P @666 to 36 at Re P >,566,666. +t Rey=
nolds num"ers of 365 the (alue of n is 9. This leads to the fre?uently used one=se(enth=po2er
la2, ( 8 D( 8 ma8 P AyDRB3D9 . The po2er=la2 profile has also "een found to represent the (elocity
distri"ution in "oundary layers. For "oundary layers of thic!ness d, the po2er la2 is 2ritten
y3Dn(8
PA35=;9B
( 8 ma8d
The po2er=la2 proFle has t2o o"(ious difFcultiesC the (elocity gradients at the 2all
and those at d are incorrect. This e8pression indicates that the (elocity gradient at the 2all is
inFnite and that the (elocity gradient at d is non<ero.
*n spite of these inconsistencies, the po2er la2 is e8tremely useful in connection 2ith
L Lthe (on 0arman=integral relation, as 2e shall see in &ection 35.3@.
+nother useful relation is -lasiusHs correlation for shear stress. For pipe=Jo2 Reynolds
num"ers up to 365 and Jat=plate Reynolds num"ers up to 369, the 2all shear stress in a
tur"ulent Jo2 is gi(en "y
3D@
n
5
A35=;7B
t6 P 6C6555r( 8 ma8
( 8 ma8 yma8
2here yma8 P R in pipes and yma8 P d for flat surfaces.
35.3@ THE T'R-'$E/T -%'/D+RE $+EER %/ + F$+T ,$+TE
The (ariation in "oundary=layer thic!ness for tur"ulent Jo2 o(er a smooth Jat plate may "e
L Lo"tained from the (on 0arman momentum integral. The manner of appro8imation
in(ol(ed
in a tur"ulent analysis differs from that used pre(iously. *n a laminar Jo2, a simple
polynomial 2as assumed to represent the (elocity proFle. *n a tur"ulent Jo2, 2e ha(e seen
that the (elocity proFle depends upon the 2all shear stress and that no single function
ade?uately represents the (elocity proFle o(er the entire region. The procedure 2e shall
L Lfollo2 in using the (on 0arman integral relation in a tur"ulent Jo2 is to utili<e a simple
proFle for the integration 2ith the -lasius correlation for the shear stress. For a <ero pressure
L Lgradient the (on 0arman integral relation is
f
t6d d
P( 8 A( 3 U ( 8 B dyA35=>7B
rd8 6
Employing the one=se(enth=po2er la2 for ( 8 and the -lasius relation, e?uation A35=;7B
for t6, 2e see that e?uation A35=>7B "ecomes
)df
n 3D@ d d 5 y3D9 y5D9
dyA35=;:B6C6555( 5P(U
3
(3dd8 6 3 dd
2here the free=stream (elocity, ( 3 , is 2ritten in place of ( 8 ma8 . ,erforming the indicated
integration and differentiation, 2e o"tain

n 3D@ 9 dd
A35=96BP6C6555
(3d95 d8
3;@ hapter 35 1iscous Flo2
2hich "ecomes, upon integration
3D@
n
8 P >C@5 d5D@ V
(3
A35=93B
*f the "oundary layer is assumed to "e tur"ulent from the leading edge, 8 P 6 Aa poor
assumptionB, the a"o(e e?uation may "e rearranged to gi(e
d 6C>9;
P
8 Re3D5
8
A35=95B
The local s!in=friction coefFcient may "e computed from the -lasius relation for shear
stress, e?uation A35=;9B, to gi(e
f8 P
6C659;
Re3D5
8
A35=9>B
&e(eral things are to "e noted a"out these e8pressions. First, they are limited to (alues of
Re8 ] 369 , "y (irtue of the -lasius relation. &econd, they apply only to smooth Jat plates.
$ast, a maIor assumption has "een made in assuming the "oundary layer to "e tur"ulent from
the leading edge. The "oundary layer is !no2n to "e laminar initially and to undergo
transition to tur"ulent Jo2 at a (alue of Re8 of a"out 5 ` 365 . We shall retain the assumption
of a completely tur"ulent "oundary layer for the simplicity it affordsT it is recogni<ed,
ho2e(er, that this assumption introduces some error in the case of a "oundary layer that is
not completely tur"ulent.
+ comparison of a laminar and a tur"ulent "oundary layer can "e made from -lasiusHs
laminar=Jo2 solution and e?uations A35=57B, A35=95B, and A35=9>B. +t the same Reynolds
num"er, the tur"ulent "oundary layer is o"ser(ed to "e thic!er, and is associated 2ith a
larger s!in friction coefFcient. While it 2ould appear then that a laminar "oundary layer is
more desira"le, the re(erse is generally true. *n most cases of engineering interest, a
tur"ulent "oundary layer is desired "ecause it resists separation "etter than a laminar
"oundary layer. The (elocity proFles in laminar and tur"ulent "oundary layers are compared
?ualitati(ely in Figure 35.3;.
5
@
dT
N >.:
d$
Tur"ulent
y Dd laminar
>
5 dT
3
$aminar
6
6 6.5 6.@
(8 D(q
6.; 6.7 3.6
d$
Figure 35.3; omparison of
(elocity proFles in laminar and
tur"ulent "oundary layers. The
Reynolds num"er is 566,666.
35.3; losure 3;5
*t can "e seen that the tur"ulent "oundary layer has a greater mean (elocity, hence "oth
greater momentum and energy than the laminar "oundary layer. The greater momentum and
energy permit the tur"ulent "oundary layer to remain unseparated for a greater distance in
the presence of an ad(erse pressure gradient than 2ould "e the case for a laminar "oundary
layer.
onsider a Jat plate 2ith transition from laminar Jo2 to tur"ulent Jo2 occurring on
the plate. *f transition from laminar Jo2 to tur"ulent Jo2 is assumed to occur a"ruptly
Afor computational purposesB, a pro"lem arises in ho2 to Ioin the laminar "oundary layer to
the tur"ulent layer at the point of transition. The pre(ailing procedure is to e?uate the
momentum thic!nesses, e?uation A35=@@B, at the transition point. That is, at the start of
the tur"ulent portion of the "oundary layer, the momentum thic!ness, u, is e?ual to the
momentum thic!ness at the end of the laminar portion of the "oundary layer.
The general approach for tur"ulent "oundary layers 2ith a pressure gradient in(ol(es
L Lthe use of the (on 0arman momentum integral as gi(en in e?uation A35=@;B. /umerical
integration is re?uired.
35.35 F+T%R& +FFET*/# THE TR+/&*T*%/
FR%M $+M*/+R T% T'R-'$E/T F$%W
The (elocity proFles and momentum=transfer mechanisms ha(e "een e8amined for "oth
laminar and tur"ulent Jo2 regimes and found to "e ?uite different. $aminar Jo2 has also
"een seen to undergo transition to tur"ulent Jo2 at certain Reynolds num"ers.
&o far the occurrence of transition has "een e8pressed in terms of the Reynolds num"er
alone, 2hile a (ariety of factors other than Re actually inJuence transition. The Reynolds
num"er remains, ho2e(er, the principal parameter for predicting transition.
Ta"le 35.5 indicates the inJuence of some of these factors on the transition Reynolds
num"er.
Ta"le 35.5 Factors affecting the Reynolds num"er of transition from laminar to tur"ulent Jo2
Factor
,ressure gradient
Free=stream tur"ulence
Roughness
&uction
Wall cur(atures
Wall temperature
*nJuence
Fa(ora"le pressure gradient retards transitionT unfa(ora"le pressure
gradient hastens it
Free=stream tur"ulence decreases transition Reynolds num"er
/o effect in pipesT decreases transition in e8ternal Jo2
&uction greatly increases transition Re
on(e8 cur(ature increases transition Re. onca(e cur(ature
decreases it
ool 2alls increase transition Re. Hot 2alls decrease it
35.3; $%&'RE
1iscous Jo2 has "een e8amined in this chapter for "oth internal and e8ternal geometries.
T2o approaches 2ere employed for analy<ing laminar "oundary layer Jo2sKe8act
analysis using "oundary layer e?uations and appro8imate integral methods. For tur"ulent
"oundary layer analysis along a plane surface, an integral method 2as employed.
oncepts of s!in friction and drag coefFcients 2ere introduced and ?uantitati(e
relationships 2ere de(eloped for "oth internal and e8ternal Jo2s.
3;; hapter 35 1iscous Flo2
+pproaches to modeling tur"ulent Jo2s 2ere introduced, culminating in e8pressions for
the GGuni(ersalHH (elocity distri"ution. This approach considers tur"ulent Jo2s to "e descri"ed
in three partsC the laminar su"layer, the transition or "uffer layer, and the tur"ulent core.
The concepts de(eloped in this chapter 2ill "e used to de(elop important e8pressions
for momentum Jo2 application in the ne8t chapter. &imilar applications 2ill "e de(eloped
in the sections related to "oth heat and mass transfer in later sections of this te8t.
,R%-$EM&
35.3 *f ReynoldsHs e8periment 2as performed 2ith a >7=mm=
*D pipe, 2hat Jo2 (elocity 2ould occur at transitiona
35.5 Modern su"sonic aircraft ha(e "een reFned to such an
e8tent that 95b of the parasite drag Aportion of total aircraft drag
not directly associated 2ith producing liftB can "e attri"uted to
friction along the e8ternal surfaces. For a typical su"sonic Iet, the
parasite drag coefFcient "ased on 2ing area is 6.633. Determine
the friction drag on such an aircraft
a. at 566 mph at >5 666 ftT
". at 566 mph at sea le(el.
35.7 ,lot a cur(e of drag (s. (elocity for a 3.;5=in.=diameter
sphere in air "et2een (elocities of 56 fps and @66 fps.
35.: For 2hat 2ind (elocities 2ill a 35.9=mm=diameter ca"le
"e in the unsteady 2a!e region of Figure 35.5a
35.36 Estimate the drag force on a >=ft=long radio antenna 2ith
an a(erage diameter of 6.5 in. at a speed of ;6 mph.
35.33 + 5669 Toyota ,rius has a drag coefFcient of 6.5; at
road speeds, using a reference area of 5.>> m5. Determine the
horsepo2er re?uired to o(ercome drag at a (elocity of >6 mDs.
ompare this Fgure 2ith the case of head and tail 2inds of ; mDs.
35.35 The lift coefFcient is deFned as $ Alift forceBD
3r( 5 + . *f the lift coefFcient for the auto in the pre(ious pro"lem
5 8 r
is 6.53, determine the lift force at a road speed of 366 mph.
35.3> The auto in ,ro"lems and sho2ed a sensiti(ity to ya2
angle. +t a ya2 angle of 567, the lift coefFcient increased to 3.6.
What is the lift force at 366 mph for this casea
35.3@ What diameter circular plate 2ould ha(e the same drag
as the auto of ,ro"lem 35.33a
35.35 Estimate the normal force on a circular sign 7 ft in
diameter during a hurricane 2ind A356 mphB.
35.3; + 3::7 $e8us $&@66 has a drag coefFcient of 6.57 and a
reference area of 5.@ m5. Determine the horsepo2er re?uired to
o(ercome drag 2hen dri(ing at 96 mph at sea le(el.
a. on a hot summer day T ^ 366 F.
". on a cold 2inter day T ^ 6 F
35.39 + "ase"all has a circumference of : 3 inches and a
@
2eight of 5 3 ounces. +t :5 mph determine
@
a. the Reynolds num"er.
". the drag force.
c. the type of Jo2 Asee the illustration for ,ro"lem B.
35.37 #olf"all GGdimplesHH cause the drag drop Asee Figure 35.@
and the illustration for ,ro"lem 35.9B to occur at a lo2er
Reynolds num"er. The ta"le "elo2 gi(es the drag coefFcient
for a rough sphere as a function of the Reynolds num"er. ,lot the
drag for3.;5=in.=diameter sphere as a function of (elocity. &ho2
se(eral comparison points for a smooth sphere.
Re [ 36U@
D
9.5
6.@7
36
6.>7
35
6.55
56
6.35
55
6.36
The 2ing area is 5@66 ft5.
35.> onsider the Jo2 of air at >6 mDs along a Jat plate. +t
2hat distance from the leading edge 2ill transition occura
35.@ Find a (elocity proFle for the laminar "oundary layer of
the form
(8
P c3 V c5 y V c> y5 V c@ y>
( 8d
2hen the pressure gradient is not <ero.
35.5 E(aluate and compare 2ith the e8act solution d, f8, and
f$ for the laminar "oundary layer o(er a Jat plate, using the
(elocity proFle
( 8 P a sin "yC
35.; There is Juid e(aporating from a surface at 2hich
L L( 8 IyP6 P 6, "ut ( 8 IyP6 ;P 6. Deri(e the (on
0arman momentum
relation.
35.9 The drag coefFcient for a smooth sphere is sho2n "elo2.
Determine the speed at the critical Reynolds num"er for a
@5=mm=diameter sphere in air.
6.5
6.@
6.>
D
6.5
6.3
6
36>
36
@
36
Re N D(Dn
5
36
;
36
9
,ro"lems
35.3: The lift coefFcient on a rotating sphere is (ery appro8i=
mately gi(en "y

R1R1
$ ^ 6C5@U6C65 o(er the range of 3C5 __ 6C5C
11
Here R is the sphere radius and 1 is rotation rate of the sphere.
For the "ase"all in ,ro"lem 35.39, determine the rotation rate for
a "ase"all thro2n at 336 mph to ha(e the lift e?ual the 2eight.
Ho2 many rotations 2ould such a "all ma!e in ;6 ft ; in.a
35.56 *f the (ertical (elocity at the 2all is not <ero such as
2ould "e the case 2ith suction or "lo2ing, 2hat modiFcations
occur to e?uation A35=>>Ba
35.53 *f the tur"ulence intensity is 36b, 2hat fraction of the
total !inetic energy of the Jo2 is due to the tur"ulencea
35.55 *n a house, 2ater Jo2s through a copper tu"e 2ith a 6.95=
in.*D, at a Jo2 rate of 5 gpm. Determine the Reynolds num"er for
a. hot 2ater AT ^ 356 FBC
". cold 2ater AT ^ @5 FBC
35.5> ,lot the "oundary=layer thic!ness along a Jat plate for
the Jo2 of air at >6 mDs assuming
a. laminar Jo2T
". tur"ulent Jo2.
*ndicate the pro"a"le transition point.
35.5@ For the fully de(eloped Jo2 of 2ater in a smooth 6.35=m
pipe at a rate of 6C66; m> Ds, determine the thic!ness of
a. the laminar su"layerT
". the "uffer layerT
c. the tur"ulent core.
35.55 'sing -lasiusH correlation for shear stress Ae?uation 35=
;7B, de(elop an e8pression for the local s!in=friction coefFcient in
pipes. *n pipes, the a(erage (elocity is used for the friction coefF=
cient and the Reynolds num"er. 'se the one=se(enth=po2er la2.
35.5; For a thin a plate ; in. 2ide and > ft long, estimate the
friction force in air at a (elocity of @6 fps, assuming
a. tur"ulent Jo2T
". laminar Jo2.
The Jo2 is parallel to the ;=in. dimension.
3;9
35.59 'sing a sine proFle the laminar Jo2 and a one=se(enth=
po2er la2 for tur"ulent Jo2, ma!e a dimensionless plot of the
momentum and !inetic energy proFles in the "oundary layer a
Reynolds num"er of 365.
35.57 Estimate the friction drag on a 2ing "y considering the
follo2ing ideali<ation. onsider the 2ing to "e a rectangular Jat
plate, 9 ft "y @6 ft, 2ith a smooth surface. The 2ing is Jying at
3@6 mph at 5666 ft. Determine the drag, assuming
a. a laminar "oundary layerT
". a tur"ulent "oundary layer.
35.5: ompare the "oundary=layer thic!nesses and local s!in=
friction coefFcients of a laminar "oundary layer and a tur"ulent
"oundary layer on a smooth Jat plate at a Reynolds num"er of
36;. +ssume "oth "oundary layers to originate at the leading
edge of the Jat plate.
35.>6 'se the 3D9 po2er=la2 proFle and compute the drag
force and "oundary layer thic!ness on a plate 56 ft long and 36 ft
2ide Afor one sideB if it is immersed in a Jo2 of 2ater of 56 ftDs
(elocity. +ssume tur"ulent Jo2 to e8ist o(er the entire length of
the plate. What 2ould the drag "e if laminar Jo2 could "e
maintained o(er the entire surfacea
35.>3 The tur"ulent shear stress in a t2o=dimensional Jo2 is
gi(en "y
At y8 Btur" P reM
Y( 8
P Ur( 8 ( y
Yy
66
E8panding ( 8 and ( y in a Taylor series in 8 and y near the 2all and
2ith the aid of the continuity e?uation
66Y( 8 Y( y
VP6
Y8Yy
sho2 that, near the 2all, eM u y> V higher order terms in y. Ho2
does this compare 2ith the mi8ing=length theorya
35.>5 E(aluate the (elocity deri(ati(e, Y( 8 DYy, for the po2er=
la2 (elocity proFle at y P 6 and y P RC
35.>> 'sing the -lasius shear=stress relation A35=;7B and the
po2er=la2 (elocity proFle, determine the "oundary=layer thic!=
ness on a Jat plate as a function of the Reynolds num"er and the
e8ponent n.
hapter
3>
Flo2 in losed onduits
Many of the theoretical relations that ha(e "een de(eloped in the pre(ious chapters
apply to special situations such as in(iscid Jo2, incompressi"le Jo2, and the li!e.
&ome e8perimental correlations 2ere introduced in hapter 35 for tur"ulent Jo2 in or
past surfaces of simple geometry. *n this chapter, an application of the material that has
"een de(eloped thus far 2ill "e considered 2ith respect to a situation of considera"le
engineering importance, namely Juid Jo2, "oth laminar and tur"ulent, through closed
conduits.
3>.3 D*ME/&*%/+$ +/+$E&*& %F %/D'*T F$%W
+s an initial approach to conduit Jo2, 2e shall utili<e dimensional analysis to o"tain the
signiFcant parameters for the Jo2 of an incompressi"le Juid in a straight, hori<ontal,
circular pipe of constant cross section.
The signiFcant (aria"les and their dimensional e8pressions are as represented in the
follo2ing ta"leC
1aria"le
,ressure drop
1elocity
,ipe diameter
,ipe length
,ipe roughness
Fluid (iscosity
Fluid density
&ym"ol
D,
(
D
$
e
m
r
Dimension
MD$t5
$Dt
$
$
$
MD$t
MD$>
Each of the (aria"les is familiar, 2ith the e8ception of the pipe roughness, sym"oli<ed e. The
roughness is included to represent the condition of the pipe surface and may "e thought of as
the characteristic height of proIections from the pipe 2all, hence the dimension of length.
+ccording to the -uc!ingham p theorem, the num"er of independent dimensionless
groups to "e formed 2ith these (aria"les is four. *f the core group consists of the (aria"les (,
D, and r, then the groups to "e formed are as follo2sC
p3 P ( a D" rc D,
p5 P ( d De r f $
p> P ( g Dh ri e
p@ P ( I D! rl m
3;7
3>.3 Dimensional +nalysis of onduit Flo2 3;:
arrying out the procedure outlined in hapter 33 to sol(e for the un!no2n e8ponents in
each group, 2e see that the dimensionless parameters "ecome
p3 P
D,
r( 5
$
p5 P
D
e
p> P
D
(Dr
m
and
p@ P
The Frst p group is the Euler num"er. +s the pressure drop is due to Juid friction, this
parameter is often 2ritten 2ith D,Dr replaced "y gh$ 2here h$ is the GGhead lossHHT thus p3
"ecomes
h$
( 5 Dg
The third p group, the ratio of pipe roughness to diameter, is the so=called relati(e roughness.
The fourth p group is the Reynolds num"er, Re.
+ functional e8pression resulting from dimensional analysis may "e 2ritten as

h$$ e
P f3T T ReA3>=3B
( 5 DgD D
E8perimental data ha(e sho2n that the head loss in fully de(eloped Jo2 is directly
proportional to the ratio $DD. This ratio may, then, "e remo(ed from the functional
e8pression, gi(ing

h$$ e
P fT Re
( 5 Dg D 5 D
A3>=5B
The function f5, 2hich (aries 2ith the relati(e roughness and Reynolds num"er, is
designated f, the friction factor. E8pressing the head loss from e?uation A3>=5B in terms of
f, 2e ha(e
h$ P 5 f f
$ (5
D g
A3>=>B
With the factor 5 inserted in the right=hand side, e?uation A3>=>B is the deFning relation for
ff, the Fanning friction factor. +nother friction factor in common use is the Darcy friction
factor, fD, deFned "y e?uation 3>=@.
h$ P f D
$ (5
D 5g
A3>=@B
.uite o"(iously, fD P @ ff . The student should "e careful to note 2hich friction factor he
is using to properly calculate frictional head loss "y either e?uation A3>=>B or A3>=@B. The
Fanning friction factor, ff, 2ill "e used e8clusi(ely in this te8t. The student may easily
(erify that the Fanning friction factor is the same as the s!in friction coefficient f.
%ur tas! no2 "ecomes that of determining suita"le relations for ff from that theory and
e8perimental data.
396 hapter 3> Flo2 in losed onduits
3>.5 FR*T*%/ F+T%R& F%R F'$$E DE1E$%,ED
$+M*/+R, T'R-'$E/T, +/D TR+/&*T*%/
F$%W */ *R'$+R %/D'*T&
$aminar Flo2
&ome analysis has "een performed already for incompressi"le laminar Jo2. +s Juid
"eha(ior can "e descri"ed ?uite 2ell in this regime according to /e2tonHs (iscosity relation,
2e should e8pect no difFculty in o"taining a functional relationship for ff in the case of
laminar Jo2. Recall that, for closed conduits, the Jo2 may "e considered laminar for (alues
of the Reynolds num"er less than 5>66.
From hapter 7, the HagenO,oiseuille e?uation 2as deri(ed for incompressi"le,
laminar, conduit Jo2
m( a(gd,
P >5 5UA7=:B
d8D
&eparating (aria"les and integrating this e8pression along a length, $, of the passage, 2e get
f ,f
m( a(g $
d, P >5 5
d8U
D
,66
and
D, P >5
m( a(g $
D5
A3>=5B
Recall that e?uation A7=:B held for the case of fully de(eloped flo2T thus ( a(g does not
(ary along the length of the passage.
Forming an e8pression for frictional head loss from e?uation A3>=5B, 2e ha(e
h$ P
m( a(g $D,
P >5
rggrD5
A3>=;B
om"ining this e?uation 2ith e?uation A3>=>B, the defining relation for ff
m( a(g $$ (5
h$ P >5P 5 ff
D ggrD5
and sol(ing for ff, 2e o"tain
ff P 3;
m3;
P
D( a(g r Re
A3>=9B
This (ery simple result indicates that ff is in(ersely proportional to Re in the laminar
Jo2 rangeT the friction factor is not a function of pipe roughness for (alues of Re ] 5>66, "ut
(aries only 2ith the Reynolds num"er.
This result has "een e8perimentally (eriFed and is the manifestation of the (iscous
effects in the Juid, damping out any irregularities in the Jo2 caused "y protrusions from a
rough surface.
Tur"ulent Flo2
*n the case of tur"ulent Jo2 in closed conduits or pipes, the relation for ff is not so simply
o"tained or e8pressed as in the laminar case. /o easily deri(ed relation such as the HagenO
,oiseuille la2 appliesT ho2e(er, some use can "e made of the (elocity proFles e8pressed in
hapter 35 for tur"ulent Jo2. +ll de(elopment 2ill "e "ased on circular conduitsT thus 2e
3>.5 Friction Factors for Fully De(eloped $aminar, Tur"ulent 393
are primarily concerned 2ith pipes or tu"es. *n tur"ulent Jo2 a distinction must "e made
"et2een smooth= and rough=surfaced tu"es.
&mooth Tu"es. The (elocity proFle in the tur"ulent core has "een e8pressed as
( V P 5C5 V 5C5 ln yV
2here the (aria"les ( V and yV are defined according to the relations
(
( V p
t 6 Dr
and

p
t6 Dr
yyV
(
A35=;>B
A35=57B
A35=;6B
The a(erage (elocity in the tur"ulent core for flo2 in a tu"e of radius R can "e e(aluated
from e?uation A35=;>B as follo2sC
R+
( d+
( a(g P 6
+
)p dp f Rt6 Dry
t6 Dr5C5 lnV 5C5 5pr dr
(6P
pR5
$etting y P R U r, 2e o"tain
( a(g
)p d
p p t 6
DrR
P 5C5 t 6 Dr lnV 3C95 t 6 Dr
(
A3>=7B
p
The functions t6 Dr and f are related according to e?uation A35=5B. +s f and ff are
e?ui(alent, 2e may 2rite
( a(g3
p P p A3>=:B
t6 Drff D5
The su"stitution of e?uation A3>=:B into e?uation A3>=7B yields
)d
p 3R
p P 5C5 ln( a(g ff D5 V 3C95
(ff D5
A3>=36B
Rearranging the argument of the logarithm into Reynolds num"er form, and changing to
log36, 2e see that e?uation A3>=36B reduces to
{ p z3
p P @C6; log 36 Re ff U 6C;6A3>=33B
ff
This e8pression gi(es the relation for the friction factor as a function of Reynolds num"er
for tur"ulent flo2 in smooth circular tu"es. The preceding de(elopment 2as first
L Lperformed "y (on 0arman.3 /i!uradse,5 from e8perimental data, o"tained the e?uation
{ p z3
p P @C6 log 36 Re ff U 6C@6A3>=35B
ff
2hich is (ery similar to e?uation A3>=33B.
3
5
L LT. (on 0arman, /++ TM ;33, 3:>3.
J. /i!uradse, 1D*=Forschungsheft, >5;, 3:>5.
L LRough Tu"es. -y an analysis similar to that used for smooth
tu"es, (on 0arman
de(eloped e?uation A3>=3>B for tur"ulent Jo2 in rough tu"es
3D
p P @C6; log 36 V 5C3;A3>=3>B
eff
2hich compares (ery 2ell 2ith the e?uation o"tained "y /i!uradse from e8perimental data
3D
p P @C6 log 36 V 5C57A3>=3@B
eff
/i!uradseHs results for fully de(eloped pipe flo2 indicated that the surface condition, that
is, roughness, had nothing to do 2ith the transition from laminar to tur"ulent flo2. %nce
the Reynolds num"er "ecomes large enough so that flo2 is fully tur"ulent, then either
e?uation A3>=35B or A3>=3@B must "e used to o"tain the proper (alue for ff. These t2o
e?uations are ?uite different in that e?uation A3>=35B e8presses ff as a function of Re only
and e?uation A3>=3@B gi(es ff as a function only of the relati(e roughness. The difference
is, of course, that the former e?uation is for smooth tu"es and the latter for rough tu"es.
The ?uestion that naturally arises at this point is GG2hat is GroughHaHH
*t has "een o"ser(ed from e8periment that e?uation A3>=35B descri"es the (ariation in ff
for a range in Re, e(en for rough tu"es. -eyond some (alue of Re, this (ariation de(iates
from the smooth=tu"e e?uation and achie(es a constant (alue dictated "y the tu"e roughness
as e8pressed "y e?uation A3>=3@B. The region 2herein ff (aries "oth 2ith Re and eDD is called
the transition region. +n empirical e?uation descri"ing the (ariation of ff in the transition
region has "een proposed "y ole"roo!.>

3DDDe
p P @ log 36 V 5C57 U @ log36 @C;9 p V 3A3>=35B
effRe ff
E?uation A3>=35B is applica"le to the transition region a"o(e a (alue of ADDeBDp
ARe ff B P 6C63. -elo2 this (alue, the friction factor is independent of the Reynolds
num"er, and the Jo2 is said to "e fully tur"ulent.
To summari<e the de(elopment of this section, the follo2ing e?uations e8press the
friction=factor (ariation for the surface and Jo2 conditions speciFedC
For laminar Jo2 ARe ] 5>66B
ff P
3;
Re
A3>=9B
For tur"ulent Jo2 Asmooth pipe, Re _ >666B
{ p z3
p P @C6 log 36 Re ff U 6C@6
ff
p
For tur"ulent Jo2 Arough pipe, ARe _ >666T DDeBDARe ff B ] 6C63B
3D
p P @C6 log 36 V 5C57
eff
+nd for transition Jo2
3DDDe
p P @ log 36 V 5C57 U @ log36 @C;9 p V 3
effRe ff
>
A3>=35B
A3>=3@B
Q
A3>=35B
. F. ole"roo!, J. *nst. i(il Engr. A$ondonB **, 3>> A3:>7O>:B.
3>.> Friction Factor and Head=$oss Determination for ,ipe Flo2 39>
3>.> FR*T*%/ F+T%R +/D HE+D=$%&& DETERM*/+T*%/
F%R ,*,E F$%W
Friction Factor
+ single friction=factor plot "ased upon e?uations A3>=9B, A3>=3>B, A3>=3@B, and A3>=35B has "een
presented "y Moody.@ Figure 3>.3 is a plot of the Fanning friction factor (s. the Reynolds
num"er for a range of (alues of the roughness parameter eDD.
6.655
$aminar flo2
6.65
omplete tur"ulence rough pipe
6.65
6.6@
6.635
6.6>
6.655
6.65
6.635
6.63
Fanning
fraction factor,
ff
6.66:
6.667
6.669
6.66;
'ncertain
region
6.667
6.66;
6.66@
6.66>
6.665
6.6635
6.663
6.6667
6.666;
6.666@
6.6665
6.66> 6.6663
5
6.6655
5
36O;
>
5
36O5
36O5
36O5
36O5
Relati(e
roughness,
eDD
6.63
6.665
6.66@
&mooth pipe Ae N 6B
6.6653
;75 > @ ;75 > @ ;75 > @ ;75 > @ ;75 > @ ;7
36@36536;36936736>
Reynolds num"er N D(a(g Dn
Figure 3>.3 The Fanning friction factor as a function of Re and DDe.
@
$. F. Moody, Trans. +&ME, ;;, ;93 A3:@@B.
39@ hapter 3> Flo2 in losed onduits
When using the friction=factor plot, Figure 3>.3, it is necessary to !no2 the (alue
of the roughness parameter that applies to a pipe of gi(en si<e and material. +fter a pipe
or tu"e has "een in ser(ice for some time, its roughness may change considera"ly,
ma!ing the determination of eDD ?uite difFcult. Moody has presented a chart, reproduced
in Figure 3>.5, "y 2hich a (alue of eDD can "e determined for a gi(en si<e tu"e or pipe
constructed of a particular material.
6.65
6.6@
6.6>
6.65
Ri(eted
steel
6.63
6.667
6.66;
6.665
6.66@
6.66>
Wood
sta(e
6.69
6.6;
6.65
6.6@
6.6>5
6.6>
6.655
6.65
6.637
@f for
complete
tur"ulence,
rough pipes
on
cr
et
e
N
6>
6.
ti
as
e
#
al
6.665
Relati(e
roughness,
eDD
6.663
6.6667
6.666;
6.6665
6.666@
6.666>
6.6665
e
N
<e
ni
(a
n
ro
6.
63
d
n
iro
e
e N
N
om
m
er
ci
al
6
6. 75
66
>
66
6.
+s
ph 6.63;
6.63@
te
al d
ca st
ee
lo
r2
st
iro
n
e
N
6.
6;
66
e
N
u
ro
6.
6.6663
6.666,67
6.666,6;
6.666,65
6.666,6@
6.666,6>
6.666,65
e
6.635 66
gh
ro
ti
n
3
N
6.
66
D
ra
2
n
tu
"i
ng
e
N
6.
66
6,
66
5
65
e
6.63 N
6.
66
63
5
e
N
6.
66
6@
6.66:
6.667 6.666,63
6.666,667
6.666,66;
6.666,665
3 5 > @ 5 ; 7 3656 >6 @6 ;6 76 366 566 >66
,ipe diameter, D, in in.
Figure 3>.5 Roughness parameters for pipes and tu"es. AFrom $. F. Moody, Trans. +&ME,
A3:@@B.B 1alues of e are gi(en in feet.
The com"ination of these t2o plots ena"les the frictional head loss for a length, $, of
pipe ha(ing diameter D to "e e(aluated, using the relation
$ (5
h$ P 5 f f
D g
A3>=>B
3>.> Friction Factor and Head=$oss Determination for ,ipe Flo2 395
Recently Haaland5 has sho2n that o(er the range 367 Q Re Q @ ` 36@ , 6C65 Q eDD Q 6, the
friction factor may "e e8pressed A2ithin 3.5bB as
Q
3;C: e 36D:
p P U>C; log 36VA3>=35aB
Re>C9Dff
This e8pression allo2s e8plicit calculation of the friction factor.
Head $osses Due to Fittings
The frictional head loss calculated from e?uation A3>=>B is only a part of the total head loss
that must "e o(ercome in pipe lines and other Juid=Jo2 circuits. %ther losses may occur due
to the presence of (al(es, el"o2s, and any other Fttings that in(ol(e a change in the direction
of Jo2 or in the si<e of the Jo2 passage. The head losses resulting from such Fttings are
functions of the geometry of the Ftting, the Reynolds num"er, and the roughness. +s the
losses in Fttings, to a Frst appro8imation, ha(e "een found to "e independent of the Reynolds
num"er, the head loss may "e e(aluated as
h$ P
D,(5
P0
r5g
A3>=3;B
2here 0 is a coefficient depending upon the fitting.
+n e?ui(alent method of determining the head loss in Fttings is to introduce an
e?ui(alent length, $e?, such that
$e? ( 5
h$ P 5 f f
D g
A3>=39B
2here $e? is the length of pipe that produces a head loss e?ui(alent to the head loss in a
particular fitting. E?uation A3>=39B is seen to "e in the same form as e?uation A3>=>B, and thus
the total head loss for a piping system may "e determined "y adding the e?ui(alent lengths
for the fittings to the pipe length to o"tain the total effecti(e length of the pipe.
Ta"le 3>.3 Friction loss factors for (arious pipe Fttings
Fitting
#lo"e (al(e, 2ide open
+ngle (al(e, 2ide open
#ate (al(e, 2ide open
#ate (al(e, > open
@
#ate (al(e,
#ate (al(e, open
&tandard :67 el"o2
&hort=radius :67 el"o2
$ong=radius :67 el"o2
&tandard @57 el"o2
Tee, through side outlet
Tee, straight through
3767 -end
3
5
3
@
0
9.5
>.7
6.35
6.75
@.@
56
6.9
6.:
6.@
6.>5
3.5
6.@
3.;
$e? DD
>56
396
9
@6
566
:66
>5
@3
56
35
;9
56
95
open
5
&. E. Haaland, Trans. +&ME, JFE, 365, 7: A3:7>B.
39; hapter 3> Flo2 in losed onduits
omparison of e?uations A3>=3;B and A3>=39B sho2s that the constant 0 must "e e?ual to
@ ff $e? DD. +lthough e?uation A3>=39B appears to "e dependent upon the Reynolds num"er
"ecause of the appearance of the Fanning friction factor, it is not. The assumption made in "oth
e?uations A3>=3;B and A3>=39B is that the Reynolds num"er is large enough so that the Jo2 is
fully tur"ulent. The friction coefFcient for a gi(en Ftting, then, is dependent only upon the
roughness of the Ftting. Typical (alues for 0 and $e? DD are gi(en in Ta"le 3>.3.
Recall that the head loss due to a sudden e8pansion is calculated in hapter ;, 2ith the
result gi(en in e?uation A;=3>B.
E?ui(alent Diameter
E?uations A3>=3;B and A3>=39B are "ased upon a circular Jo2 passage. These e?uations may "e
used to estimate the head loss in a closed conduit of any conFguration if an GGe?ui(alent diameterHH
for a noncircular Jo2 passage is used. +n e?ui(alent diameter is calculated according to
De? P @
cross=sectional area of flo2
2etted perimeter
A3>=37B
The ratio of the cross=sectional area of flo2 to the 2etted perimeter is called the hydraulic
radius.
The reader may (erify that De? corresponds to D for a circular Jo2 passage. %ne type of
noncircular Jo2 passage often encountered in transfer processes is the annular area "et2een
t2o concentric pipes. The e?ui(alent diameter for this conFguration is determined as follo2sC
ross=sectional area P
yielding
[pU 5
D6 U D5i
@
Wetted perimeter P pWD6 V Di X
pD@ WD5 U D5 Xi6De? P @P D6 U DiA3>=3:B
p WD6 V Di X
This (alue of De? may no2 "e used to e(aluate the Reynolds num"er, the friction factor,
and the frictional head loss, using the relations and methods de(eloped pre(iously for
circular conduits.
3>.@ ,*,E=F$%W +/+$E&*&
+pplication of the e?uations and methods de(eloped in the pre(ious sections is common in
engineering systems in(ol(ing pipe net2or!s. &uch analyses are al2ays straightfor2ard "ut
may (ary as to the comple8ity of calculation. The follo2ing three e8ample pro"lems are
typical, "ut "y no means all=inclusi(e, of the types of pro"lems found in engineering practice.
EM+M,$E 3 Water at 5:7F Jo2s through a straight section of a ;=in.=*D cast=iron pipe 2ith an a(erage (elocity
of @ fps. The pipe is 356 ft long, and there is an increase in ele(ation of 5 ft from the inlet of the pipe
to its e8it.
Find the po2er re?uired to produce this Jo2 rate for the speciFed conditions.
The control (olume in this case is the pipe and the 2ater it encloses. +pplying the energy
e?uation to this control (olume, 2e o"tain
fffff
d. dWs dWm,Y
UW( C nX d+ VUPr eVre d1A;=36B
dtrYtdtdtcCsCcC(C
3>.@
+n e(aluation of each term yields
,ipe=Flo2 +nalysis 399
dWshPW
dt
5ff
(5(5,,5,33V gy5 V V u5 U U gy3 U U u3r eVW(C nX d+ P r+( a(g
5r5rrcCsC
Y
Yt
and
dWm
P6
dt
The applica"le form of the energy e?uation 2ritten on a unit mass "asis is no2
(5 U (5,3 U ,55
h hV gWy3 U y5 X VV u3 U u5WDm P 3
5r
and 2ith the internal energy change 2ritten as gh$ , the frictional head loss, the e8pression for 2
"ecomes
55h m P ( 3 U ( 5 V gWy3 U y5 X V ,3 U ,5 U gh$WD h
5r
d.
P6
dt
fff
re d1 P 6
cC(C
+ssuming the Juid at "oth ends of the control (olume to "e at atmospheric pressure,
h hA,3 U ,5 BDr P 6, and for a pipe of constant cross section A(
5 U ( 5 BD5 P 6, gi(ing for WDm35
h hWDm P gAy3 U y5 B U gh$
E(aluating h$, 2e ha(e
Re P
W3XW@X
5P 3;@T 666
3C55 ` 36U5
e
P 6C6639 Afrom Figure 3@C5B
D
f f P 6C665: Afrom e?uation A3@=35aBB
yielding
h$ P
5W6C665:XW356 ftXW3; ft5 Ds5 X
P 3C@63 ft
W6C5 ftXW>5C5 ftDs5 X
The po2er re?uired to produce the speciFed Jo2 conditions thus "ecomes
s 4
UgWWU5 ftX U 3C@63 ftX ;5C> l"m Dft> p 3 5 ft
hft@WP
556 ft l"f Dhp=ss>5C5 l"m ftDs5 l"f @ 5
P 6C>66 hp
+ heat e8changer is re?uired, 2hich 2ill "e a"le to handle 6.65;9 m>Ds of 2ater through a smooth
pipe 2ith an e?ui(alent length of 355 m. The total pressure drop is 36>,666 ,a. What si<e pipe is
re?uired for this applicationa
%nce again, applying e?uation A;=36B, 2e see that a term "y term e(aluation gi(es
dWsdWm
P6P6
dtdt
5ff
(5(5,,5,33
W(C nX d+ P r+( a(gV gy5 VV u5 U Ugy3 U U u3r eV
r5r5rcCsC
fff
Y
re d1 P 6
YtcC(C
and the applica"le e?uation for the present pro"lem is
6P
,5 U ,3
V gh$
r
d.
P6
dt
EM+M,$E 5
The ?uantity desired, the diameter, is included in the head=loss term "ut cannot "e sol(ed for directly,
as the friction factor also depends on D. *nserting numerical (alues into the a"o(e e?uation and
sol(ing, 2e o"tain

36> 666 ,a6C65;9 5 m5 355 m g
6PUV 5 ff[
3666 !gDm>pD5 D@s5 D m g
or
6 P U36> V 3C59
ff
D5
The solution to this pro"lem must no2 "e o"tained "y trial and error. + possi"le procedure is the
follo2ingC
3. +ssume a (alue for ff.
5. 'sing this ff, sol(e the a"o(e e?uation for D.
>. alculate Re 2ith this D.
@. 'sing eDD and the calculated Re, chec! the assumed (alue of ff.
5. Repeat this procedure until the assumed and calculated friction factor (alues agree.
arrying out these steps for the present pro"lem, the re?uired pipe diameter is 6.3>5 m
A5.5 in.B.
EM+M,$E > +n e8isting heat e8changer has a cross section as sho2n in Figure 3>.> 2ith nine 3=in.=%D tu"es
inside a 5=in.=*D pipe. For a 5=ft length of heat e8changer, 2hat Jo2 rate of 2ater at ;67F can "e
achie(ed in the shell side of this unit for a pressure drop of > psia
+n energy=e?uation analysis using e?uation A;=36B 2ill follo2 the same steps as in e8ample 3>.5,
yielding, as the go(erning e?uation
6P
,5 U ,3
V gh$
r
3>.5 Friction Factors for Flo2 in the Entrance to a ircular onduit 39:
3 in.
5 in.
5 ft
Figure 3>.> &hell=and=tu"e head=e8changer conFguration.
The e?ui(alent diameter for the shell is e(aluated as follo2sC
p
Flo2 area P W55 U :X P @p inC5
@
Wetted perimeter P pW5 V :X P 3@p inC
thus
De? P @
@p
P 3C3@5 inC
3@p
&u"stituting the proper numerical (alues into the energy e?uation for this pro"lem reduces it to
6PU
or
6 P U55> V 365 ff ( 5a(g
+s ff cannot "e determined 2ithout a (alue of Re, 2hich is a function of ( a(g, a simple trial=and=error
procedure such as the follo2ing might "e employedC
3. +ssume a (alue for ff.
5. alculate ( a(g from the a"o(e e8pression.
>. E(aluate Re from this (alue of ( a(g.
@. hec! the assumed (alue of ff using e?uation A3>=35aB.
5. *f the assumed and calculated (alues for ff do not agree, repeat this procedure until they do.
Employing this method, 2e Fnd the (elocity to "e 5>.; fps, gi(ing a Jo2 rate for this pro"lem of
5C6; ft> Dmin W6C657 m> DsXC
/otice that in each of the last t2o e8amples in 2hich a trial=and=error approach 2as used,
the assumption of ff 2as made initially. This 2as not, of course, the only 2ay to approach these
pro"lemsT ho2e(er, in "oth cases a (alue for ff could "e assumed 2ithin a much closer range than
either D or ( a(g.
> l"f DinC5 W3@@ inC5 Dft5 X5 ftg
V 5 ff ( 5 ft5 Ds5a(gW3C3@5D35X ft g3C:@ slugsDft>
3>.5 FR*T*%/ F+T%R& F%R F$%W */ THE E/TR+/E
T% + *R'$+R %/D'*T
The de(elopment and pro"lems in the preceding section ha(e in(ol(ed Jo2 conditions that
did not change along the a8is of Jo2. This condition is often met, and the methods Iust
descri"ed 2ill "e ade?uate to e(aluate and predict the signiFcant Jo2 parameters.
*n many real Jo2 systems this condition is ne(er reali<ed. + "oundary layer forms on
the surface of a pipe, and its thic!ness increases in a similar manner to that of the "oundary
layer on a Jat plate as descri"ed in hapter 35. The "uildup of the "oundary layer in pipe
Jo2 is depicted in Figure 3>.@.
(
8
Figure 3>.@ -oundary=layer "uildup in a pipe.
+ "oundary layer forms on the inside surface and occupies a larger amount of the Jo2
area for increasing (alues of 8, the distance do2nstream from the pipe entrance. +t some
(alue of 8, the "oundary layer Flls the Jo2 area. The (elocity proFle 2ill not change the
do2nstream from this point, and the Jo2 is said to "e fully de(eloped. The dis=
tance do2nstream from the pipe entrance to 2here Jo2 "ecomes fully de(eloped is called
the entrance length, sym"oli<ed as $e. %"ser(e that the Juid (elocity outside the "oundary
layer increases 2ith 8, as is re?uired to satisfy continuity. The (elocity at the center of the
pipe Fnally reaches a (alue of 5( 3 for fully de(eloped laminar Jo2.
The entrance length re?uired for a fully de(eloped (elocity proFle to form in laminar
Jo2 has "een e8pressed "y $anghaar; according to
$e
P 6C6595 Re
D
A3>=56B
2here D represents the inside diameter of the pipe. This relation, deri(ed analytically, has
"een found to agree 2ell 2ith e8periment.
There is no relation a(aila"le to predict the entrance length for a fully de(eloped
tur"ulent (elocity proFle. +n additional factor that affects the entrance length in tur"ulent
Jo2 is the nature of the entrance itself. The reader is referred to the 2or! of Deissler9 for
e8perimentally o"tained tur"ulent (elocity proFles in the entrance region of the circular
pipes. + general conclusion of the results of Deissler and others is that the tur"ulent (elocity
proFle "ecomes fully de(eloped after a minimum distance of 56 diameters do2nstream
from the entrance.
The reader should reali<e that the entrance length for the (elocity proFle differs
considera"ly from the entrance length for the (elocity gradient at the 2all. +s the friction
factor is a function of d(Ddy at the pipe surface, 2e are also interested in this starting length.
T2o conditions e8ist in the entrance region, 2hich cause the friction factor to "e greater
than in fully de(eloped Jo2. The Frst of these is the e8tremely large 2all (elocity gradient
right at the entrance. The gradient decreases in the do2nstream direction, "ecoming
constant "efore the (elocity proFle "ecomes fully de(eloped. The other factor is the
e8istence of a GGcoreHH of Juid outside the (iscous layer 2hose (elocity must increase as
;
9
H. $. $anghaar, Trans. +&ME, ;@, +=55 A3:@5B.
R. #. Deissler, /++ T/ 53>7 A3:56B.
3>.5 Friction Factors for Flo2 in the Entrance to a ircular onduit 373
Friction=factor
ratio
3
6
8DD
Fully de(eloped
laminar flo2
Figure 3>.5 1elocity proFle
and friction=factor (ariation for
laminar Jo2 in the region near
a pipe entrance.
dictated "y continuity. The Juid in the core is thus "eing accelerated, there"y producing an
additional drag force 2hose effect is incorporated in the friction factor.
The friction factor for laminar Jo2 in the entrance to a pipe has "een studied "y
$anghaar.7 His results indicated the friction factor to "e highest in the (icinity of the
entrance, then to decrease smoothly to the fully de(eloped Jo2 (alue. Figure 3>.5 is a
?ualitati(e representation of this (ariation. Ta"le 3>.5 gi(es the results of $anghaar for the
a(erage friction factor "et2een the entrance and a location, a distance 8 from the entrance.
For tur"ulent Jo2 in the entrance region, the friction factor as 2ell as the (elocity
proFle is difFcult to e8press. Deissler: has analy<ed this situation and presented his results
graphically.
E(en for (ery high free=stream (elocities, there 2ill "e some portion of the entrance
o(er 2hich the "oundary layer is laminar. The entrance conFguration, as 2ell as the
Reynolds num"er, affects the length of the pipe o(er 2hich the laminar "oundary layer e8ists
"efore "ecoming tur"ulent. + plot similar to Figure 3>.5 is presented in Figure 3>.; for
tur"ulent=Jo2 friction factors in the entrance region.
Ta"le 3>.5 +(erage friction factor for laminar
Jo2 in the entrance to a circular pipe
88DD
ff
DRe
6.6665656.65>6
6.6667>66.6:;5
6.6637656.3@3>
6.66>5956.5695
6.665>56.5;65
6.667>76.>@6
6.63>9>6.@;3
6.639776.5@9
6.65>;76.;5:
6.6>@36.7@5
6.6@@:3.657
6.6;563.>67
6.69;63.5>7
7
:
%p cit.
R. #. Deissler, /++ T/ >63; A3:5>B.
Friction=factor
ratio
3
$aminar
"oundary
layer
6
6
Tur"ulent
"oundary layer
8 DD
Fully
de(eloped
flo2 Atur"ulentB
Figure 3>.; 1elocity proFle and
friction=factor (ariation in
tur"ulent Jo2 in the region near a
pipe entrance.
The foregoing description of the entrance region has "een ?ualitati(e. For an accurate
analytical consideration of a system in(ol(ing entrance=length phenomena, DeisslerHs
results portrayed in Figure 3>.9 may "e utili<ed.
6.69
6.6;
6.65
D A,3 O ,8 B
@8Ar (5D5B 6.6@
6.6>
6.65
6.63
6
6
Reynolds num"er N D(a(g Dn
36@
>
36@
;
36@
365
5 @ ; 7 36
8 DD
35 3@ 3; 37 56
Figure 3>.9 &tatic pressure drop due to friction and momentum change in the entrance to a
smooth, hori<ontal, circular tu"e ADeisslerB.
*t is important to reali<e that in many situations Jo2 is ne(er fully de(elopedT thus the
friction factor 2ill "e higher than that predicted from the e?uations for fully de(eloped Jo2
or the friction=factor plot.
3>.; $%&'RE
The information and techni?ues presented in this chapter ha(e included applications of the
theory de(eloped in earlier chapters supported "y correlations of e8perimental data.
The chapters to follo2 2ill "e de(oted to heat and mass transfer. %ne speciFc type of
transfer, momentum transfer, has "een considered up to this point. The student 2ill Fnd that
he is a"le to apply much of the information learned in momentum transfer to counterparts in
the areas of heat and mass transfer.
,ro"lems 37>
,R%-$EM&
3>.3 +n oil 2ith !inematic (iscosity of 6C67 ` 36U> ft5 Ds and a
density of 59 l"m Dft> Jo2s through a hori<ontal tu"e 6.5@ in.
in diameter at the rate of 36 galDh. Determine the pressure drop
in 56 ft of tu"e.
3>.5 + lu"ricating line has an inside diameter of 6.3 in. and is
>6 in. long. *f the pressure drop is 35 psi, determine the Jo2 rate
of the oil. 'se the properties gi(en in ,ro"lem 3>.3.
3>.> The pressure drop in a section of a pipe is determined
from tests 2ith 2ater. + pressure drop of 3> psi is o"tained at a
Jo2 rate of 57C> l"m Ds. *f the Jo2 is fully tur"ulent, 2hat 2ill "e
the pressure drop 2hen li?uid o8ygen Ar P 96 l"m Dft> B Jo2s
through the pipe at the rate of >5 l"m Dsa
3>.@ + 576=!m=long pipeline connects t2o pumping stations.
*f 6C5; m> Ds are to "e pumped through a 6.;5=m=diameter line,
the discharge station is 556 m lo2er in ele(ation than the
upstream station, and the discharge pressure is to "e maintained
at >66,666 ,a, determine the po2er re?uired to pump the oil. The
oil has a !inematic (iscosity of @C5 ` 36U; m5 Ds and a density of
736 !gDm> . The pipe is constructed of commercial steel. The
inlet pressure may "e ta!en as atmospheric.
3>.5 *n the pre(ious pro"lem, a 36=!m=long section of the
pipeline is replaced during a repair process 2ith a pipe 2ith
internal diameter of 6.@5 m. Determine the total pumping po2er
re?uired 2hen using the modiFed pipeline. The total pipeline
length remains 576 !m.
3>.; %il ha(ing a !inematic (iscosity of ;C9 ` 36U; m5 Ds and
density of 763 !gDm> is pumped through a pipe of 6.93 m
diameter at an a(erage (elocity of 3.3 mDs. The roughness of
the pipe is e?ui(alent to that of a commercial steel pipe. *f pump=
ing stations are >56 !m apart, Fnd the head loss Ain meters of oilB
"et2een the pumping stations and the po2er re?uired.
3>.9 The cold=2ater faucet in a house is fed from a 2ater main
through the follo2ing simpliFed piping systemC
a. + 3;6 ft length of >D@=in.=*D copper pipe leading from the
main line to the "ase of the faucet.
". &i8 :67 standard el"o2s.
c. %ne 2ide=open angle (al(e A2ith no o"structionB.
d. The faucet. onsider the faucet to "e made up of t2o partsC
A3B a con(entional glo"e (al(e and A5B a no<<le ha(ing a
cross=sectional area of 6.36 in.5.
The pressure in the main line is ;6 psig A(irtually independent of
Jo2B, and the (elocity there is negligi"le. Find the ma8imum rate
of discharge from the faucet. +s a Frst try, assume for the pipe
ff P 6C669. /eglect changes in ele(ation throughout the system.
3>.7 Water at the rate of 337 ft>Dmin Jo2s through a smooth
hori<ontal tu"e 556 ft long. The pressure drop is @.55 psi.
Determine the tu"e diameter.
3>.: alculate the inlet pressure to a pump > ft a"o(e the le(el
of a sump. The pipe is ; in. in diameter, ; ft long, and made of
h3
$ N 76 m
h5
commercial steel. The Jo2 rate through the pump is 566 galDmin.
'se the AincorrectB assumption that the Jo2 is fully de(eloped.
3>.36 The pipe in ,ro"lem ;.>> is >5 m long and made of
commercial steel. Determine the Jo2 rate.
3>.33 The siphon of ,ro"lem ;.>3 is made of smooth ru""er
hose and is 5> ft long. Determine the Jo2 rate and the pressure at
point -.
3>.35 + gal(ani<ed rectangular duct 7 in. s?uare is 55 ft long
and carries ;66 ft>Dmin of standard air. Determine the pressure
drop in inches of 2ater.
3>.3> + cast=iron pipeline 5 m long is re?uired to carry >
million gal of 2ater per day. The outlet is 395 ft higher than
the inlet. The costs of three si<es of pipe 2hen in place are as
follo2sC
36=in. diameter
35=in. diameter
3@=in. diameter
u33.@6 per ft
u3@.96 per ft
u3;.76 per ft
,o2er costs are estimated at u6.69 per !ilo2att hour o(er the
56=year life of the pipeline. *f the line can "e "onded 2ith ;.6b
annual interest, 2hat is the most economical pipe diametera The
pump efFciency is 76b, and the 2ater inlet temperature is
e8pected to "e constant at @57F.
3>.3@ Estimate the Jo2 rate of 2ater through 56 ft of garden
hose from a @6=psig source for
a. + 3D5=in.=*D hoseT
". + >D@=in.=*D hose.
3>.35 T2o 2ater reser(oirs of height h3 P ;6 m and h5 P
>6 m are connected "y a pipe that is 6.>5 m in diameter. The e8it
of the pipe is su"merged at distance h> P 7 m from the reser(oir
surface.
a. Determine the Jo2 rate through the pipe if the pipe is 76 m
long and the friction factor ff P 6C66@. The pipe inlet is set
Jush 2ith the 2all.
". *f the relati(e roughness eDD P 6C66@, determine the friction
factor and Jo2 rate.
h>
37@ hapter 3> Flo2 in losed onduits
3>.5@ Water Jo2s at a (olumetric Jo2 rate of 6.55 m>Ds
from reser(oir 3 to reser(oir 5 through three concrete pipes
connected in series. ,ipe 3 is :66 m long and has a diameter
of 6.3; m. ,ipe 5 has a length of 3566 m and a diameter of
6.37 m. ,ipe > is 766 m long and the diameter is 6.56 m.
/eglecting minor losses, determine the difference in surface
ele(ations.
3>.55 + system consists of three pipes in series. The total
pressure drop is 376 !,a, and the decrease in ele(ation is 5 m.
Data for the three pipes are as follo2sC
3>.3; +n 7=!m=long, 5=m=diameter headrace tunnel at the ,aute
ri(er hydroelectric proIect in Ecuador supplies a po2er station ;;7 m
"elo2 the entrance of the tunnel. *f the tunnel surface is concrete,
Fnd the pressure at the end of the tunnel if the Jo2 rate is :6 m> Ds.
3>.39 Determine the Jo2 rate through a 6.5=m gate (al(e 2ith
upstream pressure of 5>; !,a 2hen the (al(e is
a.
".
c.
d.
openT
3D@ closedT
3D5 closedT
>D@ closed.
3>.37 Water at 567 Jo2s through a cast=iron pipe at a (elocity
of >@ mDs. The pipe is @66 m long and has a diameter of 6.37 m.
Determine the head loss due to friction.
3>.3: + 5.56=m diameter pipe carries 2ater at 357. The head
loss due to friction is 6.566 m per >66 m of pipe. Determine the
(olumetric Jo2 rate of the 2ater lea(ing the pipe.
3>.56 Water at 567 is "eing drained from an open tan!
through a cast=iron pipe 6.; m diameter and >6 m long. The
surface of the 2ater in the pipe is at atmospheric pressure and at
an ele(ation of @;.: m, and the pipe discharges to the atmosphere
at an ele(ation >6 m. /eglecting minor losses due to conFgura=
tion, "ends, (al(es, and Fttings, determine the (olumetric Jo2
rate of the 2ater lea(ing the pipe.
3>.53 + 35=cm diameter 2rought=iron pipe is to carry 2ater at
567. +ssuming a le(el pipe, determine the (olumetric Jo2 rate
at the discharge if the pressure loss is not permitted to e8ceed
>6.6 !,a per 366 m.
3>.55 + le(el 36=m=long 2ater pipe has a manometer at "oth
the inlet and the outlet. The manometers indicate pressure head
of 3.5 and 6.5 m, respecti(ely. The pipe diameter is 6.5 m and the
pipe roughness is 6.666@ m. Determine the mass Jo2 rate in the
pipe in !gDs.
3>.5> Determine the depth of 2ater "ehind the dam in the
Fgure that 2ill pro(ide a Jo2 rate of 5C;95 ` 36U@ m> Ds through
a 56=m=long, 3.>6 cm commercial steel pipe.
,ipe
3
5
>
$ength, m
355
356
366
Diameter, cm
7
;
@
Roughness, mm
6.5@6
6.356
6.566
3>.5; T2o concrete pipes are connected in series. The Jo2 rate
of 2ater at 567 through the pipes is 6.37 m>Ds, 2ith a total head
loss of 37 m for "oth pipes. Each pipe has a length of >35.5 m and
a relati(e roughness of 6.66>5 m. /eglecting minor losses, if one
pipe has a diameter of 6.>6 m, determine the diameter of the
other.
3>.59 + 6.5=m=diameter cast=iron pipe and a ;9=mm=
diameter commercial steel pipe are parallel, and "oth run
from the same pump to a reser(oir. The pressure drop is
536 !,a and the lines are 356 m long. Determine the Jo2
rate of 2ater in each line.
3>.57 + system consists of three pipes in parallel 2ith a
total head loss of 5@ m. Data for the three pipes are as
follo2sC
,ipe
3
5
>
3.>6 cm
$ength, m
366
356
76
Diameter, cm
7
;
@
Roughness, mm
6.5@6
6.356
6.566
h
$
For 2ater at 567, neglect minor losses and determine the
(olumetric Jo2 rate in the system.
hapter
3@
Fluid Machinery
*n this chapter 2e 2ill e8amine the operating principles of mechanical de(ices that
e8change Juid energy and mechanical 2or!. + pump is a machine 2hose purpose is to
apply mechanical energy to a Juid, there"y generating Jo2, or producing a higher
pressure, or "oth. + tur"ine does Iust the oppositeKproducing 2or! through the
application of Juid energy.
There are t2o principal types of Juid machinesKpositi(e displacement machines
and tur"omachines. *n positi(e displacement machines, a Juid is conFned in a cham"er
2hose (olume is (aried. E8amples of positi(e=displacement=type machines are sho2n
in Figure 3@.3.
+orta
Right
atrium
To "ody ,ulmonary artery
To lungs
%8ygenated
"lood from lungs
$eft atrium
&uction Discharge
1enous
"lood
Right
(entricle
$eft (entricle
Figure 3@.3 &ome e8amples of positi(e=displacement conFgurations.
375
37; hapter 3@ Fluid Machinery
%utlet
Rotor
Rotor
*nlet
2
*nlet
&tator
Housing or casing
Radial or centrifugal flo2
%utlet
Housing
or casing
+8ial flo2
Figure 3@.5 Tur"omachines.
Tur"omachines, as the name implies, in(ol(e rotary motion. Windo2 fans and
aircraft propellers are e8amples of unshrouded tur"omachines. ,umps used 2ith li?uids
generally ha(e shrouds that conFne and direct the Jo2. The t2o general types of pumps
in this category are sho2n in Figure 3@.5. The designations radial Jo2 and a8ial Jo2
refer to the direction of Juid Jo2 relati(e to the a8is of rotation of the rotating element.
The term pump is generally used 2hen the 2or!ing Juid is a li?uid. *f the Juid is a
gas or (apor, the follo2ing terms are usedC
Fans are associated 2ith relati(ely small pressure changes, on the order of D, u
>5 cm of H5 % A6C5 psiBC
-lo2ers are of "oth positi(e and (aria"le displacement types, 2ith D, up to
5C7 m of H5 % A@6 psiBC
ompressors are of "oth positi(e and (aria"le conFgurations ha(ing deli(ery
pressures as high as ;: M,a A36> psiBC
Tur"ines, as pre(iously stated, e8tract energy from high=pressure Juids. They are of
t2o primary types, impulse and reaction, 2hich con(ert Juid energy into mechanical
2or! in different 2ays. *n the impulse tur"ine, the high=energy Juid is con(erted, "y
means of a no<<le, into a high=(elocity Iet. This Iet then stri!es the tur"ine "lades as
they pass. *n this conFguration, the Iet Jo2 is essentially at a constant pressure. The
"asic analysis of these de(ices is e8amined in hapter 5.
*n reaction tur"ines the Juid Flls the "lade passages and a pressure decrease occurs
as it Jo2s through the impeller. The energy transfer in such de(ices in(ol(es some
thermodynamic considerations "eyond simple momentum analysis.
The remainder of this chapter 2ill "e de(oted entirly to pumps and fans.
onsideration 2ill "e gi(en to general pump and fan performances, scaling la2s, and
their compati"ility 2ith piping systems.
3@.3 E/TR*F'#+$ ,'M,&
Figure 3@.> sho2s t2o cuta2ay (ie2s of a typical centrifugal pump. *n this conFguration,
Juid enters the pump casing a8ially. *t then encounters the impeller "lades that direct the
Jo2 tangentially and radially out2ard into the outer part of the casing and is then
discharged. The Juid e8periences an increase in (elocity and pressure as it passes through
3@.3 entrifugal ,umps 379
5
3
2
ontrol
(olume
asing
*mpeller
E8panding
area scroll
Figure 3@.> uta2ay
(ie2s of a centrifugal
pump.
the impeller. The discharge section, 2hich is doughnut shaped, causes the Jo2 to decelerate
and the pressure to increase further.
The impeller "lades sho2n ha(e a "ac!2ard=cur(ed shape, 2hich is the most common
conFguration.
,ump ,erformance ,arameters
We no2 focus on the control (olume designated in Figure 3@.> "y dashed lines. /ote that
Jo2 enters at section one and lea(es at t2o.
+pplying the Frst la2 of thermodynamics to this control (olume 2e ha(e
ff fff
d. dWs,YdWm
PA;=36BeVer d( VUrA( C nB d+ V
dtdtdtrYtcCsCcC(C
2hich for steady, adia"atic flo2 2ith no (iscous 2or!, "ecomes
(5 U (5dWs3hP m h 5 U h3 V 5V gAy5 U y3 BU
dt5
Q
*t is customary to neglect the small differences in (elocity and ele(ation "et2een sections
one and t2o, thus
(5 U (5 b 653
and
y5 U y3 b 6
and the remaining e8pression is

dWs, 5 U ,3
hhP mWh5 U h3 X P m u5 U u3 VU
dtr
Recalling that the term u5 U u3 represents the loss due to friction and other
irre(ersi"le effects, 2e 2rite
u5 U u3 P h $
The net pressure head produced in the pump is
,5 U , 33 dWs
PU h$
hm dtr
A3@=3B
+n important performance parameter, the efFciency, can no2 "e e8pressed in "road
terms as the ratio of actual output to re?uired input. For a centrifugal pump the efFciency,
designated h, is
hP
po2er added to the fluid
shaft po2er to the impeller
377 hapter 3@ Fluid Machinery
The po2er added to the Juid is gi(en "y e?uation A3@=3B

dW , 5 U ,3
Pmh
r
dt fluid
and the efficiency can "e e8pressed as
hP
hmA,5 U ,3 B
rAdWs DdtBcC(C
A3@=5B
A3@=>B
The difference "et2een dWs DdtIcC(C and dWs DdtIli?uid is clearly the head loss, h$.
E?uations A3@=3B, A3@=5B, and A3@=>B pro(ide general relationships for important pump
performance parameters. To de(elop actual performance information for centrifugal pumps,
2e must e8amine our control (olume once again from a moment of momentum perspecti(e.
The go(erning e?uation for this analysis is
fffff
Y
Ar ` (B< rA( nB d+ VAr ` (B< r d(A5=36cBcM has "een chosen as the <
direction, hence our choice of e?uation A5=36cB.
We no2 2ish to sol(e for M< "y applying e?uation A5=36cB to the control (olume in
Figure 3@.> for one=dimensional steady Jo2. The coordinate system 2ill "e F8ed 2ith the <
direction along the a8is of rotation. Recall that the rotor contains "ac!2ard=cur(ed "lades.
*n Figure 3@.@, 2e sho2 a detailed (ie2 of a single rotor "lade. The "lade is attached to the
rotor hu" at distance r3 from the < a8isT the outer dimension of the "lade has the (alue r5.
rt5 N r52
rn5
r"5
rt3 N r32
r"3
-5
r5
r3
"3
Figure 3@.@ 1elocity
diagram for Jo2 e8iting a
centrifugal pump impeller.
*n this Fgure
( "3, ( "5 represent (elocities along the "lade at r3 and r5, respecti(ely
( n5 is the normal (elocity of the Jo2 at r5
( t5 is the tangential (elocity of the Jo2 at r5
"3 T "5 are the angles made "et2een the "lade and tangent directions at r3 and r5,
respecti(ely.
3@.3 entrifugal ,umps 37:
E?uation A5=36cB can no2 "e 2ritten as
5
er

h
M
e<

6 5

( < 3 <
The (elocity, ( u5 , is the tangential component of the fluid stream e8iting the rotor relati(e
to the fi8ed coordinate system. The ?uantities sho2n in Figure 3@.@ 2ill "e useful in
e(aluating ( u5 .
The a"solute (elocity of the e8isting Jo2, ( 5, is the (ector sum of the (elocity relati(e to
the impeller "lade and the (elocity of the "lade tip relati(e to our coordinate system. For
"lade length, $, normal to the plane of Figure 3@.@, 2e e(aluate the follo2ingC
the normal (elocity of Jo2 at r5
( n5 P
h1
5pr5 $
A3@=5B
the (elocity of Jo2 along the "lade at r5
( "5 P
( n5
sin"5
A3@=;B
the "lade tip (elocity
( t5 P r5 (
A3@=9B
The (elocity 2e 2ant, ( u5 , can no2 "e e(aluated as
( u5 P ( t5 U ( "5 cos"5
&u"stitution from e?uations A3@=;B and A3@=9B yields
( u5 P r5 ( U
( n5
cos"5
sin"5
P r5 ( U ( n 5 cot"5
h1
cot"5
5pr5 $
Q
A3@=:B
Finally, introducing the e8pression for ( n5 from e?uation A3@=5B 2e ha(e
( u P r5 ( U
and the desired moment is
h1hM< P r1r5 r5 ( Ucot"5
5pr5 $
A3@=7B
3:6 hapter 3@ Fluid Machinery
The po2er deli(ered to the fluid is, "y definition, M< (, thus
h1dWshh
cot"5WPP M< ( P r1r5 ( r5 ( U
5pr$dt
Q
A3@=36B
E?uation A3@=36B e8presses the po2er imparted to the fluid for an impeller 2ith
h
dimensions r5 , "5 , and $, operating at angular (elocity, (, 2ith mass flo2 rate r1C
This e8pression may "e related to e?uations A3@=5B and A3@=>B to e(aluate the imparted
pressure head and the pump efFciency.
*t is a standard practice to minimi<e friction loss at r3, the radial location at 2hich Jo2
enters the impeller. This is accomplished "y conFguring the angle, "3 , such that inlet Jo2 is
along the "lade surface. Referring to Figure 3@.@, the design point for minimum losses is
achie(ed 2hen
( "3 cos"3 P r3 (
or, e?ui(alently, 2hen
( r3 P ( "3 sin"3 P r3(
and, Fnally, 2hen
( r3 P r3 ( tan"3
A3@=33B
sin"3
cos"3
Typical performance cur(es, for a centrifugal pump, are sho2n in Figure 3@.5.
,ressure head, "ra!e horsepo2er, and efficiency are all sho2n as functions of (olumetric
flo2 rate. *t is reasona"le to choose operating conditions at or near the flo2 rate 2here
ma8imum efficiency is achie(ed.
&hutoff head
Head
Head, ha
-ra!e horsepo2er,
"hp
Efficiency, h
Efficiency
-ra!e
horsepo2er
/ormal or
design flo2 rate
6
6
v
Flo2 rate, 1
Figure 3@.5 entrifugal pump
performance cur(es.
E8ample 3 illustrates ho2 the analysis presented a"o(e relates to centrifugal pump
performance.
EM+M,$E 3 Water Jo2 is produced "y a centrifugal pump 2ith the follo2ing dimensionsC
r3 P ; cm
r5 P 36C5 cm
$ P @C95 cm
"3 P >>
"5 P 53
3@.3
at a rotational speed of 3566 rpm determine
AaB the design Jo2 rateT
A"B the po2er added to the Jo2T
AcB the ma8imum pressure head at the pump discharge.
entrifugal ,umps 3:3
To e8perience minimum losses, e?uation A3@=33B must "e satisFed, thus
( r3 P r3 ( tan"3

re(5p rad min
P A6C6; mB 3566Atan >> B
minre(;6 s
P @C7:; mDs
The corresponding Jo2 rate is
h1 P 5pr3 $( r3
P 5pA6C6; mBA6C6@95 mBA@C7:; mDsB
P 6C6799 m> Ds A3>:6 gpmB
The po2er imparted to the Jo2 is e8pressed "y e?uation A3@=36BC
Q
h1hh
cot"5W P r1r5 ( r5 ( U
5pr$
E(aluating the follo2ingC

re(rad min
5pP 355C9 radDs( P 3566
minre(;6 s
P 3359 !g [ mDs
h16C6799 m> Ds
P
5pr5 $ 5pA6C365 mBA6C6@95 mB
P 5C76 mDs
2e o"tain
hW P A3359 !g [ mDsBwW6C365 mBA355C9 radDsB U A5C76 mDsBAcot 53Bx
P ;7>6 W P ;C7> !W
E?uation A3@.3B e8presses the net pressure head as
hW,5 U ,3
U h$PU
hmgrg
The ma8imum (alue, 2ith negligi"le loses, 2ill "e
,5 U ,3;7>6 W
P
rgA3666 !gDm> BA6C6799 m> DsBA:C73 mDs5 B
P 9C:@ m H5 % gage
For ,3 P 3 atm P 3@C9 psi P 36C>> m H5 %
,5 P A9C:@ V 36C>>Bm H5 % P 37C> m H5 % A5; psiB
AcB
A"B
AaB
A3@=33B
hr1r5 ( P A3666 !gDm> BA6C6799 m> DsBA6C365 mBA355C9 radDsB
A3@=3B
The actual discharge pressure 2ill "e less than this o2ing to friction and other irre(ersi"le
losses.
/et ,ositi(e &uction Head
+ maIor concern in pump operation is the presence of ca(itation. a(itation occurs 2hen a
li?uid "eing pumped (apori<es or "oils. *f this occurs, the (apor "u""les that ha(e "een
formed cause a decrease in efFciency and, often, structural damage to the pump that may
lead to catastrophic failure. The parameter designated net positi(e suction head A/,&HB
characteri<es the li!elihood for ca(itation to occur.
+t the suction side of the impeller, 2here pressure is lo2est thus the location 2here
ca(itation 2ill Frst occur, the /,&H can "e e8pressed as
/,&H V
,( ( 5 ,i
P i V
rg 5g rg
A3@=35B
2here ( i and ,i are e(aluated at pump inlet and ,( is the li?uid (apor pressure. 1alues of
/,&H are, in general, determined e8perimentally o(er a range in flo2 rates, for a gi(en
hpump. + typical (ariation of /,&H (s. 1 is sho2n in Figure 3@.;.
5
Reference
plane
/,&H Am or
ftB
y5
, 3 N , atm
3
v
1 Am>Ds, : gpmB
Figure 3@.; Typical (ariation of /,&H
|
2ith 1 .
Figure 3@.9 ,ump installation at a le(el y a"o(e a
supply reser(oir.
*n Figure 3@.9, a representati(e pump installation is sho2n 2ith the li?uid "eing dra2n
from a reser(oir located a distance, y, "elo2 the pump inlet. +n energy "alance "et2een the
pump inlet and the reser(oir le(el yields
,atm,5 ( 5
P y5 V V 5 V ch$
rgrg 5g
A3@=3>B
2here the term ch$ represents head losses "et2een locations 3 and 5 as discussed in
hapter 3>.
om"ining this relationship 2ith e?uation A3@=35B 2e get
( 5 ,5 ,(
/,&H P 5 V U
5g rg rg
,atm,(
U y5 U Uch$P
rgrg
A3@=3@B
For proper pump installation, the (alue of /,&H e(aluated using e?uation A3@=3@B should
"e greater than the (alue o"tained from a pump performance plot at the same flo2 rate.
The principal use of these ideas is to esta"lish a ma8imum (alue for the height, y5.
E8ample 5 illustrates the use of /,&H.
3@.3
EM+M,$E 5
entrifugal ,umps 3:>
+ system li!e the one sho2n in Figure 3@.9 is to "e assem"led to pump 2ater. The inlet pipe to the
centrifugal pump is 35 cm in diameter and the desired Jo2 rate is 6.655 m>Ds. +t this Jo2 rate,
the speciFcations for this pump sho2 a (alue of /,&H of @.5 m. The minor loss coefFcient for the
system may "e ta!en as 0 P 35C Water properties are to "e e(aluated at >66 0. Determine the
ma8imum (alue of y, the distance "et2een pump inlet and reser(oir le(el.
The ?uantity desired, y, is gi(en "y
yP
,atm U ,(
U ch$ U /,&H
rg
A3@=3@B
Water properties re?uired, at >66 0, are
r P ::9 !gDm>
,( P >5:7 ,a
and 2e ha(e
(P
h1 6C6655 M> Ds
P 5C53 mDsP p
+A6C35 mB5
@
( 5 35A5C53 mDs5 B5
PP 5C:: m
5g5A:C73 mDs5 B
ch$ P 0$
We can no2 complete the solution
yP
A363>;6 U >5:7B,a
U5C:: m U @C5 m
A::9 !gDm> BA:C73 mDs5 B
A:C5 ftB
P 5C765 m
om"ined ,ump and &ystem ,erformance
5
+s depicted in Figure 3@.5, a pump has
3the capa"ility of operating o(er a range
in Jo2 rates 2ith its deli(ered head,
y5operating efFciency, and /,&H (alues,
all "eing Jo2=rate=dependent. +n
y3,umpimportant tas! of the engineer is to
match a gi(en pump, 2ith its !no2n
operating characteristics, to the perfor=
mance of the system in 2hich the pump
produces Jo2. ,iping system perfor= Figure 3@.7 ,umping system conFguration.
mance is discussed in hapter 3>.
+ simple Jo2 system is illustrated in Figure 3@.7 2here a pump is used to produce Jo2
"et2een t2o reser(oirs at different ele(ations.
35With the t2o reser(oir surfaces designated 3 and 3 as sho2n in the Fgure,
an energy
"alance "et2een these t2o locations yields
h, 5 U ,3W
V Au5 U u3 BU P gA y5 U y3 B VA3@=35B
hmr
3:@ hapter 3@ Fluid Machinery
%"ser(ing that ,3 P ,5 P ,atm and e8pressing u5 U u3 P ch$ , 2e ha(e
hW
UP y5 U y3 V ch$
hmg
From hapter 3>, 2e can 2rite for the head loss
(5
ch$ P c0
5g
2here the ?uantity c0 accounts for frictional pipe loss as 2ell as minor losses due to (al(es,
el"o2s, and Fttings.
The operating line for system performance is no2 e8pressed "y
hW(5
UP y5 U y3 V c0
h5gmg
A3@=39B
A3@=3;B
,lotting the system operating line together 2ith the plot of pump performance yields the
com"ined performance diagram as sho2n in Figure 3@.:.
356
Head
,ump efficiency,
b
Total head, m 366
36
:
/,&H
7
5.6
56
6
6 6.56 3.6 3.56
Flo2 rate, 1 m>Ds
/,&H, m
&ystem
operating
line
33
h
Figure 3@.: om"ined pump and
system performance.
We note that the t2o operating lines intersect at a Jo2 rate 2here the re?uired head for
system operation matches that 2hich the particular pump can produce. +t this operating
Jo2 rate, one can read the corresponding efFciency from the chart. + system designer
2ould, naturally, 2ant the system to operate at, or as near as possi"le to, the Jo2 rate of
ma8imum pump efFciency. *f the operating point corresponds to an undesira"le efFciency
(alue, changes must "e made either to the system, 2hich is generally a difFcult process, or to
pump operating conditions.
3@.5 &+$*/# $+W& F%R ,'M,& +/D F+/&
The concepts of similarity and scaling are introduced in hapter 33. The re?uirements of
geometric, !inematic, and dynamic similarity Fnd important applications in the scaling of
rotating Juid mechanics. *n this section 2e 2ill de(elop the GGfan la2sHH that are used to
predict the effect of changing the Juid, si<e, or speed of rotating machines, 2hich are in a
geometrically similar family.
Dimensional +nalysis of Rotating Machines
The -uc!ingham method of dimensional analysis, 2hich is introduced in hapter 33, is a
useful tool in generating the dimensionless parameters that apply to rotating Juid machines.
3@.5 &caling $a2s For ,umps +nd Fans 3:5
+s discussed earlier, the Frst step to "e underta!en is to de(elop a ta"le of (aria"les that are
important to our application. Ta"le 3@.3 lists the (aria"les of interest along 2ith their
sym"ols and dimensional representation in the M$t system.
Ta"le 3@.3 ,ump performance (aria"les
1aria"le
Total head
Flo2 rate
*mpeller diameter
&haft speed
Fluid density
Fluid (iscosity
,o2er
&ym"ol
gh
h1
D
(
r
m
hW
Dimensions
$5 Dt5
$> Dt
$
3Dt
MD$>
MD$t
M$5 Dt>
Without repeating all details regarding the -uc!ingham method, 2e can esta"lish the
follo2ingC
iPnUr P9U>P@
2ith a core group including the (aria"les DT (T r, the dimensionless pi groups "ecome
p3 P ghDD5 (5
hp5 P 1D(D >
hp> P WDr(> D5
p@ P mDD5 (r
The group p@ P mDD5 (r is a form of Reynolds num"er. The other three groups here are
designated, "y the pump community, as
p3 P ghDD5 (5 P H
hp5 P 1D(D> P .
;
5
Efficiency, h
@
H
>
5
3
6
6.55
,
6.56
6.95
H
3.66
, and
efficiency
UUthe head coefficient
UUthe flo2 coefficient
UUthe po2er coefficient
A3@=37B
A3@=3:B
A3@=56B
hp> P WDr(> D5 P ,
Figure 3@.36 is a plot of the dimensionless parameters H and ,
(s. the Jo2 coefFcient, ., for a representati(e centrifugal pump
family.
There is, of course, one additional dimensionless perfor=
mance parameter, the efFciency. The efFciency is related to the
other parameters deFned a"o(e according to
hP
H .
,
A3@=53B
6 6.6@ 6.67
.
6.35
6
6.3;
Figure 3@.36 Dimensionless performance
cur(es for a typical centrifugal pump.
+s the parameters on the right=hand=side of the e?uation are
functionally related to ., the efficiency, h, is also a function of
., and is included as one of the dependent (aria"les in
Figure 3@.36.
3:; hapter 3@ Fluid Machinery
The three coefFcients H T . T and , pro(ide the "asis for the fan la2s. For similar
pumps, designated 3 and 5, 2e may 2rite, for H
H3 P H5
or
gh3gh5
P 5 5
(5 D5 (5 D53 3
thus
5 5
h5(5D5
PA3@=55B
h3(3D3
,erforming the same e?uations on . and , , 2e o"tain

h15 (5 D5 >
PA3@=5>B
h13 (3 D3

,5 r5 (5 > D5 5
PA3@=5@B
,3 r3 (3D3 These three e?uations comprise the GGfan la2sHH or GGpump la2sHH that are used e8tensi(ely for
scaling rotating machines as 2ell as predicting their performance.
E8ample > illustrates the use of these e8pressions.
EM+M,$E > + centrifugal pump, operating at 3366 rpm against a head of 356 m H5% produces a Jo2 of
6.75 m>Ds.
AaB For a geometrically similar pump, operating at the same speed "ut 2ith an impeller
diameter >6b greater than the original, 2hat Jo2 rate 2ill "e achie(eda
A"B *f the ne2 larger pump descri"ed in part AaB is also operated at 3>66 rpm, 2hat 2ill "e the
ne2 (alues of Jo2 rate and total heada
&pecifying for pump 3, D P D3 T then for the larger pump, D5 P 3C> D3 T thus the ne2 Jo2 rate
2ill "e, using e?uation A3@=5>B

h15 (5 D5 >
PA3@=5>B
h13 (3 D3

3C> D3 >>
h15 P 6C75 m Ds
D3
>AaBP 3C7;9 m Ds
For the case 2ith D5 P 3C> D3 and (5 P 3>66 rpm, 2e ha(e, from e?uation A3@=5>B
>
h 5 P 6C75 m> Ds 3>66 rpm 3C> D31
3366 rpmD3
P 5C569 m> Ds
The ne2 head is determined using e?uation A3@=55B.
5 5
h5(5D5
P
h3(3D3

3>66 rpm 5 3C> D3 5
P 356 m H5 %
3366 rpmD3
P 57> m H5 %
A"B
A3@=55B
AcB
3@.5 losure 3:9
3@.> +M*+$ +/D M*MED F$%W ,'M, %/F*#'R+T*%/&
%ur e8amination of pumps, thus far, has focused on centrifugal pumps. The other "asic
conFguration is a8ial Jo2. The designation centrifugal Jo2 or a8ial Jo2 relates to the direction
of Juid Jo2 in the pump. *n the centrifugal case, Jo2 is turned :6 to the a8is of rotationT in the
a8ial Jo2 case, Jo2 is in the direction of the a8is of rotation. There is an intermediate case,
designated mi8ed Jo2, 2here the Jo2 has "oth normal and a8ial components.
The choice of centrifugal, a8ial, or mi8ed Jo2 conFgurations depends on the desired
(alues of Jo2 rate and head needed in a speciFc application. The single parameter that
includes "oth head and Jo2 rate effects is designated /&, the speciFc speed. *t is deFned as
3.D5
/& P
>D@
H
A3@=55B
Figure 3@.33 is a plot of optimum efFciencies of the three pump types as functions of /&.
The (alues of /& sho2n in this plot correspond to the some2hat unusual units sho2n.
The "asic message con(eyed "y Figure 3@.33 is that higher deli(ery head and lo2er Jo2
rate com"inations dictate the use of centrifugal pumps, 2hereas lo2er heads and higher Jo2
rates re?uire mi8ed Jo2 or a8ial Jo2 pumps.
3.6
6.:
hma8
6.7
6.9
6.;
6 66 66 66 66 66
56
66
35
,6
entrifugal
pump
Mi8ed
flo2
+8ial
flo2
/s
ArpmB AgalDminB3D5AH,ftB>D@
Figure 3@.33 %ptimum pump
efFciency as a function of speciFc
speed.
36 56 @6 56
3@.@ T'R-*/E&
+nalysis of tur"ines follo2s the same general steps as has "een done for pumps. The reader
is referred to &ection 5.@ in hapter 5 for a re(ie2 of the analysis of an impulse tur"ine.
Tur"ine operation uses the energy of a Juid, emanating from a no<<le, to interact 2ith
"lades attached to the rotating unit, designated the rotor. The momentum e8change
produced as the Juid changes direction generates po2er at the rotor shaft.
+ detailed discussion of tur"ine operation, other than that presented in hapter 5, is
"eyond the scope of this "oo!. /umerous treatises are a(aila"le to the interested reader. +
good introductory discussion, along 2ith e8tensi(e references, is included in the te8t "y
Munson et al. A3::7B.
3@.5 $%&'RE
This chapter has "een de(oted to the e8amination of rotating Juid machines. E8ternal po2er
applied to pumps and fans produces higher pressure, increased Jo2, or "oth. Tur"ines
operate in the re(erse, producing po2er from a high=energy Juid.
36
,6
Types of pumps or fans are characteri<ed "y the direction of Jo2 through the rotor. *n
centrifugal pumps, the Jo2 is turned :6 to the Jo2 a8isT Jo2 is parallel to the Jo2 a8is in
a8ial Jo2 pumps. Machines 2ith "oth centrifugal and a8ial Jo2 components are designated
mi8ed=Jo2 pumps.
&tandard performance plots for a family of geometrically similar pumps or fans sho2 the
head, po2er, efFciency, and /,&H as functions of Jo2 rate for a designated speed of rotation.
&caling la2s 2ere de(eloped using parameters generated from dimensional analysis.
The resulting GGfan la2sHH that relate t2o similar systems are
5 5
h5(5D5
PA3@=55B
h3(3D3

h15 (5 D5 >
PA3@=5>B
h13 (3 D3

,5 r5 (5 > D5 5
PA3@=5@B
,3 r3 (3D3
,R%-$EM&
3@.3 + centrifugal pump deli(ers 6.5 m>Ds of 2ater 2hen
operating at 756 rpm. Rele(ant impeller dimensions are as
follo2sC outside diameter P 6.@5 m, "lade length P 56 cm,
and "lade e8it angle P 5@ . Determine AaB the tor?ue and po2er
re?uired to dri(e the pump and A"B the ma8imum pressure
increase across the pump.
3@.5 + centrifugal pump is used 2ith gasoline Wr P ;76 !gDm> XC
Rele(ant dimensions are as follo2sC d3 P 35 cmT d5 P 57 cmT
$ P : cmT "3 P 55 T and "5 P @6 C The gasoline enters the
pump parallel to the pump shaft 2hen the pump operates at
3566 rpm. Determine AaB the Jo2 rateT A"B the po2er deli(ered
to the gasolineT and AcB the head in meters.
3@.> + centrifugal pump has the follo2ing dimensionsC d5 P
@5 cmT $ P 5 cmT and "5 P >> C *t rotates at 3566 rpm, and the
head generated is 55 m of 2ater. +ssuming radial entry Jo2, deter=
mine the theoretical (alues for AaB the Jo2 rate and A"B the po2er.
3@.@ + centrifugal pump has the conFguration and dimensions
sho2n "elo2. For 2ater Jo2ing at a rate of 6.6693 m>Ds and an
impeller speed of 3656 rpm, determine the po2er re?uired to dri(e
the pump. The inlet Jo2 is directed radially out2ard, and the e8iting
(elocity may "e assumed to "e tangent to the (ane at its trailing edge.
>1 N 6.6693 m Ds
3@.5 + centrifugal pump is "eing used to pump 2ater at a Jo2
rate of 6.637 m>Ds and the re?uired po2er is measured to "e
@.5 !W. *f the pump efFciency is ;>b, determine the head
generated "y the pump.
3@.; + centrifugal pump ha(ing the dimensions sho2n de(elops
a Jo2 rate of 6.6>5 m>Ds 2hen pumping gasoline Wr P ;76 !gDm> XC
The inlet Jo2 may "e assumed to "e radial. Estimate AaB the
theoretical horsepo2erT A"B the head increaseT and AcB the proper
"lade angle at the impeller inlet.
>5g
5 cm
36 cm
3;56 rpm
;.5 cm
55g
3@.9 + centrifugal 2ater pump operates at 3566 rpm. The
dimensions are as the follo2ingC
13
57 cm
3656 rpm
7 cm
r3 P 35 cm
r5 P 56 cm
$ P @C5 cm
"3 P >5
"5 P 56
3.75 cm
Determine AaB the design point discharge rateT A"B the 2ater
horsepo2erT and AcB the discharge head.
,ro"lems
3@.7 The Fgure "elo2 represents performance, in nondi=
mensional form, for a family of centrifugal pumps. For a pump
from this family 2ith a characteristic diameter of 6.@5 m
operating at ma8imum efFciency and pumping 2ater at 35
2ith a rotational speed of 3;66 rpm, estimate AaB the headT
A"B the discharge rateT AcB the pressure riseT and AdB the "ra!e
horsepo2er.
3::
;
5
@
H
>
5
Efficiency, h
H
3.66
6.95
6.56
h, p
366
76
Efficiency
;6
Head
@6
2 N >;6rpm
56
d N >:cm
Efficiency, b
,o2er input
,
3.6
3
6.:
6.7
h
9
6.9
6.;
;
H
556
5
H
566
@
6.7
>
,
,
6.;
6.@
6.5
6 6.3
.
6.5 6.>
6
6
6.65
Head, mT
,o2er, !W
356
366
56
h
6
6 6.6@ 6.67
.
6.35
6.55
6
6.3;
6.36 6.35 6.56
Discharge, m>Ds
6.55
3@.: + pump ha(ing the characteristics descri"ed in the pre=
(ious pro"lem is to "e "uilt that 2ill deli(er 2ater at a rate of
6.5 m>Ds 2hen operating at "est efFciency and a rotational speed
of 3@66 rpm. Estimate AaB the impeller diameter and A"B the
ma8imum pressure rise.
3@.36 Re2or! ,ro"lem 3@.7 for a pump diameter of 6.@6 m
operating at 5566 rpm.
3@.33 Re2or! ,ro"lem 3@.7 for a pump diameter of 6.>5 m
operating at 5@66 rpm.
3@.35 Re2or! ,ro"lem 3@.: for a desired Jo2 rate of 6.>6 m>Ds
at 3766 rpm.
3@.3> Re2or! ,ro"lem 3@.:
6.563 m>Ds at 3766 rpm.
for a desired Jo2 rate of
3@.35 The pump ha(ing the characteristics sho2n in ,ro"lem
3@.3@ 2as used as a model for a prototype that is to "e si8 times
larger. *f this prototype operates at @66 rpm, 2hat AaB po2erT
A"B headT and AcB discharge Jo2 rate should "e e8pected at
ma8imum efFciencya
3@.3; For the pump ha(ing the characteristics sho2n in ,ro=
"lem 3@.3@, operating at ma8imum efFciency 2ith the speed
increased to 3666 rpm, 2hat 2ill "e AaB the ne2 discharge Jo2
rate and A"B the po2er re?uired at this ne2 speeda
3@.39 The pump ha(ing the characteristics sho2n in ,ro"lem
3@.3@ is to "e operated at 766 rpm. What discharge rate is to "e
e8pected if the head de(eloped is @36 ma
3@.37 *f the pump ha(ing the characteristics sho2n in ,ro"lem
3@.3@ is tripled in si<e "ut hal(ed in rotational speed, 2hat 2ill "e
the discharge rate and head 2hen operating at ma8imum efF=
ciencya
3@.3: The pump ha(ing the characteristics sho2n in ,ro"lem
3@.3@ is used to pump 2ater from one reser(oir to another that is
:5 m higher in ele(ation. The 2ater 2ill Jo2 through a steel pipe
3@.3@ ,erformance cur(es for an operating centrifugal pump
are sho2n "elo2 in "oth con(entional units and in dimension=
less form. The pump is used to pump 2ater at ma8imum
efFciency at a head of :6 m. Determine, at these ne2 condi=
tions, AaB the pump speed re?uired and A"B the rate of dis=
charge.
566 hapter 3@ Fluid Machinery
3@.5> + 6.55 m pump deli(ers 56 2ater W,( P 5C>@ !,aX
at 6C6;5 m> Ds and 5666 rpmC The pump "egins to ca(itate 2hen
the inlet pressure is 75.9 !,a and the inlet (elocity is ;.3 mDs.
Determine the corresponding /,&H.
3@.5@ For the pumping system descri"ed in ,ro"lem 3@.5>, ho2
2ill the ma8imum ele(ation a"o(e the surface of the reser(oir
change if the 2ater temperature is 76 W,( P @9C>5 !,aXa
3@.55 + centrifugal pump 2ith an impeller diameter of
6.37 m is to "e used to pump 2ater Wr P 3666 !gDm> X 2ith
the pump inlet located >.7 m a"o(e the surface of the supply
reser(oir. +t a Jo2 rate of 6.9;6 m>Ds, the head loss "et2een the
reser(oir surface and the pump inlet is 3.76 m of 2ater. The
performance cur(es are sho2n "elo2. Would you e8pect ca(i=
tation to occura
that is 6.57 m in diameter and 556 m long. Determine the
discharge rate.
3@.56 + pump 2hose operating characteristics are descri"ed in
,ro"lem 3@.3@ is to "e used in the system depicted "elo2.
Determine AaB the discharge rate and A"B po2er re?uired.
Diameter N 6.>; m
6.:6 m
&teel pipe
6.5 m
Ele(ation
N 5@ m
Ele(ation
N 37 m
>m
Water
3@.55 Water atis to "e pumped through the system
sho2n. The operating data for this motor=dri(en pump data
are as follo2sC
apacity, m> Ds ` 36@
66
36
56
>6
@6
56
De(eloped head, m
>;.;
>5.:
>@.3
>3.5
59.5
5>.>
EfFciency, b
66
3:.3
>5.:
@3.;
@5.5
>:.9
56
366
56
6
6
35
36
/,&H
6.5 6.@ 6.; 6.7 3.6 3.5
5
6
3.@
apacity, m>Dm
3@.5; ,umps used in an a?ueduct operate at @66 rpm and
deli(er a Jo2 of 556 m>Ds against a head of @56 m. What types of
pumps are theya
3@.59 + pump is re?uired to deli(er ;6,666 gpm against a head
of >66 m 2hen operating at 5666 rpm. What type of pump should
"e speciFeda
3@.57 +n a8ial Jo2 pump has a speciFed speciFc speed of ;.6.
The pump must deli(er 5@66 gpm against a head of 37 m.
Determine the re?uired operating rpm of the pump.
3@.5: + pump operating at 556 rpm has the capa"ility of
producing >.> m>Ds of 2ater Jo2 against a head of 3; m.
What type of pump is thisa
The inlet pipe to the pump is 6.6; m diameter commercial steel,
7.5 m in length. The discharge line consists of ;6 m of 6.6; m
diameter steel pipe. +ll (al(es are fully open glo"e (al(es.
Determine the Jo2 rate through the system.
55 m
3@.>6 + pump operating at 5@66 rpm deli(ers >.5 m>Ds of 2ater
against a head of 53 m. *s this pump an a8ial Jo2, mi8ed Jo2, or
radial Jo2 machinea
>m
/,&H, m Head, m
3@.53 For the same pump and system operation descri"ed in
,ro"lem determine AaB the discharge rate and A"B po2er re?uired
2hen the pump operates at :66 rpm.
356
56 cm diameter
35 cm diameter
N >>66rpm
56
hapter
35
Fundamentals of Heat Transfer
The ne8t nine chapters deal 2ith the transfer of energy. #ross ?uantities of heat
added to or reIected from a system may "e e(aluated "y applying the control=
(olume e8pression for the Frst la2 of thermodynamics as discussed in hapter ;.
The result of a Frst=la2 analysis is only a part of the re?uired information
necessary for the complete e(aluation of a process or situation that in(ol(es energy
transfer. The o(erriding consideration is, in many instances, the rate at 2hich
energy transfer ta!es place. ertainly, in designing a plant in 2hich heat must "e
e8changed 2ith the surroundings, the si<e of heat=transfer e?uipment, the materials
of 2hich it is to "e constructed, and the au8iliary e?uipment re?uired for its
utili<ation are all important considerations for the engineer. /ot only must the
e?uipment accomplish its re?uired mission "ut it must also "e economical to
purchase and to operate.
onsiderations of an engineering nature such as these re?uire "oth a familiarity
2ith the "asic mechanisms of energy transfer and an a"ility to e(aluate ?uantitati(ely
these rates as 2ell as the important associated ?uantities. %ur immediate goal is to
e8amine the "asic mechanisms of energy transfer and to consider the fundamental
e?uations for e(aluating the rate of energy transfer.
There are three modes of energy transferC conduction, con(ection, and radiation.
+ll heat=transfer processes in(ol(e one or more of these modes. The remainder of this
chapter 2ill "e de(oted to an introductory description and discussion of these types of
transfer.
35.3 %/D'T*%/
Energy transfer "y conduction is accomplished in t2o 2ays. The Frst mechanism is that of
molecular interaction, in 2hich the greater motion of a molecule at a higher energy le(el
AtemperatureB imparts energy to adIacent molecules at lo2er energy le(els. This type of
transfer is present, to some degree, in all systems in 2hich a temperature gradient e8ists and
in 2hich molecules of a solid, li?uid, or gas are present.
The second mechanism of conduction heat transfer is "y GGfreeHH electrons. The free=
electron mechanism is signiFcant primarily in pure=metallic solidsT the concentration of free
electrons (aries considera"ly for alloys and "ecomes (ery lo2 for nonmetallic solids. The
a"ility of solids to conduct heat (aries directly 2ith the concentration of free electrons, thus
it is not surprising that pure metals are the "est heat conductors, as our e8perience has
indicated.
+s heat conduction is primarily a molecular phenomenon, 2e might e8pect the "asic
e?uation used to descri"e this process to "e similar to the e8pression used in the molecular
563
565 hapter 35 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer
transfer of momentum, e?uation A9=@B. &uch an e?uation 2as Frst stated in 3755 "y Fourier
in the form
?8dT
P U!A35=3B
+d8
2here ?8 is the heat=transfer rate in the 8 direction, in Watts or -tuDhT + is the area normal
to the direction of heat flo2, in m5 or ft5T dTDd8 is the temperature gradient in the 8
direction, in 0Dm or FDftT and ! is the thermal conducti(ity, in WDWm0X or -tuDh ft F. The
ratio ?8 D+, ha(ing the dimensions of WDm5 or -tuDh ft5, is referred to as the heat flu8 in the
8 direction. + more general relation for the heat flu8 is e?uation A35=5B
?
P U!NT
+
A35=5B
2hich e8presses the heat flu8 as proportional to the temperature gradient. The proportionality
constant is seen to "e the thermal conducti(ity, 2hich plays a role similar to that of the
(iscosity in momentum transfer. The negati(e sign in e?uation A35=5B indicates that heat flo2
is in the direction of a negati(e temperature gradient. e?uation A35=5B is the (ector form of the
Fourier rate e?uation, often referred to as FourierHs first la2 of heat conduction.
The thermal conducti(ity, !, 2hich is deFned "y e?uation A35=3B, is assumed inde=
pendent of direction in e?uation A35=5BT thus, this e8pression applies to an isotropic medium
only. Most materials of engineering interest are isotropic. Wood is a good e8ample of an
anisotropic material 2here the thermal conducti(ity parallel to the grain may "e greater than
that normal to the grain "y a factor of 5 or more. The thermal conducti(ity is a property of a
conducting medium and, li!e the (iscosity, is primarily a function of temperature, (arying
signiFcantly 2ith pressure only in the case of gases su"Iected to high pressures.
35.5 THERM+$ %/D'T*1*TE
+s the mechanism of conduction heat transfer is one of the molecular interaction, it 2ill "e
illustrati(e to e8amine the motion of gas molecules from a standpoint similar to that in
&ection 9.>.
onsidering the control (olume sho2n in Figure 35.3, in 2hich energy transfer in the y
direction is on a molecular scale only, 2e may utili<e the Frst=la2 analysis of hapter ; as
follo2s. Mass transfer across the top of this control (olume is considered to occur only on
the molecular scale. This criterion is met for a gas in laminar Jo2.
y
T N T A yB
y
8
8
Figure 35.3 Molecular motion at the surface of a control (olume.
+pplying e?uation A;=36B and considering transfer only across the top face of the
element considered
ff fff
d. dWs dWm,Y
UPeVer d1A;=36BUrA( nB d+ V
dtdtdtrYtcCsCcC(C
35.5 Thermal onducti(ity 56>
For f molecules crossing the plane D8 D< per unit time, this e?uation reduces to
?y P
fM
nP3
mn c p ATIyU U TIyV BD8 D<
A35=>B
2here mn is the mass per moleculeT cp is the molecular heat capacity of the gasT f is the fre?uency
2ith 2hich molecules 2ill cross area D8 D<T and TIyU , U TIyV are the temperatures of the gas
slightly "elo2 and slightly a"o(e the plane considered, respecti(ely. The right=hand term is the
summation of the energy Ju8 associated 2ith the molecules crossing the control surface. /oting
no2 that TIyU P T U TDyIy6 d, 2here yU P y6 U d, and that a similar e8pression may "e
2ritten for TIyV, 2e may re2rite e?uation A35=>B in the form

f?yTMP U5m n cp d A35=@B
+
y y6nP3
2here d represents the y component of the distance "et2een collisions. We note, as
pre(iously in hapter 9, that d P ABl , 2here l is the mean free path of a molecule.
'sing this relation and summing o(er f molecules, 2e ha(e

?y@T
P U rcp fl A35=5B
+>
y y6
omparing e?uation A35=5B 2ith the y component of e?uation A35=;B
?yT
P U!
+y
it is apparent that the thermal conducti(ity, !, "ecomes
@
! P rcp fl
>
'tili<ing further the results of the !inetic theory of gases, 2e may ma!e the follo2ing
su"stitutionsC
fP
/
@
2here is the a(erage random molecular (elocity, P
constantBT
3
l P p
5p/d 5
2here d is the molecular diameterT and
cp P
gi(ing, Fnally
3
p
!> TDm!P
>D5 d 5p
>!
5/
p
7!TDpm A! "eing the -olt<mann
A35=;B
This de(elopment, applying specifically to monatomic gases, is significant in that it
sho2s the thermal conducti(ity of a gas to "e independent of pressure, and to (ary as the
3D5 po2er of the a"solute temperature. The significance of this result should not "e
o(erloo!ed, e(en though some o(ersimplifications 2ere used in its de(elopment. &ome
56@ hapter 35 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer
relations for thermal conducti(ity of gases, "ased upon more sophisticated molecular
models, may "e found in -ird, &te2art, and $ightfoot.3
The hapmanOEns!og theory used in hapter 9 to predict gas (iscosities at lo2 pressures
has a heat=transfer counterpart. For a monatomic gas, the recommended e?uation is
p
! P 6C675: ATDMBDs 5 1!A35=9B
2here ! is in WDm [ 0, s is in +ngstroms, M is the molecular 2eight, and 1! is the
$ennardOJones collision integral, identical 2ith 1 as discussed in &ection 9.>. -oth s and
1! may "e e(aluated from +ppendices J and 0.
The thermal conducti(ity of a li?uid is not amena"le to any simpliFed !inetic=theory
de(elopment, as the molecular "eha(ior of the li?uid phase is not clearly understood and no
uni(ersally accurate mathematical model presently e8ists. &ome empirical correlations
ha(e met 2ith reasona"le success, "ut these are so speciali<ed that they 2ill not "e included
in this "oo!. For a discussion of molecular theories related to the li?uid phase and some
empirical correlations of thermal conducti(ities of li?uids, the reader is referred to Reid and
&her2ood.5 + general o"ser(ation a"out li?uid thermal conducti(ities is that they (ary only
slightly 2ith temperature and are relati(ely independent of pressure. %ne pro"lem in
e8perimentally determining (alues of the thermal conducti(ity in a li?uid is ma!ing sure the
li?uid is free of con(ection currents.
*n the solid phase, thermal conducti(ity is attri"uted "oth to molecular interaction, as in
other phases, and to free electrons, 2hich are present primarily in pure metals. The solid
phase is amena"le to ?uite precise measurements of thermal conducti(ity, as there is no
pro"lem 2ith con(ection currents. The thermal properties of most solids of engineering
interest ha(e "een e(aluated, and e8tensi(e ta"les and charts of these properties, including
thermal conducti(ity, are a(aila"le.
The free=electron mechanism of heat conduction is directly analogous to the mechan=
ism of electrical conduction. This reali<ation led Wiedemann and Fran<, in 375>, to relate
the t2o conducti(ities in a crude 2ayT and in 3795, $oren<> presented the follo2ing relation,
!no2n as the Wiedemann, Fran<, $oren< e?uationC
$P
!
P constant
!e T
A35=7B
2here ! is the thermal conducti(ity, !e is the electrical conducti(ity, T is the a"solute
temperature, and $ is the $oren< num"er.
The numerical (alues of the ?uantities in e?uation A35=7B are of secondary importance
at this time. The signiFcant point to note here is the simple relation "et2een electrical and
thermal conducti(ities and, speciFcally, that those materials that are good conductors of
electricity are li!e2ise good heat conductors, and (ice (ersa.
Figure 35.5 illustrates the thermal conducti(ity (ariation 2ith temperature of se(eral
important materials in gas, li?uid, and solid phases. + more complete ta"ulation of thermal
conducti(ity may "e found in +ppendices H and *.
The follo2ing t2o e8amples illustrate the use of the Fourier rate e?uation in sol(ing
simple heat=conduction pro"lems.
R. -. -ird, W. E. &te2art, and E. /. $ightfoot, Transport ,henomena, Wiley, /e2 Eor!, 3:;6, chap. 7.
Reid and &her2ood, The ,roperties of #ases and $i?uids, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:57,
chap. 9.
>$. $oren<, +nn. ,hysi! und hemie A,oggendorffsB, 3@9, @5: A3795B.
5
3
35.5
566
@66
>66
566
Thermal onducti(ity 565
&il(er
opper
#old
+luminum
+luminum alloy 565@
Tungsten
,latinum
Thermal
conducti(ity
AWDm 0B
6.7
Water
366
Thermal
conducti(ity
AWDm 0B
6.;
56
*ron
56
&tainless steel,
+*&* >6@
+mmonia
6.@
#lycerine
36
+luminum
o8ide
,yroceram
5
3
366
Fused
?uart<
>665663666
Temperature A0B
AaB &olid materials
5666 @666
5
6.5
Engine oil
Freon 35
6
566 >66 @66
Temperature A0B
A"B $i?uids
566
6.>
Hydrogen
Thermal
conducti(ity
AWDm 0B
6.5
Helium
6.3
Water
Asteam, 3 atmB
ar"on
dio8ide
+ir
6
6
Freon 35
566 @66;66
Temperature A0B
AcB #ases and (apors
766 3666
Figure 35.5 Thermal conducti(ity of se(eral materials at (arious temperatures.
56; hapter 35 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer
+ steel pipe ha(ing an inside diameter of 3.77 cm and a 2all thic!ness of 6.>:3 cm is su"Iected to
inside and outside surface temperature of >;9 and >@@ 0, respecti(ely Asee Figure 35.>B. Find the
heat Jo2 rate per meter of pipe length, and also the heat Ju8 "ased on "oth the inside and outside
surface areas.
The Frst la2 of thermodynamics applied to
this pro"lem 2ill reduce to the form d.Ddt P 6,
indicating that the rate of heat transfer into the control
(olume is e?ual to the rate lea(ing, that is . P ? P
constantC
+s the heat Jo2 2ill "e in the radial direction,
the independent (aria"le is r, and the proper form for
the Fourier rate e?uation is
dT
?r P U!+
dr
Writing + P 5p$, 2e see that the e?uation "ecomes
?r P U!A5pr$B
dT
dr
EM+M,$E 3
ro
ri
r
Ti
To
Figure 35.> Heat conduction in a
radial direction 2ith uniform
surface temperatures.
2here ?r, is constant, 2hich may "e separated and sol(ed as follo2sC
f Tof Ti
dr
P U5p!$dT P 5p!$dT?r
ri rTiTo
ro
P 5p!$ATi U To B?r ln
ri
5p!$
ATi U To B?r P
ln ro Dri
f
ro
A35=:B
&u"stituting the gi(en numerical (alues, 2e o"tain
?r P
5pA@5C:6 WDm [ 0BA>;9 U >@@B0
lnA5C;;D3C77B
P 39 7;6 WDmA37 ;66 -tuDhr [ ftB
The inside and outside surface areas per unit length of pipe are gi(ing
+i P pA3C77BA36U5 BA3B P 6C65: m5 DmA6C3:@ ft5 DftB
+o P pA5C;;5BA36U5 BA3B P 6C67@ m5 DmA6C595 ft5 DftB
?r 39 7;6
P >65C9 !WDm5 A:5 :66 -tuDhr [ ft5 BP
6C65:+i
?o 39 7;6
P 535C; !WDm5 A;9 @66 -tuDhr [ ft5 BP
6C67@+i
%ne e8tremely important point to "e noted from the results of this e8ample is the
re?uirement of specifying the area upon 2hich a heat=Ju8 (alue is "ased. /ote that for
the same amount of heat Jo2, the Ju8es "ased upon the inside and outside surface areas
differ "y appro8imately @5b.
35.> on(ection 569
EM+M,$E 5 onsider a hollo2 cylindrical heat=transfer medium ha(ing inside and outside radii of ri and ro 2ith
the corresponding surface temperatures Ti and To. *f the thermal=conducti(ity (ariation may "e
descri"ed as a linear function of temperature according to
! P !6 A3 V "TB
calculate the steady=state heat=transfer rate in the radial direction, using the a"o(e relation for the
thermal conducti(ity, and compare the result 2ith that using a ! (alue calculated at the arithmetic
mean temperature.
Figure 35.> applies. The e?uation to "e sol(ed is no2
?r P Uw!o A3 V "TBxA5pr$B
dT
dr
2hich, upon separation and integration, "ecomes
f rof ro
dr
P U5p!o $A3 V "TBdT?r
ri rri
f Ti
A3 V "TBdTP 5p!o $
To
5p!o $"T 5
?r PTV
5ln ro Dri
QTi
To
Q
5p!o $"
?r P3 V ATi V To B ATi U To B
ln ro Dri5
/oting that the arithmetic a(erage (alue of ! 2ould "e
!a(g
"
P !o 3 V ATi V To B
5
Q
A35=36B
2e see that e?uation A35=36B could also "e 2ritten as
?r P
5p!a(g $
ATi U To B
ln ro Dri
Thus, the t2o methods gi(e identical results.
The student may Fnd it instructi(e to determine 2hat part of the pro"lem statement of this
e8ample is responsi"le for this interesting resultT that is, 2hether a different geometrical conFg=
uration or a different thermal=conducti(ity e8pression 2ould ma!e the results of the t2o types of
solutions different.
35.> %/1ET*%/
Heat transfer due to con(ection in(ol(es the energy e8change "et2een a surface and an
adIacent Juid. + distinction must "e made "et2een forced con(ection, 2herein a Juid is
made to Jo2 past a solid surface "y an e8ternal agent such as a fan or pump, and free or
natural con(ection 2herein 2armer Aor coolerB Juid ne8t to the solid "oundary causes
circulation "ecause of the density difference resulting from the temperature (ariation
throughout a region of the Juid.
The rate e?uation for con(ecti(e heat transfer 2as Frst e8pressed "y /e2ton in 3963,
and is referred to as the /e2ton rate e?uation or /e2tonHs GGla2HH of cooling. This
e?uation is
?D+ P h DT
A35=33B
2here ? is the rate of con(ecti(e heat transfer, in W or -tuDhT + is the area normal to
direction of heat flo2, in m5 or ft5T DT is the temperature difference "et2een surface and
fluid, in 0 or 7FT and h is the con(ecti(e heat transfer coefficient, in WDm5 [ 0 or
-tuDh ft5 F. E?uation A35=33B is not a la2 "ut a definition of the coefficient h. +
su"stantial portion of our 2or! in the chapters to follo2 2ill in(ol(e the determination of
this coefficient. *t is, in general, a function of system geometry, fluid and flo2 properties,
and the magnitude of DT.
+s Jo2 properties are so important in the e(aluation of the con(ecti(e heat transfer
coefFcient, 2e may e8pect many of the concepts and methods of analysis introduced in the
preceding chapters to "e of continuing importance in con(ecti(e heat transfer analysisT this
is indeed the case.
From our pre(ious e8perience 2e should also recall that e(en 2hen a Juid is Jo2ing in a
tur"ulent manner past a surface, there is still a layer, sometimes e8tremely thin, close to the
surface 2here Jo2 is laminarT also, the Juid particles ne8t to the solid "oundary are at rest.
+s this is al2ays true, the mechanism of heat transfer "et2een a solid surface and a Juid
must in(ol(e conduction through the Juid layers close to the surface. This GGFlmHH of Juid
often presents the controlling resistance to con(ecti(e heat transfer, and the coefFcient h is
often referred to as the Flm coefFcient.
T2o types of heat transfer that differ some2hat from free or forced con(ection "ut are
still treated ?uantitati(ely "y e?uation A35=33B are the phenomena of "oiling and con=
densation. The Flm coefFcients associated 2ith these t2o !inds of transfer are ?uite high.
Ta"le 35.3 represents some order=of=magnitude (alues of h for different con(ecti(e
mechanisms.
Ta"le 35.3 +ppro8imate (alues of the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient
Mechanism
Free con(ection, air
Forced con(ection, air
Forced con(ection, 2ater
-oiling 2ater
ondensing 2ater (apor
hT -tuDh ft5 F
6663O36
6665O56
6656O>666
6566O5666
3666O56,666
hT WDAm5 [ 0B
6665O56
6655O556
6556O35,666
5566O55,666
5666O366,666
*t 2ill also "e necessary to distinguish "et2een local heat transfer coefFcients, that is,
those that apply at a point, and total or a(erage (alues of h that apply o(er a gi(en surface
area. We 2ill designate the local coefFcient h8, according to e?uation A35=33B
d? P h8 DT d+
Thus the a(erage coefFcient, h, is related to h8 according to the relation
f
?Ph8 DT d+ P h+ DT
+
A35=35B
The (alues gi(en in Ta"le 35.3 are a(erage con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefficients.
35.5 om"ined Mechanisms of Heat Transfer 56:
35.@ R+D*+T*%/
Radiant heat transfer "et2een surfaces differs from conduction and con(ection in that no
medium is re?uired for its propagationT indeed energy transfer "y radiation is ma8imum
2hen the t2o surfaces that are e8changing energy are separated "y a perfect (acuum.
The rate of energy emission from a perfect radiator or "lac!"ody is gi(en "y
?
P sT @
+
A35=3>B
2here ? is the rate of radiant energy emission, in W or -tuDhT + is the area of the emitting
surface, in m5 or ft5T T is the a"solute temperature, in 0 or 7RT and s is the &tefanO-olt<mann
constant, 2hich is e?ual to 5C;9; ` 36U7 WDm5 [ 0@ or 6C393@ ` 36U7 -tuDh ft5 R@. The
proportionally constant relating radiant=energy flu8 to the fourth po2er of the a"solute
temperature is named after &tefan 2ho, from e8perimental o"ser(ations, proposed e?uation
A35=3>B in 379:, and -olt<mann, 2ho deri(ed this relation theoretically in 377@. E?uation
A35=3>B is most often referred to as the &tefanO-olt<mann la2 of thermal radiation.
ertain modiFcations 2ill "e made in e?uation A35=3>B to account for the net energy
transfer "et2een t2o surfaces, the degree of de(iation of the emitting and recei(ing surfaces
from "lac!"ody "eha(ior, and geometrical factors associated 2ith radiant e8change "et2een
a surface and its surroundings. These considerations are discussed at length in hapter 5>.
35.5 %M-*/ED MEH+/*&M& %F HE+T TR+/&FER
The three modes of heat transfer ha(e "een considered separately in &ection 35.@. *t is rare,
in actual situations, for only one mechanism to "e in(ol(ed in the transfer of energy. *t 2ill "e
instructi(e to loo! at some situations in 2hich heat transfer is accomplished "y a
com"ination of these mechanisms.
onsider the case depicted in Figure 35.@, that of steady=state conduction through a
plane 2all 2ith its surfaces held at constant temperatures T3 and T5.
Writing the Fourier rate e?uation for the 8 direction, 2e ha(e
?8dT
P U!
d8+
8
T5
T3
$
A35=3B
&ol(ing this e?uation for ?8 su"Iect to the "oundary conditions T P T3 at 8 P 6 and
T P T5 at 8 P $, 2e o"tain
?8
+
or
?8 P
!+
AT3 U T5 B
$
A35=3@B
f
6
$
Figure 35.@ &teady=state
conduction through a
plane 2all.
f
d8 P U!
T5
f
dT P !
T3
dT
T5 T3
E?uation A35=3@B "ears an o"(ious resem"lance to the /e2ton rate e?uation
?8 P h+ DT
A35=33B
We may utili<e this similarity in form in a pro"lem in 2hich "oth types of energy transfer
are in(ol(ed.
onsider the composite plane 2all constructed of three materials in layers 2ith
dimensions as sho2n in Figure 35.5. We 2ish to e8press the steady=state heat=transfer
rate per unit area "et2een a hot gas at temperature Th on one side of this 2all and a cool gas at
Tc on the other side. Temperature designations and dimensions are as sho2n in the Fgure.
The follo2ing relations for ?8 arise from the application of e?uations A35=33B and A35=3@BC
?8 P hh +ATh U T3 B P
P
!3 +!5 +
AT3 U T5 B PAT5 U T> B
$3$5
!> +
AT> U T@ B P hc +AT@ U Tc B
$>
!3
Th
T3
T5
!5 !>
T>
$3 $5 $>
T@
Tc
Figure 35.5 &teady=state heat transfer
through a composite 2all.
Each temperature difference is e8pressed in terms of ?8 as follo2sC
Th U T3 P ?8 A3Dhh +B
T3 U T5 P ?8 A$3 D!3 +B
T5 U T> P ?8 A$5 D!5 +B
T> U T@ P ?8 A$> D!> +B
T@ U Tc P ?8 A3Dhc +B
+dding these e?uations, 2e o"tain

3$3$5$>3
VVVVTh U Tc P ?8
h h + ! 3 + ! 5 + ! > + hc +
and Fnally, sol(ing for ?8, 2e ha(e
?8 P
Th U Tc
3Dhh + V $3 D!3 + V $5 D!5 + V $> D!> + V 3Dhc +
A35=35B
/ote that the heat=transfer rate is e8pressed in terms of the o(erall temperature difference.
*f a series electrical circuit
R3
13
R5 R> R@ R5
15
is considered, 2e may 2rite
*P
D1D1
P,
RiR3 V R5 V R> V R@ V R5
35.5 om"ined Mechanisms of Heat Transfer 533
The analogous ?uantities in the e8pressions for heat Jo2 and electrical current are apparent,
D1 Q DT
* Q ?8
Ri Q 3Dh+, $D!+
and each term in the denominator of e?uation A35=35B may "e thought of as a thermal
resistance due to con(ection or conduction. E?uation A35=35B thus "ecomes a heat=transfer
analog to %hmHs la2, relating heat Jo2 to the o(erall temperature difference di(ided "y the
total thermal resistance "et2een the points of !no2n temperature. E?uation A35=35B may
no2 "e 2ritten simply as
DT
A35=3;B?P,
Rthermal
This relation applies to steady=state heat transfer in systems of other geometries as 2ell.
The thermal=resistance terms 2ill change in form for cylindrical or spherical systems, "ut
once e(aluated, they can "e utili<ed in the form indicated "y e?uation A35=3;B. With
specific reference to e?uation A35=:B, it may "e noted that the thermal resistance of a
cylindrical conductor is
lnAro Dri B
5p!$
+nother common 2ay of e8pressing the heat=transfer rate for a situation in(ol(ing a
composite material or com"ination of mechanisms is 2ith the o(erall heat=transfer
coefFcient deFned as
?8
A35=39B'
+ DT
2here ' is the o(erall heat=transfer coefficient ha(ing the same units as h, in WDm5 [ 0 or
-tuDh ft5 F.
EM+M,$E > &aturated steam at 6.59; M,a Jo2s inside a steel pipe ha(ing an inside diameter of 5.6: cm and an
outside diameter of 5.;9 cm. The con(ecti(e coefFcients on the inner and outer pipe surfaces may "e
ta!en as 5;76 and 55C9 WDm5 [0, respecti(ely. The surrounding air is at 5:@ 0. Find the heat loss per
meter of "are pipe and for a pipe ha(ing a >.7 cm thic!ness of 75b magnesia insulation on its outer
surface.
*n the case of the "are pipe there are three thermal resistances to e(aluateC
R3 P Rcon(ection inside P 3Dhi +i
R5 P Rcon(ection outside P 3Dho +o
R> P Rconduction P lnAro Nri BD5p!$
For conditions of this pro"lem, these resistances ha(e the (alues
R3 P 3DwA5;76 WDm5 [0BApBA6C656: mBA3 mBx

h R
P 6C665;7 0DW6C663@3
-tu
R5 P 3DwA55C9 WDm5 [0BApBA6C65;9 mBA3 mBx

h R
P 6C555 0DW6C599
-tu
and
R> P
lnA5C;9D5C6:B
5pA@5C: WDm [ 0BA3 mB

h R
P 6C666:3 0DW6C666@7
-tu
The inside temperature is that of 6.59; M,a saturated steam, @6@ 0 or 5;97F. The heat transfer rate
per meter of pipe may no2 "e calculated as
DT @6@ U 5:@ 0
?P, P
R6C557 0DW

-tu
P 567 W936
h
*n the case of an insulated pipe, the total thermal resistance 2ould include R3 and R> e(aluated a"o(e,
plus additional resistances to account for the insulation. For the insulation
R@ P
lnA36C59D5C;9B
5pA6C6;95 WDm [ 0BA3 mB

h R
P >C39; 0DW3C;95
-tu
and for the outside surface of the insulation
R5 P 3DwA55C9 WDm5 [ 0BApBA6C3659 mBA3 mBx

h R
P 6C3>;5 0DW6C6956
-tu
Thus, the heat loss for the insulated pipe "ecomes
DTDT@6@ U 5:@ 0
?P, PP
R R3 V R5 V R@ V R5>C>3; 0DW

-tu
P >>C5 W33>
h
+ reduction of appro8imately 75bQ
*t is apparent from this e8ample that certain parts of the heat=transfer path offer a
negligi"le resistance. *f, for instance, in the case of the "are pipe, an increased rate of heat
transfer 2ere desired, the o"(ious approach 2ould "e to alter the outside con(ecti(e
resistance, 2hich is almost 566 times the magnitude of the ne8t=highest thermal=
resistance (alue.
E8ample > could also ha(e "een 2or!ed "y using an o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient,
2hich 2ould "e, in general
?8DTD R3
PP ,'P
+ DT+ DT+ R
or, for the speciFc case considered
'P
3
+f3D+i hi V wlnAro Dri BxD5p!$ V 3D+o ho g
A35=37B
,
35.; losure 53>
E?uation A35=37B indicates that the o(erall heat=transfer coefficient, ', may ha(e a
different numerical (alue, depending on 2hich area it is "ased upon. *f, for instance, ' is
"ased upon the outside surface area of the pipe, +o, 2e ha(e
3
'o P
+o D+i hi V w+o lnAro Dri BxD5p!$ V 3Dho
Thus, it is necessary, 2hen specifying an o(erall coefFcient, to relate it to a speciFc area.
%ne other means of e(aluating heat=transfer rates is "y means of the shape factor,
sym"oli<ed as &. onsidering the steady=state relations de(eloped for plane and cylindrical
shapes
!+
DTA35=3@B?P
$
and
?P
5p!$
DT
lnAro Dri B
A35=:B
if that part of each e8pression ha(ing to do 2ith the geometry is separated from the
remaining terms, 2e ha(e, for a plane 2all,

+
?P!DT
$
and for a cylinder

5p$
?P!DT
lnAro Dri B
Each of the "rac!eted terms is the shape factor for the applica"le geometry. + general
relation utili<ing this form is
? P !& DT
A35=3:B
E?uation A35=3:B offers some ad(antages 2hen a gi(en geometry is re?uired "ecause of
space and conFguration limitations. *f this is the case, then the shape factor may "e
calculated and ? determined for (arious materials displaying a range of (alues of !.
35.; $%&'RE
*n this chapter, the "asic modes of energy transferKconduction, con(ection, and
radiationKha(e "een introduced, along 2ith the simple relations e8pressing the rates
of energy transfer associated there2ith. The transport property, thermal conducti(ity, has
"een discussed and some consideration gi(en to energy transfer in a monatomic gas at
lo2 pressure.
The rate e?uations for heat transfer are as follo2sC
onductionC the Fourier rate e?uation
?
P U! NT
+
on(ectionC the /e2ton rate e?uation
?
P h DT
+
53@ hapter 35 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer
RadiationC the &tefanO-olt<mann la2 for energy emitted from a "lac! surface
?
P sT @
+
om"ined modes of heat transfer 2ere considered, speciFcally 2ith respect to the
means of calculating heat=transfer rates 2hen se(eral transfer modes 2ere in(ol(ed. The
three 2ays of calculating steady=state heat=transfer rates are represented "y the e?uations
DT
?P,
2here
,
RT
A35=3;B
RT is the total thermal resistance along the transfer pathT
? P '+ DT
A35=39B
2here ' is the o(erall heat transfer coefficientT and
? P !& DT
A35=3:B
2here & is the shape factor.
The e?uations presented 2ill "e used throughout the remaining chapters dealing 2ith
energy transfer. + primary o"Iect of the chapters to follo2 2ill "e the e(aluation of the heat=
transfer rates for special geometries or conditions of Jo2, or "oth.
/oteC Effects of thermal radiation are included, along 2ith con(ection, in (alues of
surface coefFcients speciFed in the follo2ing pro"lems.
,R%-$EM&
35.3 +n as"estos pad is s?uare in cross section, measuring
5 cm on a side at its small end increasing linearly to 36 cm on a
side at the large end. The pad is 35 cm high. *f the small end is
held at ;66 0 and the large end at >66 0, 2hat heat=Jo2 rate
2ill "e o"tained if the four sides are insulateda +ssume one=
dimensional heat conduction. The thermal conducti(ity of
as"estos may "e ta!en as 6C39> WDm[0C
35.5 &ol(e,ro"lem forthecaseofthelargercrosssectione8posed
to the higher temperature and the smaller end held at >66 0.
35.> &ol(e ,ro"lem 35.3 if, in addition to a (arying cross=
sectional area, the thermal conducti(ity (aries according to ! P
!6 A3 V "TBT 2here !6 P 6C3>7, " P 3C:5 ` 36U@ , T P tempera=
ture in 0el(in, and ! is in WDm [ 0. ompare this result to that
using a ! (alue e(aluated at the arithmetic mean temperature.
35.@ &ol(e ,ro"lem 35.3 if the as"estos pad has a 3.:65=cm
steel "olt running through its center.
35.5 + sheet of insulating material, 2ith thermal conducti(ity
of 6C55 WDm [ 0 is 5 cm thic! and has a surface area of 5.:9 m5.
*f @ !W of heat are conducted through this sheet and the outer
AcoolerB surface temperature is measured at 55 A>57 0B, 2hat
2ill "e the temperature on the inner AhotB surfacea
35.; For the sheet of insulation speciFed in ,ro"lem 35.5, 2ith
a heat rate of @ !W, e(aluate the temperature at "oth surfaces if
the cool side is e8posed to air at >67 2ith a surface coefFcient of
57C@ WDm5 [ 0C
35.9 ,late glass, ! P 3C>5 WDm [ 0T initially at 756 0, is cooled
"y "lo2ing air past "oth surfaces 2ith an effecti(e surface coefF=
cient of 5 WDm5 [ 0C *t is necessary, in order that the glass does not
crac!, to limit the ma8imum temperature gradient in the glass to
35 0Dmm during the cooling process. +t the start of the cooling pro=
cess,2hatisthelo2esttemperatureofthecoolingairthatcan"euseda
35.7 &ol(e ,ro"lem 35.9 if all speciFed conditions remain the
same "ut radiant energy e8change from glass to the surroundings
at the air temperature is also considered.
35.: The heat loss from a "oiler is to "e held at a ma8imum of
:66 -tuDh ft5 of 2all area. What thic!ness of as"estos A! P
6C36 -tuDh ft FB is re?uired if the inner and outer surfaces of the
insulation are to "e 3;66 and 5667F, respecti(elya
35.36 *f, in the pre(ious pro"lem, a >=in.=thic! layer of !aolin
"ric! A! P 6C69 -tuDh ft FB is added to the outside of the as"es=
tos, 2hat heat Ju8 2ill result if the outside surface of the !aolin is
5567Fa What 2ill "e the temperature at the interface "et2een the
as"estos and !aolin for this conditiona
35.33 + composite 2all is to "e constructed of 3D@=in. stainless
steel A! P 36 -tuDh ft FB, > in. of cor!"oard A! P 6C655 -tuD
h ft FB and 3D5 in. of plastic A! P 3C5 -tuDh ft FBC
,ro"lems
a. Dra2 the thermal circuit for the steady=state conduction
through this 2all.
". E(aluate the indi(idual thermal resistance of each material
layer.
c. Determine the heat Ju8 if the steel surface is maintained at
5567F and the plastic surface held at 767F.
d. What are the temperatures on each surface of the cor!"oard
under these conditionsa
35.35 *f, in the pre(ious pro"lem, the con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcients at the inner AsteelB and outer surfaces are @6 and
5 -tuDh ft F, respecti(ely, determine
a. the heat Ju8 if the gases are at 556 and 967F, adIacent to the
inner and outer surfacesT
". the ma8imum temperature reached 2ithin the plasticT
c. 2hich of the indi(idual resistances is controlling.
35.3> + 3=in.=thic! steel plate measuring 36 in. in diameter is
heated from "elo2 "y a hot plate, its upper surface e8posed to air
at 767F. The heat=transfer coefFcient on the upper surface is
5 -tuDh ft F and ! for steel is 55 -tuDh ft FC
a. Ho2 much heat must "e supplied to the lo2er surface of the
steel if its upper surface remains at 3;67Fa A*nclude radiation.B
". What are the relati(e amounts of energy dissipated from the
upper surface of the steel "y con(ection and radiationa
35.3@ *f, in ,ro"lem 35.3>, the plate is made of as"estos, ! P
6C36 -tuDh ft FT 2hat 2ill "e the temperature of the top of the
as"estos if the hot plate is rated at 766 Wa
35.35 + 6.56=m=thic! "ric! 2all A! P 3C> WDm [ 0B separates
the com"ustion <one of a furnace from its surroundings at 557.
For an outside 2all surface temperature of 3667, 2ith a
con(ecti(e heat transfer coefFcient of 37 WDm5 [ 0T 2hat 2ill
"e the inside 2all surface temperature at steady=state conditionsa
35.3; &ol(e for the inside surface temperature of the "ric!
2all descri"ed in ,ro"lem 35.35, "ut 2ith the additional
consideration of radiation from the outside surface to sur=
roundings at 557.
35.39 The solar radiation incident on a steel plate 5 ft s?uare is
@66 -tuDh. The plate is 3.@ in. thic! and lying hori<ontally on an
insulating surface, its upper surface "eing e8posed to air at :67F.
*f the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient "et2een the top sur=
face and the surrounding air is @ -tuDh ft FT 2hat 2ill "e the
steady=state temperature of the platea
35.37 *f in ,ro"lem 35.39, the lo2er surface of the plate is
e8posed to air 2ith a con(ecti(e heat transfer coefFcient of
> -tuDh ft F, 2hat steady=state temperature 2ill "e reached
a. if radiant emission from the plate is neglectedT
". if radiant emission from the top surface of the plate is
accounted fora
35.3: The free<er compartment in a con(entional refrigerator
can "e modeled as a rectangular ca(ity 6.> m high and 6.55 m
535
2ide 2ith a depth of 6.5 m. Determine the thic!ness of styrofoam
insulation A! P 6C>6 WDm [ 0B needed to limit the heat loss to
@66 W if the inner and outer surface temperatures are U36 and
>>7, respecti(ely.
35.56 E(aluate the re?uired thic!ness of styrofoam for the
free<er compartment in the pre(ious pro"lem 2hen the inside
2all is e8posed to air at U367 through a surface coefFcient of
3; WDm5 [ 0 and the outer 2all is e8posed to >>7 air 2ith a
surface coefFcient of >5 WDm5 [ 0C Determine the surface tem=
peratures for this situation.
35.53 The cross section of a storm 2indo2 is sho2n in the
s!etch. Ho2 much heat 2ill "e lost through a 2indo2 measuring
3.7> m "y >.;; m on a cold day 2hen the inside and outside air
temperatures are, respecti(ely, 5:5 and 556 0a on(ecti(e
coefFcients on the inside and outside surfaces of the 2indo2
are 56 and 35 WDm5 [ 0, respecti(ely. What temperature drop
2ill e8ist across each of the glass panesa What 2ill "e the
a(erage temperature of the air "et2een the glass panesa
+ir
space
6.7 cm
2ide
Windo2 glass 6.>5 cm thic!
35.55 ompare the heat loss through the storm 2indo2
descri"ed in ,ro"lem 35.53 2ith the same conditions e8isting
e8cept that the 2indo2 is a single pane of glass 6.>5 cm thic!.
35.5> The outside 2alls of a house are constructed of a @=in. layer
of "ric!, 3D5 in. of celote8, an air space > 5N7 in. thic!, and 3D@ in. of
2ood panelling. *f the outside surface of the "ric! is at >67F and the
inner surface of the panelling at 957F, 2hat is the heat Ju8 if
a. the air space is assumed to transfer heat "y conduction
onlya
". the e?ui(alent conductance of the air space is 3C7 -tuD
h ft5 Fa
c. the air space is Flled 2ith glass 2oola
!"ric! P 6C>7 -tuDh ft F
!celote8 P 6C657 -tuDh ft F
!air P 6C635 -tuDh ft F
!2ood P 6C35 -tuDh ft F
!2ool P 6C655 -tuDh ft FC
35.5@ &ol(e ,ro"lem 35.5> if instead of the surface tempera=
tures "eing !no2n, the air temperatures outside and inside are >6
and 957F, and the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcients are 9 and
5 -tuDh ft5 FT respecti(ely.
53; hapter 35 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer
". What 2ill "e the heat Ju8 on the "asis of the outside pipe
surface areaa The con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcients for
the inner and outer surfaces are 366 and 5 -tuDh ft FC
respecti(ely.
35.5: + 3=in.=nominal=diameter steel pipe 2ith its outside
surface at @667F is located in air at :67F 2ith the con(ecti(e
heat=transfer coefFcient "et2een the surface of the pipe and the
air e?ual to 3C5 -tuDh ft FC *t is proposed to add insulation ha(ing
a thermal conducti(ity of 6C6; -tuDh ft F to the pipe to reduce
the heat loss to one half that for the "are pipe. What thic!ness of
insulation is necessary if the surface temperature of the steel pipe
and ho remain constanta
35.>6 *f, for the conditions of ,ro"lem 35.5:, ho in -tuDh ft F
(aries according to ho P 6C595DD3D@ , 2here Do is the outsideo
diameter of the insulation in feet, determine the thic!ness of
insulation that 2ill reduce the heat Ju8 to one half that of the
(alue for the "are pipe.
35.>3 $i?uid nitrogen at 99 0 is stored in a cylindrical con=
tainer ha(ing an inside diameter of 55 cm. The cylinder is made
of stainless steel and has a 2all thic!ness of 3.5 cm. *nsulation
is to "e added to the outside surface of the cylinder to reduce
the nitrogen "oil=off rate to 55b of its (alue 2ithout insulation.
The insulation to "e used has a thermal conducti(ity of
6C3> WDm [ 0C Energy loss through the top and "ottom ends
of the cylinder may "e presumed negligi"le.
/eglecting radiation effects, determine the thic!ness of
insulation 2hen the inner surface of the cylinder is at 99 0, the
con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient at the insulation surface
has a (alue of 35 WDm5 [ 0, and the surrounding air is at
557.
35.55 Determine the heat=transfer rate per s?uare meter of 2all
area for the case of a furnace 2ith inside air at 3>@6 0. The
furnace 2all is composed of a 6.36;=m layer of Freclay "ric! and
a 6.;>5=cm thic!ness of mild steel on its outside surface. Heat
transfer coefFcients on inside and outside 2all surfaces are 5336
and @5 WDm5 [ 0, respecti(elyT outside air is at 5:5 0. What 2ill
"e the temperatures at each surface and at the "ric!=steel inter=
facea
35.5; #i(en the furnace 2all and other conditions as speciFed
in ,ro"lem 35.55, 2hat thic!ness of celote8 A! P 6C6;5 WD
m [ 0B must "e added to the furnace 2all in order that the
outside surface temperature of the insulation not e8ceed >@6 0a
35.59 + @=in.=%D pipe is to "e used to transport li?uid metals
and 2ill ha(e an outside surface temperature of 3@667F under
operating conditions. *nsulation is ; in. thic! and has a thermal
conducti(ity e8pressed as
! P 6C67A3 U 6C66> TB
2here ! is in -tuDh ft 7F and T is in 7F, is applied to the outside
surface of the pipe.
a. What thic!ness of insulation 2ould "e re?uired for the
outside insulation temperature to "e no higher than >667Fa
". What heat=Jo2 rate 2ill occur under these conditionsa
35.57 Water at @67F is to Jo2 through a 33N5=in. schedule @6 steel
pipe. The outside surface of the pipe is to "e insulated 2ith a 3=in.=
thic! layer of 75b magnesia and a 3=in.=thic! layer of pac!ed glass
2ool, ! P 6C655 -tuDh ft FC The surrounding air is at 3667F.
a. Which material should "e placed ne8t to the pipe surface to
produce the ma8imum insulating effecta
hapter
3;
of Heat Transfer
,aralleling the treatment of momentum transfer underta!en in hapter :, 2e shall no2
generate the fundamental e?uations for a differential control (olume from a Frst=la2=of=
thermodynamics approach. The control=(olume e8pression for the Frst la2 2ill pro(ide
our "asic analytical tool. +dditionally, certain differential e?uations already de(eloped
in pre(ious sections 2ill "e applica"le.
3;.3 THE #E/ER+$ D*FFERE/T*+$ E.'+T*%/ F%R E/ER#E TR+/&FER
onsider the control (olume ha(ing dimensions D8, Dy, and D< as depicted in Figure 3;.3.
Refer to the control=(olume e8pression for the Frst la2 of thermodynamics
d. dWs dWm
UUP
dtdtdt
ff fff
,Y
eVer d1rA(C nBd+ V
rYtcCsCcC(C
A;=36B
The indi(idual terms are e(aluated and their mean=
ings are discussed "elo2.
The net rate of heat added to the control (olume
2ill include all conduction effects, the net release
of thermal energy 2ithin the control (olume due to
(olumetric effects such as a chemical reaction or
induction heating, and the dissipation of electrical
or nuclear energy. The generation effects 2ill "e
|included in the single term, ?, 2hich is the
(olu=
metric rate of thermal energy generation ha(ing units
WDm> or -tuDh ft>. Thus, the Frst term may "e
e8pressed as
y
y
<
8
8
<
Figure 3;.3 + differential control
(olume.
QQ
d.YT YT YT YT
P ! U ! Dy D< V ! U ! D8 D<
dtY8 8VD8Y8 8Yy yVDyYy y
Q
YT YT

hV !
<VD< U ! Y< D8 Dy V ? D8 Dy D<Y<<
W3;=3X
The shaft 2or! rate or po2er term 2ill "e ta!en as <ero for our present pur=
poses. This term is speciFcally related to 2or! done "y some effect 2ithin the
539
537 hapter 3; Differential E?uations of Heat Transfer
control (olume that, for the differential case, is not present. The po2er term is thus
e(aluated as
dWs
P6
dt
A3;=5B
The (iscous 2or! rate, occurring at the control surface, is formally e(aluated "y
integrating the dot product of the (iscous stress and the (elocity o(er the control surface.
+s this operation is tedious, 2e shall e8press the (iscous 2or! rate as $ D8 Dy D<, 2here
$ is the (iscous 2or! rate per unit (olume. The third term in e?uation A;=36B is thus
2ritten as
dWm
P $ D8 Dy D<A3;=>B
dt
The surface integral includes all energy transfer across the control surface due to Juid
Jo2. +ll terms associated 2ith the surface integral ha(e "een deFned pre(iously. The
surface integral is
ff
,
eVrA(C nBd+
rcCsC
5 5 Q
(, (,
Dy D<V gy V u VV gy V u VP r( 8U r( 8
r 8VD8r 8
55
s 5 45
(, (,
D8 D<V gy V u VV gy V u VU r( yV r( y
r yVDyr y
55
5 5 Q
(, (,
D8 DyV gy V u VV gy V u VU r( <W3;=@XV r( <
r <VD<r <
55
The energy accumulation term, relating the (ariation in total energy 2ithin the control
(olume as a function of time, is
Qfff
YY (5
V gy V u r D8 Dy D<A3;=5Ber d1 P
YtYt 5cC(C
E?uations A3;=3B through A3;=5B may no2 "e com"ined as indicated "y the general Frst=
la2 e8pression, e?uation A;=36B. ,erforming this com"ination and di(iding through "y the
(olume of the element, 2e ha(e
!AYTDY8BI8VD8 U !AYTDY8BI8 !AYTDYyBIyVDy U !AYTDYyBIy
V
D8Dy
!AYTDY<BI<VD< U !AYTDY<BI<
hV?V$V
D<
`}`}
fr( 8 A( 5 D5B V gy V u V A,DrB I8VD8 U r( 8 A( 5 D5B V gy V u V A,DrB I8 g
P
` 5} D8`}
fr( y A( D5B V gy V u V A,DrB IyVDy U r( y A( 5 D5B V gy V u V A,DrB Iy g
V
Dy
` 5}`}
fr( < A( D5B V gy V u V A,DrB I<VD< U r( < A( 5 D5B V gy V u V A,DrB I< g
V
D<
5
Y(
V rV gy V u
Yt5
3;.3 The #eneral Differential E?uation for Energy Transfer 53:
E(aluated in the limit as D8, Dy, and D< approach <ero, this e?uation "ecomes

YYTYYTYYT
h!!!VVV?V$
Y8 Y8Yy YyY< Y<
5Q 5Q
Y(,Y(,
r( 8r( yV gy V u VV gy V u VVP
Y8rYyr55
5Q 5Q
Y(,Y(
r( <rVV gy V u VV gy V uV
Y<rYt55
W3;=;X
E?uation A3;=;B is completely general in application. *ntroducing the su"stantial
deri(ati(e, 2e may 2rite e?uation A3;=;B as

YYTYYTYYT
h!!!VVV?V$
Y8Y8Yy YyY< Y<
5
(Yrr D( 5DuDAgyB
VrV u V gy NC r( VVrVP NC A,(B V
Yt5 DtDtDt5
'tili<ing the continuity e?uation, e?uation A:=5B, 2e reduce this to

YYTYYTYYT
h!!!VVV?V$
Y8 Y8Yy YyY< Y<
P NC ,( V
r D( 5DuDAgyB
VrVr
5 DtDtDt
W3;=9X
With the aid of e?uation A:=3:B, 2hich is (alid for incompressi"le flo2 of a fluid 2ith
constant m, the second term on the right=hand side of e?uation A3;=9B "ecomes
r D( 5P U(C N, V (C rg V (C m N5 (
5 Dt
A3;=7B
+lso, for incompressi"le flo2, the first term on the right=hand side of e?uation A3;=9B
"ecomes
NC ,( P (C N,
A3;=:B
&u"stituting e?uations A3;=7B and A3;=:B into e?uation A3;=9B, and 2riting the conduction
terms as NC !NT, 2e ha(e
hNC ! NT V ? V $ P r
DuDAgyB
VrV (C rg V (C m N5 (
DtDt
A3;=36B
*t 2ill "e left as an e8ercise for the reader to (erify that e?uation A3;=36B reduces further
to the form
hNC !NT V ? V $ P rc( DTV (C m N 5 (
Dt
A3;=33B
The function $ may "e e8pressed in terms of the (iscous portion of the normal= and
shear=stress terms in e?uations A9=3>B and A9=3@B. For the case of incompressi"le Jo2, it is
2ritten as
$ P (C mN5 ( V F
A3;=35B
2here the GGdissipation function,HH F, is gi(en "y
s 4
Y( y 5Y( 8 5Y( < 5
F P 5mVV
Y8YyY<
s5 5 5 4
Y( y Y( <Y( 8 Y( yY( < Y( 8
VmVVVVV
YyY8Y<YyY8Y<
&u"stituting for $ in e?uation A3;=33B, 2e see that the energy e?uation "ecomes
DT
hA3;=3>BNC !NT V ? V F P rc(
Dt
From e?uation A3;=35B, F is seen to "e a function of fluid (iscosity and shear=strain rates, and
is positi(e=definite. The effect of (iscous dissipation is al2ays to increase internal energy at
the e8pense of potential energy or stagnation pressure. The dissipation function is negligi"le in
all cases that 2e 2ill considerT its effect "ecomes significant in supersonic "oundary layers.
3;.5 &,E*+$ F%RM& %F THE D*FFERE/T*+$ E/ER#E E.'+T*%/
The applica"le forms of the energy e?uation for some commonly encountered situations
follo2. *n e(ery case the dissipation term is considered negligi"ly small.
*. For an incompressi"le Juid 2ithout energy sources and 2ith constant !
rc(
**.
DT
P ! N5 T
Dt
A3;=3@B
For iso"aric Jo2 2ithout energy sources and 2ith constant !, the energy e?uation is
rc(
DT
P ! N5 T
Dt
A3;=35B
/ote that e?uations A3;=3@B and A3;=35B are identical yet apply to completely
different physical situations. The student may 2ish to satisfy himself at this point
as to the reasons "ehind the une8pected result.
***. *n a situation 2here there is no Juid motion, all heat transfer is "y conduction. *f
this situation e8ists, as it most certainly does in solids 2here c( H cp , the energy
e?uation "ecomes
YT
hP NC ! NT V ?rcpA3;=3;B
Yt
E?uation A3;=3;B applies in general to heat conduction. /o assumption has "een made
concerning constant !. *f the thermal conducti(ity is constant, the energy e?uation is
hYT?
P a N5 T VA3;=39B
Ytrcp
2here the ratio !Drcp has "een sym"oli<ed "y a and is designated the thermal diffusi(ity. *t is
easily seen that a has the units, $5DtT in the &* system a is e8pressed in m5Ds, and as ft5Dh in the
English system.
*f the conducting medium contains no heat sources, e?uation A3;=39B reduces to the
Fourier Feld e?uation
YT
P a N5 TA3;=37B
Yt
2hich is occasionally referred to as FourierHs second la2 of heat conduction.
3;.> ommonly Encountered -oundary onditions 553
For a system in 2hich heat sources are present "ut there is no time (ariation, e?uation
A3;=39B reduces to the ,oisson e?uation
N5 T V
h?
P6
!
A3;=3:B
The Fnal form of the heat=conduction e?uation to "e presented applies to a steady=state
situation 2ithout heat sources. For this case, the temperature distri"ution must satisfy the
$aplace e?uation
N5 T P 6
A3;=56B
Each of e?uations A3;=39B through A3;=56B has "een 2ritten in general form, thus each
applies to any orthogonal coordinate system. Writing the $aplacian operator, N5, in the
appropriate form 2ill accomplish the transformation to the desired coordinate system. The
Fourier Feld e?uation 2ritten in rectangular coordinates is
YTY5T Y5T Y5T
VVPa
YtY85 Yy5 Y<5
in cylindrical coordinates
YTY 5 T 3 YT 3 Y 5 T Y 5 T
VVPaV
YtYr 5 r Yr r 5 Yu5 Y<5
and in spherical coordinates
Q
YT3 Y3YYT3Y5T5 YT
Pa 5
r
V 5
sin u
V 5
Ytr YrYrr sin u YuYur sin5 u Yf5
A3;=5>B
Q
A3;=55B
Q
A3;=53B
The reader is referred to +ppendi8 - for an illustration of the (aria"les in cylindrical and
spherical coordinate systems.
3;.> %MM%/$E E/%'/TERED -%'/D+RE %/D*T*%/&
*n sol(ing one of the differential e?uations de(eloped thus far, the e8isting physical situation
2ill dictate the appropriate initial or "oundary conditions, or "oth, 2hich the Fnal solutions
must satisfy.
*nitial conditions refer speciFcally to the (alues of Tand ( at the start of the time inter(al
of interest. *nitial conditions may "e as simply speciFed as stating that TItP6 P T6
Aa constantB, or more comple8 if the temperature distri"ution at the start of time measure=
ment is some function of the space (aria"les.
-oundary conditions refer to the (alues of T and ( e8isting at speciFc positions on the
"oundaries of a system, that is, for gi(en (alues of the signiFcant space (aria"les. Fre?uently
encountered "oundary conditions for temperature are the case of isothermal "oundaries,
along 2hich the temperature is constant, and insulated "oundaries, across 2hich no heat
conduction occurs 2here, according to the Fourier rate e?uation, the temperature deri(ati(e
normal to the "oundary is <ero. More complicated temperature functions often e8ist at
system "oundaries, and the surface temperature may also (ary 2ith time. om"inations of
heat=transfer mechanisms may dictate "oundary conditions as 2ell. %ne situation often
e8isting at a solid "oundary is the e?uality "et2een heat transfer to the surface "y conduction
Th
?8 N hh A Th O T3B
T3
?8 N O !
dT
d8
T5
?8 N hc A T5 O TcB
$
Tc
8
Figure 3;.5 onduction and
con(ention at a system "oundary.
and that lea(ing the surface "y con(ection. This condition is illustrated in Figure 3;.5. +t the
left=hand surface, the "oundary condition is

YT
A3;=5@B
h! AT! U TI8P6 B P U!
Y8
8P6
and at the right=hand surface,

YT

hc ATI8P$ U Tc B P U!
Y8 8P$
A3;=55B
*t is impossi"le at this time to foresee all the initial and "oundary conditions that 2ill "e
needed. The student should "e a2are, ho2e(er, that these conditions are dictated "y the
physical situation. The differential e?uations of energy transfer are not numerous, and a
speciFc form applying to a gi(en situation may "e found easily. *t remains for the user of
these e?uations to choose the appropriate initial and "oundary conditions to ma!e the
solution meaningful.
3;.@ $%&'RE
The general differential e?uations of energy transfer ha(e "een de(eloped in this chapter,
and some forms applying to more speciFc situations 2ere presented. &ome remar!s
concerning initial and "oundary conditions ha(e "een made as 2ell.
*n the chapters to follo2, analyses of energy transfer 2ill start 2ith the applica"le
differential e?uation. /umerous solutions 2ill "e presented and still more assigned as
student e8ercises. The tools for heat=transfer analysis ha(e no2 "een de(eloped and
e8amined. %ur remaining tas! is to de(elop a familiarity 2ith and facility in their use.
,R%-$EM&
The Fourier Feld e?uation in cylindrical coordinates is
5
YTY T 3 YT 3 Y 5 T Y 5 T
PaVCVU
YtYr 5 r Yr r 5 Yu5 Y<5
a. What form does this e?uation reduce to for the case of
steady=state, radial heat transfera
". #i(en the "oundary conditions
3;.3
T P Ti
T P To
at r P ri
at r P ro
c. #enerate an e8pression for the heat Jo2 rate, ?r , using the
result from part A"B.
3;.5 ,erform the same operations as in parts AaB, A"B, and AcB of
,ro"lem 3;.3 2ith respect to a spherical system.
3;.> &tarting 2ith the Fourier Feld e?uation in cylindrical
coordinates,
a. Reduce this e?uation to the applica"le form for steady=state
heat transfer in the u direction.
,ro"lems
". For the conditions depicted in the Fgure, that is, T P To at
u P 6, T P T< at u P p, the radial surfaces insulated, sol(e
for the temperature proFle.
c. #enerate an e8pression for the heat Jo2 rate, ?u, using the
result of part A"B.
d. What is the shape factor for this conFgurationa
To
?
r3
T5, +5
Tp
ro
8
55>
". the thermal conducti(ity (aries 2ith temperature according
to ! P !o U aT, 2here a is a constant.
T3, +3
$
3;.@ &ho2 that e?uation A3;=36B reduces to the form
hNC ! NT V ? V $ P rc( DTV (C mN5 (
Dt
3;.5 &tarting 2ith e?uation A3;=9B, sho2 that, for a Juid 2ith
constant thermal conducti(ity and no energy sources, e?uations
A3;=3@B and A3;=35B are o"tained for incompressi"le and iso"aric
conditions, respecti(ely. A/eglect (iscous dissipation.B
3;.; &ol(e e?uation A3;=3:B for the temperature distri"ution in
a plane 2all if the internal heat generation per unit (olume (aries
hhaccording to ? P ?6 eU"8D$ . The "oundary conditions that apply
are T P T6 at 8 P 6 and T P T$ at 8 P $.
3;.9 &ol(e ,ro"lem 3;.; for the same conditions, e8cept that
the "oundary condition at 8 P $ is dTDd8 P 6.
3;.7 &ol(e ,ro"lem 3;.; for the same conditions, e8cept that
at 8 P $, dTDd8 P I Aa constantB.
3;.: 'se the relation T ds P dh U d,Dr to sho2 that the effect
of the dissipation function, F, is to increase the entropy, &. *s the
effect of heat transfer the same as the dissipation functiona
3;.36 *n a "oundary layer 2here the (elocity proFle is gi(en "y
(8> y 3 y >
PU
(3 5 d 5 d
2here d is the (elocity "oundary layer thic!ness, plot the
dimensionless dissipation function, F d5 Dm( 5 , (s. yDd.3
3;.33 + spherical shell 2ith inner and outer dimensions of ri
and ro, respecti(ely, has surface temperatures TiAriB and ToAroB.
+ssuming constant properties and one=dimensional AradialB
conduction, s!etch the temperature distri"ution, TArB. #i(e
reasons for the shape you ha(e s!etched.
3;.35 Heat is transferred "y conduction Aassumed to "e one=
dimensionalB along the a8ial direction through the truncated
conical section sho2n in the Fgure. The t2o "ase surfaces are
maintained at constant temperaturesC T3 at the top, and T5, at the
"ottom, 2here T3 _ T5 C E(aluate the heat transfer rate, ?8, 2hen
a. the thermal conducti(ity is constant.
3;.3> Heat is generated in a radioacti(e plane 2all according
to the relationshipQ
M
hh? P ?ma8 3 U
$
h2here ? is the (olumetric heat generation rate, !WDm> , $ is the half
thic!ness of the plate, and 8 is measured from the plate center line.
M
$
De(elop the e?uation that e8presses the temperature difference
"et2een the plate center line and its surface.
3;.3@ Heat is generated in a cylindrical fuel rod in a nuclear
reactor according to the relationship
s 5 4
r
hh? P ?ma8 3 U
ro
h2here ? is the (olumetric heat generation rate, !WDm> , and ro is
the outside cylinder radius. De(elop the e?uation that e8presses the
temperature difference "et2een the rod center line and its surface.
3;.35 Heat is generated in a spherical fuel element according
to the relationship
s > 4
r
hh? P ?ma8 3 U
ro
h2here ? is the (olumetric heat generation rate, !WDm> , and ro is the
radius of the sphere. De(elop the e?uation that e8presses the tem=
perature difference "et2een the center of the sphere and its surface.
hapter
39
&teady=&tate onduction
*n most e?uipment used in transferring heat, energy Jo2s from one Juid to another
through a solid 2all. +s the energy transfer through each medium is one step in the
o(erall process, a clear understanding of the conduction mechanism of energy
transfer through homogeneous solids is essential to the solutions of most heat=transfer
pro"lems.
*n this chapter, 2e shall direct our attention to steady=state heat conduction. &teady
state implies that the conditions, temperature, density, and the li!e at all points in the
conduction region are independent of time. %ur analyses 2ill parallel the approaches
used for analy<ing a differential Juid element in laminar Jo2 and those that 2ill "e
used in analy<ing steady=state molecular diffusion. During our discussions, t2o types of
presentations 2ill "e usedC A3B The go(erning differential e?uation 2ill "e generated "y
means of the control=(olume concept and A5B the go(erning differential e?uation 2ill "e
o"tained "y eliminating all irrele(ant terms in the general differential e?uation for
energy transfer.
39.3 %/E=D*ME/&*%/+$ %/D'T*%/
For steady=state conduction independent of any internal generation of energy, the general
differential e?uation reduces to the $aplace e?uation
N5 T P 6
A3;=56B
+lthough this e?uation implies that more than one space coordinate is necessary to
descri"e the temperature field, many pro"lems are simpler "ecause of the geometry of
the conduction region or "ecause of symmetries in the temperature distri"ution.
%ne=dimensional cases often arise.
The one=dimensional, steady=state transfer of energy "y conduction is the simplest
process to descri"e as the condition imposed upon the temperature Feld is an ordinary
differential e?uation. For one=dimensional conduction, e?uation A3;=56B reduces to

di dT
8P6A39=3B
d8d8
2here i P 6 for rectangular coordinates, i P 3 for cylindrical coordinates, and i P 5 for
spherical coordinates.
%ne=dimensional processes occur in Jat planes, such as furnace 2allsT in cylindri=
cal elements, such as steam pipesT and in spherical elements, such as nuclear=reactor
pressure (essels. *n this section, 2e shall consider steady=state conduction through
simple systems in 2hich the temperature and the energy Ju8 are functions of a single
space coordinate.
55@
39.3 %ne=Dimensional onduction 555
$
T3
T
T5
8
,lane Wall. onsider the conduction of energy through a plane 2all as illustrated in
Figure 39.3. The one=dimensional $aplace e?uation is easily sol(ed, yielding
T P 3 8 V 5A39=5B
The t2o constants are o"tained "y applying the "oundary conditions
at 8 P 6 T P T3
and
at 8 P $
These constants are
5 P T3
and
3 P
The temperature proFle "ecomes
TP
or
T P T3 U
T 3 U T5
8
$
A39=>B
T5 U T3
8 V T3
$
T5 U T3
$
T P T5
Figure 39.3 ,lane 2all
2ith a one=dimensional
temperature distri"ution.
and is linear, as illustrated in Figure 39.3.
The energy Ju8 is e(aluated, using the Fourier rate e?uation
?8dT
P U!
d8+
dTT3 U T5
PU
d8$
&u"stituting this term into the rate e?uation, 2e o"tain for a Jat 2all 2ith constant thermal
conducti(ity
?8 P
!+
AT3 U T5 B
$
A39=@B
A35=3B
The temperature gradient, dTDd8, is o"tained "y differentiating e?uation A39=>B yielding
The ?uantity !+D$ is characteristic of a Jat 2all or a Jat plate and is designated the thermal
conductance. The reciprocal of the thermal conductance, $D!+, is the thermal resistance.
omposite Walls. The steady Jo2 of energy
through se(eral 2alls in series is often encoun=
$3$5$>
tered. + typical furnace design might include
T3T5
one 2all for strength, an intermediate 2all for
insulation, and the third outer 2all for appear=
?8?8
ance. This composite plane 2all is illustrated in
T>Figure 39.5.T@
For a solution to the system sho2n in this
8
Fgure, the reader is referred to &ection 5.
The follo2ing e8ample illustrates the use of Figure 39.5 Temperature distri"ution for
the composite=2all energy=rate e?uation for pre= steady=state conduction of energy through a
dicting the temperature distri"ution in 2alls.composite plane 2all.
55; hapter 39 &teady=&tate onduction
+ furnace 2all is composed of three layers, 36 cm of Fre"ric! A! P 3C5;6 WDm[0B, follo2ed "y 5> cm
of !aolin insulating "ric! A! P 6C69> WDm[0B, and Fnally 5 cm of masonry "ric! A! P 3C6 WDm[0B.
The temperature of the inner 2all surface is 3>96 0 and the outer surface is at >;6 0. What are the
temperatures at the contacting surfacesa
The indi(idual material thermal resistances per m5 of area are
$36C36 m
P 6C6;@3 0DWPR3 T fire"ric! P!3 +3 A3C5;6 WDmC 0B
A3 m5 B
$56C5>
R5 T !aolin PP >C35 0DWP
!5 +5 A6C69>BA3B
$>6C65
P 6C65 0DWP
!> +> A3C6BA3B
The total resistance of the composite 2all is e?ual to 6C6;@3 V >C35 V 6C65 P >C5; 0DW. The total
temperature drop is e?ual to AT3 U T@ B P 3>96 U >;6 P 3636 0.
'sing e?uation A35=3;B, the energy transfer rate is
R> T masonry P
T3 U T@3636 0
P >6:C7 WP
>C5; 0DWcR
+s this is a steady=state situation, the energy transfer rate is the same for each part of the transfer path
Ai.e., through each 2all sectionB. The temperature at the Fre"ric!O!aolin interface, T5, is gi(en "y
?P
T3 U T5 P ?AR3 B
P A>6:C7 WBA6C6;@3 0DWB P 3:C: 0
gi(ing
T5 P 3>56C3
&imilarly,
T> U T@ P ?AR> B
P A>6:C7 WBA6C65 0DWB P 35C5 0
T> P >95C5 0
EM+M,$E 3
gi(ing
There are numerous situations in 2hich a composite
2all in(ol(es a com"ination of series and parallel
energy=Jo2 paths. +n e8ample of such a 2all is illu=
strated in Figure 39.>, 2here steel is used as reinforce=
ment for a concrete 2all. The composite 2all can "e
di(ided into three sections of length $3, $5, and $>, and
the thermal resistance for each of these lengths may "e
e(aluated.
The intermediate layer "et2een planes 5 and >
consists of t2o separate thermal paths in parallelT the
effecti(e thermal conductance is the sum of the con=
ductances for the t2o materials. For the section of the
2all of height y3 V y5 and unit depth, the resistance is

33
P $5R5 P
!3 y3 !5 y5!3 y3 V !5 y5
V
$5$5
!5 y5
!3 y3
!5
$3 $5 $>
Figure 39.> + series=parallel
composite 2all.
39.3 %ne=Dimensional onduction 559
The total resistance for this 2all is
cRT P R3 V R5 V R>
or

$33$>
cRT PVV $5
!3 Ay3 V y5 B!3 Ay3 V y5 B!3 y3 V !5 y5
R3
R5
R>
The electrical circuit is an analog to the composite 2all.
The rate of energy transferred from plane 3 to plane @ is o"tained "y a modiFed form of
e?uation A35=3;B.
?P
T3 U T@
P
cRT
$3
V $5
!3 Ay3 V y5 B
T3 U T@

3$>
V
!3 Ay3 V y5 B!3 y3 V !5 y5
A39=5B
*t important to recogni<e that this e?uation is only an appro8imation. +ctually, there is a
signiFcant temperature distri"ution in the y direction close to the material that has the higher
thermal conducti(ity.
*n our discussions of composite 2alls, no allo2ance 2as made for a temperature drop
at the contact face "et2een t2o different solids. This assumption is not al2ays (alid, has
there 2ill often "e (apor spaces caused "y rough surfaces, or e(en o8ide Flms on the surfaces
of metals. These additional contact resistances must "e accounted for in a precise energy=
transfer e?uation.
$ong, Hollo2 ylinder. Radial energy Jo2 "y conduction through a long, hollo2
cylinder is another e8ample of one=dimensional conduction. The radial heat Jo2 for this
conFguration is e(aluated in E8ample 3 of chapter 35 as
?r5p!
PATi U To B
$ lnAro Dri B
A39=;B
2here ri is the inside radius, ro is the outside radius, Ti is the temperature on the inside
surface, and To is the temperature on the outside surface. The resistance concept may
again "e usedT the thermal resistance of the hollo2 cylinder is
lnAro Dri B
A39=9BRP
5p!$
The radial temperature distri"ution in a long, hollo2 cylinder may "e e(aluated "y
using e?uation A39=3B in cylindrical form

ddT
rP6A39=7B
drdr
&ol(ing this e?uation su"Iect to the "oundary conditions
at r P ri T P Ti
and
at r P ro
2e see that temperature proFle is
TArB P Ti U
T P To
Ti U Tor
ln
lnAro Dri Bri
A39=:B
557 hapter 39 &teady=&tate onduction
Thus, the temperature in a long, hollo2 cylinder is a logarithmic function of radius r,
2hereas for the plane 2all the temperature distri"ution is linear.
The follo2ing e8ample illustrates the analysis of radial energy conduction through a
long, hollo2 cylinder.
EM+M,$E 5 + long steam pipe of outside radius r5 is co(ered 2ith thermal
insulation ha(ing an outside radius of r>. The temperature
of the outer surface of the pipe, T5, and the temperature of
the surrounding air, T3 , are F8ed. The energy loss per unit
area of outside surface of the insulation is descri"ed "y the
/e2ton rate e?uation
?r
P hAT> U T3 BA35=33B
+
r>
r3
r5
an the energy loss increase 2ith an increase in the thic!=
Figure 39.@ + series composite
ness of insulationa *f possi"le, under 2hat conditions 2ill
hollo2 cylinder.
this situation arisea Figure 39.@ may "e used to illustrate
this composite cylinder.
*n E8ample > of hapter 35, the thermal resistance of a hollo2 cylindrical element 2as
sho2n to "e
RP
lnAro Dri B
5p!$
A39=36B
*n the present e8ample, the total difference in temperature is T5 U T3 and the t2o resistances, due to
the insulation and the surrounding air Flm, are
R5 P
for the insulation, and
R> P
33
P
h+ h5pr> $
lnAr> Dr5 B
5p!5 $
for the air Flm.
&u"stituting these terms into the radial heat Jo2 e?uation and rearranging, 2e o"tain
?r P
5p$AT5 U T3 B
\lnAr> Dr5 B^D!5 V 3Dhr>
A39=33B
The dual effect of increasing the resistance to energy transfer "y conduction and simultaneously
increasing the surface area as r> is increased suggests that, for a pipe of gi(en si<e, a particular outer
radius e8ists for 2hich the heat loss is ma8imum. +s the ratio r>Dr5 increases logarithmically, and the
term 3Dr> decreases as r> increases, the relati(e importance of each resistance term 2ill change as the
insulation thic!ness is (aried. *n this e8ample, $,T5 ,T3 ,!5 h and r5 are considered constant.
Differentiating e?uation A39=33B 2ith respect to r>, 2e o"tain
5p$AT5 U T3 B
33
U 5
!5 r> hr>
s45
3r>3
Vln
r5!5hr>
d?r
PU
dr>
A39=35B
39.3 %ne=Dimensional onduction 55:
The radius of insulation associated 2ith the ma8imum energy transfer, the critical radius, found
"y setting d?r Ddr> P 6T e?uation A39=35B reduces to
Ar> Bcritical P
!5
h
A39=3>B
*n the case of 75b magnesia insulation A! P 6C6;:5 WDm[0B and a typical (alue for the
heat transfer coefFcient in natural con(ection Ah P >@ WDm5 [0B, the critical radius is
calculated as
rcrit P
! 6C6;:5 WDm[0
P 6C6656 mP
h>@ WDm5 [0
P 6C56 cm
A6C66;9 ftB
A6C6979 inCB
These (ery small num"ers indicate that the critical radius 2ill "e e8ceeded in any practical
pro"lem. The ?uestion then is 2hether the critical radius gi(en "y e?uation A39=3>B
represents a ma8imum or a minimum condition for ?. The e(aluation of the second
5deri(ati(e, d5 ?r Ddr> , 2hen r> P !Dh yields a negati(e result, thus rcrit is a ma8imum
condition. *t no2 follo2s that ?r 2ill "e decreased for any (alue of r> greater than
6.6656 m.
Hollo2 &phere. Radial heat Jo2 through a hollo2 sphere is another e8ample of
one=dimensional conduction. For constant thermal conducti(ity, the modiFed Fourier rate
e?uation
?r P U!
dT
+
dr
applies, 2here + P area of a sphere P @pr 5, gi(ing
?r P U@p!r 5
dT
dr
A39=3@B
This relation, 2hen integrated "et2een the "oundary conditions
at T P Ti
and
at T P To
yields
?P
@p!ATi U To B
3 3
U
r i r6
A39=35B
r P ro
r P ri
The hyper"olic temperature distri"ution

Ti U To3 3
T P Ti UU
3Dri U 3Drori r
A39=3;B
is o"tained "y using the same procedure that 2as follo2ed to o"tain e?uation A39=:B.
5>6 hapter 39 &teady=&tate onduction
1aria"le Thermal onducti(ity. *f the thermal conducti(ity of the medium through
2hich the energy is transferred (aries signiFcantly, the preceding e?uations in this section
do not apply. +s $aplaceHs e?uation in(ol(es the assumption of constant thermal con=
ducti(ity, a ne2 differential e?uation must "e determined from the general e?uation for heat
transfer. For steady=state conduction in the 8 direction 2ithout internal generation of energy,
the e?uation that applies is

ddT
!P6A39=39B
d8d8
2here ! may "e a function of T.
*n many cases the thermal conducti(ity may "e a linear function of temperature
o(er a considera"le range. The e?uation of such a straight=line function may "e
e8pressed "y
! P !o A3 V "TB
2here !o and " are constants for a particular material. *n general, for materials satisfying
this relation, " is negati(e for good conductors and positi(e for good insulators. %ther
relations for (arying ! ha(e "een e8perimentally determined for speciFc materials. The
e(aluation of the rate of energy transfer 2hen the material has a (arying thermal
conducti(ity is illustrated in E8ample 5 of chapter 35.
39.5 %/E=D*ME/&*%/+$ %/D'T*%/ W*TH */TER/+$
#E/ER+T*%/ %F E/ER#E
*n certain systems, such as electric resistance heaters and nuclear fuel rods, heat is
generated 2ithin the conducting medium. +s one might e8pect, the generation of energy
2ithin the conducting medium produces temperature proFles different than those for
simple conduction.
*n this section, 2e shall consider t2o simple e8ample casesC steady=state
conduction in a circular cylinder 2ith uniform or homogeneous energy generation,
and steady=state conduction in a plane 2all 2ith (aria"le energy generation. arsla2
and Jaeger 3 and Ja!o" 5 ha(e 2ritten e8cellent treatises dealing 2ith more compli=
cated pro"lems.
ylindrical &olid 2ith Homogeneous
Energy #eneration. onsider a cylind=
rical solid 2ith internal energy generation
as sho2n in Figure 39.5. The cylinder
2ill "e considered long enough so that
only radial conduction occurs. The den=
sity, r, the heat capacity, cp, and the
thermal conducti(ity of the material 2ill
r
r r
Figure 39.5 +nnular element in a long, circular
cylinder 2ith internal heat generation.
H. &. arsla2 and J. . Jaeger, onduction of Heat in &olids, 5nd Edition, %8ford 'ni(. ,ress, /e2 Eor!,
3:5:.
5M. Ja!o", Heat Transfer, 1ol. *, Wiley, /e2 Eor!, 3:@:.
3
39.5 %ne=Dimensional onduction 2ith *nternal #eneration of Energy 5>3
"e considered constant. The energy "alance for the element sho2n is
:: 7: 77
_ rate of energy _ _ rate of energy _ _ rate of energy _
NN ]N ]]
conduction into V generation 2ithin U conduction out
__ __ __
TT CT CC
of the elementthe elementthe element
: A39=37B7
_ rate of accumulation _
N]
Pof energy
__
TC
2ithin the element
h+pplying the Fourier rate e?uation and letting ? represent the rate of energy
generated per
unit (olume, 2e may e8press e?uation A39=37B "y the alge"raic e8pression
Q
YT YT YT
hU!A5pr$B V?A5pr$ DrB U U!A5pr$B A5pr$ DrBP rcp
Yr Yr Yt
r rVDr
Di(iding each term "y 5pr$ Dr, 2e o"tain
h?V
!\rAYTDYrBIrVDr U rAYTDYrBIr ^YT
P rcp
Ytr Dr
*n the limit as Dr approaches <ero, the follo2ing differential e?uation is generatedC

! YYTYT
hrA39=3:B?VP rcp
r YrYrYt
For steady=state conditions, the accumulation term is <eroT 2hen 2e eliminate this term
from the a"o(e e8pression, the differential e?uation for a solid cylinder 2ith homogeneous
energy generation "ecomes

! ddT
hr?VP6A39=56B
r drdr
The (aria"les in this e?uation may "e separated and integrated to yield
dTr5
hV ? P 3r!
dr5
or
!
dTr 3
hV? P
dr5r
-ecause of the symmetry of the solid cylinder, a "oundary condition that must "e satisFed
stipulates that the temperature gradient must "e Fnite at the center of the cylinder, 2here
r P 6. This can "e true only if 3 P 6. +ccordingly, the a"o(e relation reduces to
!
+ second integration 2ill no2 yield
h?r 5
TPUV 5
@!
A39=55B
dTr
hV? P6
dr5
A39=53B
*f the temperature T is !no2n at any radial (alue, such as a surface, the second
constant, 5, may "e e(aluated. This, of course, pro(ides the completed e8pression
for the temperature profile. The energy flu8 in the radial direction may "e o"tained
from
?rdT
P U!
dr+
"y su"stituting e?uation A39=53B, yielding
?rr
hP?
5+
or
r
hh?r P A5pr$B? P pr 5 $?
5
A39=5>B
5$
,lane Wall 2ith 1aria"le Energy #eneration. The second case associated 2ith energy
generation in(ol(es a temperature=dependent, energy=generating process. This situation
de(elops 2hen an electric current is passed through a conducting medium possessing an
electrical resisti(ity that (aries 2ith temperature. *n our discussion, 2e shall assume that
the energy=generation term (aries linearly 2ith temperature, and that the conducting
medium is a Jat plate 2ith temperature T$ at "oth surfaces. The internal energy generation
is descri"ed "y
hhA39=5@B? P ?$ \3 V "AT U T$ B^
h2here ?$ is the generation rate at the surface and " is a constant.
With this model for the generation function, and as "oth surfaces ha(e the same
temperature, the temperature distri"ution 2ithin the Jat plate is symmetric a"out the8
midplane. The plane 2all and its coordinate system are illustrated in Figure 39.;. The
O$i$ symmetry of the temperature distri"ution re?uires a <ero temperature gradient at 8 P 6.
With steady=state conditions, the differential e?uation may "e o"tained "y eliminating the
Figure 39.; Flat plate
irrele(ant terms in the general differential e?uation for heat transfer. E?uation A3;=3:B for
2ith temperature=
the case of steady=state conduction in the 8 direction in a stationary solid 2ith constantdependent energy
thermal conducti(ity "ecomesgeneration.
hd 5 T ?$
V \3 V "AT U T$ B^ P 6
d85!
The "oundary conditions are
at 8 P 6
and
at 8 P $ T P T$
These relations may "e e8pressed in terms of a ne2 (aria"le, u P T U T$ , "y
hd 5 u ?$
V A3 V "uB P 6
d85!
or
d5 u
V V su P 6
d85
hh2here P ?$ D! and s P "?$ D!. The "oundary conditions
are
at 8 P 6
du
P6
d8
dT
P6
d8
39.> Heat Transfer from E8tended &urfaces 5>>
and
at 8 P $ u P 6
The integration of this differential e?uation is simpliFed "y a second change in (aria"lesT
inserting f for V su into the differential e?uation and the "oundary conditions, 2e o"tain
d5 f
V sf P 6
d85
for
8P6
and
8 P $
The solution is
fP
df
P6
d8
p p
f P V su P + cosA8 sB V - sinA8 sB
p p
u P +3 cosA8 sB V +5 sinA8 sB U
s
or
The temperature distri"ution "ecomes
Qp
3 cosA8 sB
p U 3T U T $ P
" cosA$ sB
A39=55B
h2here s P "?$ D! is o"tained "y applying the t2o "oundary conditions.
The cylindrical and spherical e8amples of one=dimensional temperature=dependent
generation are more comple8T solutions to these may "e found in the technical literature.
39.> HE+T TR+/&FER FR%M EMTE/DED &'RF+E&
+ (ery useful application of one=dimensional heat=conduction analysis is that of descri"ing
the effect of e8tended surfaces. *t is possi"le to increase the energy transfer "et2een a
surface and an adIacent Juid "y increasing the amount of surface area in contact 2ith the
Juid. This increase in area is accomplished "y adding e8tended surfaces that may "e in the
forms of Fns or spines of (arious cross sections.
The one=dimensional analysis of e8ten=
?>
ded surfaces may "e formulated in general
terms "y considering the situation depicted
+A8Bin Figure 39.9.
The shaded area represents a portion of
the e8tended surface that has (aria"le cross=
?3?5sectional area, +A8B, and surface area, &A8B,
2hich are functions of 8 alone. For steady=
state conditions, the Frst la2 of thermody=
namics, e?uation A;=36B, reduces to the simple&A8B
8
e8pression
8
d.
P6
dt
Figure 39.9 +n e8tended surface of general
conFguration.
5>@ hapter 39 &teady=&tate onduction
Thus, in terms of the heat Jo2 rates designated in the Fgure, 2e may 2rite
?3 P ?5 V ?>
A39=5;B
The ?uantities ?3 and ?5 are conduction terms, 2hile ?> is a con(ecti(e heat=flo2 rate.
E(aluating each of these in the appropriate 2ay and su"stituting into e?uation A39=5;B, 2e
o"tain

dT dT

U !+ U h&AT U T3 B P 6A39=59B!+
d8 d8
8VD8
8
2here T3 is the Juid temperature. E8pressing the surface area, &A8B, in terms of the 2idth,
D8, times the perimeter, ,A8B, and di(iding through "y D8, 2e o"tain
!+AdTDd8BI8VD8 U !+AdTDd8BI8
U h,AT U T3 B P 6
D8
E(aluating this e?uation in the limit as D8 Q 6, 2e o"tain the differential e?uation

ddT
!+A39=57BU h,WT U T3 X P 6
d8d8
%ne should note, at this point, that the temperature gradient, dTDd8, and the surface
temperature, T, are e8pressed such that T is a function of 8 only. This treatment assumes the
temperature to "e GGlumpedHH in the trans(erse direction. This is physically realistic 2hen
the cross section is thin or 2hen the material thermal conducti(ity is large. -oth of these
conditions apply in the case of Fns. More 2ill "e said a"out the GGlumped parameterHH
approach in hapter 37. This appro8imation in the present case leads to e?uation A39=57B,
an ordinary differential e?uation. *f 2e did not ma!e this simplifying analysis, 2e 2ould
ha(e a distri"uted parameter pro"lem that 2ould re?uire sol(ing a partial differential
e?uation.
+ 2ide range of possi"le forms e8ist 2hen e?uation A39=57B is applied to speciFc
geometries. Three possi"le applications and the resulting e?uations are descri"ed in the
follo2ing paragraphs.
A3B Fins or &pines of 'niform ross &ection. For either of the cases sho2n in Figure 39.7,
the follo2ing are trueC +A8B P +, and ,A8B P ,, "oth constants. *f, additionally, "oth ! and h
are ta!en to "e constant, e?uation A39=57B reduces to
d 5 T h,
AT U T3 B P 6U
d85 !+
A39=5:B
8
8
Figure 39.7 T2o e8amples of e8tended surfaces 2ith constant cross section.
39.> Heat Transfer from E8tended &urfaces 5>5
8
8
t6
t6
$
$
5t$
AaB A"B
Figure 39.: T2o e8amples of straight e8tended surfaces 2ith (aria"le cross section.
A5B &traight &urfaces 2ith $inearly 1arying ross &ection. T2o conFgurations for
2hich + and , are not constant are sho2n in Figure 39.:. *f the area and perimeter "oth (ary
in a linear manner from the primary surface, 8 P 6, to some lesser (alue at the end, 8 P $,
"oth + and , may "e e8pressed as
8
A39=>6B+ P +6 U A+6 U +$ B
$
and
, P ,6 U A,6 U ,$ B
8
$
A39=>3B
*n the case of the rectangular fin sho2n in Figure 39.:A"B, the appropriate (alues of + and
, are
+6 P 5t6 W+$ P 5t$ W
,6 P 5\5t6 V W^ ,$ P 5\5t$ V W^
2here t6 and t$ represent the semithic!ness of the Fn e(aluated at 8 P 6 and 8 P $,
respecti(ely, and W is the total depth of the Fn.
For constant h and !, e?uation A39=57B applied to e8tended surfaces 2ith cross=sectional
area (arying linearly "ecomes
h8 i d5 T +6 U +$ dT h h8i
U ,6 U A,6 U ,$ B AT U T3 B P 6 A39=>5B+6 U A+6 U +$ BU
$ d85d8 !$$
A>B ur(ed &urfaces of 'niform Thic!ness. + com=
mon type of e8tended surface is that of the circular Fn
of constant thic!ness as depicted in Figure 39.36. The
appropriate e8pressions for + and ,, in this case, are
B
+ P @prt
andr6 r r$
, P @pr
When these e8pressions are su"stituted into e?uation
A39=57B, the applica"le differential e?uation, consider=
ing ! and h constant, is
d5 T 3 dT h
U AT U T3 B P 6V
dr 5 r dr !t
A39=>>B
r
r6
r$
5t
Figure 39.36 + cur(ed Fn of
constant thic!ness.
5>; hapter 39 &teady=&tate onduction
E?uation A39=>>B is a form of -esselHs e?uation of <ero order. The solution is in terms of
-essel functions of the Frst !ind. The description and use of these functions are "eyond the
mathematical scope of this te8t. The interested reader may consult the 2or! of 0raus et al.>
for a complete discussion of -essel functions and their use.
*n each of the cases considered, the thermal conducti(ity and con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcient 2ere assumed constant. When the (aria"le nature of these ?uantities is considered,
the resulting differential e?uations "ecome still more comple8 than those de(eloped thus far.
&olutions for the temperature proFle in the case of the straight Fn of constant cross
section 2ill no2 "e consideredT e?uation A39=5:B applies.
The general solution to e?uation A39=5:B may "e 2ritten
u P c3 em8 V c5 eUm8
or
u P + cosh m8 V - sinh m8A39=>5B
2here m5 P h,D!+ and u P T U T3 . The e(aluation of the constants of integration re?uires
that t2o "oundary conditions "e !no2n. The three sets of "oundary conditions that 2e shall
consider are as follo2sC
AaB T P T6at 8 P 6
T P T$at 8 P $
at 8 P 6A"BT P T6
dT
P6at 8 P $
d8
and
AcB
T P T6
dT
P hAT U T3 BU!
d8
at
at
8P6
8P$
A39=>@B
The Frst "oundary condition of each set is the same and stipulates that the temperature at the
"ase of the e8tended surface is e?ual to that of the primary surface. The second "oundary
condition relates the situation at a distance $ from the "ase. *n set AaB the condition is that of a
!no2n temperature at 8 P $. *n set A"B the temperature gradient is <ero at 8 P $. *n set AcB the
re?uirement is that heat Jo2 to the end of an e8tended surface "y conduction "e e?ual to that
lea(ing this position "y con(ection.
The temperature proFle, associated 2ith the Frst set of "oundary conditions, is
m8
uT U T3u$e U eUm8
PPU eUm$A39=>;BV eUm8
u6 T6 U T3u6em$ U eUm$
+ special case of this solution applies 2hen $ "ecomes (ery large, that is, $ Q 3, for
2hich e?uation A39=>;B reduces to
uT U T3
PP eUm8
u6 T6 U T3
uT U T3em8eUm8
PPV
u6 T6 U T3 3 V e5m$ 3 V eU5m$
A39=>9B
The constants, c3 and c5, o"tained "y applying set A"B, yield, for the temperature proFle,
A39=>7B
+. D. 0raus, +. +<i<, and J. R. Welty, E8tended &urface Heat Transfer, Wiley=*nterscience, /e2 Eor!,
5663.
>
39.> Heat Transfer from E8tended &urfaces 5>9
+n e?ui(alent e8pression to e?uation A39=>7B "ut in a more compact form is
uT U T3cosh\mA$ U 8B^
PP
u 6 T 6 U T3cosh m$
A39=>:B
/ote that, in either e?uation A39=>7B or A39=>:B, as $ Q 3 the temperature proFle
approaches that e8pressed in e?uation A39=>9B.
The application of set AcB of the "oundary conditions yields, for the temperature proFle,
uT U T3cosh\mA$ U 8B^ V AhDm!Bsinh\mA$ U 8B^
PP
u6 T6 U T3cosh m$ V AhDm!Bsinh m$
A39=@6B
*t may "e noted that this e8pression reduces to e?uation A39=>:B if duDd8 P 6 at 8 P $ and
to e?uation A39=>9B if T P T3 at $ P 3C
The e8pressions for TA8B that ha(e "een o"tained are particularly useful in e(aluating
the total heat transfer from an e8tended surface. This total heat transfer may "e determined
"y either of t2o approaches. The Frst is to integrate the con(ecti(e heat=transfer e8pression
o(er the surface according to
ff
?Ph\TA8B U T3 ^d& Phu d&A39=@3B
& &
The second method in(ol(es e(aluating the energy conducted into the e8tended surface at
the "ase as e8pressed "y

dT
? P U!+ A39=@5Bd8 8P6
The latter of these t2o e8pressions is easier to e(aluateT accordingly, 2e 2ill use this
e?uation in the follo2ing de(elopment.
'sing e?uation A39=>;B, 2e Fnd that the heat transfer rate, 2hen set AaB of the "oundary
conditions applies, is
Q
u$ Du6 U eUm$
? P !+mu6 3 U 5 m$
A39=@>B
e U eUm$
*f the length $ is (ery long, this e8pression "ecomes
? P !+mu6 P !+mAT6 U T3 B
A39=@@B
&u"stituting e?uation A39=>:B wo"tained "y using set A"B of the "oundary conditionsx
into e?uation A39=@5B, 2e o"tain
? P !+mu6 tanh m$
E?uation A39=@6B, utili<ed in e?uation A39=@5B, yields for ? the e8pression
? P !+mu6
sinh m$ V AhDm!Bcosh m$
cosh m$ V AhDm!Bsinh m$
A39=@;B
A39=@5B
The e?uations for the temperature proFle and total heat transfer for e8tended surfaces of
more in(ol(ed conFguration ha(e not "een considered. ertain of these cases 2ill "e left as
e8ercises for the reader.
+ ?uestion that is logically as!ed at this point is, GGWhat "eneFt is accrued "y the addition of
e8tended surfacesaHH + term that aids in ans2ering this ?uestion is the Fn efFciency, sym"oli<ed
as hf , deFned as the ratio of the actual heat transfer from an e8tended surface to the ma8imum
possi"le heat transfer from the surface. The ma8imum heat transfer 2ould occur if the
temperature of the e8tended surface 2ere e?ual to the "ase temperature, T6, at all points.
3.6
6.:
6.7
6.9
3.;
6.;
6.5
r$ Dr6 N 3.6 Astraight finB
6.@
@.6
6.>
6.5
6.3
6
6
3.7
3.@
5.6
For a straight fin r$ O r6 N $
r6
r$
>.6
5t
nf
3.6 5.6
Ar$ Dr6 B
>.6
h D!t
@.6 5.6
Figure 39.33 Fin efFciency for straight and circular Fns of constant thic!ness.
Figure 39.33 is a plot of hf as a function of a signiFcant parameter for "oth straight and
circular Fns of constant thic!ness A2hen Fn thic!ness is small, t A r$ U r6 B.
The total heat transfer from a Fnned surface is
?total P ?primary surface V ?fin
P +6 hAT6 U T3 B V +f hAT U T3 B A39=@9B
The second term in e?uation A39=@9B is the actual heat transfer from the fin surface in
terms of the (aria"le surface temperature. This may "e 2ritten in terms of the fin
efficiency, yielding
?total P +6 hAT6 U T3 B V +f hhf AT6 U T3 B
or
?total P hA+6 V +f hf BAT6 U T3 B
A39=@7B
*n this e8pression +6 represents the e8posed area of the primary surface, +f is the total fin
surface area, and the heat transfer coefficient, h, is assumed constant.
The application of e?uation A39=@7B as 2ell as an idea of the effecti(eness of Fns is
illustrated in E8ample >.
EM+M,$E > Water and air are separated "y a mild=steel plane 2all. *t is proposed to increase the heat=transfer rate
"et2een these Juids "y adding straight rectangular Fns of 3.59=mm thic!ness and 5.5=cm length,
spaced 3.59 cm apart. The air=side and 2ater=side heat=transfer coefFcients may "e assumed constant
2ith (alues of 33.@ and 55; WDm5 [0 respecti(ely. Determine the percent change in total heat transfer
2hen Fns are placed on AaB the 2ater side, A"B the air side, and AcB "oth sides.
39.> Heat Transfer from E8tended &urfaces 5>:
For a 3 m5 section of the 2all, the areas of the primary surface and of the Fns are
Q
6C66359 m5+o P 3 m U 9: fins A3 mB
fin
5P 6C:6 m
+ f P 9: fins A3 mB\A5BA6C655 mB^ V 6C36 m5
P @C65 m5
1alues of Fn efFciency can no2 "e determined from Figure 39.33. For the air side
Q3N5
p^^^^^^^^33C@ WDm5 [0
$ hD!t P 6C655 m
A@5C: WDm[0BA6C66359 mB
P 6C>;5
and for the 2ater side
p^^^^^^^^^
$ hD!T P 6C655 m
55; WDm5 [0
A@5C: WDm[0BA6C66359 mB
Q3N5
P 3C93
The Fn efFciencies are then read from the Fgure as
hair ^ 6C:5
h2ater ^ 6C55
The total heat transfer rates can no2 "e e(aluated. For Fns on the air side
? P ha D Ta \+o V hfa +f ^
P 33C@ DTa \6C:6 V 6C:5A@C65B^
P 5@C3 DTa
and on the 2ater side
? P h2 DT2 \+o V hf2 +f ^
P 55;DT2 \6C:6 V 6C55A@C65B^
P 763 DT2
The ?uantities DTa and DT2 represent the temperature differences "et2een the steel surface at
temperature To and the Juids.
The reciprocals of the coefFcients are the thermal resistances of the Fnned surfaces.
Without Fns the heat=transfer rate in terms of the o(erall temperature difference,
DT P T2 U Ta , neglecting the conducti(e resistance of the steel 2all, is
?P
With Fns on the air side alone
?P
DT
P @@C;9 DT
33
V
5@C3 55;
DT
33
V
33C@ 55;
P 36C:3 DT
an increase of >36b compared 2ith the "are=2all case.
With Fns on the 2ater side alone
?P
DT
33
V
33C@ 763
P 33C5@ DT
an increase of >.6b.
5@6 hapter 39 &teady=&tate onduction
With Fns on "oth sides the heat=Jo2 rate is
?P
DT
33
V
5@C3 763
P 56C;7 DT
an increase of >;5b.
This result indicates that adding Fns is particularly "eneFcial 2here the con(ection coefFcient
has a relati(ely small (alue.
39.@ TW%= +/D THREE=D*ME/&*%/+$ &E&TEM&
*n &ections 39.5 and 39.>, 2e discussed systems in 2hich the temperature and the energy
transfer 2ere functions of a single=space (aria"le. +lthough many pro"lems fall into this
category, there are many other systems in(ol(ing complicated geometry or temperature
"oundary conditions, or "oth, for 2hich t2o or e(en three spatial coordinates are necessary
to descri"e the temperature Feld.
*n this section, 2e shall re(ie2 some of the methods for analy<ing heat transfer "y
conduction in t2o= and three=dimensional systems. The pro"lems 2ill mainly in(ol(e t2o=
dimensional systems, as they are less cum"ersome to sol(e yet illustrate the techni?ues of
analysis.
+nalytical &olution. +n analytical solution to any transfer pro"lem must satisfy the
differential e?uation descri"ing the process as 2ell as the prescri"ed "oundary condi=
tions. Many mathematical techni?ues ha(e "een used to o"tain solutions for particular
energy conduction situations in 2hich a partial differential e?uation descri"es the
temperature Feld. arsla2 and Jaeger@ and -oelter et al.5 ha(e 2ritten e8cellent treatises
that deal 2ith the mathematical solutions for many of the more comple8 conduction
pro"lems. +s most of this material is too speciali<ed for an introductory course, a
solution 2ill "e o"tained to one of the Frst cases analy<ed "y Fourier; in the classical
treatise that esta"lished the theory of energy transfer "y conduction. This solution of a
t2o=dimensional conduction medium employs the mathematical method of separation of
(aria"les.
onsider a thin, inFnitely long rectangular plate that is free of heat sources, as illustrated
in Figure 39.35. For a thin plate YTDY< is negligi"le, and the temperature is a function of 8
and y only. The solution 2ill "e o"tained for the case in 2hich the t2o edges of the plate
are maintained at <ero temperature and the "ottom is maintained at T3 as sho2n. The steady=
state temperature distri"ution in the plate of constant thermal conducti(ity must satisfy the
differential e?uation
Y5T Y5T
VP6
Y85 Yy5
@
y
$
TN6 TN6
T N T3
8
Figure 39.35 Model for
t2o=dimensional conduction
analysis.
A39=@:B
H. &. arsla2 and J. . Jaeger, onduction of Heat in &olids, 5nd Edition, %8ford 'ni(. ,ress, /e2 Eor!,
3:5:.
5$. M. 0. -oelter, 1. H. herry, H. +. Johnson, and R. . Martinelli, Heat Transfer /otes, Mc#ra2=Hill
-oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:;5.
;J. -. J. Fourier, Theorie +nalyti?ue de la haleur, #authier=1illars, ,aris, 3755.
39.@ T2o= and Three=Dimensional &ystems 5@3
and the "oundary conditions
TP6
TP6
T P T3
and
TP6
at
yP3
for 6 8 $
at
at
at
8P6
8P$
yP6
for all (alues of y
for all (alues of y
for 6 8 $
E?uation A39=@:B is a linear, homogeneous partial differential e?uation. This type of
e?uation usually can "e integrated "y assuming that the temperature distri"ution, TA8, yB, is
of the form
TA8T yB P MA8BEAyB
A39=56B
2here MA8B is a function of 8 only and EAyB is a function of y only. &u"stituting this e?uation
into e?uation A39=@:B, 2e o"tain an e8pression in 2hich the (aria"les are separated
3 d5 M 3 d5 E
UP
M d85 E dy5
A39=53B
+s the left=hand side of e?uation A39=53B is independent of y and the e?ui(alent right=
hand side is independent of 8, it follo2s that "oth must "e independent of 8 and y, and hence
must "e e?ual to a constant. *f 2e designate this constant l5 , t2o ordinary differential
e?uations result
d5 M
V l5 M P 6
5d8
and
d5 E
U l5 E P 6
5dy
These differential e?uations may "e integrated, yielding
M P + cos l8 V - sin l8
and
E P ely V DeUly
+ccording to e?uation A39=56B, the temperature distri"ution is deFned "y the relation
TA8, yB P ME P A+ cos l8 V - sin l8BAely V DeUly B
A39=5@B
A39=5>B
A39=55B
2here +, -, , and D are constants to "e e(aluated from the four "oundary conditions.
The condition that T P 6 at 8 P 6 re?uires that + P 6C &imilarly, sin l8 must "e <ero at
8 P $T accordingly, l$ must "e an integral multiple of p or l P npD$C E?uation A39=5@B is
no2 reduced to
np8
npyD$UnpyD$TA8, yB P - sinV DeeA39=55B
$
The re?uirement that T P 6 at y P 3 stipulates that must "e <ero. + com"ination of -
and D into the single constant E reduces e?uation A39=55B to
np8
UnpyD$
sinTA8, yB P Ee
$
This e8pression satisFes the differential e?uation for any integer n greater than or e?ual to
<ero. The general solution is o"tained "y summing all possi"le solutions, gi(ing
np8
3
UnpyD$
A39=5;BT P c En esin
$nP3
The last "oundary condition, T P T3 at y P 6T is used to e(aluate En according to the
e8pression
np8
3
T3 P c En sinfor 6 8 $
$nP3
The constants En are the Fourier coefFcients for such an e8pansion and are gi(en "y
En P
and
En P 6
TN6 TN6
@T3
np
for n P 3, >, 5, . . .
for n P 5, @, ;, . . .
The solution to this t2o=dimensional conduction pro"lem is
TP
@T3 3 e\UA5nV3Bpy^D$A5n V 3Bp8
csin
$p nP65n V 3
A39=59B
T N T3
Figure 39.3> *sotherms
and energy Jo2 lines for
the rectangular plate in
Figure 39.35.
The isotherms and energy flo2 lines are plotted in Figure 39.3>. The isotherms are sho2n
in the figure as solid lines, and the dotted lines, 2hich are orthogonal to the isotherms, are
energy=flo2 lines. /ote the similarity to the lines of constant (elocity potential and
stream function as discussed in momentum transfer.
The separation of (aria"les method can "e e8tended to three=dimensional cases "y
assuming T to "e e?ual to the product MA8BEAyBfA<B and su"stituting this e8pression for T
into the applica"le differential e?uation. When the (aria"les are separated, three second=
order ordinary differential e?uations are o"tained, 2hich may "e integrated su"Iect to the
gi(en "oundary conditions.
+nalytical solutions are useful 2hen they can "e o"tained. There are, ho2e(er, practical
pro"lems 2ith complicated geometry and "oundary conditions, 2hich cannot "e sol(ed
analytically. +s an alternati(e approach, one must turn to numerical methods.
&hape Factors for ommon onFgurations
The shape factor, &, is deFned and discussed "rieJy in hapter 35. When a geometric case
of interest in(ol(es conduction "et2een a source and a sin!, "oth 2ith isothermal
"oundaries, a !no2ledge of the shape factor ma!es the determination of heat Jo2 a
simple calculation.
Ta"le 39.3 lists e8pressions for shape factors of F(e conFgurations. *n e(ery case
depicted, it is presumed that the heat transfer pro"lem is t2o dimensional, that is, the
dimension normal to the plane sho2n in (ery large.
/umerical &olutions
Each of the solution techni?ues discussed thus far for multidimensional conduction has
considera"le utility 2hen conditions permit its use. +nalytical solutions re?uire
relati(ely simple functions and geometriesT the use of shape factors re?uires isothermal
"oundaries. When the situation of interest "ecomes sufFciently comple8 or 2hen
39.@
Ta"le 39.3 onduction shape factors.
&hape
Ti
ri
r"
T"
T2o= and Three=Dimensional &ystems 5@>
&hape factor, &
?D$ P !&ATi U To B
5p
lnAro Dri B
oncentric circular cylinders
ri
Ti
e
r"
T"
Eccentric circular cylinders
T"
Ti
r"
ri
5p
55
U3 3 V r U e
cosh
5r
r ri Dro T e eDro
5p
lnAro Dri B U 6C36;;:
ircular cylinder in a he8agonal cylinder
Ti
r"
T"
ri
5p
lnAro Dri B U 6C5969:
ircular cylinder in a s?uare cylinder
T"
r Ti
r
5p
coshU3 ArDrB
*nFnite cylinder "uried in semi=inFnite medium
"oundary conditions preclude the use of
simple solution techni?ues, one must turn
to numerical solutions.
With the presence of digital computers
to accomplish the large num"er of manip=
ulations inherent in numerical solutions
rapidly and accurately, this approach is
no2 (ery common. *n this section 2e shall
introduce the concepts of numerical pro"lem
formulation and solution. + more complete
and detailed discussion of numerical solu=
tions to heat conduction pro"lems may "e
found in arnahan et al.9 and in Welty.7
&ho2n in Figure 39.3@ is a t2o=
dimensional representation of an element
2ithin a conducting medium. The element
9
7
i, I i 3
8
i O 3, I
y
i, I i i 3, I
i, I O 3
Figure 39.3@ T2o=dimensional (olume
element in a conducting medium.
-. arnahan, H. +. $uther, and J. %. Wil!es, +pplied /umerical Methods, Wiley, /e2 Eor!, 3:;:.
J. R. Welty, Engineering Heat Transfer, Wiley, /e2 Eor!, 3:9@.
5@@ hapter 39 &teady=&tate onduction
or GGnodeHH i, I is centered in the Fgure along 2ith its adIacent nodes. The designation, i, I,
implies a general location in a t2o=dimensional system 2here i is a general inde8 in the 8
direction and I is the y inde8. +dIacent node indices are sho2n in Figure 39.3@. The grid is set
up 2ith constant node 2idth, D8T and constant height, DyC *t may "e con(enient to ma!e the
grid GGs?uare,HH that is, D8 P DyT "ut for no2 2e 2ill allo2 these dimensions to "e different.
+ direct application of e?uation A;=36B to node i, I yields
fff
d. Y
Per d1A39=57B
dtYtcC(C
The heat input term, d.Ddt, may "e e(aluated allo2ing for conduction into node i, I from the
adIacent nodes and "y energy generation 2ithin the medium. E(aluating d.Ddt in this
manner, 2e o"tain
d.DyDy
P ! ATiU3, I U Ti, I B V ! ATiV3, I U Ti, I B
dtD8D8
D8D8
hW39=5:XV ! ATi,IU3 U Ti, I B V ! ATi, IV3 U Ti, I B V ? D8 Dy
DyDy
The Frst t2o terms in this e8pression relate conduction in the 8 direction, the third and fourth
e8press y=directional conduction, and the last is the generation term. +ll of these terms are
positi(eT heat transfer is assumed positi(e.
The rate of energy increase 2ithin node i, I may "e 2ritten simply as
Qfff
rcTItVDt U rcTItY
er d1 PD8 DyA39=;6B
YtDtcC(C
E?uation A39=57B indicates that the e8pressions gi(en "y e?uations A39=5:B and A39=;6B
may "e e?uated. &etting these e8pressions e?ual to each other and simplifying, 2e ha(e
DyD8
! \TiU3, I V TiV3, I U 5Ti, I ^ V ! \Ti, IU3 V Ti, IV3 U 5Ti, I ^
D8Dy
Q
rcTi, I ItVDt U rcTi, I It
hV ? D8 Dy PD8 DyW39=;3X
Dt
This e8pression has "een considered in a more complete form in the ne8t chapter. For the
present 2e 2ill not consider time=(ariant termsT moreo(er, 2e 2ill consider the nodes to
"e s?uare, that is, D8 P DyC With these simplifications e?uation A39=;3B "ecomes
hTiU3, I V TiV3, I V Ti, IU3 V
Ti, IV3 U @Ti, I V ?
D85
P6
!
A39=;5B
*n the a"sence of internal generation, e?uation, A39=;5B may "e sol(ed for TiI to yield
TiU3, I V TiV3, I V Ti, IU3 V Ti, IV3
A39=;>BTi, I P
@
or, the temperature of node i, I is the arithmetic mean of the temperatures of its adIacent
nodes. + simple e8ample sho2ing the use of e?uation A39=;>B in sol(ing a t2o=dimensional
heat conduction pro"lem follo2s.
EM+M,$E @ + hollo2 s?uare duct of the conFguration sho2n AleftB has its surfaces maintained at 566
and 366 0, respecti(ely. Determine the steady=state heat transfer rate "et2een the hot and
cold surfaces of this duct. The 2all material has a thermal conducti(ity of 3C53 WDm[0C
We may ta!e ad(antage of the eightfold symmetry of this Fgure to lay out the simple
s?uare grid sho2n "elo2 ArightB.
39.@ T2o= and Three=Dimensional &ystems 5@5
>m
566
3
366
566
3m
3m >m
3d 5d >
5
366
366
366
The grid chosen is s?uare 2ith D8 P Dy P 3D5mC Three interior node points are thus identiFedT
their temperatures may "e determined "y proper application of e?uation A39=;>B. Writing the proper
e8pressions for T3, T5, and T> using e?uation A39=;7B as a guide, 2e ha(e
566 V 366 V 5T5
@
566 V 366 V T3 V T>
T5 P
@
366 V 366 V 5T5
T> P
@
This set of three e?uations and three un!no2ns may "e sol(ed ?uite easily to yield the follo2ingC
T3 P 3@5C7> 0, T5 P 3@3C;9 0, T> P 356C7> 0C
The temperatures Iust o"tained may no2 "e used to Fnd heat transfer. *mplicit in the procedure
of laying out a grid of the sort, 2e ha(e speciFed is the assumption that heat Jo2s in the 8 and y
directions "et2een nodes. %n this "asis heat transfer occurs from the hot surface to the interior only to
nodes 3 and 5T heat transfer occurs to the cooler surface from nodes 3, 5, and >. We should also recall
that the section of duct that has "een analy<ed is one=eighth of the total thus, of the heat transfer to and
from node 3, only one half should "e properly considered as part of the element analy<ed.
We no2 sol(e for the heat transfer rate from the hotter surface, and 2rite
T3 P
?P
!A566 U T3 B
V !A566 U T5 B
5
Q
566 U 3@5C7>
V A566 U 3@3C;9BP!
5
P 75C@35! A? in WDm, ! in WDm[0B
+ similar accounting for the heat Jo2 from nodes 3, 5, and > to the cooler surface is 2ritten as
?P
!AT3 U 366B
V !AT5 U 366B V !AT> U 366B
5
Q
3@5C7> U 366
V A3@3C;9 U 366B V A356C7> U 366BP!
5
P 75C@35! A? in WDm, ! in WDm[0B
%"ser(e that these t2o different means of sol(ing for ? yield identical results. This is o"(iously a
re?uirement of the analysis and ser(es as a chec! on the formulation and numerical 2or!.
The e8ample may no2 "e concluded. The total heat transfer per meter of duct is calculated as
? P 7A7C@35 0BA3C53 WDm[0B
P 75;C7 WDm
5@; hapter 39 &teady=&tate onduction
E8ample @ has illustrated, in simple fashion, the numerical approach to sol(ing
t2o=dimensional steady=state conduction pro"lems. *t is apparent that any added comple8=
ity in the form of more in(ol(ed geometry, other types of "oundary conditions such as
con(ection, radiation, speciFed heat Ju8, among others, or simply a greater num"er of
interior nodes, 2ill render a pro"lem too comple8 for hand calculation. Techni?ues for
formulating such pro"lems and some solution techni?ues are descri"ed "y Welty.
*n this section, 2e ha(e considered techni?ues for sol(ing t2o= and three=dimensional
steady=state conduction pro"lems. Each of these approaches has certain re?uirements that
limit their use. The analytical solution is recommended for pro"lems of simple geometrical
shapes and simple "oundary conditions. /umerical techni?ues may "e used to sol(e
comple8 pro"lems in(ol(ing nonuniform "oundary conditions and (aria"le physical
properties.
39.5 $%&'RE
*n this chapter, 2e ha(e considered solutions to steady=state conduction pro"lems. The
deFning differential e?uations 2ere fre?uently esta"lished "y generating the e?uation
through the use of the control=(olume e8pression for the conser(ation of energy as 2ell as "y
using the general differential e?uation for energy transfer. *t is hoped that this approach 2ill
pro(ide the student 2ith an insight into the (arious terms contained in the general
differential e?uation and thus ena"le one to decide, for each solution, 2hich terms are
rele(ant.
%ne=dimensional systems 2ith and 2ithout internal generation of energy 2ere
considered.
,R%-$EM&
39.3 %ne=dimensional steady=state conduction, 2ith no internal
heat generation, occurs across a plane2all ha(ing a constant thermal
conducti(ity of >6 WDm[0C The material is >6 cm thic!. For each
case listed in the ta"le "elo2, determine the un!no2n ?uantities.
&ho2 a s!etch of the temperature distri"ution for each case.
39.5 The steady=state e8pression for heat conduction through a
plane 2all is ? P A!+D$BDT as gi(en "y e?uation A39=@B. For
steady=state heat conduction through a hollo2 cylinder, an
dTDd8
A0DmB
?8
AWDm5 B
U5666
>56 0
556 0
U>66
U566
2here + is the GGlog=meanHH area deFned as
+ P 5p
r o U ri
lnAro Dri B
ase
3
5
>
@
T3
>56 0
>66 0
T5
595 0
a. &ho2 that + as deFned a"o(e satisFes the e?uations for
steady=state radial heat transfer in a hollo2 cylindrical
element.
". *f the arithmetic mean area, pAro U ri B, is used rather than
the logarithmic mean, calculate the resulting percent error
for (alues of ro Dri of 3.5, >, and 5.
39.> E(aluate the appropriate GGmeanHH area for steady=state
heat conduction in a hollo2 sphere that satisFes an e?uation of
the form
?P
!+
DT
ro U ri
Repeat part A"B of ,ro"lem 39.5 for the spherical case.
e8pression similar to e?uation A39=@B is
?P
!+
DT
r o U ri
39.@ *t is desired to transport li?uid metal through a pipe
em"edded in a 2all at a point 2here the temperature is
;56 0. + 3.5=m=thic! 2all constructed of a material ha(ing a
thermal conducti(ity (arying 2ith temperature according to
,ro"lems
! P 6C669>A3 V 6C665@ TB, 2here T is in 0 and ! is in WDm[0,
has its inside surface maintained at :55 0. The outside surface is
e8posed to air at >66 0 2ith a con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefF=
cient of 5> WDm5 [0C Ho2 far from the hot surface should the
pipe "e locateda What is the heat Ju8 for the 2alla
39.5 The temperature at the inner and outer surfaces of a plane
2all of thic!ness $ are held at the constant (alues T6 and T$,
respecti(ely, 2here T6 _ T$ C The 2all material has a thermal
conducti(ity that (aries linearly according to ! P !6 A3 V "TB,
!6 and " "eing constants. +t 2hat point 2ill the actual temperature
proFle differ most from that 2hich 2ould e8ist in the case of
constant thermal conducti(itya
39.; &ol(e ,ro"lem 39.5 for the case of a hollo2 cylinder 2ith
"oundary conditions T P T6 at r P R6 and T P T$ at r P R6 V $C
39.9 + dou"le=pane insulated 2indo2 unit consists of t2o 3=
cm=thic! pieces of glass separated "y a 3.7=cm layer of air. The
unit measures @ m in 2idth and is > m 2ide. 'nder conditions
2here the e8treme outside temperature of the glass is at U36
and air, at 59 , is adIacent to the inside glass surface, 2ith
hi P 35 WDm5 [0 determine
a. the inside glass surface temperature.
". the rate of heat transfer through the 2indo2 unit.
The air gap "et2een glass panes may "e treated as a purely
conducti(e layer 2ith ! P 6C65;5 WDm[0C Thermal radiation is
to "e neglected.
39.7 + furnace 2all is to "e designed to transmit a ma8imum
heat Ju8 of 566 -tuDh ft5 of 2all area. The inside and outside 2all
temperatures are to "e 5666 and >667F, respecti(ely. Determine
the most economical arrangement of "ric!s measuring : "y @ 3D5
"y > in. if they are made from t2o materials, one 2ith a ! of
6.@@ -tuDh ft 7F and a ma8imum usa"le temperature of 35667F
and other 2ith a ! of 6.:@ -tuDh ft 7F and a ma8imum usa"le
temperature of 5566 7F. -ric!s made of each material cost the
same amount and may "e laid in any manner.
39.: + furnace 2all consisting of 6.55 m of Fre clay "ric!,
6.56 m of !aolin, and a 6.36=m outer layer of masonry "ric! is
e8posed to furnace gas at 3>96 0 2ith air at >66 0 adIacent to
the outside 2all. The inside and outside con(ecti(e heat transfer
coefFcients are 335 and 5> WDm5 [0, respecti(ely. Determine
the heat loss per s?uare foot of 2all and the temperature of the
outside 2all surface under these conditions.
39.36 #i(en the conditions of ,ro"lem 39.:, e8cept that the
outside temperature of the masonry "ric! cannot e8ceed >55 0,
"y ho2 much must the thic!ness of !aolin "e adIusted to satisfy
this re?uirementa
39.33 + heater composed of /ichrome 2ire 2ound "ac! and
forth and closely spaced is co(ered on "oth sides 2ith 3D7=in.
thic!ness of as"estos A! P 6C35 -tuDh ft FB and then 2ith a
3D =in. thic!ness of stainless steel A! P 36 -tuDh ft FBC *f the7
center temperature of this sand2ich construction is considered
constant at 36667F and the outside con(ecti(e heat=transfer
5@9
coefFcient is > -tuDh ft5 F, ho2 much energy must "e supplied
in WDft5 to the heatera What 2ill "e the outside temperature of
the stainless steela
39.35 Determine the percent in heat Ju8 if, in addition to the
conditions speciFed in ,ro"lem 39.7, there are t2o >D@=in.=
diameter steel "olts e8tending through the 2all per s?uare
foot of 2all area A! for steel P 55 -utDh ft FBC
39.3> + 5.5=cm=thic! sheet of plastic A! P 5C@5 WDm[0B is to
"e "onded to a 5=cm=thic! aluminum plate. The glue that 2ill
accomplish the "onding is to "e held at a temperature of >55 0 to
achie(e the "est adherence, and the heat to accomplish this
"onding is to "e pro(ided "y a radiant source. The con(ecti(e
heat=transfer coefFcient on the outside surfaces of "oth the
plastic and aluminum is 35 WDm5 [0, and the surrounding air
is at 5:5 0. What is the re?uired heat Ju8 if it is applied to the
surface of AaB the plastica A"B the aluminuma
39.3@ + composite 2all is to "e constructed of 3D@ in. of
stainless steel A! P 36 -tuDh ft FB, > in. of cor!"oard A! P
6C655 -tuDh ft FB, and 3D5 in. of plastic A! P 3C5 -tuDh ft FBC
Determine the thermal resistance of this 2all if it is "olted
together "y 3D5=in.=diameter "olts on ;=in. centers made of
a. stainless steelT
". aluminum A! P 356 -tuDh ft FBC
39.35 + cross section of a typical home ceiling is depicted
"elo2. #i(en the properties listed for the materials of construc=
tion, determine ho2 much heat is transferred through the insula=
tion and through the studs.
Toutside
ho
Tinside
hi
!fi"erglass
!plaster
!2ood
; cm >6 cm
P U36
P 56 WDm5 [0
P 55
P 36 WDm5 [0
P 6C6>5 WDm5 [0
P 6C73@ WDm5 [0
P 6C35 WDm5 [0
,ine studs
35 cm
5 cm
,laster
$oose fi"erglass
insulation
39.3; + copper "us "ar measuring 5 cm "y 36 cm "y 5.5 m
long is in a room in 2hich the air is maintained at >66 0. The
"us "ar is supported "y t2o plastic pedestals to 2hich it is
attached "y an adhesi(e. The pedestals are s?uare in cross
section, measuring 7 cm on a side. The pedestals are mounted
on a 2all 2hose temperature is >66 0. *f 3 !W of energy is
dissipated in the copper "ar, 2hat 2ill "e its e?uili"rium
39.53 opper 2ire ha(ing a diameter of >D3; in. is insulated
2ith a @=in. layer of material ha(ing a thermal conducti(ity of
6C3@ -tuDh ft FC The outer surface of the insulation is maintained
at 96 FC Ho2 much current may pass through the 2ire if the
insulation temperature is limited to a ma8imum of 356 Fa The
resisti(ity of copper is 3C95 ` 36U; ohm=cm.
39.55 What 2ould "e the result of ,ro"lem 39.53 if the Juid
surrounding the insulated 2ire 2as maintained at 96 F 2ith a
con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient "et2een the insulation and
the Juid of @ -tuDh ft5 Fa What 2ould "e the surface tempera=
ture of the insulation under these conditionsa
39.5> Wor! ,ro"lem 39.53 for the case of aluminum
rather than copper. The resisti(ity of aluminum is 5C7> `
36U; ohm=cm.
39.5@ + thin sla" of material is su"Iected to micro2a(e
radiation that causes (olumetric heating to (ary according to
temperaturea The con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient for all
surfaces may "e ta!en as 5> WDm5 [0C The thermal conducti(ity
of the plastic is 5C; WDm[0C /eglect thermal radiation.
35
cm
39.39 &ol(e ,ro"lem 39.3; if each plastic pedestal has a 3.:=cm
steel "olt running through the center.
39.37 + 5=in. schedule=@6 steel pipe carries saturated steam at
;6 psi through a la"oratory that is ;6 ft long. The pipe is insulated
2ith 3.5 in. of 75b magnesia that costs u6.95 per foot. Ho2 long
must the steam line "e in ser(ice to Iustify the insulation cost if
the heating cost for the steam is u6C;7 per 365 -tua The outside=
surface con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient may "e ta!en as
5 -tuDh ft5 FC
39.3: &aturated steam at @6 psia Jo2s at 5 fps through a
schedule=@6, 33D5=in. steel pipe. The con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcient "y condensing steam on the inside surface may "e
ta!en as 3566 -tuDh ft5 FC The surrounding air is at 76 F, and
the outside surface coefFcient is > -tuDft5 FC Determine the
follo2ingC
a. The heat loss per 36 ft of "are pipe.
". The heat loss per 36 ft of pipe insulated 2ith 5 in. of 75b
magnesia.
c. The mass of steam condensed in 36 ft of "are pipe.
39.56 + 36=!W heater using /ichrome 2ire is to "e
designed. The surface of the /ichrome is to "e limited to a
ma8imum temperature of 3;56 0. %ther design criteria for the
heater are
minimum con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcientC 756 WDm5 [0
minimum temperature of the surrounding medium AairBC >96 0
The resisti(ity of /ichrome is 336 m1=cm and the po2er to the
heater is a(aila"le at 35 1.
a. What si<e 2ire is re?uired if the heater is to "e in one piece
6.; m longa
". What length of 3@=gage 2ire is necessary to satisfy these
design criteriaa
c. Ho2 2ill the ans2ers to parts AaB and A"B change if
h P 3356 WDm5 [0a
hh?A8B P ?o \3 U A8D$B^
h2here ?o has a constant (alue of 376 !WDm> and the sla"
thic!ness, $, is 6.6; m. The thermal conducti(ity of the sla"
material is 6.; WDm [ 0.
The "oundary at 8 P $ is perfectly insulated, 2hile the sur=
face at 8 P 6 is maintained at a constant temperature of >56 0.
a. Determine an e8pression for TA8B in terms of MT $T !T
h?o , and To C
". Where, in the sla", 2ill the ma8imum temperature occura
c. What is the (alue of Tma8 a
39.55 Radioacti(e 2aste A! P 56 WDm[0B is stored in a cylind=
rical stainless steel A! P 35 WDm[0B container 2ith inner and
outer diameters of 3.6 and 3.5 m, respecti(ely. Thermal energy
is generated uniformly 2ithin the 2aste material at a (olumetric
rate of 5 ` 365 WDm> C The outer container surface is e8posed
to 2ater at 55 , 2ith a surface coefFcient of 3666 WDm5 [0C
The ends of the cylindrical assem"ly are insulated so that all
heat transfer occurs in the radial direction. For this situation
determine
a. the steady=state temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces
of the stainless steel.
". the steady=state temperature at the center of the 2aste
material.
39.5; + cylindrical nuclear fuel element is 36.3; cm long and
36.99 cm in diameter. The fuel generates heat uniformly at a rate
of 53C9 ` 36> !JDs[m> C The fuel is placed in an en(ironment
ha(ing a temperature of >;6 0 2ith a surface coefFcient of
@5@6 WDm5 [0. The fuel material has ! P >>C: WDm[0. For the
situation descri"ed e(aluate the follo2ing at steady stateC
a. The temperature proFle as a function of radial positionT
". The ma8imum fuel temperatureT
c. The surface temperature.
End effects may "e neglected.
,ro"lems
39.59 $i?uid nitrogen at 99 0 is stored in an insulated spherical
container that is (ented to the atmosphere. The container is made
of a thin=2alled material 2ith an outside diameter of 6.5 mT 55
mm of insulation A! P 6C665 WDm[0B co(ers its outside surface.
The latent heat of nitrogen is 566 !JD!gT its density, in the li?uid
phase, is 76@ !gDm>. For surroundings at 55 and 2ith a
con(ecti(e coefFcient of 37 WDm5 [0 at the outside surface of
the insulation, 2hat 2ill "e the rate of li?uid nitrogen "oil=offa
39.57 What additional thic!ness of insulation 2ill "e neces=
sary to reduce the "oil=off rate of li?uid nitrogen to one=half of
the rate corresponding to ,ro"lem 39.59a +ll (alues and dimen=
sions in ,ro"lem 39.59 apply.
39.5: + 3=in.=%D steel tu"e has its outside 2all surface
maintained at 556 F. *t is proposed to increase the rate of
heat transfer "y adding Fns of >D>5=in. thic!ness and >D@ in.
long to the outside tu"e surface. ompare the increase in heat
transfer achie(ed "y adding 35 longitudinal straight Fns or
circular Fns 2ith the same total surface area as the 35 long=
itudinal Fns. The surrounding air is at 76 F, and the con(ecti(e
heat=transfer coefFcient is ; -tuDh ft5 F.
39.>6 &ol(e ,ro"lem 39.5: if the con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcient is increased to ;6 -tuDh ft5 F "y forcing air past
the tu"e surface.
39.>3 + cylindrical rod > cm in diameter is partially inserted
into a furnace 2ith one end e8posed to the surrounding air, 2hich
is at >66 0. The temperatures measured at t2o points 9.; cm
apart are >:: and >;5 0, respecti(ely. *f the con(ecti(e heat=
transfer coefFcient is 39 WDm5 [0, determine the thermal con=
ducti(ity of the rod material.
39.>5 Heat is to "e transferred from 2ater to air through an
aluminum 2all. *t is proposed to add rectangular Fns 6.65 in.
thic! and >D@ in. long spaced 6.67 in. apart to the aluminum
surface to aid in transferring heat. The heat=transfer coefFcients
on the air and 2ater sides are > and 55 -tuDh ft5 F, respecti(ely.
E(aluate the percent increase in heat transfer if these Fns are
added to AaB the air side, A"B the 2ater side, AcB and "oth sides.
What conclusions may "e reached regarding this resulta
39.>> + semiconductor material 2ith ! P 5 WDm[0 and elec=
trical resisti(ity, r P 5 ` 36U5 1=m, is used to fa"ricate a
cylindrical rod @6 mm long 2ith a diameter of 36 mm. The
longitudinal surface of the rod is 2ell insulated and may "e
considered adia"atic 2hile the ends are maintained at tempera=
tures of 366 and 6 , respecti(ely. *f the rod carries a current of
36 amps, 2hat 2ill "e its midpoint temperaturea What 2ill "e the
rate of heat transfer through "oth endsa
39.>@ +n iron "ar used for a chimney support is e8posed to hot
gases at ;55 0 2ith the associated con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcient of 9@6 WDm5 [0. The "ar is attached to t2o opposing
chimney 2alls, 2hich are at @76 0. The "ar is 3.: cm in diameter
and @5 cm long. Determine the ma8imum temperature in the "ar.
39.>5 + copper rod 3D@ in. in diameter and > ft long runs
"et2een t2o "us "ars, 2hich are at ;6 F. The surrounding air is
3> cm
5@:
at ;6 F, and the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient is

-tuDh ft5 F. +ssuming the electrical resisti(ity of copper to
"e constant at 3C95 ` 36U; ohm=cm, determine the ma8imum
current the copper may carry if its temperature is to remain "elo2
356 F.
39.>; + 3> cm "y 3> cm steel angle 2ith the dimensions sho2n
is attached to a 2all 2ith a surface temperature of ;66 0. The
surrounding air is at >66 0, and the con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcient "et2een the angle surface and the air is @5 WDm5 [0.
a. ,lot the temperature proFle in the angle, assuming a neg=
ligi"le temperature drop through the side of the angle
attached to the 2all.
". Determine the heat loss from the sides of the angle proIect=
ing out from the 2all.
Thic!ness N 3.5: cm
39.>9 + steel *="eam 2ith a cross=sectional area as sho2n has
its lo2er and upper surfaces maintained at 966 and >96 0,
respecti(ely.
a. +ssuming a negligi"le temperature change through "oth
Janges, de(elop an e8pression for the temperature (ariation
in the 2e" as a function of the distance from the upper
Jange.
". ,lot the temperature proFle in the 2e" if the con(ecti(e heat=
transfer coefFcient "et2een the steel surface and the sur=
rounding air is 59 WDm5 [0. The air temperature is >66 0.
c. What is the net heat transfer at the upper and lo2er ends of
the 2e"a
y
6.9; cm
57 cm
39.>7 Repeat ,ro"lem 39.>9 for the case of an aluminum
"eam.
556 hapter 39 &teady=&tate onduction
is the ri" temperature a minimuma What is this minimum
(aluea
T N 3;6g
39.>: ircular Fns are employed around the cylinder of
a la2n mo2er engine to dissipate heat. The Fns are made
of aluminum, they are 6.> m thic!, and e8tend 5 cm from
"ase to tip. The outside diameter of the engine cylinder is
6.> m. Design operating conditions are T3 P >6 and h P
35 WDm5 [0C The ma8imum allo2a"le cylinder temperature is
>66 C
Estimate the amount of heat transfer from a single Fn.
Ho2 many Fns are re?uired to cool a >=!W engine, operating at
>6b thermal efFciency, if 56b of the total heat gi(en off is
transferred "y the Fnsa
39.@6 Heat from a Jat 2all is to "e enhanced "y adding straight
Fns, of constant thic!ness, made of stainless steel. The follo2ing
speciFcations applyC
h
T" A"aseB
T3 AairB
Fin "ase thic!nessT t
Fin lengthT $
P ;6 WDm5 0
P 356
P 56
P ; mm
P 56 mm
366 cm
T N 55g
7 mm
T N @66g
39.@@ Find the rate of heat transfer from a >=in.=%D pipe
placed eccentrically inside a ;=in.=*D cylinder 2ith the a8is of
the smaller pipe displaced 3 in. from the a8is of the large
cylinder. The space "et2een the cylindrical surfaces is Flled
2ith roc! 2ool A! P 6C65> -tuDh ft FB. The surface tempera=
tures at the inside and outside surfaces are @66 and 366 F,
respecti(ely.
39.@5 + cylindrical tunnel 2ith a diameter of 5 m is dug in
permafrost A! P U6C>@3 WDm5 [0B 2ith its a8is parallel to the
permafrost surface at the depth of 5.5 m.
Determine the rate of heat loss from the cylinder 2alls, at
576 0, to the permafrost surface at 556 0.
39.@; Determine the heat Jo2 per foot for the conFguration
sho2n, using the numerical procedure for a grid si<e of 3 3D5 ft.
The material has a thermal conducti(ity of 6C35 -tuDh ft FC The
inside and outside temperatures are at the uniform (alues of 566
and 6 FT respecti(ely.
: ft
Determine the Fn efFciency and heat loss per unit 2idth for the
Fnned surface.
39.@3 + 5=in.=%D stainless=steel tu"e has 3; longitudinal
Fns spaced around its outside surface as sho2n. The Fns are
3D3; in. thic! and e8tend 3 in. from the outside surface of the
tu"e.
a. *f the outside surface of the tu"e 2all is at 556 F, the
surrounding air is at 76 F, and the con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcient is 7 -tuDh ft5 F, determine the percent increase
in heat transfer for the Fnned pipe o(er that for the unFnned
pipe.
". Determine the same information as in part AaB for (alues of
h of 5, 5, 35, 56, and 366 -tuDh ft5 FC ,lot the percent
increase in ? (s. h. What conclusions can "e reached
concerning this plota
> ft
> ft
: ft
39.@9 Repeat the pre(ious pro"lem, using a grid si<e of
3 ft.
39.@5 Repeat ,ro"lem 39.@3 for the case of an aluminum pipe=
and=Fn arrangement.
39.@> Water Jo2s in the channels "et2een t2o aluminum
plates as sho2n in the s!etch. The ri"s that form the channels
are also made of aluminum and are 7 mm thic!. The effecti(e
surface coefFcient "et2een all surfaces and 2ater is
>66 WDm5 [0. For these conditions, ho2 much heat is trans=
ferred at each end of each ri"a Ho2 far from the lo2er plate
39.@7 + 5=in. standard=steel angle is attached to a 2all 2ith a
surface temperature of ;66 FC The angle supports a @.>95=in. "y
@.>95=in. section of "uilding "ring 2hose mean thermal con=
ducti(ity may "e ta!en as 6C>7 -tuDh ft FC The con(ecti(e heat=
transfer coefFcient "et2een all surfaces and the surrounding air
is 7 -tuDh ft5 FC The air temperature is 767F. 'sing numerical
methods, determine
a. the total heat loss to the surrounding airT
,ro"lems
". the location and (alue of the minimum temperature in the
"ric!.
5 in.
5 ft
553
is Flled 2ith po2dered 75b magnesia insulation, ho2 much
steam 2ill condense in a 56=ft length of pipea
5 in.
3 ft 5 ft
39.@:
pipe sho2n in the Fgure, 2hich may "e assumed to "e at the
steam temperature. The pipe is centered in the 5=ft=s?uare duct,
2hose surface is at 366 FC *f the space "et2een the pipe and duct
&aturated steam at @66 F is transported through the 3=ft
39.56 + >5.@=cm=%D pipe, 3@5 cm long, is "uried 2ith its
centerline 3.5 m "elo2 the surface of the ground. The ground
surface is at 576 0 and the mean thermal conducti(ity of the soil
is 6C;; WDm[0. *f the pipe surface is at >96 0, 2hat is the heat
loss per day from the pipea
hapter
37
'nsteady=&tate onduction
Transient processes, in 2hich the temperature at a gi(en point (aries 2ith time, 2ill
"e considered in this chapter. +s the transfer of energy is directly related to the
temperature gradient, these processes in(ol(e an unsteady=state Ju8 of energy.
Transient conduction processes are commonly encountered in engineering design.
These design pro"lems generally fall into t2o categoriesC the process that ultimately
reaches steady=state conditions, and the process that is operated a relati(ely short time
in a continually changing temperature en(ironment. E8amples of this second category
2ould include metal stoc! or ingots undergoing heat treatment, missile components
during reentry into EarthHs atmosphere, or the thermal response of a thin laminate "eing
"onded using a laser source.
*n this chapter, 2e shall consider pro"lems and their solutions that deal 2ith
unsteady=state heat transfer 2ithin systems "oth 2ith and 2ithout internal energy
sources.
37.3 +/+$ET*+$ &%$'T*%/&
The solution of an unsteady=state conduction pro"lem is, in general, more difFcult than that
for a steady=state pro"lem "ecause of the dependence of temperature on "oth time and
position. The solution is approached "y esta"lishing the deFning differential e?uation and
the "oundary conditions. *n addition, the initial temperature distri"ution in the conducting
medium must "e !no2n. -y Fnding the solution to the partial differential e?uation that
satisFes the initial and "oundary conditions, the (ariation in the temperature distri"ution
2ith time is esta"lished, and the Ju8 of energy at a speciFc time can then "e e(aluated.
*n heating or cooling a conducting medium, the rate of energy transfer is dependent
upon "oth the internal and surface resistances, the limiting cases "eing represented either "y
negligi"le internal resistance or "y negligi"le surface resistance. -oth of these cases 2ill "e
considered, as 2ell as the more general case in 2hich "oth resistances are important.
$umped ,arameter +nalysisK&ystems 2ith /egligi"le
*nternal Resistance
E?uation A3;=39B 2ill "e the starting point for transient conduction analysis. *t is repeated
"elo2 for reference.
hYT?
P a N5 T V
Ytrcp
A3;=39B
Recall that, in the deri(ation of this e8pression, thermal properties 2ere ta!en to "e
hindependent of position and timeT ho2e(er, the rate of
internal generation, ?, can (ary in "oth.
555
37.3 +nalytical &olutions 55>
*t is fre?uently the case that temperature 2ithin a medium (aries signiFcantly in fe2er
than all three space (aria"les. + circular cylinder, heated at one end 2ith a F8ed "oundary
condition, 2ill sho2 a temperature (ariation in the a8ial and radial directions as 2ell as time.
*f the cylinder has a length that is large compared to its diameter or, if it is composed of a
material 2ith high thermal conducti(ity, temperature 2ill (ary 2ith a8ial position and time
only. *f a metallic specimen, initially 2ith uniform temperature, is suddenly e8posed to
surroundings at a different temperature, it may "e that si<e, shape, and thermal conducti(ity
may com"ine in such a 2ay that the temperature 2ithin the material (aries 2ith time only,
that is, is not a signiFcant function of position. These
conditions are characteristic of a GGlumpedHH system,
2here the temperature of a "ody (aries only 2ith timeT
this case is the easiest of all to analy<e. -ecause of this
2e 2ill consider, as our Frst transient conduction case,
that of a completely lumped=parameter system.
&pherical
&ho2n in Figure 37.3, 2e ha(e a spherical metallicspecimen
specimen, initially at uniform temperature T6 after it
T
has "een immersed in a hot oil "ath at temperature T3
for a period of time t. *t is presumed that the temperature
TA6B N T6 AuniformBof the metallic sphere is uniform at any gi(en
time. +
TAtB N T
Frst=la2 analysis using e?uation A;=36B, applied to a
spherical control (olume coinciding 2ith the specimen Figure 37.3
in ?uestion 2ill reduce to
fff
d. Y
Per d1A37=3B
dtYtcC(C
The rate of heat addition to the control (olume, d.Ddt, is due to con(ection from the oil and is
2ritten as
d.
P h+AT3 U TBA37=5B
dtRRR
The rate of energy increase 2ithin the specimen, YDYtcC(C er d1, 2ith constant properties,
may "e e8pressed as
fff
YdT
A37=>Ber d1 P r1cp
YtdtcC(C
E?uating these e8pressions as indicated "y e?uation A37=3B 2e ha(e, 2ith slight
rearrangement
dT h+AT3 U TB
PA37=@B
dtr1cp
We may no2 o"tain a solution for the temperature (ariation 2ith time "y sol(ing e?uation
A37=@B su"Iect to the initial condition, TA6B P T6 , and o"tain
T U T3
P eUh+tDrcp 1
T6 U T3
A37=5B
The e8ponent is o"ser(ed to "e dimensionless. + rearrangement of terms in the e8ponent
may "e accomplished as follo2sC
5QQ
h+th1+ !h1D+at
Pt PA37=;B
rcp 1!+r1 5 c p!A1D+B5
Each of the "rac!eted terms in e?uation A37=;B is dimensionless. The ratio, 1D+, ha(ing
units of length, is also seen to "e a part of each of these ne2 parametric forms. The first of
55@ hapter 37 'nsteady=&tate onduction
the ne2 nondimensional parameters formed is the -iot modulus, a""re(iated -i
h1D+
A37=9B-i P
!
-y analogy 2ith the concepts of thermal resistance, discussed at length earlier, the -iot
modulus is seen to "e the ratio of A1D+BD!, the conducti(e AinternalB resistance to heat transfer, to
3Dh, the con(ecti(e Ae8ternalB resistance to heat transfer. The magnitude of -i thus has some
physical signiFcance in relating 2here the greater resistance to heat transfer occurs. + large
(alue of -i indicates that the conducti(e resistance controls, that is, there is more capacity for
heat to lea(e the surface "y con(ection than to reach it "y conduction. + small (alue for -i
represents the case 2here internal resistance is negligi"ly small and there is more capacity to
transfer heat "y conduction than there is "y con(ection. *n this latter case, the controlling heat
transfer phenomenon is con(ection, and temperature gradients 2ithin the medium are ?uite
small. +n e8tremely small internal temperature gradient is the "asic assumption in a lumped=
parameter analysis.
+ natural conclusion to the foregoing discussion is that the magnitude of the -iot
modulus is a reasona"le measure of the li!ely accuracy of a lumped=parameter analysis. +
commonly used rule of thum" is that the error inherent in a lumped=parameter analysis 2ill
"e less than 5b for a (alue of -i less than 6.3. The e(aluation of the -iot modulus should thus
"e the Frst thing done 2hen analy<ing an unsteady=state conduction situation.
The other "rac!eted term in e?uation A37=;B is the Fourier modulus, a""re(iated Fo,
2here
at
Fo PA37=7B
A1D+B5
The Fourier modulus is fre?uently used as a nondimensional time parameter.
The lumped=parameter solution for transient conduction may no2 "e 2ritten as
T U T3
P eU-iFoA37=:B
T6 U T3
E?uation A37=:B is portrayed graphically in Figure 37.5. The use of e?uation A37=:B is
illustrated in the follo2ing e8ample.
3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.3
6.67
6.6;
6.6@
6.65
6.63
6.667
6.66;
6.66@
6.665
6.663
6
3 5 >
-iFo
@ 5 ; 9
T O TT6 O T
Figure 37.5 Time=temperature
history of a "ody at initial
temperature, T6, e8posed to an
en(ironment at T3T lumped=
parameter case.
37.3
EM+M,$E 3
+nalytical &olutions 555
+ long copper 2ire, 6.;>5 cm in diameter, is e8posed to an air stream at a temperature, T3 , of >36 0.
+fter >6 s the a(erage temperature of the 2ire increased from 576 to 5:9 0. 'sing this information,
estimate the a(erage surface conductance, h.
*n order to determine if e?uation AB is (alid for this pro"lem, the (alue of -i must "e determined.
The -iot num"er is e8pressed as
pD5 $6C66;>5 m
h
h1D+
@pD$ P@-i PP
>7; WDm [ 0 >7; WDm [ 0!
P @C33 ` 36U; h
h
&etting -i P 6.3, 2hich is the limiting (alue of -i for a lumped=parameter analysis to "e (alid, and
sol(ing for h, 2e o"tain
h P 6C3D@C33 ` 36U; P 5@>66 WDm5 [ 0
We may conclude that a lumped=parameter solution is (alid if h ] 5@T >66 WDm5 [ 0, 2hich is a near
certainty.
,roceeding, 2e can apply e?uation AB to yield
hP
rc p 1 T6 U T3
ln
t+T U T3
A77:6 !gDm> BA>75 JD!g [ 0B
P
P 53 WDm [ 0
5
pD5 $
@pD$
ln
576 U >36
5:9 U >36
A>6 sB
This result is much less than the limiting (alue of h indicating that a lumped=parameter solution is
pro"a"ly (ery accurate.
Heating a -ody 'nder onditions of /egligi"le &urface Resistance. + second class of
time=dependent energy=transfer processes is encountered 2hen the surface resistance is
small relati(e to the o(erall resistance, that is, -i is B 6C3. For this limiting case, the
temperature of the surface, Ts is constant for all time, t _ 6, and its (alue is essentially e?ual
to the am"ient temperature, T3 .
To illustrate the analytical method of sol(ing this class of transient heat=conduction
pro"lems, consider a large Jat plate of uniform thic!ness $. The initial temperature
distri"ution through the plate 2ill "e assumed to "e an ar"itrary function of 8. The solution
for the temperature history must satisfy the Fourier Feld e?uation
YT
P aN5 T
Yt
For one=directional energy flo2
YTY5T
Pa 5
YtY8
2ith initial and "oundary conditions
T P T6 A8B
T P Ts
at t P 6
at 8 P 6
for 6 8
for t _ 6
$
A37=36B
A3;=37B
55; hapter 37 'nsteady=&tate onduction
and
T P Ts at 8 P $ for t _ 6
For con(enience, let E P AT U Ts BDAT6 U Ts B, 2here T6 is an ar"itrarily chosen reference
temperatureT the partial differential e?uation may "e re2ritten in terms of the ne2
temperature (aria"le as
YEY5E
Pa 5
YtY8
and the initial and "oundary conditions "ecome
E P E6 A8B at t P 6
E P6at 8 P 6
and
E P 6 at 8 P $ for t _ 6
for 6 8
for t _ 6
$
A37=33B
&ol(ing e?uation A37=33B "y the method of separation of (aria"les leads to product
solutions of the form
E P A3 cos l8 V 5 sin l8BeUal
5
t
The constants 3 and 5 and the parameter l are o"tained "y applying the initial and
"oundary conditions. The complete solution is
f $
np
5
5 3np
UAnpN5B Fo
E6 A8B sine8 d8E P c sin
$ nP3$$6
A37=35B
2here Fo P atDA$D5B5 . E?uation A37=35B points out the necessity for !no2ing the initial
temperature distri"ution in the conducting medium, E6 A8B, "efore the complete temperature
history may "e e(aluated. onsider the special case in 2hich the conducting "ody has a
uniform initial temperature, E6 A8B P E6 . With this temperature distri"ution, e?uation
A37=35B reduces to
np 5
T U Ts@ 3 3
A37=3>BPc sin8 eUWnpD5X Fo n P 3, >, 5, . . .
T6 U Ts p nP3 n$
The temperature history at the center of the infinite plane, as 2ell as the central
temperature history in other solids, is illustrated in Figure 37.>. The central temperature
history for the plane 2all, infinite cylinder, and sphere is presented in +ppendi8 F, in
GGHeissler charts.HH These charts co(er a much greater range in the Fourier modulus than
Figure 37.>.
The heat rate, ?, at any plane in the conducting medium may "e e(aluated "y
?8 P U!+
YT
Y8
A37=3@B
*n the case of the infinite flat plate 2ith an initial uniform temperature distri"ution of T6,
the heat rate at any time t is

np
35!+
ATs U T6 B c cos8 eUAnpD5B Fo n P 3, >, 5, . . .A37=35B?8 P @
$$nP3
37.3
3.6
+nalytical &olutions 559
83
6.3
AT O TsBDAT6 O
TsB
83
83
83
583
6.63
83
83
6.663
6.6
6.5 6.@ 6.;
atD853
6.7 3.6 3.5
Figure 37.> entral temperature history of (arious solids 2ith initial uniform temperature, T6,
and constant surface temperature, Ts AFrom ,. J. &chneider, onduction Heat Transfer, +ddison=
Wesley ,u"lishing o., *nc., Reading Mass., 3:55, p. 5@:. -y permission of the pu"lishers.B
*n the follo2ing e8ample, the use of the central temperature=history figure 2ill "e illustrated.
EM+M,$E 5 + concrete cylinder, 6.3 m in length and 6.3 m in diameter, is initially at room temperature, 5:5 0. *t
is suspended in a steam en(ironment 2here 2ater (apor at >9> 0 condenses on all surfaces 2ith an
effecti(e Flm coefFcient, h, of 7566 WDm5 [ 0. Determine the time re?uired for the center of this
stu""y cylinder to reach >36 0. *f the cylinder 2ere sufFciently long so that it could "e considered
inFnite, ho2 long 2ould it ta!ea
For the Frst case, the Fnite cylinder, the -iot num"er is e(aluated as
5
pD $
h
hA1D+BhAD$D@B@
-i PP P5
!!A$ V DD5BpD
! pD$ V
5
P
A7566 WDm5 [ 0BA6C3 mBA6C3 mBD@
3C53 WDm [ 0A6C3 V 6C3D5B m
P 339
557 hapter 37 'nsteady=&tate onduction
For this large (alue, Figure 37.> may "e used. The second line from the "ottom in this Fgure applies to
a cylinder 2ith height e?ual to diameter, as in this case. The ordinate is
T U Ts>36 U >9>
PP 6C997
T6 U Ts 5:5 U >9>
and the corresponding a"scissa (alue is appro8imately 6.33. The time re?uired may no2 "e
determined as
at
P 6C33
85
3
Thus,
t P 6C33
A6C65 mB5
P @;5 s
5C:5 ` 36U9 m5 Ds
P 9C9 min
*n the case of an inFnitely long cylinder, the fourth line from the "ottom applies. The -iot num"er in
this case is
5
pD $
D
h
h
hA1D+B@
-i PP @P
!ApD$B!!
A7566 WDm5 [ 0BA6C3 mBD@
P 39;P
3C53 WDm [ 0
2hich is e(en larger than the Fnite cylinder case. Figure 37.> 2ill again "e used. The ordinate (alue of
6.997 yields, for the a"scissa, a (alue of appro8imately 6.3>. The re?uired time, in this case, is
6C3>A6C65 mB5
P 5@; stP
5C:5 ` 36U9 m5 Ds
P :C3 min
Heating a -ody 2ith Finite &urface and *nternal Resistances. The most general cases
of transient heat=conduction processes in(ol(e signiFcant (alues of internal and surface
resistances. The solution for the temperature history 2ithout internal generation must
satisfy the Fourier Feld e?uation, 2hich may "e e8pressed for one=dimensional heat Jo2 "y
YTY5T
Pa 5
YtY8
A37=9B
+ case of considera"le practical interest is one in 2hich a "ody ha(ing a uniform tem=
perature is placed in a ne2 Juid en(ironment 2ith its surfaces suddenly and simultaneously
e8posed to the Juid at temperature T3. *n this case, the temperature history must satisfy the
initial, symmetry, and con(ecti(e "oundary conditions
T P T6
YT
P6
Y8
and
U
YT h
P AT U T3 B at the surface
Y8 !
at t P 6
at the centerline of the "ody
37.3 +nalytical &olutions 55:
%ne method of solution for this class of pro"lems in(ol(es separation of (aria"les, 2hich
results in product solutions as pre(iously encountered 2hen only the internal resistance 2as
in(ol(ed.
&olutions to this case of time=dependent energy=transfer processes ha(e "een o"tained
for many geometries. E8cellent treatises discussing these solutions ha(e "een 2ritten "y
arsla2 and Jaeger3 and "y *ngersoll, fo"el, and *ngersoll5. *f 2e reconsider the inFnite Jat
plate of thic!ness, 583, 2hen inserted into a medium at constant temperature, T3, "ut no2
include a constant surface conductance, h, the follo2ing solution is o"tained
3 sin d cos Ad 8D8 BT U T3nn3 Ud5 FoP5 ce n
dn V sin dn cos dnT6 U T3nP3 A37=3;B
2here dn is deFned "y the relation
dn tan dn P
h83
!
A37=39B
The temperature history for this relati(ely simple geometrical shape is a function of three
dimensionless ?uantitiesC atD85 , h83 D!, and the relati(e distance, 8D83.3
The comple8 nature of e?uation A37=39B has led to a num"er of graphical solutions for
the case of one=dimensional transient conduction. The resulting plots, 2ith dimensionless
temperature as a function of other dimensionless parameters as listed a"o(e, are discussed in
&ection 37.5.
Heat Transfer to a &emi=*nFnite Wall. +n
analytical solution to the one=dimensional
heat=conduction e?uation for the case of the
semi=inFnite 2all has some utility as a limit=
ing case in engineering computations. on=
sider the situation illustrated in Figure 37.@. +
large plane 2all initially at a constant tem=
perature T6 is su"Iected to a surface tempera=
ture Ts, 2here Ts _ T6. The differential
e?uation to "e sol(ed is
YTY5T
Pa 5
YtY8
A37=36B
Ts
T6
8
Figure 37.@ Temperature distri"ution in a
semi=inFnite 2all at time t.
and the initial and "oundary conditions are
T P T6 at t P 6 for all 8
T P Ts at 8 P 6 for all t
and
T Q T6 as 8 Q 3
for all t
The solution to this pro"lem may "e accomplished in a (ariety of 2ays, among 2hich are the
$aplace transformation and the Fourier transformation. We shall use an alternati(e
procedure, 2hich is less in(ol(ed mathematically. The (aria"les in e?uation A37=36B
H. &. arsla2 and J. . Jaeger, onduction of Heat in &olids, %8ford 'ni(ersity ,ress, 3:@9.
$. R. *ngersoll, %. J. fo"el, and +. . *ngersoll, Heat onduction AWith Engineering and #eological
+pplicationsB, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:@7.
5
3
5;6 hapter 37 'nsteady=&tate onduction
may "e e8pressed in dimensionless form "y analogy 2ith the pre(ious case. Thus, 2e may
2rite

T U T68 at
P f,
83 85T s U T63
Ho2e(er, in this pro"lem there is no Fnite characteristic dimension, 83, and thus AT U T 6 BDp
ATs p 6 B P f AatD85 B, or 2ith e?ual (alidity, AT U T6 BDATs U T6 B P f A8D atB. *f h PUT
8D5 at is selected as the independent (aria"le and the dependent (aria"le E P
AT U T6 BD ATs U T6 B is used, su"stitution into e?uation A37=36B yields the ordinary differ=
ential e?uation
d5 EDdh5 V 5h dEDdh P 6
2ith the transformed "oundary and initial conditions
E Q6
and
E P 3 at h P 6
The Frst condition a"o(e is the same as the initial condition T P T6 at t P 6, and the
"oundary condition T Q T6 as 8 Q 3. E?uation A37=37B may "e integrated once to yield
ln
or
5dE
P c5 eUh
dh
A37=37B
as h Q 3
dE
P c3 U h 5
dh
and integrated once more to yield
f
E P c> V c5
eUh dh
5
A37=3:B
The integral is related to a fre?uently encountered form, the error function, designated
GGerf,HH 2here
f f
55
erf f p e Uh dh
p 6
and erf A6B P 6, erf A3B P 3, + short ta"le of erf f is gi(en in +ppendi8 $. +pplying the
"oundary conditions to e?uation A37=3:B, 2e o"tain

8
E P 3 U erf p
5 at
or

T U T68
P 3 U erf p
Ts U T65 at

Ts U T8
P erf p
T s U T65 at
or
A37=56B
37.5 TemperatureOTime harts for &imple #eometric &hapes 5;3
This e?uation is e8tremely simple to use and ?uite (alua"le.
onsider a Fnite 2all of thic!ness $ su"Iect to the surface temperature Ts. 'ntil the
temperature change at 8 P $ e8ceeds some nominal amount, say AT U T6 BDATs U T6 B e?ual to
p
6.5b, the solution for the Fnite and inFnite 2alls 2ill "e thep The (alue of p
atBsame.$DA5
corresponding to a 6.5b change in AT U T6 BDATs U T6 B is $DA5 atB H 5, so for $DA5 atB _ 5,
e?uation A37=56B may "e used for Fnite geometry 2ith little or no error.
For the case of Fnite surface resistance, the solution to e?uation A37=36B for a semi=
inFnite 2all is
p Q
T3 U T8h8 h5 ath at8
V 5V p P erf p V e8pA37=53B3 U erf
T3 U T6!!!5 at5 at
This e?uation may "e used to determine the temperature distri"ution in finite "odies for
small times in the same manner as e?uation A37=56B. The surface temperature is
particularly easy to o"tain from the a"o(e e?uation, if 2e let 8 P 6, and the heat transfer
rate may "e determined from
?
P hATs U T3 B
+
37.5 TEM,ER+T'REOT*ME H+RT& F%R &*M,$E #E%METR* &H+,E&
For unsteady=state energy transfer in se(eral simple shapes 2ith certain restricti(e "oundary
conditions, the e?uations descri"ing temperature proFles ha(e "een sol(ed> and the results
ha(e "een presented in a 2ide (ariety of charts to facilitate their use. T2o forms of these
charts are a(aila"le in +ppendi8 F.
&olutions are presented in +ppendi8 F for the Jat plate, sphere, and long cylinder in
terms of four dimensionless ratiosC
E, unaccomplished temperature change P
M, relati(e time
n, relati(e position
m, relati(e resistance
T3 U T
T3 U T6
at
P 5
83
8
P
83
!
P
h83
and
2here 83 is the radius or semithic!ness of the conducting medium. These charts may "e used
to e(aluate temperature proFles for cases in(ol(ing transport of energy into or out of the
conducting medium if the follo2ing conditions are metC
AaB FourierHs Feld e?uation descri"es the processT i.e., constant thermal diffusi(ity and
no internal heat source.
A"B The conducting medium has a uniform initial temperature, T6.
AcB The temperature of the "oundary or the adIacent Juid is changed to a ne2 (alue,
T3 , for t Q 6.
>
E?uation A37=3;B pertains to a plane 2all of thic!ness, $, and "oundary conditions TA8, 6B P T6 and dTDd8A6, tB P 6.
For Jat plates 2here the transport ta!es place from only one of the faces, the relati(e
time, position, and resistance are e(aluated as if the thic!ness 2ere t2ice the true (alue.
+lthough the charts 2ere dra2n for one=dimensional transport, they may "e com"ined
to yield solutions for t2o= and three=dimensional pro"lems. The follo2ing is a summary of
these com"ined solutionsC
3. For transport in a rectangular "ar 2ith insulated ends
E"ar P Ea E"
A37=55B
2here Ea is e(aluated 2ith 2idth 83 P a, and E" is e(aluated 2ith thic!ness 83 P ".
5. For transport in a rectangular parallelepiped
Eparallelepiped P Ea E" Ec
A37=5>B
2here Ea is e(aluated 2ith 2idth 83 P a, E" is e(aluated 2ith thic!ness 83 P ",
and Ec is e(aluated 2ith depth 83 P c.
>. For transport in a cylinder, including "oth ends
E cylinder P Ecylinder Ea
plus ends
A37=5@B
2here Ea is e(aluated "y using the flat=plate chart, and thic!ness 83 P a.
The use of temperatureOtime charts is demonstrated in the follo2ing e8amples.
EM+M,$E > + Jat 2all of Fre=clay "ric!, 6.5 m thic! and originally at 566 0, has one of its faces suddenly e8posed
to a hot gas at 3566 0. *f the heat=transfer coefFcient on the hot side is 9C>7 WDm5 [ 0 and the other face
of the 2all is insulated so that no heat passes out of that face, determine AaB the time necessary to raise
the center of the 2all to ;66 0T A"B the temperature of the insulated 2all face at the time e(aluated in AaB.
From the ta"le of physical properties gi(en in +ppendi8 H, the follo2ing (alues are listedC
! P 3C355 WDm [ 0
c p P :3: JD!g [ 0
r P 5>36 !gDm>
and
a P 5C>6 ` 36U9 m5 Ds
The insulated face limits the energy transfer into the conducting medium to only one direction. This
is e?ui(alent to heat transfer from a 3=m=thic! 2all, 2here 8 is then measured from the line of
symmetry, the insulated face. The relati(e position, 8D83, is 3D5. The relati(e resistance, !Dh83, is
3.355DwA9.>7BA6.5Bx or 6.>65. The dimensionless temperature, E P AT3 U TBDAT3 U T6 B, is e?ual to
A3566 U ;66BDA3566 U 566B, or 6.;. From Figure F.9, in +ppendi8 F, the a"scissa, atD85 , is 6.>5 under3
these conditions. The time re?uired to raise the centerline to ;667F is
6C>5856C>5A6C5B53P 3C;53 ` 365 stPP
U9
a5C>6 ` 36
or @5C: h
The relati(e resistance and the relati(e time for A"B 2ill "e the same as in part AaB. The relati(e
position, 8D83, 2ill "e 6. 'sing these (alues and Figure F.3 in +ppendi8 F, 2e Fnd the dimensionless
temperature, E, to "e 6.9@. 'sing this (alue, the desired temperature can "e e(aluated "y
Ts U T3566 U T
PP 6C9@
Ts U T6 3566 U 566
or
T P @;6 0
A>;7 FB
37.>
EM+M,$E @
/umerical Methods for Transient onduction +nalysis 5;>
+ "illet of steel >6.5 cm in diameter, ;3 cm long, initially at ;@5 0, is immersed in an oil "ath that is
maintained at >36 0. if the surface conductance is >@ WDm5 [ 0 determine the center temperature of
the "illet after 3 h.
From +ppendi8 H, the follo2ing a(erage physical properties 2ill "e usedC
! P @:C5 WDm [ 0
c p P @9> JD!g [ 0
r P 9756 !gDm>
a P 3C3; ` 36U5 m5 Ds
E?uation A37=55B applies. To e(aluate Ea the follo2ing dimensionless parameters apply
at A3C3; ` 36U5 m5 DsBA>;66 sB
MP 5PP 6C@@:
83A6C>65 mB5
n P 8D83 P 6
m P !Dh83 P
@5C: WDm [ 0
P @C3@
A>@ WDm5 [ 0BA6C>65 mB
'sing these (alues 2ith Figure F.9 in +ppendi8 F, the corresponding (alues of dimensionless
temperature, Ea, is appro8imately 6.:5.
For the cylindrical surface the appropriate (alues are
at A3C3; ` 36U5 m5 DsBA>;66 sB
MP 5P
83A6C3555 mB5
P 3C76
nP
8
P6
83
m P !Dh83 P @5C:DA>@BA6C3555B P 7C59
and, from Figure F.7 in +ppendi8 F, 2e o"tain
E$

T U T3
^ 6C9P
T6 U T3 cyl
/o2, for heat transfer across the cylindrical surface and "oth ends
T$ U T3
EItotal PP Ea E$ P A6C:5BA6C9B P 6C;;5
T6 U T3
The desired center temperature is no2 calculated as
T$ P T3 V 6C;;5AT6 U T3 B
P >36 0 V 6C;;5A;@5 U >36B 0
P 5>> 0A@:: FB
37.> /'MER*+$ METH%D& F%R TR+/&*E/T %/D'T*%/ +/+$E&*&
*n many time=dependent or unsteady=state conduction processes, actual initial andDor
"oundary conditions do not correspond to those mentioned earlier 2ith regard to analytical
solutions. +n initial temperature distri"ution may "e nonuniform in natureT am"ient
temperature, surface conductance, or system geometry may "e (aria"le or ?uite irregular.
For such comple8 cases, numerical techni?ues offer the "est means to achie(e solutions.
5;@ hapter 37 'nsteady=&tate onduction
More recently, 2ith sophisticated computing codes a(aila"le, numerical solutions are "eing
o"tained for heat transfer pro"lems of all types, and this trend 2ill dou"tlessly continue. *t is
li!ely that many users of this "oo! 2ill "e in(ol(ed in code de(elopment for such analysis.
&ome numerical 2or! is introduced in hapter 39, dealing 2ith t2o=dimensional,
steady=state conduction. *n this section, 2e 2ill consider (ariation in time as 2ell as
position.
To "egin our discussion, the reader is referred to e?uation A39=;3B and the de(elopment
leading up to it. For the case of no internal generation of energy, e?uation A39=;3B reduces
to
!
DyD8
ATiU3, I V TiV3, I U 5Ti, I B V !ATi, IU3 V Ti, IV3 U 5Ti, I B
D8Dy

rc p Ti, I ItVDt U rc p Ti, I It
D8 DyP
Dt
A37=55B
This e8pression applies to t2o dimensionsT ho2e(er, it can "e e8tended easily to three
dimensions.
The time=dependent term on the right of e?uation A37=55B is 2ritten such that the
temperature at node i, I is presumed !no2n at time tT this e?uation can then "e sol(ed to Fnd
TiI at the end of time inter(al Dt. +s Ti IItVDt appears only once in this e?uation, it can "e
e(aluated ?uite easily. This means of e(aluating TiI at the end of a time increment is
designated an GGe8plicitHH techni?ue. + more thorough discussion of e8plicit solutions is
gi(en "y arnahan.@
E?uation A37=55B may "e sol(ed to e(aluate the temperature at node i, I for all (alues of
i, I that comprise the region of interest. For large num"ers of nodes, it is clear that a great
num"er of calculations are needed and that much information must "e stored for use in
su"se?uent computation. Digital computers o"(iously pro(ide the only feasi"le 2ay to
accomplish solutions.
We 2ill ne8t consider the one=dimensional form of e?uation A37=55B. For a space
increment D8, the simpliFed e8pression "ecomes

rc p Ti ItVDt U rc p Ti It!
D8A37=5;B
ATiU3 It V TiV3 It U 5Ti It B P
DtD8
2here the I notation has "een dropped. The a"sence of (ariation in the y direction allo2s
se(eral terms to "e deleted. We ne8t consider properties to "e constant and represent the
ratio !Nrc p as a. &ol(ing for Ti ItVDt , 2e o"tain
Q
a Dt5a Dt
ATiV3 It V TiU3 It B V 3 U
A37=59BTi ItTi ItVDt P
AD8B5WD8X5
The ratio, a DtDAD8B5 , a form resem"ling the Fourier modulus, is seen to arise naturally in
this de(elopment. This grouping relates the time step, Dt, to the space increment, D8. The
magnitude of this grouping 2ill, ?uite o"(iously, ha(e an effect on the solution. *t has
"een determined that e?uation A37=59B is numerically GGsta"leHH 2hen
a Dt3
A37=57B
55AD8B
For a discussion of numerical sta"ility the reader is referred to arnahan et al.@
@
-. arnahan, H. +. $uther, and J. %. Wil!es, +pplied /umerical Methods, Wiley, /e2 Eor!, 3:;:.
37.> /umerical Methods for Transient onduction +nalysis 5;5
The choice of a time step in(ol(es a trade=off "et2een solution accuracy=a smaller time
step 2ill produce greater accuracy, and computation time=a solution 2ill "e achie(ed more
rapidly for larger (alues of Dt. When computing is done "y machine, a small time step 2ill
li!ely "e used 2ithout maIor difFculty.
+n e8amination of e?uation A37=59B indicates considera"le simpliFcation to "e
achie(ed if the e?uality in e?uation A37=57B is used. For the case 2ith a DtDAD85 B P 3D5,
e?uation A37=59B "ecomes
TiItVDt P
TiV3It V TiU3It
5 A37=5:B
EM+M,$E 5
+ "ric! 2all Aa P @C95 ` 36U9 m5 DsB 2ith a thic!ness of 6.5 m is initially at a uniform temperature of
>66 0. Determine the length of time re?uired for its center temperature to reach @55 0 if its surfaces
are raised to, and maintained at @55 and ;66 0, respecti(ely.
+lthough relati(ely simple, this one=dimensional pro"lem is not amena"le to a solution using
the charts "ecause there is no a8is of symmetry. Either analytical or numerical methods must
therefore "e employed.
+n analytical solution using $aplace transform or separation=of=(aria"les methodology is
relati(ely straightfor2ard. Ho2e(er, the solution is in terms of inFnite series in(ol(ing eigen(alues
and the determination of a Fnal ans2er is cum"ersome. The simplest approach is thus numerical and
2e 2ill proceed 2ith the ideas introduced in this section.
The illustration "elo2 depicts the 2all di(ided into 36 increments. Each of the nodes 2ithin the
2all is at the center of a su"(olume, ha(ing a 2idth, D8. The shaded su"(olume at node @ is
considered to ha(e uniform properties a(eraged at its center, i.e., the location of node @. This same
idea pre(ails for all 33 nodesT this includes the surface nodes, 6 and 36.
R8
6 3 5 > @ 5 ; 9 7 : 36
+n energy "alance for any internal node, ha(ing 2idth D8, 2ill yield e?uation A37=59B as a
result. This relationship includes the dimensionless ratio, aDtDD85 , 2hich relates the time increment,
Dt, to the space increment D8. *n this e8ample 2e ha(e speciFed D8 P 6.65 m.
The ?uantity, aDtDD85 , can ha(e any (alue e?ual to or less than 6.5, 2hich is the limit for a sta"le
solution. *f the limiting (alue is chosen, e?uation A37=59B reduces to a simple algorithmic form
Ti,tV3 P
TiU3,t V TiV3,t
5 A37=5:B
This e8pression is (alid for i P 3 to :T ho2e(er, as nodes 6 and 36 are at constant temperature for all
time, the algorithms for nodes 3 and : can "e 2ritten as
T6,t V T5,t @55 V T5,t
P
55
A37=>6B
T7,t V T36,t T7,t V ;66
PT:,tV3 P
55
The pro"lem solution no2 proceeds as e?uations A37=5:B and A37=>6B and are sol(ed at
succeeding times to update nodal temperatures until the desired result, Ts P @55 0, is achie(ed.
T3,tV3
P
5;; hapter 37 'nsteady=&tate onduction
E?uations A37=5:B and A37=>6B are ?uite simple and easily programed to achie(e a solution. *n
this case, a spreadsheet approach could also "e used. The ta"le "elo2 summari<es the form of the
results for TiTt.
T6
tP6
.
.
.
t P 36
.
.
.
t P 56
.
.
.
t P 55
t P 5>
@55
T3
>66
T5
>66
T>
>66
T@
>66
T5
>66
T;
>66
T9
>66
T7
>66
T:
>66
T36
;66
@55 >:@.7 >95.3 >@:.@ >@9.: >@;.@ >;9.3 @65.9 @;;.3 55;.@ ;66
@55 @33.@ @6>.> >:5.> @65.> @6:.@ @>;.5 @;>.3 56;.5 556.6 ;66
@55
@55
@3@.5
@3;.7
@67.5
@67.5
@65.7
@6:.7
@33.6
@33.6
@3:.>
@57.5
@@5.>
@@5.>
@93.@
@97.7
535.>
535.>
55>.>
55;.5
;66
;66
The desired center temperature is reached "et2een time increments 55 and 5>T an interpolated (alue
is n P 55.; time increments.
+s discussed earlier, the increment Dt is related to a and D8 according to the ratio
a Dt
P 3D5
D85
or
Dt P
3 D85 3A6C65 mB5
P
5 a5 @C95 ` 36U9 m5 Ds
P 5;@7 s
P 6C9>; h
The ans2er for total time elapsed is thus
t P 55C;A6C9>;B P 3;C; h
37.@ +/ */TE#R+$ METH%D F%R %/E=D*ME/&*%/+$
'/&TE+DE %/D'T*%/
L LThe (on 0arman momentum integral approach to the hydrodynamic "oundary layer has a
counterpart in conduction. Figure 37.5 sho2s a portion of a semi=inFnite 2all, originally at
uniform temperature T6, e8posed to a Juid at temperature T3 , 2ith the surface of the 2all at
any time at temperature Ts.
T
Ts
d
8
T6
$
Figure 37.5 + portion of a semi=inFnite
2all used in integral analysis.
37.@ +n *ntegral Method for %ne=Dimensional 'nsteady onduction 5;9
+t any time t, heat transfer from the Juid to the 2all affects the temperature proFle 2ithin
the 2all. The GGpenetration distance,HH designated as d, is the distance from the surface 2herein
this effect is manifested. +t distance d, the temperature gradient, YTDY8, is ta!en as <ero.
+pplying the Frst la2 of thermodynamics, e?uation A;=36B, to a control (olume e8tending
from 8 P 6 to 8 P $, 2here $ _ d, 2e ha(e
ff fff
d. dWs dWm,Y
UPUrA( [ nB d+ VeVer d1A;=36B
dtdtdtrYtcCsCcC(C
2ith
dWs dWm
PP
dtdt
ff
cCsC

,
rA( nB d+ P 6eV
r
The applica"le form of the Frst la2 is no2
fff
d. Y
Per d1
dtYtcC(C
onsidering all (aria"les to "e functions of 8 alone, 2e may e8press the heat Ju8 as
ff
?8d $d $
Pru d8 Prc p T d8A37=>5B
+ dt 6dt 6
The inter(al from 6 to $ 2ill no2 "e di(ided into t2o increments, gi(ing
?8d
P
+ dt
f
6
d
f
rc p T d8 V
d
$
Q
rcp T6 d8
and, since T6 is constant, this "ecomes
Qf d
?8d
Prc p T d8 V rc p T6 A$ U dB
+ dt 6
The integral e?uation to "e sol(ed is no2
f
?8d ddd
Prc p T d8 U rc p T6
+ dt 6dt
A37=>>B
*f a temperature proFle of the form T P TA8T dB is assumed, e?uation A37=>>B 2ill produce a
differential e?uation in dAtB, 2hich may "e sol(ed, and one may use this result to e8press the
temperature proFle as TA8, tB.
The solution of e?uation A37=>>B is su"Iect to three different "oundary conditions at the
2all, 8 P 6, in the sections to follo2.
ase 3. onstant 2all temperature
The 2all, initially at uniform temperature T6, has its surface maintained at temperature Ts for
t _ 6. The temperature proFle at t2o different times is illustrated in Figure 37.;. +ssuming
the temperature proFle to "e para"olic of the form
T P + V -8 V 85
and re?uiring that the follo2ing "oundary conditionsC
T P Ts
T P T6
at 8 P 6
at 8 P d
T
Ts
t5
t3
d At3B
d At5B
8
Figure 37.; Temperature
proFles at t2o times after the
surface temperature is raised to
Ts.
and
YT
P6
Y8
at 8 P d
"e satisFed, 2e see that the e8pression for TA8B "ecomes

T U T685
P 3U
dTs U T6
The heat flu8 at the 2all may no2 "e e(aluated as

?8YT !P U!P 5 ATs U T6 B

Y8 8P6d+
A37=>@B
A37=>5B
2hich may "e su"stituted into the integral e8pression along 2ith e?uation A37=>>B,
yielding
Qf

!d d85dd
5 ATs U T6 B Prc p T6 V ATs U T6 B 3 Ud8 U rc p T6
ddt 6ddt and, after di(iding through "y rcp, "oth ?uantities "eing considered constant, 2e ha(e
Qf

ad d85dd
A37=>;B5 ATs U T6 B PT6 V ATs U T6 B 3 Ud8 U T6
ddt 6ddt
+fter integration, e?uation A37=>;B "ecomes
5add
ATs U T6 B PATs U T6 B
ddt>
and cancelling ATs U T6 B, 2e o"tain
;a P d
and thus the penetration depth "ecomes
dP
dd
dt
A37=>9B
Q
p
35at
A37=>7B
The corresponding temperature profile may "e o"tained from e?uation A37=>@B as
Q5
T U T68
P 3 U p p A37=>:B
T s U T6>A5 atB
37.@
6.7
+n *ntegral Method for %ne=Dimensional 'nsteady onduction 5;:
6.;
AT O T6BDATs O
T6B
6.@
+ppro8imate
6.5
E8act
6
6
6.5 3.6
8D5 at
3.5 5.6 5.5
Figure 37.9 + comparison
of e8act and appro8imate
results for one=dimensional
conduction 2ith a constant
2all temperature.
2hich compares reasona"ly 2ell 2ith the e8act result
T U T68
P 3 U erf p
Ts U T65 at
Figure 37.9 sho2s a comparison of these t2o results.
ase 5. + speciFed heat Ju8 at the 2all
*n this case the appropriate "oundary conditions are
T P T6
YT
P6
Y8
at 8 P d
at 8 P d
A37=@6B
YTFAtB
PUat 8 P 6
Y8!
2here the heat Ju8 at the 2all is e8pressed as the general function FAtB.
*f the para"olic temperature proFle is used, the a"o(e "oundary conditions yield
\FAtBÂd U 8B5
5!d
2hich, 2hen su"stituted into e?uation A37=>7B, yields

d FAtBd5aFAtB
P
dt!;!
and
Q3D5p 3 f t
dAtB P ;aFAtB dt
FAtB 6
T U T6 P
For a constant heat flu8 of magnitude ?6D+ the resulting e8pression for Ts is
r
?6 >
atTs U T6 P
+! 5
2hich differs "y appro8imately 7b from the e8act e8pression
3C3>?6 p
Ts U T6 Pat
+!
A37=@3B
and
A37=@5B
A37=@>B
A37=@@B
A37=@5B
ase >. on(ection at the surface
The 2all temperature is a (aria"le in this caseT ho2e(er, it may "e easily determined. *f the
temperature (ariation 2ithin the medium is e8pressed generally as
8T U T6
PfA37=@;B
dTs U T6
2e note that the temperature gradient at the surface "ecomes

YT T s U T6
/PU
Y8 8P6d
2here / is a constant depending upon the form of fA8DdB.
+t the surface 2e may 2rite

?YT
P U! P hAT3 U Ts B
+ 8P6Y8 8P6
2hich "ecomes, upon su"stituting e?uation A37=@9B
Ts U T6 P
or
Ts P
We may no2 2rite
T s U T6hdD/!
P
T3 U T6 3 V hdD/!
and
T3 U Ts3
P
T3 U T6 3 V hdD/!
A37=53B
A37=56B
T6 V AhdD/!BT3
3 V hdD/!
A37=@:B
hd
AT3 U T6 B
/!
A37=@7B
A37=@9B
The appropriate su"stitutions into the integral e?uation and su"se?uent solution follo2
the same procedures as in cases AaB and A"BT the details of this solution are left as a student
e8ercise.
The student should recogni<e the mar!ed utility of the integral solution for sol(ing one=
dimensional unsteady=state conduction pro"lems. Temperature proFle e8pressions more
comple8 than a para"olic form may "e assumed. Ho2e(er, additional "oundary conditions
are needed in such cases to e(aluate the constants. The similarity "et2een the penetration depth
and the "oundary=layer thic!ness from the integral analysis of hapter 35 should also "e noted.
37.5 $%&'RE
*n this chapter, some of the techni?ues for sol(ing transient or unsteady=state heat=
conduction pro"lems ha(e "een presented and discussed. &ituations considered included
cases of negligi"le internal resistance, negligi"le surface resistance, and those for 2hich
"oth resistances 2ere signiFcant.
For Jat sla"s, cylinders, and spheres, 2ith a uniform initial temperature, 2hose surfaces
are suddenly e8posed to surroundings at a different temperature, charts are a(aila"le for
e(aluating the temperature at any position and time. /umerical and integral methods 2ere
also introduced.
,ro"lems 593
,R%-$EM&
37.3 + household iron has a stainless=steel sole plate that
2eights > l" and has a surface area of 6.5 ft5. The iron is rated
at 566 W. *f the surroundings are at a temperature of 767F, and the
con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient "et2een the sole plate and
surroundings is > -tuDh ft5 7F, ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for the iron to
reach 5@67F after it is plugged ina
37.5 +n electrical system employs fuses that are cylindrical in
shape and ha(e lengths of 6.5 cm and diameters of 6.3 mm. +ir, at
>67, surrounds a fuse 2ith a surface coefFcient of 36 WDm5 [ 0.
The fuse material melts at :667.
+ssuming all heat transfer to "e from the fuse surface,
estimate the time it 2ill ta!e for the fuse to "lo2 after a current of
> + Jo2s through it.
,ertinent properties of the fuse material are
Resistance P 6C5 1
! P 56 WDm [ 0
a P 5 ` 36U5 m5 Ds
37.> +luminum 2ire, ha(ing a diameter of 6.9:@ mm, is
immersed in an oil "ath that is at 557. +luminum 2ire of this
si<e has an electrical resistance of 6.6595 1Dm. For conditions
2here an electric current of 366 + is Jo2ing through the 2ire and
the surface coefFcient "et2een the 2ire and oil "ath is 556 WD
m5 [ 0, determine the steady state temperature of the 2ire.
Ho2 long, after the current is supplied, 2ill it ta!e for the
2ire to reach a temperature 2ithin 57 of its steady=state (aluea
37.@ *f a rectangular "loc! of ru""er Asee ,ro"lem 37.35 for
propertiesB is set out in air at 5:9 0 to cool after "eing heated to a
uniform temperature of @56 0, ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for the
ru""er surface to reach >56 0a The dimensions of the "loc! are
6.; m high "y 6.> m long "y 6.@5 m 2ide. The "loc! sits on one of
the 6.>=m "y 6.@5=m "asesT the adIacent surface may "e con=
sidered an insulator. The effecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient at all
e8posed surface is ;.6 WDm5 [ 0. What 2ill the ma8imum
temperature 2ithin the ru""er "loc! "e at this timea
37.5 ast=iron cannon"alls used in the War of 3735 2ere
occasionally heated for some e8tended time so that, 2hen Fred
at houses or ships, they 2ould set them aFre. *f one of these the so=
called GGhot shotHH 2ere at a uniform temperature of 56667F, ho2
long after "eing e8posed to air at 67F 2ith an outside con(ecti(e
heat=transfer coefFcient of 3; -utDh ft5 7F, 2ould "e re?uired for
the surface temperature to drop to ;667Fa What 2ould "e the
center temperature at this timea The "all diameter is ; in. The
follo2ing properties of cast iron may "e usedC
! P 5> -tuDh ft F
c p P 6C36 -tuDl"m F
r P @;6 l"m Dft> C
37.; *t is !no2n that oranges can "e e8posed to free<ing
temperatures for short periods of time 2ithout sustaining serious
damage. +s a representati(e case, consider a 6.36=m=diameter
orange, originally at a uniform temperature of 57, suddenly
e8posed to surrounding air at U57. For a surface coefFcient,
"et2een the air and orange surface, of 35 WDm5 [ 0, ho2 long
2ill it ta!e for the surface of the orange to reach 67a ,roperties
of the orange are the follo2ingC
r P :@6 !gDm>
! P 6C@9 WDm [ 0
c p P >C7 !JD!g [ 0C
37.9 + copper cylinder 2ith a diameter of > in. is initially at a
uniform temperature of 967F. Ho2 long after "eing placed in a
medium at 36667F 2ith an associated con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcient of @ -tuDh ft5 7F 2ill the temperature at the center of
the cylinder reach 5667F, if the height of the cylinder is AaB > in.a
A"B ; in.a AcB 35 in.a AdB 5@ in.a AeB 5 fta
37.7 + cylinder 5 ft high 2ith a diameter of > in. is initially at
the uniform temperature of 967F. Ho2 long after the cylinder is
placed in a medium at 36667F, 2ith associated con(ecti(e heat=
transfer coefFcient of @ -tuDh ft5 7F, 2ill the center temperature
reach 5667F if the cylinder is made from
a.
".
c.
d.
e.
f.
copper, ! P 535 -tuDh ft Fa
aluminum, ! P 3>6 -tuDh ft Fa
<inc, ! P ;6 -tuDh ft Fa
mild steel, ! P 55 -tuDh ft Fa
stainless steel, ! P 36C5 -tuDh ft Fa
as"estos, ! P 6C679 -tuDh ft Fa
37.: Water, initially at @67F, is contained 2ithin a thin=
2alled cylindrical (essel ha(ing a diameter of 37 in. ,lot
the temperature of the 2ater (s. time up to 3 h if the 2ater and
container are immersed in an oil "ath at a constant temperature
of >667F. +ssume that the 2ater is 2ell stirred and that the
con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient "et2een the oil and cylind=
rical surface is @6 -tuDh ft5 7F. The cylinder is immersed to a
depth of 5 ft.
37.36 + short aluminum cylinder 6.; m in diameter and 6.; m
long is initially at @95 0. *t is suddenly e8posed to a con(ecti(e
en(ironment at >@5 0 2ith h P 75 WDm5 [ 0. Determine the
temperature in the cylinder at a radial position of 36 cm and a
distance of 36 cm from one end of the cylinder after "eing
e8posed to this en(ironment for 3 h.
37.33 + type=>6@ stainless=steel "illet, ; in. in diameter, is
passing through a 56=ft=long heat=treating furnace. The initial
"illet temperature is 5667F, and it must "e raised to a minimum
temperature of 35667F "efore 2or!ing. The heat=transfer coefF=
cient "et2een the furnace gases and the "illet surface is 35 -tuDh
ft5 7F, and the furnace gases are at 5>667F. +t 2hat minimum
(elocity must the "illet tra(el through the furnace to satisfy these
conditionsa
37.35 *n the curing of ru""er tires, the GG(ulcani<ationHH
process re?uires that a tire carcass, originally at 5:5 0, "e
the o(en temperature is 3:67, 2ith a surface coefFcient of
35 WDm5 [ 0, 2hat is the minimum coo!ing time re?uireda
37.56 #i(en the cylinder in ,ro"lem 37.35, construct a plot of
the time for the midpoint temperature to reach 5>6 0 as a
function of HDD, 2here H and D are the height and diameter
of the cylinder, respecti(ely.
37.53 + roc!et=engine no<<le is coated 2ith a ceramic
material ha(ing the follo2ing propertiesC ! P 3C9> -tuDh ft F,
a P 6C>5 ft5 Dh. The con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient "et2een
the no<<le and the gases, 2hich are at >6667F, is 566 -tuDh ft5 7F.
Ho2 long after startup 2ill it ta!e for the temperature at the ceramic
surface to reach 59667Fa What 2ill "e the temperature at a point 3D5
in. from the surface at this timea The no<<le is initially at 67F.
37.55 %ne estimate of the original temperature of Earth is
96667F. 'sing this (alue and the follo2ing properties for EarthHs
crust, $ord 0el(in o"tained an estimate of :.7`369 years for the
EarthHs ageC
a P 6C6@5; ft5 Dh

YT
P 6C65 FDft, AmeasuredB

Yy yP6
omment on $ord 0el(inHs result "y considering the e8act
e8pression for unsteady=state conduction in one dimension
T U Ts8
P erf p^^^^^
T6 U Ts5 at
37.5> +fter a Fre starts in a room the 2alls are e8posed to
com"ustion products at :567. *f the interior 2all surface is
made of oa!, ho2 long after e8posure to the Fre 2ill the 2ood
surface reach its com"ustion temperature of @667a ,ertinent
data are the follo2ingC
h P >6 WDm5 [ 0
Ti AinitialB P 53
For oa!C
r P 5@5 !gDm>
! P 6C39 WDm [ 0
cp P 5C>75 !JD!g [ 0
37.5@ Determine an e8pression for the depth "elo2 the surface
of a semi=inFnite solid at 2hich the rate of cooling is ma8imum.
&u"stitute the information gi(en in ,ro"lem 37.55 to estimate
ho2 far "elo2 EarthHs surface this ma8imum cooling rate is
achie(ed.
37.55 &oil, ha(ing a thermal diffusi(ity of 5C3; ` 36U9 m5 Ds,
has its surface temperature suddenly raised and maintained at
3366 0 from its initial uniform (alue of 576 0. Determine the
temperature at a depth of 6.55 m after a period of 5 h has elapsed
at this surface condition.
37.5; The con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient "et2een a
large "ric! 2all and air at 3667F is e8pressed as h P 6C@@
T5 P 6 F
heated so that its central layer reaches a minimum tempera=
ture of @36 0. This heating is accomplished "y introducing steam
at @>5 0 to "oth sides. Determine the time re?uired, after
introducing steam, for a >=cm=thic! tire carcass to reach the
speciFed central temperature condition. ,roperties of ru""er
that may "e used are the follo2ingC ! P 6C353 WDm [ 0, cp P
566 JD!g [ 0, r P 3563 !gDm> , a P ;C3: ` 36U7 m5 Ds.
37.3> -uc!shot, 6.5 in. in diameter, is ?uenched in :67F oil
from an initial temperature of @667F. The "uc!shot is made of
lead and ta!es 35 s to fall from the oil surface to the "ottom of the
?uenching "ath. *f the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient
"et2een the lead and oil is @6 -tuDh ft5 7F, 2hat 2ill "e the
temperature of the shot as it reaches the "ottom of the "atha
37.3@ *t is common practice to treat 2ooden telephone poles
2ith tar=li!e materials to pre(ent damage "y 2ater and insects.
These tars are cured into the 2ood at ele(ated temperatures and
pressures.
onsider the case of a 6.>=m=diameter pole, originally at
557, placed in a pressuri<ed o(en. *t 2ill "e remo(ed 2hen the tar
has penetrated to a depth of 36 cm. *t is !no2n that a 36=cm depth
of penetration 2ill occur 2hen a temperature of 3667 is achie(ed.
For an o(en temperature of >767 and h P 3@6 WDm5 [ 0, deter=
mine the time re?uired for the pole to remain in the o(en.
,roperties of the 2ooden pole are
! P 6C56 WDm [ 0
a P 3C3 ` 36U9 m5 Ds
37.35 For an as"estos cylinder 2ith "oth height and diameter
of 3> cm initially at a uniform temperature of 5:5 0 placed in a
medium at 736 0 2ith an associated con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcient of 55.7 WDm5 [ 0, determine the time re?uired for the
center of the cylinder to reach 5>6 0 if end effects are neglected.
37.3; + copper "us "ar is initially at @667F. The "ar measures
6.5 ft "y 6.5 ft and is 36 ft long. *f the edges are suddenly all
reduced to 3667F, ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for the center to reach a
temperature of 5567Fa
37.39 Re2or! ,ro"lem 37.@ for the case 2hen air is "lo2n "y
the surfaces of the ru""er "loc! 2ith an effecti(e surface
coefFcient of 5>6 WDm5 [ 0.
37.37 onsider a hot dog to ha(e the follo2ing dimensions
and propertiesC diameter P 56 mm, c p P >C>5 !JD!g [ 0, r P
776 !gDm> , and ! P 6C5 WDm [ 0. For the hot dog initially at
57, e8posed to "oiling 2ater at 3667, 2ith a surface coefFcient
of :6 WDm5 [ 0, 2hat 2ill "e the coo!ing time if the re?uired
condition is for the center temperature to reach 767a
37.3: This pro"lem in(ol(es using heat transfer principles as a
guide for coo!ing a por! roast.
The roast is to "e modeled as a cylinder, ha(ing its length
and diameter e?ual to each other, 2ith properties "eing those of
2ater. The roast 2eights 5.55 !g.
,roperly coo!ed, e(ery portion of the meat should attain a
minimum temperature of :57. *f the meat is initially at 57 and
,ro"lems
AT U T3 B3D> -tuDh ft5 F. *f the 2all is initially at a uniform
temperature of 36667F, estimate the temperature of the surface
after 3, ;, and 5@ h.
37.59 + thic! 2all of oa!, initially at a uniform temperature of
557, is suddenly e8posed to com"ustion e8haust at 7667.
Determine the time of e8posure re?uired for the surface to reach
its ignition temperature of @667, 2hen the surface coefFcient
"et2een the 2all and com"ustion gas is 56 WDm5 [ 0.
37.57 +ir at ;57F is "lo2n against a pane of glass 3D7 in. thic!.
*f the glass is initially at >67F, and has frost on the outside,
estimate the length of time re?uired for the frost to "egin to melt.
37.5: Ho2 long 2ill a 3=ft=thic! concrete 2all su"Iect to a
surface temperature of 35667F on one side maintain the other
side "elo2 3>67Fa The 2all is initially at 967F.
37.>6 + stainless=steel "ar is initially at a temperature of 557.
*ts upper surface is suddenly e8posed to an air stream at 5667,
2ith a corresponding con(ecti(e coefFcient of 55 WDm5 [ 0. *f the
"ar is considered semi=inFnite, ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for the tempe=
rature at a distance of 56 mm from the surface to reach 3667a
37.>3 + thic! plate made of stainless steel is initially at a
uniform temperature of >667. The surface is suddenly e8posed
to a coolant at 567 2ith a con(ecti(e surface coefFcient of 336
WDm5 [ 0. E(aluate the temperature after > min of elapsed time at
a. the surfaceT
". a depth of 56 mm.
Wor! this pro"lem "oth analytically and numerically.
59>
37.>5 *f the heat Ju8 into a solid is gi(en as FAtB, sho2 that the
penetration depth d for a semi=inFnite solid is of the form
sR t43D5
p^^^ 6 FAtBdt
d P AconstantB a
FAtB
37.>> *f the temperature proFle through the ground is linear,
increasing from >57F at the surface "y 6.57F per foot of depth,
ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for a pipe "uried 36 ft "elo2 the surface to
reach >57F if the outside air temperature is suddenly dropped to
67F. The thermal diffusi(ity of soil may "e ta!en as 6.65 ft5Dh, its
thermal conducti(ity is 6.7 -tuDh ft 7F, and the con(ecti(e heat=
transfer coefFcient "et2een the soil and the surrounding air is
3.5 -tuDh ft5 7F.
37.>@ + "ric! 2all Aa P 6.63; ft5DhB 2ith a thic!ness of 3\ ft
is initially at a uniform temperature of 767F. Ho2 long, after
the 2all surfaces are raised to >66 and ;667F, respecti(ely, 2ill
it ta!e for the temperature at the center of the 2all to reach
>667Fa
37.>5 + masonry "ric! 2all 6.@5 m thic! has a temperature
distri"ution at time, t P 6 2hich may "e appro8imated "y the
e8pression TA0B P 556 V >>6 sin pA8D$B 2here $ is the 2all
2idth and 8 is the distance from either surface. Ho2 long after
"oth surfaces of this 2all are e8posed to air at 576 0 2ill the center
temperature of the 2all "e >;6 0a The con(ecti(e coefFcient at
"oth surface of the 2all may "e ta!en as 3@ WDm5 [ 0. What 2ill
the surface temperature "e at this timea
hapter
3:
on(ecti(e Heat Transfer
Heat transfer "y con(ection is associated 2ith energy e8change "et2een a surface and
an adIacent Juid. There are (ery fe2 energy=transfer situations of practical importance
in 2hich Juid motion is not in some 2ay in(ol(ed. This effect has "een eliminated as
much as possi"le in the preceding chapters, "ut 2ill no2 "e considered in some depth.
The rate e?uation for con(ection has "een e8pressed pre(iously as
?
P h DTA35=33B
+
2here the heat Ju8, ?D+, occurs "y (irtue of a temperature difference. This simple
e?uation is the deFning relation for h, the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient. The
determination of the coefFcient h is, ho2e(er, not at all a simple underta!ing. *t is
related to the mechanism of Juid Jo2, the properties of the Juid, and the geometry of
the speciFc system of interest.
*n light of the intimate in(ol(ement "et2een the con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcient and Juid motion, 2e may e8pect many of the considerations from the
momentum transfer to "e of interest. *n the analyses to follo2, much use 2ill "e made
of the de(elopments and concepts of hapters @ through 3@.
3:.3 F'/D+ME/T+$ %/&*DER+T*%/&
*/ %/1ET*1E HE+T TR+/&FER
+s mentioned in hapter 35, the Juid particles immediately adIacent to a solid "oundary are
stationary, and a thin layer of Juid close to the surface 2ill "e in laminar Jo2 regardless of
the nature of the free stream. Thus, molecular energy e8change or conduction effects 2ill
al2ays "e present, and play a maIor role in any con(ection process. *f Juid Jo2 is laminar,
then all energy transfer "et2een a surface and contacting Juid or "et2een adIacent Juid
layers is "y molecular means. *f, on the contrary, Jo2 is tur"ulent, then there is "ul! mi8ing
of Juid particles "et2een regions at different temperatures, and the heat transfer rate is
increased. The distinction "et2een laminar and tur"ulent Jo2 2ill thus "e a maIor
consideration in any con(ecti(e situation.
There are t2o main classiFcations of con(ecti(e heat transfer. These ha(e to do 2ith
the dri(ing force causing Juid to Jo2. /atural or free con(ection designates the type of
process 2herein Juid motion results from the heat transfer. When a Juid is heated or cooled,
the associated density change and "uoyant effect produce a natural circulation in 2hich
the affected Juid mo(es of its o2n accord past the solid surface, the Juid that replaces it
is similarly affected "y the energy transfer, and the process is repeated. Forced con=
(ection is the classiFcation used to descri"e those con(ection situations in 2hich Juid
circulation is produced "y an e8ternal agency such as a fan or a pump.
59@
3:.5 &igniFcant ,arameters in on(ecti(e Heat Transfer 595
The hydrodynamic "oundary layer, analy<ed in hapter 35, plays a maIor role in
con(ecti(e heat transfer, as one 2ould e8pect. +dditionally, 2e shall deFne and analy<e the
thermal "oundary layer, 2hich 2ill also "e (ital to the analysis of a con(ecti(e energy=
transfer process.
There are four methods of e(aluating the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient that 2ill
"e discussed in this "oo!. These are as follo2sC
AaB dimensional analysis, 2hich to "e useful re?uires e8perimental resultsT
A"B e8act analysis of the "oundary layerT
AcB appro8imate integral analysis of the "oundary layerT and
AdB analogy "et2een energy and momentum transfer.
3:.5 &*#/*F*+/T ,+R+METER&
*/ %/1ET*1E HE+T TR+/&FER
ertain parameters 2ill "e found useful in the correlation of con(ecti(e data and in the
functional relations for the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcients. &ome parameters of this
type ha(e "een encountered earlierT these include the Reynolds and the Euler num"ers.
&e(eral of the ne2 parameters to "e encountered in energy transfer 2ill arise in such a
manner that their physical meaning is unclear. For this reason, 2e shall de(ote a short section
to the physical interpretation of t2o such terms.
The molecular diffusi(ities of momentum and energy ha(e "een deFned pre(iously as
m
momentum diffusi(ity C n
r
and
!
thermal diffusi(ity Ca
rcp
That these t2o are designated similarly 2ould indicate that they must also play similar roles
in their speciFc transfer modes. This is indeed the case, as 2e shall see se(eral times in the
de(elopments to follo2. For the moment 2e should note that "oth ha(e the same dimensions,
those of $5 DtT thus their ratio must "e dimensionless. This ratio, that of the molecular
diffusi(ity of momentum to the molecular diffusi(ity of heat, is designated the ,randtl
num"er.
n mcp
A3:=3B,r P
a!
The ,randtl num"er is o"ser(ed to "e a com"ination of fluid propertiesT thus ,r itself may
"e thought of as a property. The ,randtl num"er is primarily a function of temperature
and is ta"ulated in +ppendi8 *, at (arious temperatures for each fluid listed.
The temperature proFle for a Juid Jo2ing past a surface is depicted in Figure 3:.3. *n
the Fgure, the surface is at a higher temperature than the Juid. The temperature proFle that
e8ists is due to the energy e8change resulting from this temperature difference. For such a
case the heat=transfer rate "et2een the surface and the Juid may "e 2ritten as
?y P h+ATs U T3 B
and, "ecause heat transfer at the surface is "y conduction
?y P U!+
Y
AT U Ts BIyP6
Yy
A3:=>B
A3:=5B
59; hapter 3: on(ecti(e Heat Transfer
(
(8
y
Ts O T
Ts O T
Ts
Figure 3:.3 Temperature and (elocity
proFles for a Juid Jo2ing past a
heated plate.
These t2o terms must "e e?ualT thus
hATs U T3 B P U!
2hich may "e rearranged to gi(e
h YATs U TBDYyIyP6
P
!T s U T3
A3:=@B
Y
AT U Ts BIyP6
Yy
E?uation A3:=@B may "e made dimensionless if a length parameter is introduced.
Multiplying "oth sides "y a representati(e length, $, 2e ha(e
h$ YATs U TBDYyIyP6
P
!ATs U T3 BD$
A3:=5B
The right=hand side of e?uation A3:=5B is no2 the ratio of the temperature gradient at the
surface to an o(erall or reference temperature gradient. The left=hand side of this e?uation
is 2ritten in a manner similar to that for the -iot modulus encountered in hapter 37. *t
may "e considered a ratio of conducti(e thermal resistance to the con(ecti(e thermal
resistance of the fluid. This ratio is referred to as the /usselt num"er
/u
h$
!
A3:=;B
2here the thermal conducti(ity is that of the fluid as opposed to that of the solid, 2hich
2as the case in the e(aluation of the -iot modulus.
These t2o parameters, ,r and /u, 2ill "e encountered many times in the 2or! to
follo2.
3:.> D*ME/&*%/+$ +/+$E&*& %F %/1ET*1E
E/ER#E TR+/&FER
Forced on(ection. The speciFc forced=con(ection situation, 2hich 2e shall no2 consi=
der, is that of Juid Jo2ing in a closed conduit at some a(erage (elocity, (, 2ith a temperature
difference e8isting "et2een the Juid and the tu"e 2all.
The important (aria"les, their sym"ols, and dimensional representations are listed
"elo2. *t is necessary to include t2o more dimensionsK., heat, and T, temperatureKto the
fundamental group considered in hapter 33T thus all (aria"les must "e e8pressed
dimensionally as some com"ination of M, $, t, ., and T. The a"o(e (aria"les include
terms descripti(e of the system geometry, thermal and Jo2 properties of the Juid, and the
?uantity of primary interest, h.
3:.> Dimensional +nalysis of on(ecti(e Energy Transfer 599
1aria"le
Tu"e diameter
Fluid density
Fluid (iscosity
Fluid heat capacity
Fluid thermal conducti(ity
1elocity
Heat=transfer coefFcient
&ym"ol
D
r
m
cp
!
(
h
Dimensions
$
MD$>
MD$t
.DMT
.Dt$T
$Dt
.Dt$5T
'tili<ing the -uc!ingham method of grouping the (aria"les as presented in hapter
33, the re?uired num"er of dimensionless groups is found to "e >. /ote that the ran! of
the dimensional matri8 is @, one more than the total num"er of fundamental dimensions.
hoosing D, !, m, and ( as the four (aria"les comprising the core, 2e Fnd that the three
p groups to "e formed are
p3 P Da !" mc ( d r
p5 P De !fmg ( h cp
and
p> P Di ! I m! ( l h
Writing p3 in dimensional form
3 P W$X
a
.
$tT
" c d
M$ M
$tt $>
and e?uating the e8ponents of the fundamental dimensions on "oth sides of this e?uation, 2e
ha(e for
$C 6 P a U " U c V d U >
.C 6 P "
t C 6 P U" U c U d
TC 6 P U"
and
MC 6 P c V 3
&ol(ing these e?uations for the four un!no2ns yields
aP3
"P6
and p3 "ecomes
p3 P
D(r
m
c P U3
dP3
2hich is the Reynolds num"er. &ol(ing for p5 and p> in the same 2ay 2ill gi(e
p5 P
mc p
P ,r and
!
p> P
hD
P /u
!
597 hapter 3: on(ecti(e Heat Transfer
The result of a dimensional analysis of forced=con(ection heat transfer in a circular conduit
indicates that a possi"le relation correlating the important (aria"les is of the form
/u P f3 ARe, ,rB
A3:=9B
*f, in the preceding case, the core group had "een chosen to include r, m, cp, and (, the
analysis 2ould ha(e yielded the groups D(rDm, mc p D!, and hDr(c p C The first t2o of these
2e recogni<e as Re and ,r. The third is the &tanton num"er.
&t
h
r(cp
A3:=7B
This parameter could also ha(e "een formed "y ta!ing the ratio /uDWRe ,rX. +n
alternati(e correlating relation for forced con(ection in a closed conduit is thus
&t P f5 ARe, ,rB
A3:=:B
/atural on(ection. *n the case of natural=con(ection heat transfer from a (ertical plane
2all to an adIacent Juid, the (aria"les 2ill differ signiFcantly from those used in the
preceding case. The (elocity no longer "elongs in the group of (aria"les, as it is a result of
other effects associated 2ith the energy transfer. /e2 (aria"les to "e included in the analysis
are those accounting for Juid circulation. They may "e found "y considering the relation for
"uoyant force in terms of the density difference due to the energy e8change.
The coefFcient of thermal e8pansion, ", is gi(en "y
r P r6 A3 U " DT B
A3:=36B
2here r6 is the "ul! fluid density, r is the fluid density inside the heated layer, and DT is
the temperature difference "et2een the heated fluid and the "ul! (alue. The "uoyant force
per unit (olume, F"uoyant, is
F"uoyant P Ar6 U rBg
2hich "ecomes, upon su"stituting e?uation A3:=36B
F"uoyant P "gr6 DT
A3:=33B
E?uation A3:=33B suggests the inclusion of the (aria"les ", g, and DT into the list of those
important to the natural con(ection situation.
The list of (aria"les for the pro"lem under consideration is gi(en "elo2.
1aria"le
&igniFcant length
Fluid density
Fluid (iscosity
Fluid heat capacity
Fluid thermal conducti(ity
Fluid coefFcient of thermal e8pansion
#ra(itational acceleration
Temperature difference
Heat=transfer coefFcient
&ym"ol
$
r
m
cp
!
"
g
DT
h
Dimensions
$
MD$>
MD$t
.DMT
.D$tT
3DT
$Dt5
T
.D$5tT
3:.@ E8act +nalysis of the $aminar -oundary $ayer 59:
The -uc!ingham p theorem indicates that the num"er of independent dimensionless
parameters applica"le to this pro"lem is : U 5 P @. hoosing $, m, !, g, and " as the core
group, 2e see that the p groups to "e formed are
p3 P $a m" !c " d ge cp
p5 P $f mg !h "i g I r
p> P $! ml !m "n go DT
and
p@ P $p m? !r "s gt h
&ol(ing for the e8ponents in the usual 2ay, 2e o"tain
mc p
P ,rp> P " DTp3 P
!
$> gr5h$
P /uandp@ Pp5 P
!m5
The product of p5 and p> , 2hich must "e dimensionless, is A"gr5 $> DT BDm5 . This para=
meter, used in correlating natural=con(ection data, is the #rashof num"er.
"gr5 $> DT
#r
m5
A3:=35B
From the preceding "rief dimensional=analyses considerations, 2e ha(e o"tained the
follo2ing possi"le forms for correlating con(ection dataC
AaB Forced con(ection
/u P f3 ARe, ,rB
or
&t P f5 ARe, ,rB
A"B /atural con(ection
/u P f> A#r, ,rB
A3:=3>B
A3:=:B
A3:=9B
The similarity "et2een the correlations of e?uations A3:=9B and A3:=3>B is apparent. *n
e?uation A3:=3>B, #r has replaced Re in the correlation indicated "y e?uation A3:=9B. *t should
"e noted that the &tanton num"er can "e used only in correlating forced=con(ection data. This
"ecomes o"(ious 2hen 2e o"ser(e the (elocity, (, contained in the e8pression for &t.
3:.@ EM+T +/+$E&*& %F THE $+M*/+R -%'/D+RE $+EER
+n e8act solution for a special case of the hydrodynamic "oundary layer is discussed in
&ection 35.5. -lasiusHs solution for the laminar "oundary layer on a Jat plate may "e e8tended
to include the con(ecti(e heat=transfer pro"lem for the same geometry and laminar Jo2.
The "oundary=layer e?uations considered pre(iously include the t2o=dimensional,
incompressi"le continuity e?uation
Y( 8 Y( y
VP6
Y8Yy
A35=36B
and the e?uation of motion in the 8 direction
Y( 8Y( 8Y( 8d( 3Y5(8
V (8V (yP (3Vn 5
YtY8Yyd8Yy
A35=:B
Recall that the y=directional e?uation of motion ga(e the result of constant pressure
through the "oundary layer. The proper form of the energy e?uation 2ill thus "e e?uation
A3;=3@B, for iso"aric Jo2, 2ritten in t2o=dimensional form as
5
YTYTYTY T Y5T
V (8V (yPaVA3:=3@B
YtY8YyY85 Yy5
With respect to the thermal "oundary layer depicted in Figure 3:.5, Y 5 TDY85 is much
smaller in magnitude than Y 5 TDYy5 C
T
Edge of thermal
"oundary layer
8
y
T N TAyB
Ts
Figure 3:.5 The thermal "oundary
layer for laminar Jo2 past a Jat
surface.
*n steady, incompressi"le, t2o=dimensional, iso"aric Jo2 the energy e?uation that
applies is no2
YTYTY5T
V (yPa 5(8
Y8YyYy
A3:=35B
From hapter 35, the applica"le e?uation of motion 2ith uniform free=stream (elocity is
Y( 8Y( 8Y5(8
(8V (yPn 5
Y8YyYy
and the continuity e?uation
Y( 8 Y( y
VP6
Y8Yy
A35=33"B
A35=33aB
The latter t2o of the a"o(e e?uations 2ere originally sol(ed "y -lasius to gi(e the results
discussed in hapter 35. The solution 2as "ased upon the "oundary conditions
(y(8
PP6
(3 (3
and
(8
P3
(3
at y P 3
at y P 6
3:.@ E8act +nalysis of the $aminar -oundary $ayer 573
The similarity in form "et2een e?uations A3:=35B and A35=33aB is o"(ious. This
situation suggests the possi"ility of applying the -lasius solution to the energy e?uation.
*n order that this "e possi"le, the follo2ing conditions must "e satisFedC
A3B The coefFcients of the second=order terms must "e e?ual. This re?uires that n P a
or that ,r P 3.
A5B The "oundary conditions for temperature must "e compati"le 2ith those for the
(elocity. This may "e accomplished "y changing the dependent (aria"le from T to
AT U Ts BDAT3 U Ts B. The "oundary conditions no2 are
(y(8T U Ts
PPP6
( 3 ( 3 T3 U Ts
(8T U Ts
PP3
( 3 T3 U Ts
at y P 6
at y P 3
*mposing these conditions upon the set of e?uations A3:=35B and A35=33aB, 2e may no2
2rite the results o"tained "y -lasius for the energy=transfer case. 'sing the nomenclature of
hapter 35,
(8T U Ts
f6 P 5P5A3:=3;B
(3T3 U Ts
r r
y (3y 8( 3y p
hPRe8A3:=39BPP
5 n85858n and applying the -lasius result, 2e o"tain

6
df
d\5A( 8 D( 3 B^ 66p P f
A6B P

dh yP6d\AyD58B Re8 ^

df5\AT U Ts BDAT3 U Ts B^g
p P
d\AyD58B Re8 ^
yP6
P 3C>57 W3:=37X
yP6
*t should "e noted that according to e?uation A3:=3;B, the dimensionless (elocity
proFle in the laminar "oundary layer is identical 2ith the dimensionless temperature pro=
Fle. This is a conse?uence of ha(ing ,r P 3C + logical conse?uence of this situation is
that the hydrodynamic and thermal "oundary layers are of e?ual thic!ness. *t is signiFcant
that the ,randtl num"ers for most gases are sufFciently close to unity that the hydro=
dynamic and thermal "oundary layers are of similar e8tent.
We may no2 o"tain the temperature gradient at the surface
Q
YT 6C>>5 3D5yP6 P AT3 U Ts BRe8A3:=3:BYy 8
+pplication of the /e2ton and Fourier rate e?uations no2 yields

?yYT

P h8 ATs U T3 B P U!
Yy yP6
+
from 2hich
h8 P U
!
Ts U T3

YT

Yy
P
yP6
6C>>5! 3D5
Re8
8
A3:=56B
or
h8 8
P /u8 P 6C>>5 Re3D58
!
A3:=53B
,ohlhausen3 considered the same pro"lem 2ith the additional effect of a ,randtl
num"er other than unity. He 2as a"le to sho2 the relation "et2een the thermal and
hydrodynamic "oundary layers in laminar Jo2 to "e appro8imately gi(en "y
d
P ,r3D>
dt
A3:=55B
The additional factor of ,r3D> multiplied "y h allo2s the solution to the thermal "oundary
layer to "e e8tended to ,r (alues other than unity. + plot of the dimensionless temperature
(s. h ,r3D> is sho2n in Figure 3:.>. The temperature (ariation gi(en in this form leads to
an e8pression for the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefficient similar to e?uation A3:=56B. +t
y P 6, the gradient is
Q
YT 6C>>5 3D5 3D>
Re8 ,rP AT3 U Ts B
Yy yP68
A3:=5>B
fd N 5 AT O TsB D
AT O TsB&lope N 3.>57
AyD58B
Re8 ,r3D>
Figure 3:.> Temperature (ariation for
laminar Jo2 o(er a Jat plate.
2hich, 2hen used 2ith the Fourier and /e2ton rate e?uations, yields
! 3
h8 P 6C>>5 Re8 D5 ,r3D>
8
or
h8 83P /u8 P 6C>>5 Re8 D5 ,r3D>
!
A3:=55B
A3:=5@B
The inclusion of the factor ,r3D> in these e?uations e8tends the range of application of
e?uations A3:=56B and A3:=53B to situations in 2hich the ,randtl num"er differs
considera"ly from 3.
3
E. ,ohlhausen, f+MM, 3, 335 A3:53B.
3:.5 +ppro8imate *ntegral +nalysis of the Thermal -oundary $ayer 57>
The mean heat=transfer coefFcient applying o(er a plate of 2idth 2 and length $ may "e
o"tained "y integration. For a plate of these dimensions
f
?y P h+ATs U T3 B Ph8 ATs U T3 B d+
+
hA2$BATs U T3 B P 6C>>5!2 ,r
3D >
f
ATs U T3 B
6
$
f
( 3 r 3D5 $ U3D5
h$ P 6C>>5! ,r8d8
m6
3D5
3D> ( 3 r
$3D5P 6C;;@! ,r
m
P 6C;;@! ,r3D> Re3D5
3D>
3Re8 D5
d8
8
$
The mean /usselt num"er "ecomes
/u$ P
and it is seen that
/u$ P 5 /u8 at 8 P $
A3:=59B
*n applying the results of the foregoing analysis it is customary to e(aluate all Juid
properties at the Flm temperature, 2hich is deFned as
Tf P
Ts V T3
5
A3:=57B
h$
P 6C;;@ ,r3D> Re3D5$
!
A3:=5;B
the arithmetic mean "et2een the 2all and "ul! fluid temperatures.
3:.5 +,,R%M*M+TE */TE#R+$ +/+$E&*& %F THE
THERM+$ -%'/D+RE $+EER
The application of the -lasius solution to the thermal "oundary layer in &ection 3:.@ 2as
con(enient although (ery limited in scope. For Jo2 other than laminar or for a conFguration
other than a Jat surface, another method must "e utili<ed to estimate the con(ecti(e heat=
transfer coefFcient. +n appro8imate method for analysis of the thermal "oundary layer
L Lemploys the integral analysis as used "y (on 0arman for the
hydrodynamic "oundary layer.
This approach is discussed in hapter 35.
onsider the control (olume designated "y the dashed lines in Figure 3:.@, applying to
Jo2 parallel to a Jat surface 2ith no pressure gradient, ha(ing 2idth D8T a height e?ual to the
?>
?3
y
R8
Sth
?5
8
?@
Figure 3:.@ ontrol (olume
for integral energy analysis.
57@ hapter 3: on(ecti(e Heat Transfer
thic!ness of the thermal "oundary layer, dt , and a unit depth. +n application of the Frst la2 of
thermodynamics in integral form
fffff
d. dWs dWmY
UUPAe V ,DrBrA(C nB d+ Ver d1A;=36B
dtYtdtdtcCsCcC(C
yields the follo2ing under steady=state conditionsC

d.YT

P U! D8
dt
Yy yP6
dWs dWm
PP6
dtdt
fff dt 5

(8,
V gy V u VAe V ,DrBrA(C nB d+ Pr( 8 dy
r5cCsC68VD8
f dt 5

(8,
V gy V u VUr( 8 dy
r568
5 Qf dt
d(,
dy D8Ur( 8 8 V gy V u V
d8 6r dt
5
and
Y
Yt
fff
er d1 P 6
cC(C
*n the a"sence of signiFcant gra(itational effects, the con(ecti(e=energy=Ju8 terms "ecome
(5,
8V u V P h6 H cp T6
r5
2here h6 is the stagnation enthalpy and cp is the constant=pressure heat capacity. The
stagnation temperature 2ill no2 "e 2ritten merely as T A2ithout su"scriptB to a(oid
confusion. The complete energy e8pression is no2
ff dtf dt
YT d dt

U! D8Pr( 8 cp T dyUr( 8 cp T dy U rcp D8( 8 T3 dyYy yP6d8 6668VD88
W3:=5:X
E?uation A3:=5:B can also "e 2ritten as ?@ P ?5 U ?3 U ?> 2here these ?uantities are
sho2n in Figure 3:.@. *n e?uation A3:=5:B, T3 represents the free=stream stagnation
temperature. *f flo2 is incompressi"le, and an a(erage (alue of cp is used, the product
rcp may "e ta!en outside the integral terms in this e?uation. Di(iding "oth sides of
e?uation A3:=5:B "y D8 and e(aluating the result in the limit as "y D8 approaches <ero,
2e o"tain

f! YT d dt
P( 8 AT3 U TB dyA3:=>6B
rcp Yy d8 6
yP6
E?uation A3:=>6B is analogous to the momentum integral relation, e?uation A35=>9B, 2ith the
momentum terms replaced "y their appropriate energy counterparts. This e?uation may "e
sol(ed if "oth (elocity and temperature proFle are !no2n. Thus, for the energy e?uation
"oth the (ariation in ( 8 and in T 2ith y must "e assumed. This contrasts slightly 2ith the
momentum integral solution in 2hich the (elocity proFle alone 2as assumed.
3:.; Energy= and Momentum=Transfer +nalogies 575
+n assumed temperature proFle must satisfy the "oundary conditions
A3B T U Ts P 6
A5B T U Ts P T3 U Ts
Y
AT U Ts B P 6A>B
Yy
Y5
A@B 5 AT U Ts B P 6
Yy
at y P 6
at y P dt
at y P dt
at y P 6 \see e?uation A3:=35B^
*f a po2er=series e8pression for the temperature (ariation is assumed in the form
T U Ts P a V "y V cy5 V dy>
the application of the "oundary conditions 2ill result in the e8pression for T U Ts

T U Ts> y3 y >
PA3:=>3BU
5 dtT3 U Ts 5 dt
*f the (elocity profile is assumed in the same form, then the resulting e8pression, as
o"tained in hapter 35, is
(> y 3 y>
UPA35=@6B
(3 5 d 5 d
&u"stituting e?uations A3:=>3B and A35=@6B into the integral e8pression and sol(ing, 2e
o"tain the result
3/u8 P 6C>; Re8 D5 ,r3D>
A3:=>5B
2hich is appro8imately 7b larger than the e8act result e8pressed in e?uation A3:=55B.
This result, although ine8act, is sufFciently close to the !no2n (alue to indicate that the
integral method may "e used 2ith conFdence in situations in 2hich an e8act solution is not
!no2n. *t is interesting to note that e?uation A3:=>5B again in(ol(es the parameters predicted
from dimensional analysis.
+ condition of considera"le importance is that of an unheated starting length. ,ro"lem
3:.39 at the end of the chapter deals 2ith this situation 2here the 2all temperature, Ts, is related
to the distance from the leading edge, 8, and the unheated starting, length M, according to
and
Ts P T3
Ts _ T3
for
for
6]8]M
M]8
The integral techni?ue, as presented in this section, has pro(ed effecti(e in generating a
modiFed solution for this situation. The result for Ts P constant, and assuming "oth the
hydrodynamic and temperature proFles to "e cu"ic, is
s43
>,r
/u8 6C>>Re 8A3:=>>B
3 U AMD8B>D@
/ote that this e8pression reduces to e?uations A3:=55B for M N 6
3:.; E/ER#E= +/D M%ME/T'M=TR+/&FER +/+$%#*E&
Many times in our consideration of heat transfer thus far 2e ha(e noted the similarities to
momentum transfer "oth in the transfer mechanism itself and in the manner of its
?uantitati(e description. This section 2ill deal 2ith these analogies and use them to
de(elop relations to descri"e energy transfer.
57; hapter 3: on(ecti(e Heat Transfer
%s"orne Reynolds Frst noted the similarities in mechanism "et2een energy and
momentum transfer in 379@.5 *n 377>, he presented> the results of his 2or! on frictional
resistance to Juid Jo2 in conduits, thus ma!ing possi"le the ?uantitati(e analogy "et2een
the t2o transport phenomena.
+s 2e ha(e noted in the pre(ious sections, for Jo2 past a solid surface 2ith a ,randtl
num"er of unity, the dimensionless (elocity and temperature gradients are related as follo2sC

d (8 dT U Ts
PA3:=>@Bdy ( yP6 dy T U T
3 3
s
yP6
For ,r P mcp D! P 3T 2e ha(e mcp D! and 2e may 2rite e?uation A3:=>@B as

d (8 dT U Ts
P!mc pdy ( 3 yP6dy T3 U Ts yP6
2hich may "e transformed to the form

mcp d( 8 !dAT U Ts BPU

Ts U T3 dy( 3 dy yP6yP6
Recalling a pre(ious relation for the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefficient
Q
hd ATs U TB
P
! dy AT U T B
s
3
yP6
A3:=>5B
A3:=@B
it is seen that the entire right=hand side of e?uation A3:=>@B may "e replaced "y h, gi(ing

mcp d( 8
hPA3:=>;B
( 3 dy
yP6
*ntroducing ne8t the coefficient of s!in friction

t65m d( 8

f 5 P 5
r( 3 D5 r( 3 dy yP6
f
Ar( 3 cp B
5
f
5
2e may 2rite e?uation A3:=>;B as
hP
2hich, in dimensionless form, "ecomes
h
r( 3 cp
&t P
A3:=>9B
E?uation A3:=>9B is the Reynolds analogy and is an e8cellent e8ample of the similar
nature of energy and momentum transfer. For those situations satisfying the "asis for the
de(elopment of e?uation A3:=>9B, a !no2ledge of the coefficient of frictional drag 2ill
ena"le the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefficient to "e readily e(aluated.
The restrictions on the use of the Reynolds analogy should "e !ept in mindT they are
A3B ,r P 3 and A5B no form drag. The former of these 2as the starting point in the preceding
de(elopment and o"(iously must "e satisFed. The latter is sensi"le 2hen one considers that,
in relating t2o transfer mechanisms, the manner of e8pressing them ?uantitati(ely must
5
>
%. Reynolds, ,roc. Manchester $it. ,hil. &oc., 3@C9 A379@B.
%. Reynolds, Trans. Roy. &oc. A$ondon, 39@+, :>5 A377>B.
3:.9 Tur"ulent Flo2 onsiderations 579
remain consistent. %"(iously the description of drag in terms of the coefFcient of s!in
friction re?uires that the drag "e 2holly (iscous in nature. Thus, e?uation A3:=>9B is
applica"le only for those situations in 2hich form drag is not present. &ome possi"le areas of
application 2ould "e Jo2 parallel to plane surfaces or Jo2 in conduits. The coefFcient of
s!in friction for conduit Jo2 has already "een sho2n to "e e?ui(alent to the Fanning Fction
factor, 2hich may "e e(aluated "y using Figure 3@.3.
The restriction that ,r P 3 ma!es the Reynolds analogy of limited use. ol"urn@ has
suggested a simple (ariation of the Reynolds analogy form that allo2s its application to
situations 2here the ,randtl num"er is other than unity. The ol"urn analogy e8pression is
&t ,r5D> P
f
5
A3:=>7B
2hich o"(iously reduces to the Reynolds analogy 2hen ,r P 3.
ol"urn applied this e8pression to a 2ide range of data for Jo2 and geometries of
different types and found it to "e ?uite accurate for conditions 2here A3B no form drag e8ists,
and A5B 6C5 ] ,r ] 56. The ,randtl num"er range is e8tended to include gases, 2ater, and
se(eral other li?uids of interest. The ol"urn analogy is particularly helpful for e(aluating
heat transfer in internal forced Jo2s. *t can "e easily sho2n that the e8act e8pression for a
laminar "oundary layer on a Jat plate reduces to e?uation A3:=>7B.
The ol"urn analogy is often 2ritten as
IH P
2here
IH P &t ,r5D>
A3:=@6B
f
5
A3:=>:B
is designated the ol"urn I factor for heat transfer. + mass=transfer I factor, is discussed in
hapter 57.
/ote that for ,r P 3, the ol"urn and Reynolds analogies are the same. E?uation A3:=>7B
is thus an e8tension of the Reynolds analogy for Juids ha(ing ,randtl num"ers other than
unity, 2ithin the range 6.5 O 56 as speciFed a"o(e. High and lo2 ,randtl num"er Juids falling
outside this range 2ould "e hea(y oils at one e8treme and li?uid metals at the other.
3:.9 T'R-'$E/T F$%W %/&*DER+T*%/&
The effect of the tur"ulent Jo2 on energy transfer is directly analogous to the similar effects
on momentum transfer as discussed in hapter 35. onsider the temperature proFle
(ariation in Figure 3:.5 to e8ist in tur"ulent Jo2. The distance mo(ed "y a Juid GGpac!etHH
in the y direction, 2hich is normal to the direction of "ul! Jo2, is denoted "y $, the ,randtl
mi8ing length. The pac!et of Juid mo(ing through the distance $ retains the mean
temperature from its point of origin, and upon reaching its destination, the pac!et 2ill
differ in temperature from that of the adIacent Juid "y an amount TIy$ U TIy C The mi8ing
length is assumed small enough to permit the temperature difference to "e 2ritten as

dt
A3:=@3B
TIy$ U TIy P $
dy y
We no2 deFne the ?uantity T 6 as the Juctuating temperature, synonymous 2ith
the Juctuating (elocity component, ( 6 , descri"ed in hapter 35. The instantaneous8
@
+. ,. ol"urn, Trans. +.*.h.E., 5:, 39@ A3:>>B.
y
T
$
Td
T
T
T
AaB A"B
t
Figure 3:.5 Tur"ulent=Jo2 temperature (ariation.
temperature is the sum of the mean and Juctuating (alues, as indicated in Figure 3:.5A"B, or,
in e?uation form
T P T V T6
A3:=@5B
+ny significant amount of energy transfer in the y direction, for "ul! flo2 occurring in the
8 direction, is accomplished "ecause of the fluctuating temperature, T 6 T thus, it is apparent
from e?uations A3:=@3B and A3:=@5B that
T 6 P $
dT
dy
A3:=@>B
The energy Ju8 in the y direction may no2 "e 2ritten as
?y
P rc p T( 6y
+ y
A3:=@@B
2here ( 6 may "e either positi(e or negati(e. &u"stituting for T its e?ui(alent, according toy
e?uation A3:=@5B
?y
P rcp ( 6 AT V T 6 By
+ y
and ta!ing the time a(erage, 2e o"tain, for the y=directional energy Ju8 due to tur"ulent
effects
?y
P rcp A( 6 T 6 BA3:=@5By
+ tur"
or, 2ith T 6 in terms of the mi8ing length

?y dT
P rcp ( 6 $y+ tur"dy A3:=@;B
The total energy Ju8 due to "oth microscopic and tur"ulent contri"utions may "e
2ritten as
?ydT
P Urc p \a V I( 6 $IÂ3:=@9B
y
+dy
+s a is the molecular diffusi(ity of heat, the ?uantity I( 6 $I is the eddy diffusi(ity of heat,y
designated as eH . This ?uantity is e8actly analogous to the eddy diffusi(ity of
momentum, eM T as defined in e?uation A35=55B. *n a region of tur"ulent flo2, eH B a for
all fluids e8cept li?uid metals.
3:.9 Tur"ulent Flo2 onsiderations 57:
+s the ,randtl num"er is the ratio of the molecular diffusi(ities of momentum and heat,
an analogous term, the tur"ulent ,randtl num"er, can "e formed "y the ratio e M D e H .
'tili<ing e?uations A3:=@9B and A35=55B, 2e ha(e
,rtur" P
eM $5 Id( 8 DdyI $5 Id( 8 DdyI
P 5P3P
eHI$( 6 I$ Id( 8 DdyIy
A3:=@7B
Thus, in a region of fully tur"ulent flo2 the effecti(e ,randtl num"er is unity, and the
Reynolds analogy applies in the a"sence of form drag.
*n terms of the eddy diffusi(ity of heat, the heat Ju8 can "e e8pressed as

?y DTP Urc p eHA3:=@:B+ tur"dy
The total heat flu8, including "oth molecular and tur"ulent contri"utions, thus "ecomes
?ydT
P Urc p Aa V eH B
+dy
A3:=56B
E?uation A3:=56B applies "oth to the region 2herein flo2 is laminar, for 2hich
a B e H , and to that for 2hich flo2 is tur"ulent and eH B a. *t is in this latter region that
the Reynolds analogy applies. ,randtl5 achie(ed a solution that includes the influences of
"oth the laminar su"layer and the tur"ulent core. *n his analysis solutions 2ere o"tained
in each region and then Ioined at y P I, the hypothetical distance from the 2all that is
assumed to "e the "oundary separating the t2o regions.
Within the laminar su"layer the momentum and heat Ju8 e?uations reduce to
t P r(
and
?ydT
P Urcp a
+dy
&eparating (aria"les and integrating "et2een y P 6 and y P I, 2e ha(e, for the momentum
e8pression
ff (8 II
t I
d( 8 Pdy
r( 66
and for the heat Ju8
f
TI
Ts
d( 8
Aa constantB
dy
?y
dT P U
+rc p a
f
6
I
dy
&ol(ing for the (elocity and temperature proFles in the laminar su"layer yields
( 8 II P
and
Ts U T I P
?y I
+rc p a
A3:=55B
tI
r(
A3:=53B
5
$. ,randtl, feit. ,hysi!., 33, 3695 A3:36B.
5:6 hapter 3: on(ecti(e Heat Transfer
Eliminating the distance I "et2een these t2o e8pressions gi(es
r(( 8 II r+c p a
PATs U TI B
?yt
A3:=5>B
Directing our attention no2 to the tur"ulent core 2here the Reynolds analogy
applies, 2e may 2rite e?uation A3:=>9B
fh
PA3:=>9B
rcp A( 3 U ( 8 II B
5
and, e8pressing h and f in terms of their deFning relations, 2e o"tain
?y D+t
P
rcp A( 3 U ( 8 II BATI U T3 B rA( 3 U ( 8 II B5
&implifying and rearranging this e8pression, 2e ha(e
rA( 3 U ( 8 II BATI U T3 B
P r+cp
t?y
A3:=5@B
2hich is a modiFed form of the Reynolds analogy applying from y P I to y P yma8 C
Eliminating TI "et2een e?uations A3:=5>B and A3:=5@B, 2e ha(e
(i r+crhp( 3 V ( 8 IIU3 PATs U T3 BA3:=55B
ta?y
*ntroducing the coefficient of s!in friction
f P
and the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient
hP
2e may reduce e?uation A3:=5@B to
( 3 V ( 8 II A(Da U 3B rcp
P
( 5 f D5h
3
*n(erting "oth sides of this e8pression and ma!ing it dimensionless, 2e o"tain
f D5h
&t P
rcp ( 33 V A( 8 II D( 3 B\A(DaB U 3^
A3:=5;B
?y
+ATs U T3 B
t
r( 5 D5
3
This e?uation in(ol(es the ratio (Da, 2hich has "een defined pre(iously as the ,randtl
num"er. For a (alue of ,r P 3, e?uation A3:=5;B reduces to the Reynolds analogy. For
,r P 3, the &tanton num"er is a function of f, ,r, and the ratio ( 8 II D( 3 . *t 2ould "e
con(enient to eliminate the (elocity ratioT this may "e accomplished "y recalling some
results from hapter 35.
+t the edge of the laminar su"layer
p
and "y deFnition ( V P ( 8 DA tDrB. Thus for the case at hand
p
V( P ( 8 II DA tDrB P 5
( V P yV P 5
3:.9 Tur"ulent Flo2 onsiderations 5:3
+gain introducing the coefFcient of s!in friction in the form
f P
2e may 2rite
t
r( 5 D5
3

r r
ft
P (3
r5
2hich, 2hen com"ined 2ith the pre(ious e8pression gi(en for the (elocity ratio, gi(es
r
( 8 IIf
P5A3:=59B
(35
&u"stitution of e?uation A3:=59B into A3:=5;B gi(es
&t P
f D5
p
3 V 5 f D5A,r U 3B
A3:=57B
2hich is !no2n as the ,randtl analogy. This e?uation is 2ritten entirely in terms of
measura"le ?uantities.
L L(on 0arman; e8tended ,randtlHs 2or! to include the effect of the transition or "uffer
L Llayer in addition to the laminar su"layer and tur"ulent
core. His result, the (on 0arman
analogy, is e8pressed as
&t P
f D5
p
3 V 5 f D5f,r U 3 V ln\3 V 5A,r U 3B^g;
A3:=5:B
/ote that, Iust as for the ,randtl analogy, e?uation A3:=5:B reduces to the Reynolds
analogy for a ,randtl num"er of unity.
L LThe application of the ,randtl and (on 0arman analogies is, ?uite logically,
restricted to
those cases in 2hich there is negligi"le form drag. These e?uations yield the most accurate
results for ,randtl num"ers greater than unity.
+n illustration of the use of the four relations de(eloped in this section is gi(en in the
e8ample "elo2.
EM+M,$E 3
Water at 56 F enters a heat=e8changer tu"e ha(ing an inside diameter of 3 in. and a length of 36 ft.
The 2ater Jo2s at 56 galDmin. For a constant 2all temperature of 536 F, estimate the e8it
temperature of the 2ater using AaB the Reynolds analogy, A"B the ol"urn analogy, AcB the ,randtl
L Lanalogy, and AdB the (on 0arman analogy. Entrance effects are to "e neglected, and the properties of
2ater may "e e(aluated at the arithmetic=mean "ul! temperature.
onsidering a portion of the heat=e8changer tu"e sho2n in Figure 3:.;, 2e see that an
application of the Frst la2 of thermodynamics to the control (olume indicated 2ill yield the result
that
7: 7: 7:
rate of heat] rate of heat N ] rate of heat N ]N
transfer into cC(C V transfer into cC(C P transfer out of cC(C
CT CT CT
"y fluid flo2"y con(ection"y fluid flo2
;
L LT. (on 0arman, Trans. +&ME, ;3, 965 A3:>:B.
5:5 hapter 3: on(ecti(e Heat Transfer
D
?3
?5
R8
?>
Ts
Flo2
Figure 3:.; +nalog analysis of
2ater Jo2ing in a circular tu"e.
*f these heat=transfer rates are designated as ?3, ?5, and ?>, they may "e e(aluated as follo2sC
pD5
?3 P r( 8 cp TI8
@
?5 P hpD D8 ATs U TB
and
pD5
( 8 c p TI8VD8?> P r
@
The su"stitution of these ?uantities into the energy "alance e8pression gi(es
r
pD5
( 8 c p \TI8VD8 U TI8 ^ U hpD D8ATs U TB P 6
@
D TI8VD8 U TI8h
VAT U Ts B P 6
@r( 8 cpD8
E(aluated in the limit as D8 Q 6, e?uation A3:=5:B reduces to
dTh @
VAT U Ts B P 6
d8 r( 8 cp D
&eparating the (aria"les, 2e ha(e
dTh @
d8 P 6V
T U Ts r( 8 cp D
and integrating "et2een the limits indicated, 2e o"tain
ff T$
dTh @ $
Vd8 P 6
r( 8 c p D 6T6 T U Ts
T$ U Tsh @$
P6Vln
T6 U Ts r( 8 cp D
A3:=;3B
2hich may "e simpliFed and rearranged into the form
A3:=;6B
A3:=;5B
E?uation A3:=;5B may no2 "e sol(ed for the e8it temperature T$. %"ser(e that the coefFcient of the
right=hand term, hDr( 8 c p , is the &tanton num"er. This parameter has "een achie(ed ?uite naturally
from our analysis.
The coefFcient of s!in friction may "e e(aluated 2ith the aid of Figure 3@.3. The (elocity is
calculated as
( 8 P 56 galDmin Aft> D9C@7 galB\3@@DApD@BA35 B^ft5 AminD;6 sB P 7C39 fps
*nitially, 2e 2ill assume the mean "ul! temperature to "e :67F. The Flm temperature 2ill then
"e 3567F, at 2hich n P 6C@9@ ` 36U5 ft5 Ds. The Reynolds num"er is
Re P
D( 8A3D35 ftBA7C39 ftDsB
PP 3@@,666
(6C@9@ ` 36U5 ft5 Ds
+t this (alue of Re, the friction factor, ff, assuming smooth tu"ing, is 6.66@5. For each of the four
analogies, the &tanton num"er is e(aluated as follo2sC
3:.7
AaB Reynolds analogy
f
P 6C6653
5
losure 5:>
&t P
A"B ol"urn analogy
&t P
AcB ,randtl analogy
f U5D>
,rP 6C6653A5C95BU5D> P 6C66367
5
&t P
P
L LAdB (on 0arman analogy
f D5
p^^^^^^^^^
3 V 5 f D5A,r U 3B
6C6653
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^P 6C66353
3 V 5 6C6653A3C95B
&t P
P
f D5
`}zp^^^^^^^^^{
3 V 5 f D5 ,r U 3 V ln 3 V 5 A,r U 3B;
6C6653
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^{`}z
3 V 5 6C6653 5C95 U 3 V ln 3 V 5 A5C95 U 3B
;
P 6C663>3
&u"stituting these results into e?uation A3:=;5B, 2e o"tain, for T$, the follo2ing resultsC
AaB T$ P 355 F
A"B T$ P 335 F
AcB T$ P 3>5 F
AdB T$ P 355 F
&ome Fne tuning of these results may "e necessary to adIust the physical property (alues for
the calculated Flm temperatures. *n none of these cases is the assumed Flm temperature
different than the calculated one "y more than ;7F, so the results are not going to change
much.
The Reynolds analogy (alue is much different from the other results o"tained. This is not
surprising, as the ,randtl num"er 2as considera"ly a"o(e a (alue of one. The last three analogies
yielded ?uite consistent results. The ol"urn analogy is the simplest to use and is prefera"le from that
standpoint.
3:.7 $%&'RE
The fundamental concepts of con(ection heat transfer ha(e "een introduced in this chapter.
/e2 parameters pertinent to con(ection are the ,randtl, /usselt, &tanton, and #rashof
num"ers.
5:@ hapter 3: on(ecti(e Heat Transfer
Four methods of analy<ing a con(ection heat=transfer process ha(e "een discussed.
These are as follo2sC
A3B dimensional analysis coupled 2ith e8perimentT
A5B e8act analysis of the "oundary layerT
A>B integral analysis of the "oundary layerT and
A@B analogy "et2een momentum and energy transfer.
&e(eral empirical e?uations for the prediction of con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcients
2ill "e gi(en in the chapters to follo2.
,R%-$EM&
3:.3 'sing dimensional analysis, demonstrate that the para=
meters
T U T3
T6 U T3
8
$
at
$5
and
h$
!
length. *f air at 356 FT 76 psi, Jo2ing at a mass (elocity of
;666 l"m Dh ft5 , is used to cool the plates, prepare plots sho2ing
a. the heat Ju8 (s. 8T
". the mean air temperature (s. 8.
3:.9 #i(en the information in ,ro"lem 3:.;, determine the
total heat transferred for a stac! of plates 2ith a com"ined
surface area of ;@6 ft5, each plate "eing @ ft 2ide.
3:.7 *n a thermal heat sin! the heat Ju8 (ariation along the a8is
of a cooling passage is appro8imated as
p8?
P a V " sin
+$
2here 8 is measured along the passage a8is and $ is its total
length.
+ large installation in(ol(es a stac! of plates 2ith a >=mm
air space "et2een them. The Jo2 passages are 3.55 m long, and
the heat Ju8 in the plates (aries according to the a"o(e e?uation
2here a P :66 WDm5 and ( P 5566 WDm5 C +ir enters at 366
2ith a mass (elocity Athe product of r1B of 9C5 !gDs [ m5 C The
surface coefFcient along the Jo2 passage can "e considered
constant 2ith a (alue of 5; WDm5 [ 0C
#enerate a plot of heat Ju8, mean air temperature,
and plate surface temperature as functions of 8. Where
does the ma8imum surface temperature occur and 2hat is
its (aluea
3:.: Determine the total heat transfer from the (ertical 2all
descri"ed in ,ro"lem 3:.@ to the surrounding air per meter of
2idth if the 2all is 5.5 m high.
3:.36 Repeat ,ro"lem 3:.53 for (elocity and temperature
proFles of the form
( P a V "y V cy5 T U Ts P a V "y V gy5
are possi"le com"inations of the appropriate (aria"les in descri"=
ing unsteady=state conduction in a plane 2all.
3:.5 Dimensional analysis has sho2n the follo2ing para=
meters to "e signiFcant for forced con(ectionC
8( 3 r
m
mc p
!
h8
!
h
rcp ( 3
E(aluate each of these parameters at >@6 0, for air, 2ater,
"en<ene, mercury, and glycerin. The distance 8 may "e ta!en as
6.> m, ( 3 P 35 mDs, and h P >@ WDm5 [ 0.
3:.> ,lot the parameters 8( 3 rDm, mcp D!, h8D!, and hDrcp ( 3
(s. temperature for air, 2ater, and glycerin, using the (alues for 8,
h, and ( from ,ro"lem 3:.5.
3:.@ 'sing the relations from ,ro"lem 3:.3:, determine, for
the case of air at >36 0 adIacent to a (ertical 2all 2ith its surface
at @56 0,
a. the thic!ness of the "oundary layer at 8 P 35 cm, >6 cm,
3.5 m,
". the magnitude of h8 at 35 cm, >6 cm, 3.5 m.
3:.5 #i(en the conditions speciFed in ,ro"lem 3:.3;,
construct a plot of local heat=transfer coefFcient (s. position
along the plate for glycerin temperatures of >67, 567, and
767F.
3:.; The fuel plates in a nuclear reactor are @ ft long and
stac!ed 2ith a 3D5=in. gap "et2een them. The heat Ju8 along the
plate surfaces (aries sinusoidally according to the e?uation
?p8
P a V " sin
+$
2here a P 556 -tuDh ft5 , " P 3566 -tuDh ft5 , 8 is the distance
from the leading edge of the plates, and $ is the total plate
3:.33 &ol(e ,ro"lem 3:.5; for the case of a 2all heat Ju8
(arying according to
?p8
P a V " sin
+$
,ro"lems
2here a P 556 -tuDh ft5 , " P 3566 -tuDh ft5 , 8 is the distance
from the entrance, and $ is the tu"e length.
3:.35 Wor! ,ro"lem 3:.55 for the case in 2hich the Jo2ing
Juid is air at 35 fps.
3:.3> /itrogen at 366 F and 3 atm Jo2s at a (elocity of
366 fps. + Jat plate ; in. 2ide, at a temperature of 566 FT
is aligned parallel to the direction of Jo2. +t a position @ ft
from the leading edge, determine the follo2ing AaB dT A"B dt T
AcB f8T AdB JT AeB h8T Af B hT AgB total drag forceT AhB total heat
transfer.
3:.3@ + plane surface, 55 cm 2ide, has its temperature
maintained at 76 . +tmospheric air, at 55 T Jo2s parallel
to the surface 2ith a (elocity of 5.7 mDs. 'sing the results of
"oundary=layer analysis, determine the follo2ing for a 3=m long
plateC
a. the mean coefFcient of s!in friction, f$T
". the total drag force e8erted on the plate "y the air Jo2T
c. the total heat transfer rate from the plate to the air stream.
3:.35 &ho2 that, for the case of natural con(ection adIa=
cent to a plane (ertical 2all, the appropriate integral e?ua=
tions for the hydrodynamic and thermal "oundary layers
are

YT
a
Yy
and
f d3f
d( 8 d d 5
V "gWT U T3 X dy P( dyU(
Yy yP6d8 6 86
3:.3; #lycerin Jo2s parallel to a Jat plate measuring 5 ft
"y 5 ft 2ith a (elocity of 36 fps. Determine (alues for the
mean con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient and the associa=
ted drag force imposed on the plate for glycerin temperatures
of >567, 567, and 3767F. What heat Ju8 2ill result, in each
case, if the plate temperature is 567F a"o(e that of the
glycerina
3:.39 &ho2n in the Fgure is the case of a Juid Jo2ing
parallel to a Jat plate, 2here for a distance M from the
leading edge, the plate and Juid are at the same temperature.
For (alues of 8_M, the plate is maintained at a constant
temperature, Ts, 2here Ts _ T3 . +ssuming a cu"ic proFle
for "oth the hydrodynamic and the thermal "oundary layers,
sho2 that the ratio of the thic!ness, I, is e8pressed as
s >D@ 43D>
dt3M
3UIP ^
d8,r3D>
d
P
d8
f
6
d3
5:5
+lso sho2 that the local /usselt num"er can "e e8pressed as
Q3D>
,r
Re3D5/u8 ^ 6C>>8>D@3 U AMD8B
8
M
d
dt
3:.37 &impliFed relations for natural con(ection in air are of
the form
h P aWDTD$X"
2here a, " are constantsT $ is a signiFcant length, in ftT
DT is Ts U T3 , in 7FT and h is the con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcient, -tuDh ft5 FC Determine the (alues for a and " for
the plane (ertical 2all, using the e?uation from ,ro"lem 3:.3@.
3:.3: 'sing the integral relations from ,ro"lem 3:.7, and
assuming the (elocity and temperature proFles of the form
y (y5
3UP
(8dd
and

T U T3y5
P 3U
Ts U T3d
2here d is the thic!ness of "oth the hydrodynamic and thermal
"oundary layers, sho2 that the solution in terms of d and ( 8 from
each integral e?uation reduce to

5ad d( 8
P
dd8 >6
and

(( 8d d d( 58V "g DT PU
d> dt 365
/e8t, assuming that "oth d and ( 8 (ary 2ith 8 according to
d P +8a and ( 8 P -8"
( 8 WT3 U T Xdy
yP6
sho2 that the resulting e8pression for d "ecomes
U3dD8 P >C:@ ,rU3D5 W,r V 6C:5>X3D@
#r8 D@
and that the local /usselt num"er is
/u8 P 6C567 ,rU3N5 W,r V 6C:5>XU3N@ #r3N@8
3:.56 'se the results of ,ro"lem along 2ith those of hap=
ter 35 to determine d, f8 , d3 , and h8 at a distance of @6 cm
from the leading edge of a Jat plane. +ir 2ith a free stream
5:; hapter 3: on(ecti(e Heat Transfer
3:.5@ + "lac!top road surface 37.> m 2ide recei(es
solar radiation at the rate of 57@ WDm5 at noon and :5 WDm5
are lost "y reradiation to the atmosphere. +2ind, at >66 0, Jo2s
across the road. Determine the 2ind (elocity that 2ill cause the
road surface to "e at >67 0 if all energy not reradiated to the s!y
is remo(ed "y con(ection.
3:.55 Water, at ;67F, enters a 3=in.=*D tu"e that is used to cool
a nuclear reactor. The 2ater Jo2 rate is >6 galDmin. Determine
the total heat transfer and the e8iting 2ater temperature for a
35=ft=long tu"e if the tu"e surface temperature is a constant (alue
of >667F. ompare the ans2er o"tained, using the Reynolds and
ol"urn analogies.
3:.5; Water at ;67F enters a 3=in.=*D tu"e that is used to
cool a nuclear reactor. The 2ater Jo2 rate is >6 galDmin.
Determine the total heat transfer, the e8iting 2ater tempe=
rature, and the 2all temperature at the e8it of a 35=ft long
tu"e if the tu"e 2all condition is one of uniform heat Ju8 of
566 -tuDhr ft5.
3:.59 Wor! ,ro"lem 3:.5; for the case in 2hich the Jo2ing
Juid is air at 35 fps.
3:.57 Wor! ,ro"lem 3:.55 for the case in 2hich the Jo2ing
Juid is sodium entering the tu"e at 5667F
3:.5: Wor! ,ro"lem 3:.5; for the case in 2hich the Jo2ing
Juid is sodium entering the tu"e at 5667F.
(elocity of 5 mDs and T3 P >66 0 Jo2s parallel to the plate
surface. The Frst 56 cm of the plate is unheatedT the surface
temperature is maintained at @66 0 "eyond that point.
3:.53 'sing the appropriate integral formulas for Jo2 parallel
to a Jat surface 2ith a constant free=stream (elocity, de(elop
e8pressions for the local /usselt num"er in terms of Re8 and ,r
for (elocity and temperature proFles of the form
( P a V "y, T U Ts P a V "y
3:.55 Repeat ,ro"lem 3:.53 for (elocity and temperature
proFles of the form
( P a sin "y, T U Ts P a sin "u
3:.5> For the case of a tur"ulent "oundary layer on a Jat plate,
the (elocity proFle has "een sho2n to follo2 closely the form
y3D9(
P
(3d
+ssuming a temperature proFle of the same form, that is
3D9
T U Tsy
P
d3T3 U Ts
and assuming that d P d3 , use the integral relation for the
"oundary layer to sol(e for h8 and /u8. The temperature gradient
at the surface may "e considered similar to the (elocity gradient
at y P 6 gi(en "y e?uation A3>=5;B.
hapter
56
on(ecti(e Heat=Transfer
orrelations
on(ecti(e heat transfer 2as treated from an analytical point of (ie2 in hapter 3:.
+lthough the analytic approach is (ery meaningful, it may not offer a practical solution
to e(ery pro"lem. There are many situations for 2hich no mathematical models ha(e as
yet "een successfully applied. E(en in those cases for 2hich an analytical solution is
possi"le, it is necessary to (erify the results "y e8periment. *n this chapter, 2e shall
present some of the most useful correlations of e8perimental heat=transfer data
a(aila"le. Most correlations are in the forms indicated "y dimensional analysis.
The sections to follo2 include discussion and correlations for natural con(ection,
forced con(ection for internal Jo2, and forced con(ection for e8ternal Jo2, respecti(ely.
*n each case, those analytical relations that are a(aila"le are presented along 2ith the
most satisfactory empirical correlations for a particular geometry and Jo2 condition.
56.3 /+T'R+$ %/1ET*%/
The mechanism of energy transfer "y natural con(ection in(ol(es the motion of a Juid past a
solid "oundary, 2hich is the result of the density differences resulting from the energy
e8change. -ecause of this, it is ?uite natural that the heat=transfer coefFcients and their
correlating e?uations 2ill (ary 2ith the geometry of a gi(en system.
1ertical ,lates. The natural con(ection system most amena"le to analytical treatment is
that of a Juid adIacent to a (ertical 2all.
&tandard nomenclature for a t2o=dimensional consideration of natural con(ection
adIacent to a (ertical plane surface is indicated in Figure 56.3. The 8 direction is commonly
ta!en along the 2all, 2ith y measured normal to the plane surface.
&chmidt and -ec!mann3 measured the temperature and (elocity of air at different
locations near a (ertical plate and found a signiFcant (ariation in "oth ?uantities along the
direction parallel to the plate. The (ariations of (elocity and temperature for a 35.5=cm=high
(ertical plate are sho2n in Figures 56.5 and 56.> for the conditions Ts P ;5 , T3 P 35 C
The t2o limiting cases for (ertical plane 2alls are those 2ith constant surface
temperature and 2ith constant 2all heat Ju8. The former of these cases ha(e "een sol(ed
"y %strach5 and the latter "y &parro2 and #regg.>
3
5
>
E. &chmidt and W. -ec!mann, Tech. Mech. '. Thermodynami!, 3, >@3 and >:3 A3:>6B.
&. %strach, /++ Report 3333, 3:5>.
E. M. &parro2 and J. $. #regg, Trans. +.&.M.E., 97, @>5 A3:5;B.
5:9
5:7 hapter 56 on(ecti(e Heat=Transfer orrelations
Fluid
T
8
Ts
y
Heated
2all
Figure 56.3 oordinate system for the analysis of natural con(ection
adIacent to a heated (ertical 2all.
%strach, employing a similarity transformation 2ith go(erning e?uations of mass
conser(ation, motion, and energy in a free=con(ection "oundary layer, o"tained an
e8pression for local /usselt num"er of the form
D@
#r8 3
/u8 P f A,rBA56=3B
@
The coefficient, fA,rB, (aries 2ith ,randtl num"er, 2ith (alues gi(en in Ta"le 56.3.
We usually Fnd the mean /usselt num"er, /u$, to "e of more (alue than /u8. 'sing
an integration procedure, as discussed earlier, an e8pression for /u$ may "e determined
5;
5@
55
56
37
m
9c
96
;6
8N
33
cm
(8, in cmDsec
3;
3@
56
8N
T, in g @c
m 33
35
5
@6
cm
36
7
;
3
5 cm
@ cm
9 cm
cm
>6
3
cm
cm
>
6.
@
5
56
T
cm
6
6
6.5 6.@6.;
y, in cm
6.7 3.6
36
6
6.3 6.5 6.> 6.@ 6.5 6.; 6.9 6.7 6.: 3.6
y, in cm
Figure 56.5 1elocity distri"ution in the (icinity of a (ertical
heated plate in air.
Figure 56.> Temperature distri"ution in the (icinity of a
(ertical heated plate in air.
56.3
Ta"le 56.3 1alues of the coefFcient fA,rB for use in e?uation A56=3B
,r
f A,rB
6.63
6.673
6.695
6.565
3
6.5;9
5
6.93;
/atural on(ection 5::
36
3.3;:
366
5.3:3
3666
>.:;;
using e?uation A56=3B. The mean heat transfer coefFcient for a (ertical surface of height, $, is
related to the local (alue according to
f
3 $
h$ Ph8 d8
$ 6
*nserting e?uation A56=3B appropriately, 2e proceed to
Q f
!
"gDT 3D@ $ U3D@
h$ P f A,rB8d8
$@(56 Q
@!"g$> DT 3D@
Pf A,rB
> $@(5
and, in dimensionless form, 2e ha(e

@#r$ 3D@
/u$ P f A,rB
>@
A56=5B
&parro2 and #reggHs@ results for the constant 2all heat flu8 case compared 2ithin 5b
to those of %strach for li!e (alues of ,r. E?uations A56=3B and A56=5B, along 2ith coefficients
from Ta"le 56.3, may thus "e used, 2ith reasona"le accuracy, to e(aluate any (ertical plane
surface regardless of 2all conditions, pro(ided "oundary layer flo2 is laminar.
Fluid properties, "eing temperature dependent, 2ill ha(e some effect on calculated
results. *t is important, therefore, that properties in(ol(ed in e?uations A56=3B and A56=5B "e
e(aluated at the Flm temperature.
Ts V T3
Tf P
5
+s 2ith forced con(ection, tur"ulent Jo2 2ill also occur in free con(ection "oundary
layers. When tur"ulence is present, an analytical approach is ?uite difFcult, and 2e must
rely hea(ily on correlations of e8perimental data.
Transition from laminar to tur"ulent Jo2 in natural con(ection "oundary layers
adIacent to (ertical plane surfaces has "een determined to occur at, or near
#rt ,r P Rat 36 :
A56=>B
2here the su"script, t, indicates transition. The product, #r ,r, is often referred to as Ra,
the Rayleigh num"er.
hurchill and hu5 ha(e correlated a large amount of e8perimental data for natural
con(ection adIacent to (ertical planes o(er 3> orders of magnitude of Ra. They propose a
single e?uation for /u$ that applies to all Juids. This po2erful e?uation is
:57
__
__
N]3D ;
6C>79 Ra$
/u$ P 6C755 V h
A56=@Bi7D59 __
__
TC3 V A6C@:5D,rB:D3;
@
5
E. M. &parro2 and J. $. #regg, Trans. +.&.M.E., 97, @>5 A3:5;B.
&. W. hurchill and H. H. &. hu, *nt. J. Heat ) Mass Tr., 37, 3>5> A3:95B.
>66 hapter 56 on(ecti(e Heat=Transfer orrelations
hurchill and hu sho2 this e8pression to pro(ide accurate results for "oth laminar[andU
tur"ulent flo2s. &ome impro(ement 2as found for the laminar range Ra$ ] 36: "y
using the follo2ing e?uationC
36C;96 Ra$D@
A56=5B
/u$ P 6C;7 V hi@D:
:D3;3 V A6C@:5D,rB
1ertical ylinders. For the case of cylinders 2ith their a8es (ertical, the e8pressions
presented for plane surfaces can "e used pro(ided the cur(ature effect is not too great. The
criterion for this is e8pressed in e?uation A56=;BT speciFcally, a (ertical cylinder can "e
e(aluated using correlations for (ertical plane 2alls 2hen
D>5
Q
3$#r$D@
A56=;B
,hysically, this represents the limit 2here "oundary layer thic!ness is small relati(e to
cylinder diameter, D.
Hori<ontal ,lates. The correlations suggested "y Mc+dams; are 2ell accepted for this
geometry. + distinction is made regarding 2hether the Juid is hot or cool, relati(e to the
adIacent surface, and 2hether the surface faces up or do2n. *t is clear that the induced
"uoyancy 2ill "e much different for a hot surface facing up than do2n. Mc+damsHs
correlations are, for a hot surface facing up or cold surface facing do2n
365 ] Ra$ ] 5 ` 369
5 ` 369 ] Ra$ ] > ` 3636
> ` 365 ] Ra$ ] 3636
3/u$ P 6C5@ Ra$D@
A56=9B
A56=7B
/u$ P 6C3@ Ra3D>$
/u$ P 6C59 Ra3D@$
and for a hot surface facing do2n or cold surface facing up
A56=:B
*n each of these correlating e?uations, the film temperature, Tf , should "e used for fluid
property e(aluation. The length scale, $, is the ratio of the plate=surface area to perimeter.
For plane surfaces inclined at an angle, u, 2ith the (ertical, e?uations A56=@B and A56=5B
may "e used, 2ith modiFcation, for (alues of u up to ;67. hurchill and hu9 suggest
replacing g "y g cos u in e?uation A56=5B 2hen "oundary layer Jo2 is laminar. With tur"ulent
Jo2, e?uation A56=@B may "e used 2ithout modiFcation.
Hori<ontal ylinders. With cylinders of sufFcient length that end effects are insigniFcant,
t2o correlations are recommended. hurchill and hu7 suggest the follo2ing correlation
:57
__
__
N]3D ;
6C>79 RaD
A56=36B
/uD P 6C;6 V h
i7D59 __
__
TC3 V A6C55:D,rB:D3;
o(er the Rayleigh num"er range 36U5 ] RaD ] 3635 C
W. H. Mc+dams, Heat Transmission, Third Edition, hapter 9, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!,
3:59.
9&. W. hurchill and H. H. &. hu, *nt. J. Heat ) Mass Tr., 37, 3>5> A3:95B.
7&. W. hurchill and H. H. &. hu, *nt. J. Heat ) Mass Tr., 37, 36@: A3:95B.
;
56.3 /atural on(ection >63
+ simpler e?uation has "een suggested "y Morgan,: in terms of (aria"le coefFcients
/uD P RanD
2here (alues of c and n are specified as functions of RaD in Ta"le 56.5.
A56=33B
Ta"le 56.5 1alues of constants and n in e?uation A56=33B
36U36 ] RaD ] 36U5

36U5 ] RaD ] 365
365 ] RaD ] 36@
36@ ] RaD ] 369
369 ] RaD ] 3635
6.;95
3.65
6.756
6.@76
6.355
n
6.657
6.3@7
6.377
6.556
6.>>>
The Flm temperature should "e used in e(aluating Juid properties in the a"o(e e?uations.
&pheres. The correlation suggested "y Euge36 is recommended for the case 2ith
,r H 3, and 3 ] RaD ] 365 C
3/uD P 5 V 6C@> RaDD@
A56=35B
We may notice that, for the sphere, as Ra approaches <ero, heat transfer from the
surface to the surrounding medium is "y conduction. This pro"lem may "e sol(ed to yield a
limiting (alue for /uD e?ual to 5. This result is o"(iously compati"le 2ith e?uation A56=35B.
Rectangular Enclosures. &ho2n in Figure 56.@ is the conFguration and nomenclature
pertinent to rectangular enclosures. These cases ha(e "ecome much more important in
recent years due to their application in solar collectors. learly, heat transfer 2ill "e affected
$
g
H
H
Heated
surface
?
W
$
Figure 56.@ The rectangle enclosure.
1. T. Morgan, +d(ances in Heat Transfer, 1ol. **, T. F. *r(ine and J. ,. Hartnett, Eds., +cademic ,ress,
/e2 Eor!, 3:95, pp. 3::O5;@.
36T. Euge, J. Heat Transfer, 75, 53@ A3:;6B.
:
"y the angle of tilt, uT "y the aspect ratio, HD$T and "y the usual dimensionless parameters, ,r
and Ra$.
*n each of the correlations to follo2, the temperature of the hotter of the t2o large
surfaces is designated as T3, and the cooler surface is at temperature T5. Fluid properties are
e(aluated at the Flm temperature, Tf P AT3 DT5 BD5C on(ecti(e heat Ju8 is e8pressed as
?
P hAT3 U T5 BA56=3>B
+
ase 3. Hori<ontal enclosures, u N 6
With the "ottom surface heated, a critical Rayleigh mem"er has "een determined "y se(eral
in(estigators to e8ist. For cases 2here
Ra$ P
"g$> AT3 U T5 B
_ 3966
a(
conditions 2ithin an enclosure are thermally unsta"le and natural con(ection 2ill occur. +
correlation for this case has "een proposed "y #lo"e and Drop!in33 in the form
3/u$ P 6C6;: Ra$D> ,r6C69@
A56=3@B
for the range > ` 365 ] Ra$ ] 9 ` 36: C
When u P 376 , that is, the upper surface is heated, or 2hen Ra$ ] 3966, heat transfer
is "y conductionT thus, /u$ P 3C
ase 5. 1ertical enclosures, u N :6
For aspect ratios less than 36, atton35 suggests the use of the follo2ing correlationsC
6C5:
,r
Ra$/u$ P 6C37A56=35B
6C5 V ,r
2hen
3 ] HD$ ] 5, 36U> ] ,r ] 365 , 36> ] Ra$ ,rDA6C5 V ,rB
and
6C57 U3D@
H
$
,r
/u$ P 6C55Ra$
6C55 V ,r
A56=3;B
2hen 5 ] HD$ ] 36, ,r ] 365 , Ra$ ] 3636 .
For higher (alues of HD$, the correlations of Mac#regor and Emery3> are recom=
mended. These are
3/u$ P 6C@5 Ra$D@ ,r6C635 AHD$BU6C>
A56=39B
for
36 ] HD$ ] @6, 3 ] ,r ] 5 ` 36@ , 36@ ] Ra$ ] 369
and
3/u$ P 6C6@; Ra$D>
A56=37B
33
35
3>
&. #lo"e and D. Drop!in, J. Heat Transfer, 73, 5@ A3:5:B.
*. atton, ,roc. ;th *nt. Heat Tr. onference, Toronto, anada, ;, 3> A3:97B.
,. 0. Mac#regor and +. ,. Emery, J. Heat Transfer, :3, >:3 A3:;:B.
56.3 /atural on(ection >6>
for
36 ] HD$ ] @6, 3 ] ,r ] 56, 36; ] Ra$ ] 36:
ase >. Tilted (ertical enclosures, 6 ] u ] :6
/umerous pu"lications ha(e dealt 2ith this conFguration. orrelations for this case, 2hen
the aspect ratio is large WHD$ _ 35X, are the follo2ingC
QQ
39673967Asin3C7uB3C;
3U/u$ P 3 V 3C@@ 3 U
Ra$ cos uRa$ cos u
Q
Ra$ cos u 3D>
VU3
57>6
A56=3:B
2hen HD$ Q 35, 6 ] u ] 96 C *n applying this relationship any "rac!eted term 2ith a
negati(e (alue should "e set e?ual to <ero. E?uation A56=3:B 2as suggested "y Hollands
et al.3@ With enclosures nearing the (ertical, +yyas2amy and atton35 suggest the
relationship
/u$ P /u$1 WsinuX3D@
A56=56B
for all aspect ratios, and 96 ] u ] :6 . The (alue u P 96 is termed the GGcriticalHH tilt
angle for (ertical enclosures 2ith HD$ _ 35. For smaller aspect ratios the critical angle of
tilt is also smaller. + recommended re(ie2 article on the su"Iect of inclined rectangular
ca(ities is that of -uch"erg, atton, and Ed2ards.3;
EM+M,$E 3 Determine the surface temperature of a cylindrical tan! measuring 6.95 m in diameter and 3.5 m
high. The tan! contains a transformer immersed in an oil "ath that produces a uniform surface
temperature condition. +ll heat loss from the surface may "e assumed due to natural con(ection to
surrounding air at 5:5 0. The heat dissipation rate from the transformer is constant at 3.5 0W.
&urface areas that apply are
+top P +"ottom P
+side
p
A6C95 mB5 P 6C@@5 m5
@
P pA3C5 mBA6C95 mB P 5C7> m5
The total heat transfer is the sum of the contri"utions from the three surfaces. This may "e 2ritten as
?total P \ht A6C@@5B V h" A6C@@5B V hs A5C7>BÂT U 5:5B
2here su"scripts t AtopB, " A"ottomB, and s AsidesB apply to the surfaces in ?uestion.
Re2riting this e8pression in terms of /u, 2e ha(e
?total
Q
!!!
P /utA6C@@5B V /u"A6C@@5B V /usA5C7>B AT U 5:5B
6C956C953C5
3@
35
3;
0. #. T. Hollands, &. E. 'nny, #. D. Raith"y, and $. 0onice!, J. Heat Transfer, :7, 37: A3:9;B.
,. &. +yyas2amy and *. atton, J. Heat Transfer, :5, 5@> A3:9>B.
H. -uch"erg, *. atton and D. 0. Ed2ards, J. Heat Transfer, :7, 375 A3:9;B.
>6@ hapter 56 on(ecti(e Heat=Transfer orrelations
or
?total P \6C57: /ut V 6C57: /u" V 5C>; /us ^!AT U 5:5B
+ complication e8ists in sol(ing this e?uation "ecause the un!no2n ?uantity is surface
temperature. The procedure to "e used is trial and error 2here, initially, a surface temperature
(alue is assumed for property e(aluation, and then sol(ed for T. This ne2 (alue for surface
temperature 2ill then "e used and the procedure continued until the resulting temperature agrees
2ith the (alue used in Fnding Juid properties.
To "egin the pro"lem, 2e assume that Tsurface P >7C5 0. ,roperties 2ill thus "e e(aluated at
Tf P >@6 0C For air at >@6 0, ( P 3C:55 ` 36U5 m5 Ds, ! P 6C65:> WDm[0, a P 5C76` 36U5 m5 Ds,
,r P 6C;::, and "gD(5 P 6C956 ` 367 3D0 [ m> .
For the (ertical surface
"g
#r P 5 $> DT
(
P A6C956 ` 367 3D0 [ m> BA3C5 mB> A:6 0B
P 33C9 ` 36:
+ccording to e?uation A56=;B, the effect of cur(ature may "e neglected if
D>5
QP 6C36;
$A33C9 ` 36: B3D@
*n the present case DD$ P 6C95D3C5 P 6C;55T thus the (ertical surface 2ill "e treated using e?uations
for a plane 2all.
1alues must no2 "e determined for /ut, /u", and /us. E?uations A56=7B, A56=:B, and A56=@B 2ill
"e employed. The three (alues for /u are determined as follo2sC
/utC
pD5 D@ D
P P 6C3795 m
pD@
7/ut P 6C3@\A6C956 ` 36 BA6C3795B> A:6BA6C;::B^3D>
P @@C6
$ P +D p P
/u"C
/u" P 6C59\A6C956 ` 367 BA6C3795B> A:6BA6C;::B^3D@
P 56C5
/usC
:5
_
_
_
_
_
_
7 BA3C5B> A:6BA6C;::B^3D; N6C>79\A6C956 ` 36
/us P 6C755 V
s
__ 47D59
__
__6C@:5 :D3;
__
__3V__
CT6C;::
P 5>;
The solution for T is no2
T P 5:5 V
3566 W
\6C57:A@@B V 6C57:A56C5B V 5C>;A5>;BÂ6C65:>B
7
_
_
_
_
_
_
]
P >73C3 0
56.5 Forced on(ection for *nternal Flo2 >65
'sing this as the ne2 estimate for Tsurface, 2e ha(e a Flm temperature, Tf ^ >>7 0. +ir
properties at this temperature are
( P 3C:>; ` 36U5 m5 Ds
a P 5C99 ` 36U5 m5 Ds
! P 6C65:3 WDm[0
,r P 6C;:: "gD(5 P 6C995 ` 367 3D0 [ m>
The ne2 (alues for /u "ecome
`}3D>
P @>C7/ut P 6C3@ A6C995 ` 367 BA6C3795B> A7;BA6C;::B
`}3D@
P 56C36/ut P 6C59 A6C995 ` 367 BA6C3795B> A7;BA6C;::B
7:5
_`}3D; ___
]N
6C>79 6C995 ` 367 A3C5B> A7;BA6C;::B
/us P 6C755 V
hi7D59__
__
CT3 V A6C@:5D6C;::B:D3;
P 5>5
The re(ised (alue for Ts is no2
Ts P 5:5 V
3566D6C65:>
\6C57:A@>C7B V 6C57:A56C3B V 5C>;A5>5B^
P >73C@ 0
This result is o"(iously close enough and the desired result for surface temperature is
Tsurface ^ >73 0
56.5 F%RED %/1ET*%/ F%R */TER/+$ F$%W
'ndou"tedly the most important con(ecti(e heat=transfer process from an industrial point of
(ie2 is that of heating or cooling a Juid that is Jo2ing inside a closed conduit. The momentum
transfer associated 2ith this type of Jo2 is studied in hapter 3>. Many of the concepts and
terminology of that chapter 2ill "e used in this section 2ithout further discussion.
Energy transfer associated 2ith forced con(ection inside closed conduits 2ill "e
considered separately for laminar and tur"ulent Jo2. The reader 2ill recall that the critical
Reynolds num"er for conduit Jo2 is appro8imately 5>66.
$aminar Flo2. The Frst analytical solution for laminar Jo2 forced con(ection inside tu"es
2as formulated "y #raet<39 in 3775. The assumptions "asic to the #raet< solution are as
follo2sC
3. The (elocity proFle is para"olic and fully de(eloped "efore any energy e8change
"et2een the tu"e 2all and the Juid occurs.
5. +ll properties of the Juid are constant.
>. The surface temperature of the tu"e is constant at a (alue Ts during the energy
transfer.
onsidering the system as depicted in Figure 56.5, 2e may 2rite the (elocity proFle as
r 5 Q
( 8 P ( ma8 3 UA7=9B
R
39
$. #raet<, +nn. ,hys. u. hem., 55, >>9 A3775B.
>6; hapter 56 on(ecti(e Heat=Transfer orrelations
T N Te for 8 ] 6 T N Ts for 8 _ 6
Temperature Te
Fully de(eloped
(elocity profile
8
Figure 56.5 -oundary and Jo2
conditions for the #raet< solution.
or, recalling that ( ma8 P 5( a(g , 2e may 2rite
( 8 P 5( a(g 3 U
r 5 Q
R
A56=53B
The applica"le form of the energy e?uation 2ritten in cylindrical coordinates, assuming
radial symmetry, and neglecting Y 5 TDY85 Aa8ial conductionB in comparison to the radial
(ariation in temperature is
Q
YT3 YYT
Par(8A56=55B
Y8r YrYr
&u"stituting e?uation A56=53B for y8 into e?uation A56=55B gi(es
Q r 5 Q YT3 YYT
Par5( a(g 3 U
RY8r YrYr
2hich is the e?uation to "e sol(ed su"Iect to the "oundary conditions
T P Te
T P Ts
and
YT
P6
Yr
at
8 _ 6, r P 6
Q
A56=5@B
at 8 P 6
at 8 _ 6,
for 6 r R
rPR
A56=5>B
The solution to e?uation A56=5>B ta!es the form
3rM
T U Tea 8
Pcn fe8p U"5n
RR( a(g R
Ts U Te nP6
The terms cn, fArDRB, and "n are all coefficients to "e e(aluated "y using appropriate
"oundary conditions.
The argument of the e8ponential, e8clusi(e of "n, that is, AaDR( a(g BA8DRB, may "e
re2ritten as
@@
P
A5R( a(g DaBA5RD8B AD( a(g rDmBAc p mD!BADD8B
or, in terms of dimensionless parameters already introduced, this "ecomes
@@8DD
P
Re ,r DD8,e
56.5 Forced on(ection for *nternal Flo2 >69
The product of Re and ,r is often referred to as the ,eclet num"er, ,e. +nother parameter
encountered in laminar forced con(ection is the #raet< num"er, #<, deFned as
#<
pD
,e
@ 8
Detailed solutions of e?uation A56=5@B are found in the literature, and 0nudsen and
0at<37 summari<e these ?uite 2ell. Figure 56.; presents the results of the #raet< solution
graphically for t2o different "oundary conditions at the 2all, these "eing A3B a constant 2all
temperature and A5B uniform heat input at the 2all.
365
/u8 N hD
!
8
&ieder and Tate
36
#raet<
onstant 2all heat flu8
onstant 2all temperature
36
365
,e ADD8B
36> 36@
Figure 56.; 1ariation in the local /usselt num"er for laminar Jo2 in tu"es.
/ote that, in Figure 56.;, the analytical results approach constant limiting (alues for
large (alues of 8. These limits are
/u8 P >C;57
/u8 P @C>;@
for T2all P constant
for ?D+2all P constant
A56=55B
A56=5;B
E8perimental data for laminar Jo2 in tu"es ha(e "een correlated "y &ieder and Tate3:
"y the e?uation

D 3D> m" 6C3@
A56=59B/uD P 3C7; ,e
$m2
The &iederOTate relation is also sho2n in Figure 56.; along 2ith the t2o #raet< results.
These results cannot "e compared directly "ecause the #raet< results yield local (alues of
h8 and the &iederOTate e?uation gi(es mean (alues of the heat=transfer coefficient. The
last part of e?uation A56=59B, the ratio of the fluid (iscosity at the arithmetic=mean "ul!
temperature to that at the temperature of the 2all, ta!es into account the significant effect
that (aria"le fluid (iscosity has on the heat=transfer rate. +ll properties other than m2 are
e(aluated at the "ul! fluid temperature.
Tur"ulent Flo2. When considering energy e8change "et2een a conduit surface and a
Juid in tur"ulent Jo2, 2e must resort to correlations of e8perimental data as suggested "y
J. #. 0nudsen and D. $. 0at<, Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!,
3:57, p. >96.
3:F. /. &ieder and #. E. Tate, *nd. Eng. hem., 57, 3@5: A3:>;B.
37
dimensional analysis. The three most=used e?uations of this nature and the restrictions on
their use are as follo2s.
Dittus and -oelter56 proposed the follo2ing e?uation of the type suggested earlier "y
dimensional analysis, e?uation A3:=9BC
/uD P 6C65> Re6C7 ,r nD
2here
3. n P 6C@ if the Juid is "eing heated, n P 6C> if the Juid is "eing cooledT
5. all Juid properties are e(aluated at the arithmetic=mean "ul! temperatureT
>. the (alue of ReD should "e _ 36@T
@. ,r is in the range 6C9 ] ,r ] 366T and
5. $DD _ ;6.
ol"urn53 proposed an e?uation using the &tanton num"er, &t, in place of /uD as
related in e?uation A3:=:B. His e?uation is
&t P 6C65> ReU6C5 ,rU5D>D
2here
3. ReD and ,r are e(aluated at the Flm temperature, and &t is e(aluated at the "ul!
temperatureT
5. ReD, ,r, and $DD should ha(e (alues 2ithin the follo2ing limitsC
ReD _ 36@ 6C9 ] ,r ] 3;6
and
$DD _ ;6
A56=5:B
A56=57B
To account for high ,randtl num"er Juids, such as oils, &ieder and Tate55 proposed the
e?uation
6C3@
U6C5 U5D> m"
A56=>6B
&t P 6C65> ReD ,r
m2
2here
3. +ll Juid properties e8cept m2 are e(aluated at "ul! temperatureT
5. ReD _ 36@ T
>. 6C9 ] ,r ] 39 666T
and
@. $DD _ ;6.
%f the three e?uations presented, the Frst t2o are most often used for those Juids 2hose
,randtl num"ers are 2ithin the speciFed range. The DittusO-oelter e?uation is simpler to
use than the ol"urn e?uation "ecause of the Juid property e(aluation at the "ul!
temperature.
56
53
55
F. W. Dittus and $. M. 0. -oelter, 'ni(ersity of alifornia, ,u"l. Eng., 5, @@> A3:>6B.
+. ,. ol"urn, Trans. +.*.h.E., 5:, 39@ A3:>>B.
E. /. &ieder and #. E. Tate, *nd. Eng. hem., 57, 3@5: A3:>;B.
56.5 Forced on(ection for *nternal Flo2 >6:
The follo2ing e8amples illustrate the use of some of the e8pressions presented in this
section.
EM+M,$E 5 Hydraulic Juid AM*$=M=5;6;B, in fully de(eloped Jo2, Jo2s through a 5.5 cm diameter copper tu"e
that is 6.;3 m long, 2ith a mean (elocity of 6.65 mDs. The oil enters at 5:5 0. steam condenses on the
outside tu"e surface 2ith an effecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient of 33T @66 WDm5 [0. Fnd the rate of
heat transfer to the oil.
To e(aluate oil properties at either the Flm temperature or the mean "ul! temperature, 2e need
to !no2 the e8iting oil temperature. E?uation A3:=;3B applies in this case
ln
T$ U Ts$ h
V@P6
D r(c pTo U Ts
A3:=;5B
*f the thermal resistance of the copper tu"e 2all is negligi"le, the heat transfer rate can "e
e8pressed as
?P
+surf ATstm U Toil B
P r+(c p AT$ U To B
3Dhi V 3Dho
To get an indication of 2hether the Jo2 is laminar or tur"ulent, 2e 2ill assume a "ul! oil
temperature of >66 0. The Reynolds num"er, at this temperature, is
ReD P
A6C655 mBA6C65 mDsB
P 35;
:C:@ ` 36U; m5 Ds
and the Jo2 is clearly laminar. The heat=transfer coefFcient on the oil side can then "e determined
using e?uation A56=59B

!!D 6C>> m" 6C3@
hi P /uD P 3C7; ,e
DD$m2
*nitially, the "ul! temperature of the oil and the 2all temperature 2ill "e assumed to "e >66 and
>95 0, respecti(ely. 'sing Juid properties at these temperatures, 2e ha(e
6C3@Q
A6C35> WDm[0BA3C7;B6C655 6C>> 3C6>; ` 36U@
hi PA35;BA355B
>C95 ` 36U>6C655 m6C;3
P :7C3 WDm5 [ 0
&u"stituting into e?uation A3:=;3B, 2e get

Ts U T$6C;3 m:7C3 WDm5 [ 0
lnP U@
6C655 m A7@> !gDm> BA6C65 mDsBA37:9 JD!g [ 0BTs U To
P U6C356
Ts U T$
P eU6C356 P 6C779
Ts U To
T$ P >95 U 6C779A>95 U 5:5B
P >6@ 0
With this (alue of T$, the mean "ul! temperature of the oil is
T" P
5:5 V >6@
P 5::C5 0
5
2hich is sufFciently close to the initial assumption that there is no need to iterate further.
With an e8iting temperature of >6@ 0 the heat=transfer rate to the oil is
? P r+(c p AT$ U To B
p
A6C655 mB5 A6C65 mDsBA37:9 JD!g[0BA: 0BP A7@> !gDm> B
@
P >5> W
EM+M,$E > +ir at 3 atmosphere and a temperature of 5:6 0 enters a 3.59=cm=*D tu"e at a (elocity of 5@ mDs. The
2all temperature is maintained at >95 0 "y condensing steam. E(aluate the con(ecti(e heat=transfer
coefFcient for this situation if the tu"e is 3.55 m long.
+s in the pre(ious e8ample, it 2ill "e necessary to e(aluate the e8iting air temperature "y
ln
T$ U Ts$ h
V@P6
To U TsD r(c p
A3:=;5B
To determine the type of Jo2, 2e Frst e(aluate the Reynolds num"er at the tu"e entrance.
Re P
D( A6C6359 mBA5@ mDsB
PP 56 ;66
(3C@97 ` 36U5 ,a[ s
Flo2 is clearly tur"ulent and Re is sufFciently large that e?uation A56=57B, A56=5:B, or A56=>6B may "e
used.
E?uation A56=5:B 2ill "e used. +n e8it temperature of >;6 0 2ill "e assumedT the corresponding
mean "ul! temperature is >55 0 and Tf P >@:. We no2 ha(e
&t P
hP 6C65> ReU6C5 ,rU5D>
r(c p
Q
A6C6359BA5@B U6C5
P 6C65>A6C;:9BU5D>
U55C65 ` 36
P 6C66@57
&u"stituting into e?uation A3:=;3B 2e ha(e
Q
T$ U Ts3C55 m
A6C66@57BP e8p U@
6C6359 mTo U Ts
P 6C35:
and the calculated (alue of T$ is
T$ P >95 U A6C35:BA>95 U 5:6B
P >;3 0
This (alue agrees closely 2ith the initially assumed (alue for T$, so there is no need to perform a
second calculation. The heat=transfer coefFcient is no2 e(aluated as
h P r(c p &t
P A3C635 !gDm> BA5@ mDsBA366: JD!g[0BA6C66@57B
P 365 WDm5 [0
For Jo2 in short passages the correlations presented thus far must "e modiFed to
account for (aria"le (elocity and temperature proFles along the a8is of Jo2. Deissler5> has
5>
R. #. Deissler, Trans. +.&.M.E., 99, 3553 A3:55B.
56.> Forced on(ection for E8ternal Flo2 >33
analy<ed this region e8tensi(ely for the case of tur"ulent Jo2. The follo2ing e?uations may
"e used to modify the heat=transfer coefFcients in passages for 2hich $DD ] ;6C
for 5 ] $DD ] 56
h$
P 3 V ADD$B6C9
h3
and for 56 ] $DD ] ;6
h$
P 3 V ; DD$
h3
A56=>3B
A56=>5B
-oth of these e8pressions are appro8imations relating the appropriate coefFcient, h$, in
terms of h3, 2here h3 is the (alue calculated for $DD _ ;6.
56.> F%RED %/1ET*%/ F%R EMTER/+$ F$%W
/umerous situations e8ist in practice in 2hich one is interested in analy<ing or descri"ing
heat transfer associated 2ith the Jo2 of a Juid past the e8terior surface of a solid. The sphere
and cylinder are the shapes of greatest engineering interest, 2ith heat transfer "et2een these
surfaces and a Juid in crossJo2 fre?uently encountered.
The reader 2ill recall the nature of momentum=transfer phenomena discussed in
hapter 35 relati(e to e8ternal Jo2. The analysis of such Jo2 and of heat transfer in these
situations is complicated 2hen the phenomenon of "oundary=layer separation is encoun=
tered. &eparation 2ill occur in those cases in 2hich an ad(erse pressure gradient e8istsT such
a condition 2ill e8ist for most situations of engineering interest.
Flo2 ,arallel to ,lane &urfaces. This condition is amena"le to analysis and has already
"een discussed in hapter 3:. The signiFcant results are repeated here for completeness.
We recall that, in this case, the "oundary layer Jo2 regimes are laminar for Re8 ] 5 `
5 and tur"ulent for > ` 36; ] Re . For the laminar range368
3/u8 P 6C>>5 Re8 D5 ,r3D>
A3:=55B
A3:=5;B
and
/u$ P 6C;;@ Re3D5 ,r3D>$
With tur"ulent flo2 in the "oundary layer, an application of the ol"urn analogy
f8
A3:=>9B&t8 ,r5D> P
5
along 2ith e?uation A35=9>B yields
/u8 P 6C6577 Re@N5 ,r3D>A56=>>B
8
+ mean /usselt num"er can "e calculated using this e8pression for /u8. The resulting
e8pression is
@N5
A56=>@B
/u$ P 6C6>; Re$ ,r3D> Fluid properties should "e e(aluated at the film temperature 2hen using these e?uations.
ylinders in rossJo2. Ec!ert and &oehngen5@ e(aluated local /usselt num"ers at
(arious positions on a cylindrical surface past 2hich Jo2ed an air stream 2ith a range
5@
E. R. #. Ec!ert and E. &oehngen, Trans. +.&.M.E., 9@, >@> A3:55B.
in Reynolds num"ers from 56 to ;66. Their results are sho2n in Figure 56.9. + much
higher Reynolds num"er range 2as in(estigated "y #iedt55 2hose results are sho2n in
Figure 56.7.
76
;6
Top
366
356
@6
3@6
56
Direction
of flo2
6
3;6
/u
56 3; 35 7 @
376
>@6
5>
75
395
537
57:
ReD 5:9
>56
-ottom
576 5;6
556
566
>66 5@6
Figure 56.9 $ocal num"ers for crossJo2 a"out a circular cylinder at lo2 Reynolds num"ers.
AFrom E. R. #. Ec!ert and E. &oehngen, Trans. +.&.M.E., 9@, >@; A3:55B. -y permission of the
pu"lishers.B
Figures 56.9 and 56.7 sho2 a smooth (ariation in the /usselt num"er near the
stagnation point. +t lo2 Reynolds num"ers, the Flm coefFcient decreases almost con=
tinuously from the stagnation point, the only departure "eing a slight rise in the separated=
2a!e region of the cylinder. +t higher Reynolds num"ers, as illustrated in Figure 56.9, the
Flm coefFcient reaches a second ma8imum, 2hich is greater than the stagnation=point
(alue. The second pea! in the /usselt num"er at high Reynolds num"ers is due to the fact
that the "oundary layer undergoes transition from laminar to tur"ulent Jo2. *n the "ottom
cur(es of Figure 56.9, the laminar "oundary layer separates from the cylinder near 767 from
the stagnation point, and no large change in the /usselt num"er occurs. The effect of higher
Reynolds num"er is t2ofold. First, the separation point mo(es past :67 as the "oundary layer
"ecomes tur"ulentT thus less of the cylinder is engulfed in the 2a!e. + second effect is that
the /usselt num"er reaches a (alue that is higher than the stagnation=point (alue. The
increase is due to the greater conductance of the tur"ulent "oundary layer.
*t is ?uite apparent from the Fgures that the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient (aries in
an irregular, comple8 manner in e8ternal Jo2 a"out a cylinder. *t is li!ely, in practice, that an
a(erage h for the entire cylinder is desired. Mc+dams5; has plotted the data of 3> separate
55
5;
W. H. #iedt, Trans. +.&.M.E., 93, >97 A3:@:B.
W. H. Mc+dams, Heat Transmission, Third Edition, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:@:.
56.>
766
Forced on(ection for E8ternal Flo2 >3>
966
;66
ReD N 53:,666
566
37;,666
396,666
3@6,666
/u? @66
363,>66
>66
96,766
566
366
6
6
@676356
?=Degrees from stagnation point
3;6
Figure 56.7 $ocal /usselt num"ers for
crossJo2 a"out a circular cylinder at
high Reynolds num"ers.
AFrom W.H. #iedt, Trans. +.&.M.E., 93,
>97 A3:@:B. -y permission of the
pu"lishers.B
in(estigations for the Jo2 of air normal to single cylinders and found e8cellent agreement
2hen plotted as /uD (s. ReD. His plot is reproduced in Figure 56.:. /ote that (alues of /uD are
for ,r P 3. For other Juids a correction factor, ,r3D>, should "e employed, that is,
/uD P /uDAfigureB ,r3D> .
+ 2idely used correlation for these data is of the form
/uD P - Ren ,r3D>
A56=>5B
2here the constants - and n are functions of the Reynolds num"er. 1alues for these
constants are gi(en in Ta"le 56.>. The film temperature is appropriate for physical
property e(aluation.
hurchill and -ernstein59 ha(e recommended a single correlating e?uation co(ering
conditions for 2hich ReD ,r _ 6C5. This correlation is e8pressed in e?uation A56=>;B.
/uD P
36C;5 ReDD5 ,r3D>
6C> V hi3D@
5D >3 V A6C@D,rB
s
3V
ReD
575T 666
5D7 4@D5
A56=>;B
59
&. W. hurchill and M. -ernstein, J. Heat Transfer, ::, >66 A3:99B.
>3@ hapter 56 on(ecti(e Heat=Transfer orrelations
;66
@66
>66
566
366
76
;6
@6
56
/uD
3.6
7
;
@
5
3
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.3
0ennely et al.
0ennely and &an"orn
$. 1. 0ing
Huges
#i"son
Reiher
,alt< and &tarr
1ornehm
Hilpert
#ouh!man et al.
&mall
#riffiths and +2"ery
-en!e oordinates of
recommended cur(e
/u N
r ( DhDRe N m
hff
6.3
3.6
36
366
3666
36,666
366,666
556,666
6.@5
6.7@
3.7>
5.3
35.9
5;.5
5@5
556
5 > @ ; 7
3.6
5 > @ ; 7
36
5 > @ ; 7 365 5
ReD
> @ ; 7 36> 5 > @ ; 7 36@ 5 > @ ; 7 365 5 >
Figure 56.: /u (s. Re for Jo2 normal to single cylinders.
/oteC These (alues are strictly (alid 2hen ,r ^ 3.
AFrom W. H. Mc+dams, Heat Transmission, Third Edition, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:5@, p. 55:.B
Ta"le 56.> 1alues of - and n for use in e?uation A56=>5B
ReD
6.@DO@
@O@6
@6O@666
@666O@6,666
@6,666O@66,666
-
6.:7:
6.:33
6.;7>
6.3:>
6.659
n
6.>>6
6.>75
6.@;;
6.;37
6.765
&ingle &pheres. $ocal con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcients at (arious positions relati(e to
the for2ard stagnation point for Jo2 past a sphere are plotted in Figure 56.36, follo2ing the
2or! of ary.57
Mc+dams5: has plotted the data of se(eral in(estigators relating /uD (s. ReD for air
Jo2ing past spheres. His plot is duplicated in Figure 56.33.
+ recent correlation proposed "y Whita!er>6 is recommended for the follo2ing con=
ditionsC 6C93 ] ,r ] >76, >C5 ] ReD ] 9C; ` 36@ , 3C6 ] m3 Dms ] >C5. +ll properties are
57
5:
>6
J. R. ary, Trans. +.&.M.E., 95, @7> A3:5>B.
W. H. Mc+dams, op. cit.
&. Whita!er, +.*.h.E.J., 37, >;3 A3:95B.
56.>
3;
Forced on(ection for E8ternal Flo2 >35
3@
35
Re N 356,666
356,666
7:,666
57,666
@@,666
h, in -tuDft5 hr
gF
36
7
;
@
5
Figure 56.36 $ocal heat=transfer coefFcients for
Jo2 past a sphere.
6
6>6;6 :6 356 356 376 AFrom J. R. ary, Trans. +.&.M.E., 95, @75 A3:5>B.
-y permission of the pu"lishers.B+ngle from stagnation point, deg
0ey %"ser(er
-ider and $ahmeyer
1.D. -orne
-uttner
Dorno
Meissner and -uttner
Johnstone, ,igford, and hapin
&chmidt
1yrou"o(
Ds, in cm
9.5
5.:
5.6O5.5
9.5
@.9O35.6
6.6>>O6.655
9.5
3O5
6.93O3.5;
9O35
,, in atm
3
3.6
3.6
6.7
3=35
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3666
/u N hDD!f
366 0ramers
$oy<ans!y and &ch2a"
Johnstone, ,igford, and hapin
Theoretical line
Recommended appro8. line
1yrou"o( 6.5@O35 3.6
36
/uD N 6.>3 ReD6.;
3
3.6 36
365 36>
r( D

ReD N m
36@ 365
Figure 56.33 /uD (s. ReD for air=Jo2 past single spheres.
AFrom Mc+dams, Heat Transmission, Third Edition, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!,
3:5@, p. 5;;. -y permission of the pu"lishers.B
>3; hapter 56 on(ecti(e Heat=Transfer orrelations
e(aluated at T3 e8cept for ms, 2hich is the (alue at the surface temperature. Whita!erHs
correlation is
3/uD P 5 V A6C@ ReDD5 V 6C6; Re5D> B,r6C@ Am3 Dms B3D@D
A56=>9B
+n important case is that of falling li?uid drops, modeled as spheres. The correlation of
Ran< and Marshall,>3 for this case, is
3/uD P 5 V 6C; ReDD5 Re3D>
A56=>7B
Tu"e -an!s in rossJo2. When a num"er of tu"es are placed together in a "an! or
"undle, as might "e encountered in a heat e8changer, the effecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient is
affected "y the tu"e arrangement and spacing, in addition to those factors already considered
for Jo2 past single cylinders. &e(eral in(estigators ha(e made signiFcant contri"utions to
the analysis of these conFgurations.
+s Juid Jo2 through and past tu"e "undles in(ol(es an irregular Jo2 path, some
in(estigators ha(e chosen signiFcant lengths other than D, the tu"e diameter, to use in
calculating Reynolds num"ers. %ne such term is the e?ui(alent diameter of a tu"e "undle
De?, deFned as
De?
@A&$ &T U pD5D@B
P
pD
A56=>:B
2here &$ is the center=to=center distance "et2een tu"es along the direction of flo2, &T is
the center=to=center distance "et2een tu"es normal to the flo2 direction, and D is the %D
of a tu"e.
-ergelin, ol"urn, and Hull>5 studied the Jo2 of li?uids past tu"e "undles in the region
of laminar Jo2 2ith 3 ] Re ] 3666C Their results, plotted as &t ,r5D> Am2 Dm" B6C3@ (s. Re for
(arious conFgurations, are presented in Figure 56.35. *n that Fgure all Juid properties
e8cept m2 are e(aluated at the a(erage "ul! temperature.
For li?uids in transition Jo2 across tu"e "undles, -ergelin, -ro2n, and Do"erstein>>
e8tended the 2or! Iust mentioned for F(e of the tu"e arrangements to include (alues of Re
up to 36@. Their results are presented "oth for energy transfer and friction factor (s. Re in
Figure 56.3>.
*n addition to the greater Reynolds num"er range, Figure 56.3> in(ol(es Re calculated
"y using the tu"e diameter, D, as opposed to Figure 56.35, in 2hich De?, deFned "y e?uation
A56=>9B, 2as used.
WindOhill E?ui(alent Temperature. The reader is undou"tedly familiar 2ith 2eather
reports 2here, in addition to measured air temperatures, an indication of ho2 cold one
actually feels is e8pressed as the 2indOchill e?ui(alent temperature. This temperature
indicates ho2 cold the 2ind actually ma!es one feelT the stronger the 2ind "lo2s, the colder
the air feels to the human "ody.
The determination of 2indOchill e?ui(alent temperature is an interesting e8ample of
the com"ined effects of con(ecti(e and conducti(e heat transfer "et2een the "ody and the
adIacent air. For a complete e8planation of the modeling used in determining this ?uantity,
>3
>5
>>
W. Ran< and W. Marshall, hem. Engr. ,rogr., @7, 3@3 A3:55B.
%. ,. -ergelin, +. ,. ol"urn, and H. $. Hull, 'ni(. Dela2are, Eng. E8pt. &ta. -ulletin /o. 5 A3:56B.
%. ,. -ergelin, #. +. -ro2n, and &. . Do"erstein, Trans. +.&.M.E., 9@, :5> A3:55B.
56.>
5.6
3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
!
6.3
6.67
6.6;
6.6@
Forced on(ection for E8ternal Flo2
Ro2s
36
36
3@
3@
36
36
36
D, in in.
>D7
>D7
>D7
>D@
>D7
>D7
>D@
,itchDD
3.56
3.55
3.55
3.55
3.56
3.55
3.55
>39
h
cp#m
cpm
5D>
Tu"e arrangement
e?uilateral triangle A@B
e?uilateral triangle A3B
staggered s?uare A>B
staggered s?uare A9B
*n=line s?uare A5B
in=line s?uare A5B
in=line s?uare A;B
m2m"
6.3@
A>, 9B
A@B
A3B
A5B
A5, ;B
36
Re N #D
m
366 3666
Id N
6.65
6.63
3
Figure 56.35 on(ecti(e heat=transfer e8change "et2een li?uids in laminar Jo2 and tu"e "undles.
AFrom %. ,. -ergelin, +. ,. ol"urn, and H. $. Hull, 'ni(. of Dela2are, Engr. Dept., &tation
-ulletin 36.5, 3:56, p. 7. -y permission of the pu"lishers.B
6.3@
@
Model Ro2s
36
36
3@
36
36
Dt in.
>D7
>D7
>D7
>D7
>D7
,itchDDt
3.55
3.55
3.55
3.56
3.56
5
366 3
7
;
3
5
>
@
5
Model
/o. 3
Model
/o. 5
%il
flo2
f
m2m"
Transition <one
Friction
%il
6.3@
@
5
36O3 3
7
;
@
5
36O5 3
7
;
@
3
363
flo2
cpm
5D>
!
m2m"
Model /o. >
%il
flo2 h
cp#m
Model /o. @ Model /o. 5
%il
flo2
%il
flo2
Id N
Heat transfer
5 @ ; 7 3
365
5
Re N
@
Dt #m
m
; 7 3
36>
5 @ ; 7 3
36@
Figure 56.3> Energy transfer and frictional loss for li?uids in laminar and transition Jo2 past
tu"e "undles.
AFrom %. ,. -ergelin, #. +. -ro2n, and &. . Do"erstein, Trans. +.&.M.E., 9@, 3:57 A3:55B. -y
permission of the pu"lishers.B
Ta"le 56.@ WindOchill e?ui(alent temperatureKenglish units
>5
Wind speed
AmiDhrB
5
36
35
56
55
>6
>5
@6
>5
55
3;
35
7
;
@
>
>6
59
3;
:
@
3
U5
U@
U5
55
55
36
5
U>
U9
U36
U35
U3>
56
3;
>
U5
U36
U35
U37
U56
U53
+ir temperature A7FB
35365
33
U>
U33
U39
U55
U55
U59
U5:
;
U:
U37
U5@
U5:
U>>
U>5
U>9
6
U35
U55
U>3
U>;
U@3
U@>
U@5
6
U5
U55
U>3
U>:
U@@
U@:
U55
U5>
U5
U36
U59
U>7
U@;
U53
U5;
U57
U;6
U36
U35
U>@
U@5
U5>
U5:
U;@
U;9
U;:
U35
U53
U@6
U53
U;6
U;;
U93
U9@
U9;
U56
U5;
U@;
U57
U;9
U9@
U9:
U75
U7@
U55
U>3
U55
U;5
U9@
U73
U7;
U7:
U:5
Ta"le 56.5 WindOchill e?ui(alent temperatureK&* units
7
Wind speed
A!mDhrB
6
36
56
>6
@6
56
;6
7
5
6
U>
U5
U;
U9
@
@
6
U5
U7
U33
U35
U3>
6
6
U@
U36
U3@
U39
U37
U3:
U@
U@
U7
U35
U56
U5>
U55
U5;
+ir temperature A7B
U7U35U3;
U7
U3>
U53
U55
U5:
U>3
U>5
U35
U39
U5;
U>3
U>5
U>9
U>:
U3;
U55
U>3
U>9
U@3
U@>
U@5
U56
U56
U5;
U>;
U@>
U@9
U@:
U53
U5@
U5@
U>3
U@5
U@7
U5>
U5;
U57
U57
U57
U>5
U@9
U5@
U5:
U;5
U;@
U>5
U>5
U@6
U55
U;6
U;5
U;7
U96
U>;
U>;
U@@
U59
U;5
U93
U9@
U99
U@6
U@6
U@:
U;>
U93
U99
U76
U7>
the reader is referred to a 3:93 paper "y &teadman.>@ Ta"les 56.@ and 56.5, pro(ide (alues
of the 2indOchill e?ui(alent temperature as a function of air temperature and 2ind speed,
in English and &* units, respecti(ely.
56.@ $%&'RE
Many of the more useful e8perimentally de(eloped correlations for predicting con(ecti(e
heat=transfer coefFcients ha(e "een presented in this chapter. Those graphs and e?uations
presented are a small part of the information of this type a(aila"le in the literature. The
information included should, in any case, allo2 most of the more common con(ection heat=
transfer coefFcients to "e predicted 2ith some conFdence.
The con(ection phenomena considered ha(e included the follo2ingC
3. /atural con(ection past (ertical and hori<ontal surfaces, plus some useful sim=
pliFed e8pressions for airT
5. Forced con(ection for internal Jo2, including laminar and tur"ulent Jo2 correla=
tionsT and
>. Forced con(ection for e8ternal Jo2 2ith cylinders, spheres, and tu"e "undles "eing
the types of surfaces so considered.
>@
R. #. &teadman, *ndices of 2indchill of clothed persons, J. +pp. Meteorol, 36, ;9@O;7> A3:93B.
,ro"lems >3:
The reader is reminded to o"ser(e any special considerations relati(e to the e?uations
and plots in this chapter. &uch considerations include 2hether to e(aluate Juid properties at
the "ul! or Flm temperature, 2hat signiFcant length is used in a gi(en correlation, and 2hat
is the allo2a"le ,randtl and Reynolds num"er range for a gi(en set of data.
,R%-$EM&
56.3 + 956=W immersion heater in the form of a cylinder 2ith
>D@=in. diameter and ; in. in length is placed in :57F stagnant
2ater. alculate the surface temperature of the heater if it is
oriented 2ith its a8is
a. (erticalT
". hori<ontal.
56.5 Repeat ,ro"lem 56.3 if the stagnant li?uid is
a. "ismuth at 9667FT
". hydraulic Juid at 67F.
56.> +n immersion heater, rated at 3666 W, is in the form of a
rectangular solid 2ith dimensions 3; cm "y 36 cm "y 3 cm.
Determine the surface temperature of the heater if it is oriented in
5:5 0 2ater 2ith
a. the 3;=cm dimension (ertical,
". the 36=cm dimension (ertical.
56.@ + 5=in. copper cylinder, ; in. in length, at a uniform
temperature of 5667F, is plunged (ertically into a large tan! of
2ater at 567F.
a. Ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for the outside surface of the cylinder
to reach 3667Fa
". Ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for the center of the cylinder to reach
3667Fa
c. What is the surface temperature 2hen the center tempera=
ture is 3667Fa Heat transfer from ends of the cylinder may
"e neglected.
56.5 + Juorescent light "ul", rated at 366 W, is illuminated in
air at 557 and atmospheric pressure. 'nder these conditions the
surface temperature of the glass is 3@67.
Determine the rate of heat transfer from the "ul" "y natural
con(ection. The "ul" is cylindrical, ha(ing a diameter of >5 mm
and a length of 6.7 m, and is oriented hori<ontally.
/ote that your result is not e?ual to 366 W. Where does the
remaining energy goa
56.; Determine the steady=state surface temperature of an
electric ca"le, 55 cm in diameter, 2hich is suspended hori<on=
tally in still air in 2hich heat is dissipated "y the ca"le at a rate of
59 W per meter of length. The air temperature is >67.
56.9 + copper cylinder 56.> cm long 2ith a diameter of 5.5@
cm is "eing used to e(aluate the surface coefFcient in a la"ora=
tory e8periment. When heated to a uniform temperature of
>5.57 and then plunged into a U37 li?uid "ath, the center
temperature of the cylinder reaches a (alue of @.77 in > min.
+ssuming the heat e8change "et2een the cylinder and 2ater
"ath to "e purely "y con(ection, 2hat (alue for the surface
coefFcient is indicateda
56.7 Ru""er "alls are molded into spheres and cured at >;6 0.
Follo2ing this operation they are allo2ed to cool in room air.
What 2ill "e the elapsed time for the surface temperature of
a solid ru""er "all to reach >56 0 2hen the surrounding air
temperature is 5:5 0a onsider "alls 2ith diameters of 9.5,
5, and 3.5 cm. ,roperties of ru""er that may "e used are ! P
6C5@ WDm [ 0, r P 3356 !gDm> , cp P 3656 JD!g[0C
56.: Determine the re?uired time for the ru""er "alls descri"ed
in ,ro"lem 56.7 to reach the condition such that the center
temperature is >56 0. What 2ill "e the surface temperature 2hen
the center temperature reaches >56 0a
56.36 + 3=in., 3;=-W# copper tu"e has its outside surface
maintained at 5@67F. *f this tu"e is located in still air at ;67F, 2hat
heat Ju8 2ill "e achie(ed if the tu"e is oriented
a. hori<ontallya
". (erticallya
The tu"e length is 36 ft.
56.33 &ol(e ,ro"lem 56.36 if the medium surrounding the tu"e
is stagnant 2ater at ;67F.
56.35 + 6.;=m=diameter spherical tan! contains li?uid o8ygen
at 97 0. This tan! is co(ered 2ith 5 cm of glass 2ool. Determine
the rate of heat gain if the tan! is surrounded "y air at 597 0. The
tan! is constructed of stainless steel 6.>5 cm thic!.
56.3> + GGs2imming=poolHH nuclear reactor, consisting of >6
rectangular plates measuring 3 ft in 2idth and > ft in height,
spaced 53D5 in. apart, is immersed in 2ater at 767F. *f 5667F is the
ma8imum allo2a"le plate temperature, 2hat is the ma8imum
po2er le(el at 2hich the reactor may operatea
56.3@ + solar energy collector measuring 56 ` 56 ft is
installed on a roof in a hori<ontal position. The incident solar
energy Ju8 is 566 -tuDh ft5 T and the collector surface tempera=
ture is 3567F. What fraction of incident solar energy is lost
"y con(ection to the stagnant surrounding air at a temperature
of 567Fa What effect on the con(ecti(e losses 2ould result
if the collector 2ere crisscrossed 2ith ridges spaced 3 ft
aparta
56.35 #i(en the conditions for ,ro"lem 56.3@, determine the
fraction of incident solar energy lost "y con(ection to the
surrounding air at 57> 0 Jo2ing parallel to the collector surface
at a (elocity of ;.3 mDs.
To reduce the surface temperature, as re?uired "y safety
regulations, room air is "lo2n across the top 2ith a (elocity of 56
mDs. onditions inside the o(en may "e considered unchanged.
a. What 2ill "e the rate of heat loss under this ne2 operating
conditiona
". What 2ill "e the top surface temperaturea
56.5; &aturated steam at 6.3 "ar condenses on the outside of a
copper tu"e ha(ing inner and outer diameters of 3;.5 and 3: mm,
respecti(ely. The surface coefFcients on the inner A2aterB sur=
face and outer AsteamB surface are 5566 and ;766 WDm5 [0T
respecti(ely.
When the mean 2ater temperature is 57 0, estimate the rate
of steam condensed per meter of tu"e length. The latent heat of
condensation of steam may "e ta!en as 5C>:6 !JD!gC
56.59 &ol(e ,ro"lem 56.@3 if, instead of si8 tu"es, three tu"es
each 5 m in length are used to heat the oil.
56.57 +ir at ;67F and atmospheric pressure Jo2s inside a
3=in., 3;=-W# copper tu"e 2hose surface is maintained at 5@67F
"y condensing steam. Find the temperature of the air after
passing through 56 ft of tu"ing if its entering (elocity is @6 fps.
56.5: + 3=in., 3;=-W# copper tu"e, 36 ft long, has its outside
surface maintained at 5@67F. +ir at ;67F and atmospheric pres=
sure is forced past this tu"e 2ith a (elocity of @6 fps. Determine
the heat Ju8 from the tu"e to the air if the Jo2 of air is
a. parallel to the tu"eT
". normal to the tu"e a8is.
56.>6 &ol(e ,ro"lem 56.5: if the medium Jo2ing past the tu"e
in forced con(ection is 2ater at ;67F.
56.>3 &ol(e ,ro"lem 56.5: if the medium Jo2ing past the tu"e
in forced con(ection is M*$=M=5;6; hydraulic Juid.
56.>5 +n industrial heater is composed of a tu"e "undle
consisting of hori<ontal >D7=in.=%D tu"es in a staggered array
2ith tu"es arranged in e?uilateral triangle fashion ha(ing a pitch=
to=diameter ratio of 3.5. *f 2ater at 3;67F Jo2s at 56 ftDs past the
tu"es 2ith constant surface temperature of 5357F, 2hat 2ill "e
the effecti(e heat=transfer coefFcienta
56.>> For the heater consisting of the tu"e "an! descri"ed in
,ro"lem 56.>5, e(aluate the heat transferred to the 2ater if the
tu"e array consists of si8 ro2s of tu"es in the Jo2 direction 2ith
eight tu"es per ro2. The tu"es are 5 ft long.
56.>@ Heat transfer "et2een an electrically heated circular
cylinder and 2ater is to "e e8amined for three different condi=
tions. The heater has a diameter of 3.5; cm and is 9.5 cm long.
The surface of the heater is at >76 0 and the 2ater is at 5:5 0. +ll
heat transfer is from the lateral surface.
E(aluate the heat transfer, in W, under conditions 2here
a. energy e8change is "y natural con(ection 2ith the heater
a8is oriented hori<ontallyT
". energy e8change is "y natural con(ection 2ith heater a8is
oriented (erticallyT
56.3; ast=iron cannon"alls used in the War of 3735 2ere
occasionally heated for some e8tended time so that, 2hen Fred at
houses and ships, they 2ould set them aFre. *f one of these the so=
called GGhot shotHH 2ith a 35=cm diameter 2ere at a uniform
temperature of 3>66 0, 2hat heat Ju8 (alue 2ould e8ist if it 2ere
suddenly placed in still air at 596 0a The follo2ing properties of
cast iron may "e usedC
! P >:C7 WDm[0
cp P @C7 JD!g[0
r P 9>96 !gDm>
56.39 #i(en the information in ,ro"lem 56.3;, construct a plot
of con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient (s. temperature for (alues
of Tsurface "et2een @56 and 3>66 0. Ho2 long 2ould it ta!e for
the surface temperature of a cannon"all to reach ;66 0a What
2ould "e its center temperature at this timea
56.37 opper 2ire 2ith a diameter of 6.5 cm is co(ered 2ith a
6.;5=cm layer of insulating material ha(ing a thermal conduc=
ti(ity of 6C5@5 WDm[0C The air adIacent to the insulation is at 5:6
0. *f the 2ire carries a current of @66 +, determine
a. the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient "et2een the insula=
tion surface and the surrounding airT
". the temperatures at the insulation=copper interface and at the
outside surface of the insulation.
56.3: Wor! ,ro"lem for an aluminum conductor of the same
si<e Wresisti(ity of aluminum P 5C7> ` 36U; ohm=cmXC
56.56 *f the steam line descri"ed in ,ro"lem 56.@6 is "are
and surrounded "y still air at 967F, 2hat total heat transfer 2ould
"e predicted from a 56=ft length of "are pipea onsider the
"are pipe to "e a "lac! surface and the surroundings "lac! at
967F.
56.53 &ol(e ,ro"lem 56.56 if the "are pipe is located so that
5:5 0 air Jo2s normal to the pipe a8is at a (elocity of ;.5 mDs.
56.55 &ol(e ,ro"lem 56.56 if > in. of insulation ha(ing a
thermal conducti(ity of 6C6;6 -tuDh ft F is applied to the outside
of the pipe. /eglect radiation from the insulation. What 2ill "e
the outside surface temperature of the insulationa
56.5> What thic!ness of insulation ha(ing a thermal conduc=
ti(ity as gi(en in ,ro"lem 56.55 must "e added to the steam pipe
of ,ro"lem 56.@6 in order that the outside temperature of the
insulation does not e8ceed 5567Fa
56.5@ *f insulation ha(ing a thermal conducti(ity of
6C6;6 -tuDh ft F is added to the outside of the steam pipe
descri"ed in ,ro"lem 56.@6, 2hat thic!ness 2ill "e necessary
if radiation losses from the outside surface of the insulation
account for no more than 35b of the totala The surroundings
may "e considered "lac! at 967F. What is the temperature at the
outside surface of the insulation under these conditionsa
56.55 + coo!ing o(en has a top surface temperature of @57
2hen e8posed to still air. +t this condition the inside o(en
temperature and room air temperature are 376 and 567, respec=
ti(ely, and heat is transferred from the top surface at @6 W.
,ro"lems
c. energy e8change is "y forced con(ection 2ith 2ater Jo2ing
across the lateral surface at 3C5 mDsC
56.>5 &ol(e ,ro"lem 56.3; 2ith all conditions as gi(en e8cept
that the GGhot shotHH is tra(eling through the air at 596 0 2ith a
(elocity of 356 mDs.
56.>; What 2ould "e the results of ,ro"lem 56.37 if a fan
pro(ided an air Jo2 normal to the conductor a8is at a (elocity of
: mDsa
56.>9 +n electric light "ul", rated at ;6 W, has a surface
temperature of 3@57 2hen cooled "y atmospheric air at
557. The air Jo2s past the "ul" 2ith a (elocity of 6.5 mDs.
The "ul" can "e modeled as a sphere 2ith a diameter of 9.5 cm.
Determine the heat transfer from the "ul" "y the mechanism of
forced con(ection.
56.>7 + (al(e on a hot=2ater line is opened Iust enough to
allo2 a Jo2 of 6.6; fps. The 2ater is maintained at 3767F, and the
inside 2all of the 3D5=in. schedule=r6 2ater line is at 767F. What
is the total heat loss through 5 ft of 2ater line under these
conditionsa What is the e8it 2ater temperaturea
56.>: When the (al(e on the 2ater line in ,ro"lem 56.>7 is
opened 2ide, the 2ater (elocity is >5 fps. What is the heat loss
per 5 ft of 2ater line in this case if the 2ater and pipe tempera=
tures are the same as speciFed in ,ro"lem 56.>7a
56.@6 &team at @66 psi, 7667F Jo2s through a 3=in. schedule=
3@6 steel pipe at a rate of 36T 666 l"m DhC Estimate the (alue of h
that applies at the inside pipe surface.
56.@3 %il at >66 0 is heated "y steam condensing at >95 0 on
the outside of steel pipes 2ith *D P 5C6: cmT %D P 5C;9 cmC
The oil Jo2 rate is 3.@9 !gDsT si8 tu"es, each 5.5 m long, are used.
The properties of oil to "e used are as follo2sC
T, 0
>66
>36
>@6
>96
r, !gDm>
:36
7:9
796
7;5
c p , JD!g[0
3C7@ ` 36>
3C:5 ` 36>
5C66 ` 36>
5C3> ` 36>
!, WDm[0
6.3>>
6.3>3
6.3>6
6.357
m, ,a[s
6.6@3@
6.6557
9C7: ` 36U>
>C95 ` 36U>
>53
56.@> +n apparatus, used in an operating room to cool "lood,
consists of a coiled tu"e that is immersed in an ice "ath. 'sing this
apparatus, "lood, Jo2ing at 6C66; m> DhT is to "e cooled from @6 to
>67. The inside diameter of the tu"e is 5.5 mm, and the surface
coefFcient "et2een the ice "ath and outer tu"e surface is
566 WDm5 [0C The thermal resistance of the tu"e 2all may "e
neglected.
Determine the re?uired length of tu"ing to accomplish the
desired cooling. ,roperties of "lood are the follo2ingC
r P 3666 !gDm5
! P 6C5 WDm[0
c p P @C6 !JD!g[0
( P 9 ` 36U9 m5 Ds
Determine the total heat transfer to the oil and its temperature at
the heater e8it.
56.@@ + 3.:65=cm=diameter "rass tu"e is used to condense
steam on its outer surface at 36.3> !,a pressure. Water at 5:6
0 is circulated through the tu"e. *nside and outside surface
coefFcients are 3966 and 7566 WDm5 [0T respecti(ely. Find
the rate of steam condensed per hour per meter of the tu"e
length under these conditions. The follo2ing information is
pertinentC
tu"e %D P 3C:65 cm
tu"e *D P 3C;5; cm
steam saturation temperature P >3:C5 0
steam latent heat, hfg P 5>:> !JN!gC
56.@5 + system for heating 2ater 2ith an inlet temperature of
557 to an e8iting temperature of 967 in(ol(es passing the
2ater through a thic!=2alled tu"e 2ith inner and outer diameters
of 55 and @5 mm, respecti(ely. The outer tu"e surface is 2ell
insulated, and the electrical heating 2ithin the tu"e 2all pro(ides
|for a uniform generation of ? P 3C5 ` 36; WDm> C
|a. For a mass Jo2 rate of 2ater, m P 6C35 !gDsT ho2 long
must
the tu"e "e to achie(e the desired outlet temperaturea
". *f the inner surface of the tu"e at the outlet is Ts P 336 T
2hat is the local con(ecti(e coefFcient at this locationa
56.@; +ir at 55 psia is to "e heated from ;6 to 3667F in a
smooth, >D@=in.=*D tu"e 2hose surface is held at a constant
temperature of 3567F. What is the length of the tu"e re?uired for
an air (elocity of 55 fpsa +t 35 fpsa
56.@9 +ir is transported through a rectangular duct measur=
ing 5 ft "y @ ft. The air enters at 3567F and Jo2s 2ith a mass
(elocity of ; l"m Ds[ft5 C *f the duct 2alls are at a temperature of
767F, ho2 much heat is lost "y the air per foot of duct lengtha
What is the corresponding temperature decrease of the air per
foota
56.@7 ooling 2ater Jo2s through thin=2alled tu"es in a
condenser 2ith a (elocity of 3.5 mDs. The tu"es are 55.@ mm
in diameter. The tu"e=2all temperature is maintained constant at
>96 0 "y condensing steam on the outer surface. The tu"es are 5
m long and the 2ater enters at 5:6 0.
Determine the rate of heat transfer to the oil.
56.@5 Engine oil 2ith properties gi(en "elo2 Jo2s at a rate of
3>; !g per hour through a 9.5=cm=*D pipe 2hose inside surface is
maintained at 3667. *f the oil enters at 3;67, 2hat 2ill its
temperature "e at the e8it of a 35=m=long pipea
r,
!gDm>
7@5
7>3
739
767
c p,
JD!g[0
5.53:
5.>6;
5.>:@
5.@75
!,
WDm[0
6.3>9
6.3>5
6.3>>
6.3>5
(,
m5 Ds ` 36>
6.656>
6.635@
6.6676
6.665;
T, 0
>9>
>:>
@3>
@>>
,r
59;
395
33;
7@
are 36 ro2s of tu"es, 2hich are held at a surface temperature of
757. +ir at atmospheric pressure and 567 Jo2s normal to the
tu"es 2ith a free stream (elocity of ; mDs. The tu"e "an! is 36
ro2s deep, and the tu"es are 3.7 m long. Determine the amount of
heat transferred.
56.55 Re2or! ,ro"lem 56.53 for a staggered arrangement.
56.5> + tu"e "an! employs tu"es that are 3.>6 cm in outside
diameter at &T P &$ P 3C;55 cm. There are eight ro2s of tu"es,
2hich are held at a surface temperature of :67. +ir, at atmo=
spheric pressure and a "ul! temperature 597, Jo2s normal to
the tu"es 2ith a free stream (elocity of 3.55 mDs. The tu"e "an! is
eight ro2s deep, and the tu"es are 3.7 m long. Estimate the heat=
transfer coefFcient.
56.5@ Re2or! ,ro"lem 56.5> for a staggered arrangement. +ll
other conditions remain the same.
Estimate the e8iting 2ater temperature and the heat=
transfer rate per tu"e.
56.@: +ir, at >55 0, enters a rectangular duct 2ith a mass
(elocity of 5:C@ !gDs[m5 C The duct measures 6.;3 m "y 3.55 m
and its 2alls are at >66 0.
Determine the rate of heat loss "y the air per meter of duct
length and the corresponding decrease in air temperature per
meter.
56.56 +ir at atmospheric pressure and 367 enters a rectan=
gular duct that is ; m long ha(ing dimensions of 9.5 and 35 cm in
cross section. The surfaces are maintained at 967 "y solar
irradiation. *f the e8iting air temperature is to "e >67, 2hat is the
re?uired Jo2 rate of the aira
56.53 + tu"e "an! employs an in=line arrangement 2ith &T P
&$ P >C5 cm and tu"es that are 3.7 cm in outside diameter. There
hapter
53
-oiling and ondensation
Energy=transfer processes associated 2ith the phenomena of "oiling and condensation
may achie(e relati(ely high heat=transfer rates, 2hereas the accompanying temperature
differences may "e ?uite small. These phenomena, associated 2ith the change in phase
"et2een a li?uid and a (apor, are more in(ol(ed and thus more difFcult to descri"e
than the con(ecti(e heat=transfer processes discussed in the preceding chapters. This is
due to the additional considerations of surface tension, latent heat of (apori<ation,
surface characteristics, and other properties of t2o=phase systems that 2ere not
in(ol(ed in the earlier considerations. The processes of "oiling and condensation deal
2ith opposite effects relati(e to the change in phase "et2een a li?uid and its (apor.
These phenomena 2ill "e considered separately in the follo2ing sections.
53.3 -%*$*/#
-oiling heat transfer is associated 2ith a change in phase from li?uid to (apor. E8tremely
high heat Ju8es may "e achie(ed in conIunction 2ith "oiling phenomena, ma!ing the
application particularly (alua"le 2here a small amount of space is a(aila"le to accom=
plish a relati(ely large energy transfer. %ne such application is the cooling of nuclear
reactors. +nother is the cooling of electronic de(ices 2here space is (ery critical. The
ad(ent of these applications has spurred the interest in "oiling, and concentrated research
in this area in recent years has shed much light on the mechanism and "eha(ior of the
"oiling phenomenon
There are t2o "asic types of "oilingC pool "oiling and Jo2 "oiling. ,ool "oiling
occurs on a heated surface su"merged in a li?uid pool that is not agitated. Flo2 "oiling
occurs in a Jo2ing stream, and the "oiling surface may itself "e a portion of the Jo2
passage. The Jo2 of li?uid and (apor associated 2ith Jo2 "oiling is an important type of
t2o=phase Jo2.
Regimes of -oiling. +n electrically heated hori<ontal 2ire su"merged in a pool of 2ater
at its saturation temperature is a con(enient system to illustrate the regimes of "oiling heat
transfer. + plot of the heat Ju8 associated 2ith such a system as the ordinate (s. the
temperature difference "et2een the heated surface and saturated 2ater is depicted in
Figure 53.3. There are si8 different regimes of "oiling associated 2ith the "eha(ior
e8hi"ited in this Fgure.
*n regime *, the 2ire surface temperature is only a fe2 degrees higher than that of the
surrounding saturated li?uid. /atural con(ection currents circulate the superheated li?uid,
and e(aporation occurs at the free li?uid surface as the superheated li?uid reaches it.
+n increase in 2ire temperature is accompanied "y the formation of (apor "u""les on
the 2ire surface. These "u""les form at certain surface sites, 2here (apor "u""le nuclei are
>5>
>5@ hapter 53 -oiling and ondensation
* **
/ucleate=
"oiling
"u""les
***
/ucleate="oiling
"u""les rise to
interface
a
*1
,artial nucleate
"oiling and
unsta"le film
1
&ta"le film
"oiling
Radiation coming
into play
1*
-oiling cur(e
6.3 3.6 36366
T2 O Tsat, gF
3666 36,666
Figure 53.3 ,ool "oiling in 2ater on a hori<ontal 2ire at atmospheric pressure.
present, "rea! off, rise, and condense "efore reaching the free li?uid surface. This is the
process occurring in regime **.
+t a still higher 2ire surface temperature, as in regime ***, larger and more numerous
"u""les form, "rea! a2ay from the 2ire surface, rise, and reach the free surface. Regimes **
and *** are associated 2ith nucleate "oiling.
-eyond the pea! of this cur(e, the transition "oiling regime is entered. This is region *1
on the cur(e. *n this regime, a (apor Flm forms around the 2ire, and portions of this Flm
"rea! off and rise, "rieJy e8posing a portion of the 2ire surface. This Flm collapse and
reformation and this unsta"le nature of the Flm is characteristic of the transition regime.
When present, the (apor Flm pro(ides a considera"le resistance to heat transferT thus, the
heat Ju8 decreases.
When the surface temperature reaches a (alue of appro8imately @667F a"o(e the
saturated li?uid, the (apor Flm around the 2ire "ecomes sta"le. This is region 1, the sta"le
Flm="oiling regime.
For surface temperatures of 36667F or greater a"o(e that of the saturated li?uid, radiant
energy transfer comes into play, and the heat Ju8 cur(e rises once more. This is designated
as region 1* in Figure 53.3
The cur(e in Figure 53.3 can "e achie(ed if the energy source is a condensing (apor. *f,
ho2e(er, electrical heating is used, then regime *1 2ill pro"a"ly not "e o"tained "ecause of
2ire GG"urnout.HH +s the energy Ju8 is increased, DT increases through regions *, **, and ***.
When the pea! (alue of ?D+ is e8ceeded slightly, the re?uired amount of energy cannot "e
transferred "y "oiling. The result is an increase in DT accompanied "y a further decrease in
the possi"le ?D+. This condition continues until point " is reached. +s DT at point " is
e8tremely high, the 2ire 2ill long since ha(e reached its melting point. ,oint a on the cur(e
is often referred to as the GG"urnout pointHH for these reasons.
+s the mechanism of energy remo(al is intimately associated 2ith "uoyant forces, the
magnitude of the "ody=force intensity 2ill affect "oth the mechanism and the magnitude of
"oiling heat transfer. %ther than normal gra(itational effects are encountered in space
(ehicles.
/ote the some2hat anomalous "eha(ior e8hi"ited "y the heat Ju8 associated 2ith
"oiling. %ne normally considers a Ju8 to "e proportional to the dri(ing forceT thus, the heat
Ju8 might "e e8pected to increase continuously as the temperature difference "et2een the
Free
con(ection
$og A?D+B
53.3 -oiling >55
heated surface and the saturated li?uid increases. This, of course, is not the caseT the (ery
high heat Ju8es associated 2ith moderate temperature differences in the nucleate="oiling
regime are much higher than the heat Ju8es resulting from much higher temperature
differences in the Flm="oiling regime. The reason for this is the presence of the (apor Flm,
2hich co(ers and insulates the heating surface in the latter case
orrelations of -oiling Heat=Transfer Data. +s the Juid "eha(ior in a "oiling situation
is (ery difFcult to descri"e, there is no ade?uate analytical solution a(aila"le for "oiling
transfer. 1arious correlations of e8perimental data ha(e "een achie(ed for the different
"oiling regimesT the most useful of these follo2.
*n the natural con(ection regime, regime * of Figure 53.3, the correlations presented in
hapter 56 for natural con(ection may "e used.
Regime **, the regime of partial nucleate "oiling and partial natural con(ection, is a
com"ination of regimes * and ***, and the results for each of these t2o regimes may "e
superposed to descri"e a process in regime **.
The nucleate="oiling regime, regime ***, is of great engineering importance "ecause of
the (ery high heat Ju8es possi"le 2ith moderate temperature differences. That data for this
regime are correlated "y e?uations of the form
/u" P fARe" , ,r$ B
The parameter /u" in e?uation A53=3B is a /usselt num"er defined as
/u"
A?D+BD"
ATs U Tsat B!$
A53=5B
A53=3B
2here ?D+ is the total heat flu8, D" is the ma8imum "u""le diameter as it lea(es the surface,
Ts U Tsat is the e8cess temperature or the difference "et2een the surface and saturated=
li?uid temperatures, and !$ is the thermal conducti(ity of the li?uid. The ?uantity, ,r$, is the
,randtl num"er for the li?uid. The "u""le Reynolds num"er, Re", is defined as
Re"
D" #"
m$
A53=>B
2here #" is the a(erage mass (elocity of the (apor lea(ing the surface and m$ is the
li?uid (iscosity
The mass (elocity, #", may "e determined from
#" P
?D+
hfg
A53=@B
2here hfg is the latent heat of (apori<ation
Rohseno23 has used e?uation A53=3B to correlate +ddomsHs5 pool="oiling data for
a 6.65@=in.=diameter platinum 2ire immersed in 2ater. This correlation is sho2n in
Figure 53.5 and is e8pressed in e?uation form as
QQ
?
gAr$ U r( B 3D5 cp$ ATs U Tsat B >
P m$ hfgA53=5B
+ssf hfg ,r3C9$
2here cp$ is the heat capacity for the li?uid and the other terms ha(e their usual meanings.
W. M. Rohseno2, +.&.M.E. Trans., 9@, :;: A3:55B.
J. /. +ddoms, D.&c. Thesis, hemical Engineering Department, Massachusetts *nstitute of Technology,
June 3:@7.
5
3
>5; hapter 53 -oiling and ondensation
3.9
366
s
gAr$ O r(B
36
Data of
+ddoms
pool "oiling
,latinum
2ireO2ater
6.65@ in. diam.
3@.9 psia
>7> psia
996 psia
3565 psia
3;65 psia
5@;5 psia
?D+
m$ hfg
3.6
c$
AT O TsatB N 6.63>
hfg 2
?D+
m$ hfg
s
gAr$ O r(B
6.>>
c$ m$
!$
6.3
6.63 6.3
c$3
AT2 O TsatB
hfg,r$3.9
36
Figure 53.5 orrelation of pool=
"oiling data.
AFrom W. M. Rohseno2 and H.
hoi, Heat, Mass, and Momentum
Transfer, ,rentice=Hall, *nc.,
Engle2ood liffs, /.J., 3:;3,
p. 55@. -y permission of the
pu"lishers.B
The coefFcients sf in e?uation A53=5B (ary 2ith the surfaceOJuid com"ination. The
cur(e dra2n in Figure 53.5 is for sf P 6C63>. + ta"le of sf for (arious com"inations of
Juid and surface is presented "y Rohseno2 and hoi> and duplicated here as Ta"le 53.3.
From earlier discussion it is clear that the "urnout point has considera"le impor=
tance. The GGcritical heat Ju8HH is the (alue of ?D+ represented "y point a in Figure 53.3.
Ta"le 53.3 1alues of sf for e?uation A53=5B
&urfaceDJuid com"ination
WaterDnic!el
WaterDplatinum
WaterDcopper
WaterD"rass
l@Dcopper
-en<eneDchromium
n=,entaneDchromium
Ethyl alcoholDchromium
*sopropyl alcoholDcopper
>5b 05%>Dcopper
56b 05%>Dcopper
n=-utyl alcoholDcopper
sf
6.66;
6.63>
6.63>
6.66;
6.63>
6.636
6.635
6.6659
6.6655
6.665@
6.6659
6.66>6
W. M. Rohseno2 and H. E. hoi, Heat, Mass, and Momentum Transfer, ,rentice=Hall, *nc., Engle2ood
liffs, /.J., 3:;3.
>
53.3 -oiling >59
+n analysis of conditions at "urnout modiFed "y e8perimental results is e8pressed in
e?uation 53=; as
Q
sgAr$ U r( B 3D@
?D+Icritical P 6C37hfg r(
A53=;B
r5
(
The interested reader is referred to the 2or! of fu"er@ for a discussion of this su"Iect.
Regime *1, that of unsta"le Flm "oiling, is not of great engineering interest, and no
satisfactory correlation has "een found for this region as yet.
The sta"le=Flm="oiling region, regime 1, re?uires high surface temperaturesT thus, fe2
e8perimental data ha(e "een reported for this region.
&ta"le Flm "oiling on the surface of hori<ontal tu"es and (ertical plates has "een
studied "oth analytically and e8perimentally "y -romley.5,; onsidering conduction alone
through the Flm on a hori<ontal tu"e, -romley o"tained the e8pression
Q>!( r( Ar$ U r( BgAhfg V 6C@ c p$ DTB 3D@
h P 6C;5A53=9B
Do m( ATs U Tsat B
2here all terms are self=e8planatory e8cept Do, 2hich is the outside diameter of the tu"e.
+ modiFcation in e?uation A53=9B 2as proposed "y -erenson9 to pro(ide a similar
correlation for sta"le Flm "oiling on a hori<ontal surface. *n -erensonHs correlation, the
tu"e diameter, Do, is replaced "y the term \sDgAr$ U r( B^3D5 , and the recommended
e8pression is
s >4
!( f r(f Ar$ U r( BgAhfg V 6C@c p$ DTB 3D@
p h P 6C@55A53=7B
m(f ATs U Tsat B sDgAr$ U r( B
2here !(f, r(f, and m(f are to "e e(aluated at the film temperature as indicated.
Hsu and West2ater7 considered Flm "oiling for the case of a (ertical tu"e. Their test
results 2ere correlated "y the e?uation
Q3D>
m5
(
hP 6C6656 Re6C;
>gr( Ar$ U r( B!(
2here
Re P
@mh
pD( m(
A53=:B
A53=36B
m "eing the flo2 rate of (apor in l"mDh at the upper end of the tu"e and the other terms "eingh
identical to those in e?uation A53=9B. Hsu: states that heat=transfer rates for film "oiling are
higher for (ertical tu"es than for hori<ontal tu"es 2hen all other conditions remain the same.
*n regime 1*, the correlations for Flm "oiling still applyT ho2e(er, the superimposed
contri"ution of radiation is apprecia"le, "ecoming dominant at e8tremely high (alues of DT.
Without any apprecia"le Jo2 of li?uid, the t2o contri"utions may "e com"ined, as indicated
"y e?uation A53=33B.
@
5
;
9
7
:
/. fu"er, Trans. +.&.M.E., 76, 933 A3:57B.
$. +. -romley, hem. Eng ,rog., @;, A5B, 553 A3:56B.
$. +. -romley, et al., *nd. Eng hem., @5, 5;>: A3:5>B.
,. -erenson, +.*.h.E. ,aper /o. 37, Heat Transfer onference, -uffalo, /.E., +ugust 3@O39, :;6.
E. E. Hsu and J. W. West2ater, +.*.h.E. J., @, 5: A3:57B.
&. T. Hsu, Engineering Heat Transfer, 1an /ostrand, ,rinceton, /.J., 3:;>.
>57 hapter 53 -oiling and ondensation
The contri"ution of radiation to the total heat=transfer coefFcient may "e e8pressed as
D>
hc 3
V hrA53=33Bh P hc
h
2here h is the total heat=transfer coefficient, hc is the coefficient for the "oiling
phenomenon, and hr is an effecti(e radiant heat=transfer coefficient considering e8change
"et2een t2o parallel planes 2ith the li?uid "et2een assigned a (alue of unity for its
emissi(ity. This term is discussed in hapter 5>.
When there is apprecia"le Jo2 of either the li?uid or the (apor, the foregoing correlations
are unsatisfactory. The description of Jo2 "oiling or t2o=phase Jo2 2ill not "e discussed
here. The interested reader is referred to the recent literature for pertinent discussion of these
phenomena. *t is e(ident that for (ertical surfaces or large=diameter hori<ontal tu"es the
density difference "et2een li?uid and (apor 2ill produce signiFcant local (elocities. +ny
correlation that neglects Jo2 contri"utions should, therefore, "e used 2ith caution.
53.5 %/DE/&+T*%/
ondensation occurs 2hen a (apor contacts a surface that is at a temperature "elo2 the
saturation temperature of the (apor. When the li?uid condensate forms on the surface, it 2ill
Jo2 under the inJuence of gra(ity.
/ormally the li?uid 2ets the surface, spreads out, and forms a Flm. &uch a process is
called Flm condensation. *f the surface is not 2etted "y the li?uid, then droplets form and run
do2n the surface, coalescing as they contact other condensate droplets. This process is
designated drop2ise condensation. +fter a condensate Flm has "een de(eloped in Flm2ise
condensation, additional condensation 2ill occur at the li?uidO(apor interface, and the asso=
ciated energy transfer must occur "y conduction through the condensate Flm. Drop2ise
condensation, on the contrary, al2ays has some surface present as the condensate drop forms
and runs off. Drop2ise condensation is, therefore, associated 2ith the higher heat=transfer
rates of the t2o types of condensation phenomena. Drop2ise condensation is (ery difFcult to
achie(e or maintain commerciallyT therefore, all e?uipment is designed on the "asis of
Flm2ise condensation.
Film ondensationC The /usselt Model. *n 3:3;, /usselt36 achie(ed an analytical result
for the pro"lem of Flm2ise condensation of a pure (apor on a (ertical 2all. The meanings of
the (arious terms in this analysis 2ill "e made clear "y referring to Figure 53.>. *n this Fgure,
<
y
8
3
d
R8
Figure 53.> Film2ise condensation on a (ertical
plane 2all.
36
W. /usselt, feitschr. d. 1er. deutsch. *ng., ;6, 53@ A3:3;B.
53.5 ondensation >5:
the Flm thic!ness, d, is seen to "e <ero at the top of the (ertical 2all, 8 P 6, and to increase
2ith increasing (alues of 8.
The initial assumption made "y /usselt 2as that of 2holly laminar Jo2 in the
condensate Flm. 'nder these conditions, the (elocity proFle may "e easily o"tained from
e?uation 7=35
Q
rg$5 sin u y 3 y 5
(8 PUA7=35B
m$ 5 $
For the present application, sin u P 3 and $ P d. *t is also necessary to modify the density
for the present case. *n the deri(ation of e?uation A7=35B, the density of the gas or (apor at the
li?uid surface 2as neglected. This may "e true in many cases of a condensation processT
ho2e(er, the process may occur at a sufficiently high pressure that the (apor density, r( , is
significant in comparison to that of the li?uid, r$ . To account for this possi"ility, the density
function to "e used in the present case is r$ U r( instead of simply r$. The resulting
e8pression for the (elocity profile in the condensate film at a particular distance 8 from the
top of the 2all "ecomes
Q
Ar$ U r( Bgd5 y 3 y 5
U(8 PA53=35B
d 5 dm
The flo2 rate per unit 2idth, #, at any (alue 8 _ 6 is
f d
( 8 dy#P
Ar U r( Bgd>
P $
>m
Ar$ U r( Bgd5 dd
d# P
d
6
A53=3>B
+ differential change, d#, in the flo2 rate is e(aluated from this e8pression to "e
A53=3@B
This result has "een o"tained from momentum considerations alone. We shall no2, as
/usselt did originally, loo! at the related energy transfer.
+s the Jo2 of condensate is assumed to "e laminar, it is not unreasona"le to consider
energy transfer through the Flm from the temperature at the (aporOli?uid interface, Tsat, to
the 2allOli?uid "oundary at temperature, T2 , to "e purely "y conduction. %n this "asis, the
temperature proFle is linear and the heat Ju8 to the 2all is
?yATsat U T2 B
P!
d+
A53=35B
This same amount of energy must "e transferred from the (apor as it condenses and then
cools to the a(erage li?uid temperature. Relating these t2o effects, 2e may 2rite
Qf d
?yATsat U T2 B3d#
P r$ hfg VP!r$ ( 8 cp$ ATsat U TB dy
dr$ # 6d8+
2hich, if a linear temperature (ariation in y is utili<ed, "ecomes
?y !AT sat U T2 Bd#
P r$ whfg V >cp$ ATsat U T2 BxP
7dd8+
A53=3;B
>>6 hapter 53 -oiling and ondensation
&ol(ing e?uation AB for d#, 2e ha(e
d# P
!AT sat U T2 B d8
r$ d\hfg V > cp$ ATsat U T2 B^7
A53=39B
2hich may no2 "e e?uated to the result in e?uation A53=56B, gi(ing
Ar$ U r( Bg 5!AT sat U T2 B
d8d dd P
mr$ d\hfg V > cp$ ATsat U T2 B^7
&implifying this result and sol(ing for d, 2e o"tain
s4
3D@
@!mATsat U T2 B8
dP
r$ gAr$ U r( B\hfg V > cp$ ATsat U T2 B^7
We may no2 sol(e for the heat=transfer coefficient, h, from the e8pression
hP
?y D+!
P
Tsat U T2 d
A53=37B
The su"stitution of e?uation A53=37B into this e8pression yields
AB
r$ g!> Ar$ U r( B\hfg V > c p$ ATsat U T2 B^ 3D@7h8 P
@mATsat U T2 B8
A53=3:B
The a(erage heat=transfer coefficient for a surface of length $ is determined from
f
3 $
hPh8 d8
$ 6
2hich, 2hen e?uation A53=3:B is su"stituted, "ecomes
AB
r$ g!> Ar$ U r( B\hfg V > c p$ ATsat U T2 B^ 3D@7h P 6C:@>
$mATsat U T2 B
A53=56B
The latent heat term, hfg, in e?uation A53=56B and those preceding it, should "e e(aluated
at the saturation temperature. $i?uid properties should all "e ta!en at the Flm temperature.
+n e8pression similar to e?uation A53=56B may "e achie(ed for a surface inclined at an
angle u from the hori<ontal if sin u is introduced into the "rac!eted term. This e8tension
o"(iously has a limit and should not "e used 2hen u is small, that is, 2hen the surface is near
hori<ontal. For such a condition, the analysis is ?uite simpleT E8ample 3 illustrates such a
case.
Rohseno233 performed a modiFed integral analysis of this same pro"lem, o"taining
a result that differs only in that the term \hfg V > cp$ ATsat U T2 B^ is replaced "y7
whfg V 6C;7cp$ ATsat U T2 Bx. Rohseno2Hs results agree 2ell 2ith e8perimental data achie(ed
for (alues of ,r _ 6C5 and c p$ ATsat U T2 BDhfg ] 3C6C
EM+M,$E + s?uare pan 2ith its "ottom surface maintained at >56 0 is e8posed to 2ater (apor at 3 atm pressure
and >9> 0. The pan has a lip all around, so the condensate that forms cannot Jo2 a2ay. Ho2 deep 2ill
the condensate Flm "e after 36 min ha(e elapsed at this conditiona
33
W. M. Rohseno2, +.&.M.E. Trans., 97, 3;@5 A3:5;B.
53.5 ondensation >>3
We 2ill employ a GGpseudo=steady=stateHH approach to sol(e this pro"lem. +n energy "alance at
hthe (aporOli?uid interface 2ill indicate that the heat Ju8 and
rate of mass condensed, mcond , are
related as

|?
P mcond hfg
++ in
hThe condensation rate, mcond , may "e e8pressed as follo2sC
||mcond P r1cond P r+
dd
dt
2here ddDdt is the rate at 2hich the condensate Flm thic!ness, d, gro2s. The heat Ju8 at the interface
may no2 "e e8pressed as

?
P rhfg dd
+ in
dt
This heat Ju8 is no2 e?uated to that 2hich must "e conducted through the Flm to the cool pan
surface. The heat Ju8 e8pression that applies is

?
P !$ ATsat U Ts B
d
+ out
This is a steady=state e8pressionT that is, 2e are assuming d to "e constant. *f d is not rapidly (arying,
this GGpseudo=steady=stateHH appro8imation 2ill gi(e satisfactory results. /o2, e?uating the t2o heat
Ju8es, 2e ha(e
rhfg P
dd !$
P ATsat U Ts B
ddt
and, progressing, the condensate Flm thic!ness is seen to (ary 2ith time according to
dd!$
ATsat U Ts BP
dt rhfg
f df t
!$
d dd PATsat U Ts Bdt
rhfg66Q3D5
5!$
ATsat U Ts Bt3D5dP
rhfg
d
+ ?uantitati(e ans2er to our e8ample pro"lem no2 yields the result
Q
5A6C;9@ WDm [ 0BA5> 0BA;66 sB 3D5
dP
A:;; !gDm> BA5556 !JD!gB
P 5C:> mm
Film ondensationC Tur"ulent=Flo2 +nalysis. *t is logical to e8pect the Jo2 of the
condensate Flm to "ecome tur"ulent for relati(ely long surfaces or for high condensation
rates. The criterion for tur"ulent Jo2 is, as 2e should e8pect, a Reynolds num"er for the
condensate Flm. *n terms of an e?ui(alent diameter, the applica"le Reynolds num"er is
Re P
@+ r$ (
, mf
A53=53B
>>5 hapter 53 -oiling and ondensation
3.6
6.7
3D>
6.@
6.5
6.3
366
,r N 3
,r N 5
h!
m5p5g
5 @ 7 3666 5 @ 7 36666 5 @ 7 366666
Re
Figure 53.@ Film condensation including the regions of "oth laminar and tur"ulent Jo2s.
2here + is the condensate flo2 area, , is the 2etted perimeter, and ( is the (elocity of
condensate. The critical (alue of Re in this case is appro8imately 5666.
The Frst attempt to analy<e the case of tur"ulent Jo2 of a condensate Flm 2as that of
ol"urn,35 2ho used the same I factor determined for internal pipe Jo2. %n the "asis partly
of analysis and partly of e8periment, ol"urn formulated the plot sho2n in Figure 53.@. The
data points sho2n are those of 0ir!"ride.3> The correlating e?uations for the t2o regions
sho2n are for @#c Dmf ] 5666
ha(g
and for @#c Dmf _ 5666
ha(g
3A!> r5 gDm5 Bf D> A@#c Dmf B,r3D>
iP 6C6@5 h
@D5 U >;@ V 59; ,r3D>A@#c Dmf B

!> r5 g 3D> @#c U3D>
P 3C53
m5 fmf
A53=55B
A53=5>B
*n these e8pressions, #c is the mass Jo2 rate per unit 2idth of surfaceT that is, #c P
r$ ( a(g d, d "eing Flm thic!ness and ( a(g the a(erage (elocity. The term @#c Dmf is thus a
Reynolds num"er for a condensate Flm on a plane (ertical 2all. Mc+dams3@ recommends a
simpler e8pression for the tur"ulent range, Red _ 5666, as
>Q
r$ gAr$ U r( B!$ 3D> 6C@
Redh P 6C6699
m5
$
A53=5@B
Film ondensationC +nalysis of the Hori<ontal ylinder. +n analysis "y /usselt35
produced the follo2ing e8pression for the mean heat=transfer coefFcient for a hori<ontal
cylinderC
A`}B
r$ gAr$ U r( B!> hfg V > c p$ ATsat U T2 B 3D@7ha(g P 6C955A53=55B
mDAT sat U T2 B
35
3>
3@
35
+. ,. ol"urn, *nd. Eng. hem., 5;, @>5 A3:>@B.
. #. 0ir!"ride, *nd. Eng. hem., 5;, @ A3:>6B.
W. H. Mc+dams, Heat Transmission, >rd edition, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:5@.
W. /usselt, feitschr. d. 1er. deutsch. *ng., ;6, 5;: A3:3;B.
53.5 ondensation >>>
The similarity "et2een e?uation A53=55B for a hori<ontal tu"e and e?uation A53=56B for a
(ertical tu"e is mar!ed. om"ining these e8pressions and canceling similar terms, 2e
o"tain the result that
3D@
h(ert6C:@> D 3D@D
PP 3C>A53=5;B
$hhori< 6C955 $
For the case of e?ual heat=transfer coefficients, the relation "et2een D and $ is
$
P 5C7;A53=59B
D
or, e?ual amounts of energy can "e transferred from the same tu"e in either the (ertical or
the hori<ontal position if the ratio $DD is 5.7;. For $DD (alues greater than 5.7;, the
hori<ontal position has the greater heat=transfer capa"ility.
Film ondensationC -an!s of Hori<ontal Tu"es. For a "an! of hori<ontal tu"es there is,
naturally, a different (alue of h for each tu"e, as the condensate Flm from one tu"e 2ill drop
on the ne8t tu"e "elo2 it in the line. This process is depicted in Figure 53.5.
ondensate
film
Figure 53.5 ondensation on a hori<ontal tu"e "an!.
/usselt also considered this situation analytically and achie(ed, for a (ertical "an! of n
tu"es in line, the e8pression
A`}B
r$ gAr$ U r( B!> hfg V > cp$ ATsat U T2 B 3D@7ha(g P 6C955A53=57B
n DmATsat U T2 B
This e?uation yields a mean heat=transfer coefficient a(eraged o(er all n tu"es.
%"ser(ing that e8perimental data e8ceeded those(alues predicted from e?uation A53=57B,
hen3; modiFed this e8pression to include the effect of condensation on the li?uid layer
"et2een the tu"es. His resulting e?uation is
Q
cp$ ATsat U T2 B
An U 3Bha(g P 6C955 3 V 6C65
hfg
A`}B
r$ gAr$ U r( B!> hfg V > cp$ ATsat U T2 B 3D@7À53=5:B
n DmATsat U T2 B
2hich is (alid for (alues of cp$ ATsat U T2 BAn U 3BDhfg _ 5. henHs e?uation agrees reason=
a"ly 2ell 2ith e8perimental data for condensation on (ertical "an!s of hori<ontal tu"es.
3;
M. M. hen, +.&.M.E. ATrans.B &eries , 7>, @7 A3:;3B.
>>@ hapter 53 -oiling and ondensation
Drop ondensation. Drop2ise condensation, as mentioned earlier, is associated 2ith
higher heat=transfer coefFcients than the Flm2ise condensation phenomenon. For drop2ise
condensation to occur, the surface must not "e GG2ettedHH "y the condensate. /ormally this
re?uires that metal surfaces "e specially treated.
Drop2ise condensation is an attracti(e phenomenon for applications 2here e8tremely
large heat=transfer rates are desired. +t present, it is difFcult to maintain this condition for
se(eral reasons. -ecause of its uncertain nature and the conser(ati(e approach of a design
"ased on lo2er heat=transfer coefFcients, Flm2ise condensation is the type predominantly
used in design.
53.> $%&'RE
The phenomena of "oiling and condensation ha(e "een e8amined in this chapter. Each
condition has a prominent place in engineering practice and "oth are difFcult to descri"e
analytically. &e(eral empirical correlations for these phenomena for (arious surfaces
oriented in different 2ays ha(e "een presented.
-oiling is normally descri"ed as nucleate type, Flm type, or a com"ination of the t2o.
1ery high heat=transfer rates are possi"le in the nucleate="oiling regime 2ith relati(ely lo2
temperature differences "et2een the primary surface and the saturation temperature of the
li?uid. Film "oiling is associated 2ith a higher temperature difference yet a lo2er rate of
heat transfer. This anomalous "eha(ior is peculiar to the "oiling phenomenon.
ondensation is categori<ed as either Flm2ise or drop2ise. Drop2ise condensation is
associated 2ith much higher heat=transfer coefFcients than Flm2iseT ho2e(er, it is difFcult
"oth to achie(e and to maintain. Thus, Flm2ise condensation is of primary interest.
+nalytical solutions ha(e "een presented, along 2ith empirical results, for Flm2ise
condensation on (ertical and hori<ontal plates and cylinders and for "an!s of hori<ontal
cylinders.
,R%-$EM&
The surface tension of 2ater, a needed ?uantity in se(eral of the
follo2ing pro"lems, is related to temperature according to the
e8pression s P 6C35>5w3 U 6C663@; Tx, 2here s is in /Dm and T
is in 0. *n the English system 2ith s gi(en in l"f Dft and T in 7F,
the surface tension may "e calculated from s P A7C@@ `
36U> Bw3 U 6C66675 TxC
53.3 +n electrically heated s?uare plate measuring 56 cm on a
side is immersed (ertically in 2ater at atmospheric pressure. +s
the electrical energy supplied to the plate is increased, its surface
temperature rises a"o(e that of the adIacent saturated 2ater. +t
lo2 po2er le(els the heat=transfer mechanism is natural
con(ection, then "ecoming a nucleate="oiling phenomenon
at higher DTs. +t 2hat (alue of DT are the heat Ju8es due to
"oiling and natural con(ection the samea ,lot ?D+Icon(ection ,
?D+I"oiling , and ?D+Itotal (ersus DT (alues from 556 to >66 0.
53.5 ,lot (alues of the heat=transfer coefFcient for the case of
pool "oiling of 2ater on hori<ontal metal surfaces at 3 atm total
pressure and surface temperatures (arying from >:6 to @56 0.
onsider the follo2ing metalsC AaB nic!elT A"B copperT AcB pla=
tinumT AdB "rass.
53.> + cylindrical copper heating element 5 ft long and 3 in. in
5
diameter is immersed in 2ater. The system pressure is main=
tained at 3 atm and the tu"e surface is held at 5767F. Determine
the nucleate="oiling heat=transfer coefFcient and the rate of heat
dissipation for this system.
53.@ *f the cylinder descri"ed in ,ro"lem 53.> 2ere initially
heated to 5667F, ho2 long 2ould it ta!e for the center of the
cylinder to cool to 5@67F if it 2ere constructed of
a. coppera
". "rassa
c. nic!ela
53.5 Four immersion heaters in the shape of cylinders 35 cm
long and 5 cm in diameter are immersed in a 2ater "ath at 3 atm
total pressure. Each heater is rated at 566 W. *f the heaters
operate at rated capacity, estimate the temperature of the heater
,ro"lems
surface. What is the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient in this
casea
53.; + hori<ontal circular cylinder 3 in. in diameter has its
outside surface at a temperature of 35667F. This tu"e is immersed
in saturated 2ater at a pressure of @6 psi. Estimate the heat Ju8
due to Flm "oiling that may "e achie(ed 2ith this conFguration.
+t @6 psi, the temperature of saturated 2ater is 5;97F.
53.9 Estimate the heat=transfer rate per foot of length from a
6.65=in. diameter nichrome 2ire immersed in 2ater at 5@67F.
The 2ire temperature is 55667F.
53.7 T2o thousand 2atts of electrical energy are to "e dis=
sipated through copper plates measuring 5 cm "y 36 cm "y 6.;
cm immersed in 2ater at >:6 0. Ho2 many plates 2ould you
recommenda &u"stantiate all of the design criteria used.
53.: + steel plate is remo(ed from a heat=treating operation at
;66 0 and is immediately immersed into a 2ater "ath at >9> 0.
a. onstruct a plot of heat Ju8 (s. plate temperature for this
system.
". onstruct a plot of con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient (s.
plate temperature.
c. For a mild=steel plate > cm thic! and >6 cm s?uare plot the
plate temperature (s. time.
53.36 Water, Jo2ing in a pipe, is to recei(e heat at a rate of
> ` 36@ -tuDh[ft5 of pipe surface. The pipe has an inside dia=
meter of > in. and is @ ft long. *f the 2ater is to "e at 5357F
@
throughout its residence in the pipe, 2hat rate of 2ater Jo2
2ould you suggest for safe operationa &upport your results 2ith
all design criteria used.
53.33 &aturated steam at atmospheric pressure is enclosed
2ithin a (ertical 3=in.=diameter pipe 2hose surface is at
5
3;67F. onstruct a plot for the thic!ness of condensate Flm
(s. distance from the top of the pipe.
53.35 &aturated steam at atmospheric pressure condenses on
the outside surface of a 3=m=long tu"e 2ith 356 mm diameter.
The surface temperature is maintained at :37. E(aluate the
condensation rate if the pipe is oriented
a. (erticallyT
". hori<ontally.
53.3> Water Jo2ing at a rate of @666 !gDh through a 3;.5=mm=
*D tu"e enters at 567. The tu"e outside diameter is 3: mm.
&aturated atmospheric steam condenses on the outside of the
tu"e. For a hori<ontal "rass tu"e 5 m long, e(aluate
a.
".
c.
d.
the
the
the
the
con(ecti(e coefFcient on the 2ater sideT
con(ecti(e coefFcient on the condensate sideT
e8it 2ater temperatureT
condensation rate.
>>5
53.3@ &aturated steam at atmospheric pressure Jo2s at a rate
of 6.6@5 !gDsDm "et2een t2o (ertical surfaces maintained at >@6
0 that are separated "y a distance of 3 cm. Ho2 tall may this
conFguration "e if the steam (elocity is not to e8ceed 35 mDsa
53.35 + circular pan has its "ottom surface maintained at
5667F and is situated in saturated steam at 5357F. onstruct a
plot of condensate depth in the pan (s. time up to 3 h for this
situation. The sides of the pan may "e considered nonconducting.
53.3; &aturated steam at >;5 0 condenses on a 5=cm tu"e
2hose surface is maintained at >@6 0. Determine the rate of
condensation and the heat transfer coefFcient for the case of a
3.5=m=long tu"e oriented
a. (erticallyT
". hori<ontally.
53.39 *f eight tu"es of the si<e designated in ,ro"lem 53.3@ are
oriented hori<ontally in a (ertical "an!, 2hat heat=transfer rate
2ill occura
53.37 Determine the heat=transfer coefFcient for a hori<ontal
5=in.=%D tu"e 2ith its surface maintained at 3667F surrounded "y
7
steam at 5667F.
53.3: *f eight tu"es of the si<e designated in ,ro"lem 53.3; are
arranged in a (ertical "an! and the Jo2 is assumed laminar,
determine
a. the a(erage heat=transfer coefFcient for the "an!T
". the heat=transfer coefFcient for the Frst, third, and eighth
tu"es.
53.56 #i(en the conditions of ,ro"lem 53.3;, 2hat height of
(ertical 2all 2ill cause the Flm at the "ottom of the tu"e to "e
tur"ulenta
53.53 + (ertical Jat surface 5 ft high is maintained at ;67F. *f
saturated ammonia at 757F is adIacent to the surface, 2hat heat=
transfer coefFcient 2ill apply to the condensation processa What
total heat transfer 2ill occura
53.55 + s?uare pan measuring @6 cm on a side and ha(ing a
5=cm=high lip on all sides has its surface maintained at >56 0. *f
this pan is situated in saturated steam at >95 0, ho2 long 2ill it "e
"efore condensate spills o(er the lip if the pan is
a. hori<ontala
". inclined at 367 to the hori<ontala
c. inclined at >67 to the hori<ontala
53.5> + s?uare pan 2ith sides measuring 3 ft and a per=
pendicular lip e8tending 3 in. a"o(e the "ase is oriented 2ith
its "ase at an angle of 567 from the hori<ontal. The pan surface
is !ept at 3767F and it is situated in an atmosphere of 5367F
steam. Ho2 long 2ill it "e "efore condensate spills o(er the lip
of the pana
hapter
55
Heat=Transfer E?uipment
+ de(ice 2hose primary purpose is the transfer of energy "et2een t2o Juids is called
a heat e8changer. Heat e8changers are usually classiFed into three categoriesC
3. regeneratorsT
5. open=type e8changersT and
>. closed=type e8changers or recuperators.
Regenerators are e8changers in 2hich the hot and cold Juids Jo2 alternately
through the same space 2ith as little physical mi8ing "et2een the t2o streams as
possi"le. The amount of energy transfer is dependent upon the Juid and Jo2 properties
of the Juid stream as 2ell as the geometry and thermal properties of the surface. The
re?uired analytical tools for handling this type of heat e8changer ha(e "een de(eloped
in the preceding chapters.
%pen=type heat e8changers are, as implied in their designation, de(ices 2herein
physical mi8ing of the t2o Juid streams actually occurs. Hot and cold Juids enter
open=type heat e8changers and lea(e as a single stream. The nature of the e8it stream is
predicted "y continuity and the Frst la2 of thermodynamics. /o rate e?uations are
necessary for the analysis of this type of e8changer.
The third type of heat e8changer, the recuperator, is the one of primary importance
and the one to 2hich 2e shall direct most of our attention. *n the recuperator, the hot
and cold Juid streams do not come into direct contact 2ith each other "ut are separated
"y a tu"e 2all or a surface that may "e Jat or cur(ed in some manner. Energy e8change
is thus accomplished from one Juid to an intermediate surface "y con(ection, through
the 2all or plate "y conduction, and then "y con(ection from the surface to the second
Juid. Each of these energy=transfer processes has "een considered separately in the
preceding chapters. We shall, in the follo2ing sections, in(estigate the conditions under
2hich these three energy=transfer processes act in series 2ith one another, resulting in a
continuous change in the temperature of at least one of the Juid streams in(ol(ed.
We shall "e concerned 2ith a thermal analysis of these e8changers. + complete
design of such e?uipment in(ol(es an analysis of pressure drop, using techni?ues from
hapter 3>, as 2ell as material and structural considerations that are not 2ithin the
scope of this te8t.
55.3 TE,E& %F HE+T EMH+/#ER&
*n addition to "eing considered a closed=type e8changer, a recuperator is classiFed
according to its conFguration and the num"er of passes made "y each Juid stream as it
tra(erses the heat e8changer.
>>;
55.3 Types of Heat E8changers >>9
+ single=pass heat e8changer is one in 2hich each Juid Jo2s through the e8changer
only once. +n additional descripti(e term identiFes the relati(e directions of the t2o
streams, the terms used "eing parallel Jo2 or cocurrent Jo2 if the Juids Jo2 in the same
direction, countercurrent Jo2 or simply counterJo2 if the Juids Jo2 in opposite directions,
and crossJo2 if the t2o Juids Jo2 at right angles to one another. + common single=pass
conFguration is the dou"le=pipe arrangement sho2n in Figure 55.3. + crossJo2 arrange=
ment is sho2n in Figure 55.5.
TH in
Tc in Tc out
TH out
Figure 55.3 + dou"le=pipe heat e8changer.
Figure 55.5 + crossJo2 heat e8changer.
1ariations on the crossJo2 conFguration occur 2hen one or the other, or "oth Juids are
mi8ed. The arrangement sho2n in Figure 55.5 is one in 2hich neither Juid is mi8ed. *f the
"afJes or corrugations 2ere not present, the Juid streams 2ould "e unseparated or mi8ed. *n
a condition such as that depicted in the Fgure, the Juid lea(ing at one end of the sand2ich
arrangement 2ill ha(e a nonuniform temperature (ariation from one side to the other, as
each section contacts an adIacent Juid stream at a different temperature. *t is normally
desira"le to ha(e one or "oth Juids unmi8ed.
*n order to accomplish as much transfer of energy in as little space as possi"le, it is
desira"le to utili<e multiple passes of one or "oth Juids. + popular conFguration is the shell=
and=tu"e arrangement sho2n in Figure 55.>. *n this Fgure, the tu"e=side Juid ma!es t2o
passes, 2hereas the shell=side Juid ma!es one pass. #ood mi8ing of the shell=side Juid is
accomplished 2ith the "afJes sho2n. Without these "afJes the Juid "ecomes stagnant in
certain parts of the shell, the Jo2 is partially channeled past these stagnant or GGdeadHH
regions, and less=than=optimum performance is achie(ed. 1ariations on the num"er of tu"e=
and=shell passes are encountered in numerous applicationsT seldom are more than t2o shell=
side passes used.
>>7 hapter 55 Heat=Transfer E?uipment
Figure 55.> &hell=and=tu"e heat e8changer.
+ num"er of more recent heat=transfer applications re?uire more compact conFgura=
tions than that afforded "y the shell=and=tu"e arrangement. The su"Iect of GGcompact heat
e8changersHH has "een in(estigated and reported "oth carefully and ?uite thoroughly "y
0ays and $ondon.3 Typical compact arrangements are sho2n in Figure 55.@.
AaB A"B
AcB AdB
Figure 55.@ ompact heat=e8changer conFgurations.
The analysis of shell=and=tu"e, compact, or any multiple=pass heat e8changer is ?uite
in(ol(ed. +s each is a composite of se(eral single=pass arrangements, 2e shall initially
focus our attention on the single=pass heat e8changer.
W. M. 0ays and +. $. $ondon, ompact Heat E8changers, 5nd edition, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany,
3:;@.
3
55.5 &ingle=,ass Heat=E8changer +nalysisC The $og=Mean Temperature Difference >>:
55.5 &*/#$E=,+&& HE+T=EMH+/#ER +/+$E&*&C THE $%#=ME+/
TEM,ER+T'RE D*FFERE/E
*t is useful, 2hen considering parallel or counterJo2 single=pass heat e8changers, to dra2
a simple s!etch depicting the general temperature (ariation e8perienced "y each Juid
stream. There are four such proFles in this category, all of 2hich are sho2n and la"eled in
Figure 55.5. Each of these may "e found in a dou"le=pipe arrangement.
TH in
Tc in
AaB ,arallel flo2
TH in
TH out
Tc
AcB E(aporator
Tc
Tc in
AdB ondenser
TH
TH in
TH out
Tc out
Tc out
Tc in
A"B ounterflo2
TH
Tc out
TH out
Figure 55.5 Temperature proFles for single=pass, dou"le=pipe heat e8changers.
*n Figure 55.5AcB and AdB, one of the t2o Juids remains at constant temperature 2hile
e8changing heat 2ith the other Juid 2hose temperature is changing. This situation occurs
2hen energy transfer results in a change of phase rather than of temperature as in the cases of
e(aporation and condensation sho2n. The direction of Jo2 of the Juid undergoing a change
in phase is not depicted in the Fgure, as it is of no conse?uence to the analysis. *f the situation
occurs 2here the complete phase change such as condensation occurs 2ithin the e8changer
along 2ith some su"cooling, then the diagram 2ill appear as in Figure 55.;. *n such a case,
the direction of Jo2 of the condensate stream is important. For purposes of analysis, this
process may "e considered the superposition of a condenser and a counterJo2 e8changer, as
depicted in the diagram.
TH in
Tc out
TH out
TH in
Tc out
TH
TH out
Tc in
omposite N ondenser i
Tc
Tc in
ounterflo2
e8changer
Figure 55.; Temperature proFle in a condenser 2ith su"cooling.
+lso ?uite noticea"le from Figure 55.5AaB and A"B is the signiFcant difference in
temperature proFle e8hi"ited "y the parallel and counterJo2 arrangements. *t is apparent
that the e8it temperatures of the hot and cold Juids in the parallel=Jo2 case approach the
same (alue. *t is a simple e8ercise to sho2 that this temperature is the one resulting if the t2o
Juids are mi8ed in an open=type heat e8changer.
*n the counterJo2 arrangement, it is possi"le for the hot Juid to lea(e the e8changer at a
temperature "elo2 that at 2hich the cold Juid lea(es. This situation o"(iously corresponds
>@6 hapter 55 Heat=Transfer E?uipment
to a case of greater total energy transfer per unit area of heat e8changer surface than 2ould "e
o"tained if the same Juids entered a parallel=Jo2 conFguration. The o"(ious conclusion to
this discussion is that the counterJo2 conFguration is the most desira"le of the single=pass
arrangements. *t is thus the single=pass counterJo2 arrangement to 2hich 2e shall direct our
primary attention.
The detailed analysis of a single=pass counterJo2 heat e8changer that follo2s is
referred to the diagram and nomenclature of Figure 55.9.
3 5
TH 5
RT5
Tc 5
TH 3
RT3
Tc 3
+
R+
Figure 55.9 Diagram of temperature (s. contact area for single=pass counterJo2 analysis.
The a"scissa of this Fgure is area. For a dou"le=pipe arrangement, the heat=transfer area
(aries linearly 2ith distance from one end of the e8changerT in the case sho2n, the <ero
reference is the end of the e8changer at 2hich the cold Juid enters.
With reference to a general increment of area, D+, "et2een the ends of this unit, a Frst=
la2=of=thermodynamics analysis of the t2o Juid streams 2ill yield
hD? P Amcp Bc DTc
and
hD? P Amcp BH DTH
+s the incremental area approaches differential si<e, 2e may 2rite
hd? P Amcp Bc dTc P c dTc
and
hd? P Amcp BH dTH P H dTH
A55=5B
A55=3B
2here the capacity coefficient, , is introduced in place of the more cum"ersome product,
hmcp .
Writing e?uation A35=39B for the energy transfer "et2een the t2o Juids at this location,
2e ha(e
d? P ' d+ATH U Tc B
A55=>B
2hich utili<es the o(erall heat=transfer coefficient, ', introduced in hapter 35.
Designating TH U Tc as DT, 2e ha(e
dADTB P dTH U dTc
A55=@B
55.5 &ingle=,ass Heat=E8changer +nalysisC The $og=Mean Temperature Difference >@3
and su"stituting for dTH and dTc from e?uations A55=3B and A55=5B, 2e o"tain
33
dADT B P d?U
H c

d?H
3UP
Hc
A55=5B
We should also note that d? is the same in each of these e8pressionsT thus, e?uations
A55=3B and A55=5B may "e e?uated and integrated from one end of the e8changer to the
other, yielding, for the ratio HDc
HTc5 U Tc3
P
cTH5 U TH3
2hich may "e su"stituted into e?uation A55=5B and rearranged as follo2sC

d?Tc5 U Tc3d? TH5 U TH3 U Tc5 V Tc3
dADTX P3UP
HHTH5 U TH3TH5 U TH3

d? DT5 U DT3
P
H TH5 U TH3
A55=;B
A55=9B
om"ining e?uations A55=>B and A55=9B, and noting that H ATH5 U TH3 B P ?, 2e ha(e,
for constant ',
f DT5f +
dADT B '
P ADT5 U DT3 Bd+A55=7B
DT?6DT3
2hich, upon integration, "ecomes
ln
This result is normally 2ritten as
? P '+
DT5 U DT3
DT5
ln
DT3
A55=:B
DT5 '+
ADT5 U DT3 BP
?DT3
The dri(ing force, on the right=hand side of e?uation A55=:B, is seen to "e a particular
sort of mean temperature difference "et2een the t2o fluid streams. This ratio,
ADT5 U DT3 BDln ADT5 DDT3 B, is designated DTlm , the logarithmic=mean temperature
difference, and the e8pression for ? is 2ritten simply as
? P '+ DTlm
A55=36B
E(en though e?uation A55=36B 2as de(eloped for the specific case of counterflo2, it
is e?ually (alid for any of the single=pass operations depicted in Figure 55.5.
*t 2as mentioned earlier, "ut "ears repeating, that e?uation A55=36B is "ased upon a
constant (alue of the o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient, '. This coefFcient 2ill not, in general,
remain constantT ho2e(er, calculations "ased upon a (alue of ' ta!en mid2ay "et2een the
ends of the e8changer are usually accurate enough. *f there is considera"le (ariation in '
from one end of the e8changer to the other, then a step="y=step numerical integration is
necessary, e?uations A55=3BOA55=>B "eing e(aluated repeatedly o(er a num"er of small=area
increments.
*t is also possi"le that the temperature differences in e?uation A55=:B, e(aluated at either
end of a counterJo2 e8changer, are e?ual. *n such a case, the log=mean temperature
difference is indeterminateT that is,
DT5 U DT36
P ,
lnADT5 DDT3 B 6
if DT3 P DT5
*n such a case, $HHopitalHs rule may "e applied as follo2sC
DT5 U DT3DT3 fADT5 DDT3 B U 3g
Plimlim
ln ADT5 DDT3 BDT5 QDT3 lnADT5 DDT3 BDT5 DDT3 Q3
2hen the ratio DT5 DDT3 is designated "y the sym"ol F, 2e may 2rite

FU3
P lim DT
FQ3ln F
Differentiating numerator and denominator 2ith respect to F yields the result that
DT5 U DT3
P DT
DT5 QDT3 lnADT5 DDT3 B
lim
or that e?uation A55=36B may "e used in the simple form
? P '+ DT
A55=33B
Q
From the foregoing simple analysis, it should "e apparent that e?uation A55=33B may
"e used and achie(e reasona"le accuracy so long as DT3 and DT5 are not (astly different.
*t turns out that a simple arithmetic mean is 2ithin 3b of the logarithmic=mean
temperature difference for (alues of ADT5 DDT3 B ] 3C5.
EM+M,$E 3
$ight lu"ricating oil Acp P 56:6 JD!g [ 0B is cooled "y allo2ing it to e8change energy 2ith 2ater in a
small heat e8changer. The oil enters and lea(es the heat e8changer at >95 and >56 0, respecti(ely, and
Jo2s at a rate of 6.5 !gDs. Water at 576 0 is a(aila"le in sufFcient ?uantity to allo2 6.563 !gDs to "e
used for cooling purposes. Determine the re?uired heat=transfer area for AaB counterJo2 and
A"B parallel=Jo2 operations Asee Figure 55.7B. The o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient may "e ta!en
as 556 WDm5 [ 0.
The outlet 2ater temperature is determined "y applying e?uations A55=3B and A55=5B
? P A6C5 !gDsBA56:6 JD!g [ 0BA55 0B P 5; 355 W
P A6C563 !gDsBA@399 JD!g [ 0BAT2 out U 576 0B
>95 0
>56 0
576 0
AaB ounterflo2 A"B ,arallel flo2
>95 0
>56 0
T2 out
576 0
T2 out
Figure 55.7 &ingle=pass temperature proFles for counterJo2 and parallel Jo2.
55.>
from 2hich 2e o"tain
rossJo2 and &hell=and=Tu"e Heat=E8changer +nalysis >@>
T2 out P 576 V
A6C5BA56:6BA55B
P >33C3 0
A6C563BA@399B
A366 FB
This result applies to "oth parallel Jo2 and counterJo2. For the counterJo2 conFguration, DTlm is
calculated as
DTlm P
96 U ;>C:
P ;;C: 0
96
ln
;>C:
A356C@ FB
and applying e?uation A55=36B, 2e see that the area re?uired to accomplish this energy transfer is
+P
5; 355 W
P 3C5;5 m5
A556 WDm5 0BA;;C: 0B
A3;C73 ft5 B
,erforming similar calculations for the parallel=Jo2 situation, 2e o"tain
DTlm P
:5 U >7C:
P ;5C7 0
:5
ln
>7C:
A33> FB
+P
5; 355 W
P 3C;; m5
5 0BA;5C7 0BA556 WDm
A39C: ft5 B
The area re?uired to transfer 5;,355 W is seen to "e lo2er for the counterJo2 arrangement "y
appro8imately 9b.
55.> R%&&F$%W +/D &HE$$=+/D=T'-E HE+T=EMH+/#ER +/+$E&*&
More complicated Jo2 arrangements than the ones considered in the pre(ious sections are
much more difFcult to treat analytically. orrection factors to "e used 2ith e?uation A55=36B
ha(e "een presented in chart form "y -o2man, Mueller, and /agle5 and "y the Tu"ular
E8changer Manufacturers +ssociation.> Figures 55.: and 55.36 present correction factors
for si8 types of heat=e8changer conFgurations. The Frst three are for different shell=and=tu"e
conFgurations and the latter three are for different crossJo2 conditions.
The parameters in Figures 55.: and 55.36 are e(aluated as follo2sC
EP
fP
Tt out U Tt in
Ts in U Tt in
hAmcp Btu"e t Ts in U Ts out
PP
hAmcp Bshell s Tt out U Tt in
A55=35B
A55=3>B
2here the su"scripts s and t refer to the shell=side and tu"e=side Juids, respecti(ely. The
?uantity read on the ordinate of each plot, for gi(en (alues of E and f, is F, the correction
factor to "e applied to e?uation A55=36B, and thus these more complicated conFgurations
5
>
R. +. -o2man, +. . Mueller, and W. M. /agle, Trans. +.&.M.E. ;5, 57> A3:@6B.
Tu"ular E8changer Manufacturers +ssociation, &tandards, >rd edition, TEM+, /e2 Eor!, 3:55.
3.6
+
orrection
factor F
6.:
6.7
< N @.6 >.6 5.6 3.5
6.9
6.;
<N
TH3 O TH5
Tc 5 O Tc3
3.6 6.7 6.; 6.@ 6.5
6.5
6
6.3
TH3
6.5 6.> 6.@ 6.5
E
6.; 6.9 6.7 6.: 3.6
Tc5
TH5
Tc3
orrection factor plot for e8changer
2ith one shell pass and t2o, four,
or any multiple of tu"e passes
AaB
3.6
-
orrection
factor F
< N @.6
>.6
TH 3 O TH 5
Tc5 O Tc3
E
&hell fluid
5.6
3.5
3.6 6.;
6.7
6.5
6.@
6.7
6.;
Tu"e fluid
A"B
3.6
orrection
factor, F
6.:
6.7
< N @.6 >.6
6.9
6.; < N
6.5
6
TH3 O TH5
T c O Tc53
6.3 6.5
TH3
Tc5
Tc3
TH5
6.> 6.@ 6.5
E
6.; 6.9 6.7 6.: 3.6
5.6 3.5 3.6 6.7 6.; 6.@ 6.5
orrection factor plot for e8changer 2ith
t2o shell passes and four, eight, or
any multiple of four tu"e passes
AcB
Figure 55.: orrection
factors for three shell=and=
tu"e heat=e8changer
conFgurations. AaB %ne shell
pass and t2o or a multiple of
t2o tu"e passes. A"B %ne
shell pass and three or a
multiple of three tu"e passes.
AcB T2o shell passes and t2o
or a multiple of t2o tu"e
passes.
AFrom R. +. -o2man, +. .
Mueller, and W. M. /agle,
Trans. +.&.M.E.,;5, 57@, 575
A3:@6B. -y permission of the
pu"lishers.B orrection
factors, F, "ased on
counterJo2 $MTD.
55.>
3.6
orrection
factor, F
6.:
6.7
< N @.6 >.6 5.6
rossJo2 and &hell=and=Tu"e Heat=E8changer +nalysis >@5
3.5 3.6 6.7 6.; 6.@ 6.5
6.9
6.; < N
6.5
6
TH O TH
3
5
5
Tc O Tc
6.3
3
6.5 6.> 6.@
EN
6.5 6.;
Tc5 O Tc3
TH3 O Tc3
TH3
6.9 6.7 6.: 3.6
Tc3 Tc5
TH5
AaB
3.6
orrection
factor, F
6.:
6.7
< N @.6 >.6 5.6 3.5 3.6 6.7 6.; 6.@ 6.5
6.9
6.; < N
6.5
6
TH3 O TH5
Tc5 O Tc3
6.3 6.5 6.> 6.@
EN
6.5 6.;
Tc5 O Tc3
TH3 O Tc3
TH3
6.9 6.7 6.: 3.6
Tc3 Tc5
TH5
A"B
Figure 55.36 orrection factors for three crossJo2 heat=e8changer conFgurations. AaB rossJo2,
single=pass, "oth Juids unmi8ed. A"B rossJo2, single=pass, one Juid unmi8ed. AcB rossJo2,
tu"e passes mi8edT Juid Jo2s o(er Frst and second passes in series.
AFrom R. +. -o2man, +. . Mueller, and W. M. /agle, Trans. +.&.M.E., ;5, 577O57: A3:@6B. -y
permission of the pu"lishers.B
>@; hapter 55 Heat=Transfer E?uipment
3.6
orrection
factor, F
6.:
6.7
6.9
6.;
6.5
6
TH3 O TH5
Tc5 O Tc3
6.5 6.@
E
TH3
6.; 6.7 3.6
< N @.6
>.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.;
6.7
6.5
6.@
Tc5
Tc3
TH5
AcB
Figure 55.36 ontinued
may "e treated in much the same 2ay as the single=pass dou"le=pipe case. The reader is
cautioned to apply e?uation A55=36B, using the factor F as in e?uation A55=3@B.
? P '+AF DTlm B
A55=3@B
2ith the logarithmic=mean temperature difference calculated on the "asis of counterJo2.
The manner of using Figures 55.: and 55.36 may "e illustrated "y referring to the
follo2ing e8ample.
EM+M,$E 5 *n the oilO2ater energy transfer descri"ed in E8ample 3, compare the result o"tained 2ith the result
that 2ould "e o"tained if the heat e8changer 2ere
AaB crossJo2, 2ater=mi8edT
A"B shell=and=tu"e 2ith four tu"e=side passes, oil "eing the tu"e=side Juid.
For part AaB, Figure 55.36A"B must "e used. The parameters needed to use this Fgure are
Tt out U Tt in 55
P 6C5;>P
:5Ts in U Tt in
EP
55.@ The /um"er=of=Transfer='nits A/T'B Method of Heat=E8changer +nalysis and Design
and
fP
Ts in U Ts out >3C3
PP 3C5@@
Tt out U Tt in55
>@9
and from the Fgure 2e read F P 6C:;. The re?uired area for part AaB is thus e?ual to
A3C5;5BDA6C:;B P 3C;> m5 .
The (alues of E and f determined a"o(e are the same in part A"B, yielding a (alue of F e?ual to
6.:9. The area for part A"B "ecomes A3C5;5BDA6C:9B P 3C;3 m5 .
55.@ THE /'M-ER=%F=TR+/&FER='/*T& A/T'B METH%D
%F HE+T=EMH+/#ER +/+$E&*& +/D DE&*#/
Earlier mention 2as made of the 2or! of 0ays and $ondon3 2ith particular reference to
compact heat e8changers. The "oo! GGompact Heat E8changers,HH "y 0ays and $ondon,
also presents charts useful for heat=e8changer design on a different "asis than discussed thus
far.
/usselt,@ in 3:>6, proposed the method of analysis "ased upon the heat=e8changer
effecti(eness E. This term is deFned as the ratio of the actual heat transfer in a heat
e8changer to the ma8imum possi"le heat transfer that 2ould ta!e place if inFnite surface
area 2ere a(aila"le. -y referring to a temperature proFle diagram for counterJo2 operation,
as in Figure 55.33, it is seen that, in general, one Juid undergoes a greater total temperature
change than the other. *t is apparent that the Juid e8periencing the larger change in
temperature is the one ha(ing the smaller capacity coefFcient, 2hich 2e designate min. *f
c P min , as in Figure 55.33AaB, and if there is inFnite area a(aila"le for energy transfer, the
e8it temperature of the cold Juid 2ill e?ual the inlet temperature of the hot Juid.
TH in
TH out
T out
T in
AaB H _ , N min A"B _ H, H N min
TH in
T out
TH out
T in
Figure 55.33 Temperature proFles for counterJo2 heat e8changers.
+ccording to the deFnition of effecti(eness, 2e may 2rite
EP
H ATH in U TH out Bma8 ATH in U TH out B
P
c ATc out U Tc in Bma8min ATH in U Tc in B
A55=35B
*f the hot fluid is the minimum fluid, as in Figure 55.33A"B, the e8pression for E
"ecomes
c ATc out U Tc in Bma8 ATc out U Tc in B
EPA55=3;BP
H ATH in U TH out Bma8min ATH in U Tc in B
@
W. /usselt, Tech. Mechan. Thermodyn., 35 A3:>6B.
/otice that the denominators in "oth e?uations A55=35B and A55=3;B are the same and that,
in each case, the numerator represents the actual heat transfer. *t is thus possi"le to 2rite a
fifth e8pression for ? as
? P Emin ATH in U Tc in BA55=39B
2hich, along 2ith the integrated forms of e?uations A55=3B and A55=5B, as 2ell as e?ua=
tions A55=36B and A55=3@B, e8presses ?, the rate of heat transfer, in all of its useful forms as
far as heat=e8changer analysis and design are concerned. E?uation A55=39B is conspicuous
among these others, as the temperature difference appearing is that "et2een the inlet
streams alone. This is a definite ad(antage 2hen a gi(en heat e8changer is to "e used
under conditions other than those for 2hich it 2as designed. The e8it temperatures of the
t2o streams are then needed ?uantities, and e?uation A55=39B is o"(iously the easiest
means of attaining this !no2ledge if one can determine the (alue of E.
To determine E for a single=pass case, 2e initially 2rite e?uation A55=39B in the
form
H ATH in U TH out Bc ATc out U Tc in B
EPPA55=37B
min ATH in U Tc in B min ATH in U Tc in B
The appropriate form for e?uation A55=37B depends on 2hich of the t2o fluids has the
smaller (alue of . We shall consider the cold fluid to "e the minimum fluid and consider
the case of counterflo2. For these conditions, e?uation A55=36B may "e 2ritten as follo2s
Anumerical su"scripts correspond to the situation sho2n in Figure 55.9BC
? P c ATc5 U Tc3 B P '+
ATH3 U Tc3 B U ATH5 U Tc5 B
ln\ATH3 U Tc3 BDATH5 U Tc5 B^
A55=3:B
The entering temperature of the hot fluid, TH5, may "e 2ritten in terms of E "y use of
e?uation A55=37B, yielding
TH5 P Tc3 V
and also
3
TH5 U Tc5 P Tc3 U Tc5 V ATc5 U Tc3 B
E

3
U3 ATc5 U Tc3 BP
E
From the integrated forms of e?uations A55=3B and A55=5B, 2e ha(e
cTH5 U TH3
P
HTc5 U Tc3
2hich may "e rearranged to the form
TH3 P TH5 U
or
TH3 U Tc3 P TH5 U Tc3 U
min
ATc5 U Tc3 B
ma8
A55=55B
min
ATc5 U Tc3 B
ma8
A55=53B
3
ATc5 U Tc3 B
E
A55=56B
55.@ The /um"er=of=Transfer='nits A/T'B Method of Heat=E8changer +nalysis and Design >@:
om"ining this e8pression 2ith e?uation A55=56B, 2e o"tain
TH3 U Tc3 P
3min
ATc5 U Tc3 B UATc5 U Tc3 B
Ema8

3 min
UPWTc5 U Tc3 B
E ma8
A55=5>B
/o2 su"stituting e?uations A55=53B and A55=5>B into e?uation A55=3:B and rearranging, 2e
ha(e

3DE U min Dma8'+min
lnP3U
min3DE U 3ma8
Ta!ing the antilog of "oth sides of this e8pression and sol(ing for I, 2e ha(e, Fnally,
Q
'+min
3 U e8p U3U
minma8
QEP
'+min
3 U Wmin Dma8 X e8p U3U
minma8
A55=5@B
The ratio '+Dmin is designated the num"er of transfer units, a""re(iated /T'.
E?uation A55=5@B 2as deri(ed on the "asis that c P min T if 2e had initially considered
the hot Juid to "e minimum, the same result 2ould ha(e "een achie(ed. Thus, e?uation
A55=55B
Q
min
3 U e8p U/T' 3 U
ma8
QEP
min
3 U Amin Dma8 Be8p U/T' 3 U
ma8
A55=55B
is (alid for counterflo2 operation in general. For parallel flo2, an analogous de(elopment
to the preceding 2ill yield
Q
min
3 U e8p U/T' 3 V
ma8
EP
3 V min Dma8
A55=5;B
0ays and $ondon3 ha(e put e?uations A55=55B and A55=5;B into chart form, along 2ith
compara"le e8pressions for the effecti(eness of se(eral shell=and=tu"e and crossflo2
arrangements. Figures 55.35 and 55.3> are charts for E as functions of /T' for (arious
(alues of the parameter min Dma8.
With the aid of these Fgures, e?uation A55=39B may "e used "oth as an original design
e?uation and as a means of e(aluating e8isting e?uipment 2hen it operates at other than
design conditions.
The utility of the /T' approach is illustrated in the follo2ing e8ample.
>56 hapter 55 Heat=Transfer E?uipment
Heat=transfer
surface
366
minDma8 N 6
6.55
6.56
6.95
3.66
;6
76
Effecti(eness E
, in b
@6
56
6
6
35>@
/um"er of transfer units, /T' N +'D min
AaB
5
Heat=transfer
surface
366
minDma8 N 6
76
6.55
Effecti(eness E
, in b
6.56
;6
6.95
3.66
@6
56
6
6
35>@
A"B
5
Figure 55.35 Heat=e8changer effecti(eness for three shell=and=tu"e conFgurations.
AaB ounterJo2. A"B ,arallel Jo2. AcB %ne shell pass and t2o or a multiple of t2o tu"e passes.
55.@ The /um"er=of=Transfer='nits A/T'B Method of Heat=E8changer +nalysis and Design
&hell fluid
>53
Tu"e fluid
366
minDma8 N 6
76
Effecti(eness E
, in b
6.55
6.56
6.95
;6
3.66
@6
56
6
6
3 5>@
AcB
5
Figure 55.35 ontinued
366
minDma8 N 6
76
Effecti(eness E
, in b
6.55
6.56
6.95
;6
3.66
@6
56
6
6
35>@
AaB
5
Figure 55.3> Heat=e8changer effecti(eness for three crossJo2 conFgurations. AaB rossJo2, "oth
Juids unmi8ed. A"B rossJo2, one Juid mi8ed. AcB rossJo2, multiple pass.
366
mi8ed
N 6,66
unmi8ed
6.55
@
6.5
5
6.95
3.>>
mi8ed
N3
unmi8ed
76
Effecti(eness E
, in b
;6
Mi8ed fluid
'nmi8ed fluid
@6
56
6
6
35>@
A"B
5
T2o=pass
arrangement
366
Four pass
76
Effecti(eness
E , in b
ounterflo2
An N B
96
%ne pass
;6
Three pass
T2o pass
56
@6
6
35>@5
AcB
Figure 55.3> ontinued
55.@
EM+M,$E >
The /um"er=of=Transfer='nits A/T'B Method of Heat=E8changer +nalysis and Design >5>
Repeat the calculations for E8amples 3 and 5 to determine the re?uired heat=transfer area for the
speciFed conditions if the conFgurations are
AaB counterJo2T
A"B parallel Jo2T
AcB crossJo2, 2ater=mi8edT and
AdB shell=and=tu"e 2ith four tu"e=side passes.
*t is Frst necessary to determine the capacity coefFcients for the oil and 2ater
hoil P Amcp Boil P A6C5 !gDsBA56:6 JD!g [ 0B P 36@5 JDs [ 0
and
h2ater P Amcp B2 P A6C563 !gDsBA@399 JD!g [ 0B P 7@3C5 JDs [ 0
thus the 2ater is the minimum Juid. From e?uation A55=3;B, the effecti(eness is e(aluated as
EP
5; 355 W
P 6C>59
A7@3C5 JD!g [ sBA:5 0B
-y using the appropriate chart in Figures 55.35 and 55.3>, the appropriate /T' (alues and, in turn,
the re?uired area may "e e(aluated for each heat=e8changer conFguration.
AaB ounterJo2
/T' P 6C@9
+P
A"B ,arallel Jo2
/T' P 6C56
+P
AcB rossJo2, 2ater=mi8ed
/T' P 6C@7
+P
A6C@7BA7@3C5B
P 3C;35 m5
556
A6C56BA7@3C5B
P 3C;75 m5
556
A6C@9BA7@3C5B
P 3C573 m5
556
AdB &hell=and=tu"e, four tu"e=side passes
/T' P 6C@:
+P
A6C@:BA7@3C5B
P 3C;@: m5
556
These results are compara"le to those o"tained earlier, 2ith some possi"le inaccuracies
in(ol(ed in reading the chart.
>5@ hapter 55 Heat=Transfer E?uipment
The /T' method offers no distinct ad(antage o(er the procedure introduced earlier,
using the log=mean temperature difference, 2hen performing calculations of the type
in(ol(ed in the preceding e8amples. *n E8ample @, ho2e(er, the /T' approach is clearly
superior.
EM+M,$E @ *n the energy e8change "et2een 2ater and lu"ricating oil as considered in the preceding e8amples, a
crossJo2 heat e8changer 2ith the shell=side Juid A2aterB mi8ed is constructed 2ith a heat=transfer
area of 3C5> m5 . + ne2 pump is attached to the 2ater supply line ena"ling the 2ater Jo2 rate to "e
increased to 3666 !gDh. What 2ill "e the e8it temperatures of the 2ater and oil for the ne2 operating
conditionsa
*f the DTlm method 2ere used in this pro"lem, a trial=and=error method 2ould "e necessary as
DTlm , E, and F are all dependent on one or "oth e8it stream temperatures. The /T' method is, thus, a
"it simpler. 'sing the /T' method, it is Frst necessary to calculate the capacity coefFcients
oil P A6C5 !gDsBA56:6 JD!g [ 0B P 36@5 JDs [ 0
2 P A3666 !gDhBAhD>;66 sBA@399 JD!g [ 0B
P 33;6 JD!g [ 0
%il is no2 the GGminimumHH Juid. With oil P min 2e ha(e
/T' P
'+A556 WDm5 [ 0BA3C5> m5 B
P
min36@5 JDs [ 0
P 6C>;;
and, from Figure 55.3>, the effecti(eness is
E ^ 6C5:
'sing e?uation A55=39B 2e may e(aluate the heat=transfer rate as
? P A6C5:BA36@5 JDs [ 0BA:5 0B
P 57C7 0
an increase of o(er 36b. This (alue may no2 "e used in e?uations A55=3B and A55=5B to yield the
re?uired ans2ers.
Toil out P >95 U 57C7 !WDA36@5 WD0B
P >@9C@ 0
T2 out P 576 V 57C7 !WDA33;6 WD0B
P >6@C7 0
55.5 +DD*T*%/+$ %/&*DER+T*%/& */ HE+T=EMH+/#ER DE&*#/
+fter a heat e8changer has "een in ser(ice for some time, its performance may change as a
result of the "uildup of scale on a heat=transfer surface or of the deterioration of the surface
"y a corrosi(e Juid. When the nature of the surface is altered in some 2ay as to affect the
heat=transfer capa"ility, the surface is said to "e GGfouled.HH
When a fouling resistance e8ists, the thermal resistance is increased and a heat
e8changer 2ill transfer less energy than the design (alue. *t is e8tremely difFcult to predict
the rate of scale "uildup or the effect such "uildup 2ill ha(e upon heat transfer. &ome
55.5 +dditional onsiderations in Heat=E8changer Design >55
e(aluation can "e done after a heat e8changer has "een in ser(ice for some time "y
comparing its performance 2ith that 2hen the surfaces 2ere clean. The thermal resistance
of the scale is determined "y
Rsc P
33
U
'f '6
A55=59B
2here '6 is the o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient of the clean e8changer, 'f is the o(erall heat=
transfer coefFcient of the fouled e8changer, and Rsc is the thermal resistance of the scale.
Fouling resistances that ha(e "een o"tained from e8periments may "e used to roughly
predict the o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient "y incorporation into an e8pression similar to
e?uation A35=3:B. The follo2ing e?uation includes the fouling resistances, Ri on the inside
tu"e surface and Ro on the outside tu"e surfaceC
'6 P
3
+6 D+i hi V Ri V \+6 lnAro Dri B^N5p!N$ V Ro V 3Nho
A55=57B
Fouling resistances to "e used in e?uation A55=57B ha(e "een compiled "y the Tu"ular
E8changer Manufacturers +ssociation.5 &ome useful (alues are gi(en in Ta"le 55.3.
Ta"le 55.3 Heat=e8changer fouling resistances
Fluid Fouling resistances
Am5 0 D W ` 365 B
7.7
7.7
39.;
39.;
39.;
>5.5
39.;
>5.5
7.7
77.3
96.5
7.7
>5.5
Distilled 2ater
&ea 2ater, "elo2 >55 0
a"o(e >55 0
-oiler feed 2ater, treated
ity or 2ell 2ater, "elo2 >55 0
a"o(e >55 0
Refrigerating li?uids
Refrigerating (apors
$i?uid gasoline, organic (apors
Fuel oil
.uenching oil
&team, non=oil="earing
*ndustrial air
*t is often useful to ha(e GG"all=par!HH Fgures on heat=e8changer si<e, Jo2 rates, and the
li!e. The most difFcult ?uantity to estimate ?uic!ly is the o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient,
'. Mueller; has prepared the (ery useful ta"le of appro8imate ' (alues 2hich is reproduced
here as Ta"le 55.5.
5
;
Tu"ular E8changer Manufacturers +ssociation, TEM+ &tandards, >rd edition, /e2 Eor!, 3:55.
+. . Mueller, ,urdue 'ni(. Eng. E8p. &ta. Eng. -ull. Res. &er. 353 A3:5@B.
>5; hapter 55 Heat=Transfer E?uipment
Ta"le 55.5 +ppro8imate (alues for o(erall heat=transfer
coefFcients
Fluid com"ination
Water to compressed air
Water to 2ater, Iac!et 2ater coolers
Water to "rine
Water to gasoline
Water to gas oil or distillate
Water to organic sol(ents, alcohol
Water to condensing alcohol
Water to lu"ricating oil
Water to condensing oil (apors
Water to condensing or "oiling Freon=35
Water to condensing ammonia
&team to 2ater, instantaneous heater
storage=tan! heater
&team to oil, hea(y fuel
light fuel
light petroleum distillate
&team to a?ueous solutions
&team to gases
$ight organics to light organics
Medium organics to medium organics
Hea(y organics to hea(y organics
Hea(y organics to light organics
rude oil to gas oil
'AWDm5 [0B
55O3;5
756O35;6
596O33@6
>@6O@76
566O>@6
576O756
556O;76
336O>@6
556O596
576O756
756O3>56
5576O>@66
::6O3966
55O3;5
3;5O>@6
576O33@6
596O>@66
57O576
556O@55
336O>@6
55O556
55O>@6
3;5O>36
55.; $%&'RE
The "asic e?uations and procedures for heat=e8changer design are presented and de(eloped
in this chapter. +ll heat=e8changer design and analysis in(ol(e one or more of the follo2ing
e?uationsC
d? P c dTc
d? P H dTH
d? P ' d+WTH U Tc B
? P '+ DTlm
and
? P Emin ATH in U Tc in B
A55=39B
A55=3B
A55=5B
A55=>B
A55=36B
harts 2ere presented "y 2hich single=pass techni?ues could "e e8tended to include the
design and analysis of crossflo2 and shell=and=tu"e configurations.
The t2o methods for heat=e8changer design utili<e either e?uation A55=36B or A55=39B.
Either is reasona"ly rapid and straightfor2ard for designing an e8changer. E?uation A55=39B
is a simpler and more direct approach 2hen analy<ing an e8changer that operates at other
than design conditions.
,ro"lems >59
,R%-$EM&
55.3 + single tu"e=pass heat e8changer is to "e designed to
heat 2ater "y condensing steam in the shell. The 2ater is to pass
through the smooth hori<ontal tu"es in tur"ulent Jo2, and the
steam is to "e condensed drop2ise in the shell. The 2ater Jo2
rate, the initial and Fnal 2ater temperatures, the condensation
temperature of the steam, and the a(aila"le tu"e=side pressure
drop Aneglecting entrance and e8it lossesB are all speciFed. *n
order to determine the optimum e8changer design, it is desira"le
to !no2 ho2 the total re?uired area of the e8changer (aries 2ith
the tu"e diameter selected. +ssuming that the 2ater Jo2 remains
tur"ulent and that the thermal resistance of the tu"e 2all and the
steamOcondensate Flm is negligi"le, determine the effect of tu"e
diameter on the total area re?uired in the e8changer.
55.5 %ne hundred thousand pounds per hour of 2ater are to pass
through a heat e8changer, 2hich is to raise the 2ater temperature
from 3@6 to 5667F. om"ustion products ha(ing a speciFc heat of
6.5@ -tuDl"m 7F are a(aila"le at 7667F. The o(erall heat=transfer
coefFcient is 35 -tuDh ft5 7F. *f 366,666 l"mDh of the com"ustion
products are a(aila"le, determine
a. the e8it temperature of the Jue gasT
". the re?uired heat=transfer area for a counterJo2 e8changer.
55.> +n oil ha(ing a speciFc heat of 3776 JD!g [ 0 enters a
single=pass counterJo2 heat e8changer at a rate of 5 !gDs and a
temperature of @66 0. *t is to "e cooled to >56 0. Water is
a(aila"le to cool the oil at a rate of 5 !gDs and a temperature of
576 0. Determine the surface area re?uired if the o(erall heat=
transfer coefFcient is 5>6 WDm5 [ 0.
55.@ +ir at 56> !,a and 5:6 0 Jo2s in a long rectangular duct
2ith dimensions 36 cm "y 56 cm. + 5.5=m length of this duct is
maintained at >:5 0, and the a(erage e8it air temperature from
this section is >66 0. alculate the air Jo2 rate and the total heat
transfer.
55.5 Water enters a counterJo2, dou"le=pipe heat e8changer at
a rate of 356 l"mDmin and is heated from ;6 to 3@67F "y an oil
2ith a speciFc heat of 6.@5 -tuDl"m 7F. The oil enters at 5@67F
and lea(es at 767F. The o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient is 356
-tuDh ft5 7F.
a. What heat=transfer area is re?uireda
". What area is re?uired if all conditions remain the same
e8cept that a shell=and=tu"e heat e8changer is used 2ith the
2ater ma!ing one shell pass and the oil ma!ing t2o tu"e
passesa
c. What e8it 2ater temperature 2ould result if, for the e8chan=
ger of part AaB, the 2ater Jo2 rate 2ere decreased to 356
l"mDmina
55.; + 2ater=to=oil heat e8changer has entering and e8iting
temperatures of 555 and >@6 0, respecti(ely, for the 2ater and
>65 and >56 0, respecti(ely, for the oil. What is the effecti(eness
of this heat e8changera
55.9 Water at 567F is a(aila"le for cooling at a rate of @66 l"mDh.
*t enters a dou"le=pipe heat e8changer 2ith a total area of 37 ft5.
%il, 2ith cp P 6.@5 -tuDl"m 7F, enters the e8changer at 5567F.
The e8iting 2ater temperature is limited at 5357F, and the oil
must lea(e the e8changer at no more than 3;67F. #i(en the (alue
of ' P ;6 -tuDh ft5 7F, Fnd the ma8imum Jo2 of oil that may "e
cooled 2ith this unit.
55.7 + shell=and=tu"e heat e8changer is used for the heating of
oil from 56 to >67T the oil Jo2 rate is 35 !gDs Ac P
5C5 !JD!g [ 0B. The heat e8changer has one shell pass and t2o
tu"e passes. Hot 2ater AH P @C37 !JD!g [ 0B enters the shell at
957 and lea(es the shell at 557. The o(erall heat=transfer
coefFcient "ased on the outside surface of the tu"es is estimated
to "e 3676 WDm5 [ 0. Determine
a. the corrected logarithmic=mean temperature differenceT
". the re?uired surface area in the e8changer.
55.: onsider the e8changer in ,ro"lem 55.7. +fter @ years of
operation, the outlet of the oil reaches >67 instead of >77 2ith
all other conditions remaining the same. Determine the fouling
resistance on the oil side of the e8changer.
55.36 + Fnned=tu"e crossJo2 heat e8changer 2ith "oth Juids
unmi8ed is used to heat 2ater Ac P @C5 !JD!g [ 0B from 56 to
957. The mass Jo2 rate of the 2ater is 5.9 !gDs. The hot stream
AH P 3C5 !JD!g [ 0B enters the heat e8changer at 5767 and
lea(es at 3567. The o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient is
3;6 WDm5 [ 0. Determine
a. the mass Jo2 rate of the heat streamT
". the e8changer surface area.
55.33 + shell=and=tu"e heat e8changer is used to cool oil
AH P 5C5 !JD!g [ 0B from 336 to ;57. The heat e8changer
has t2o shell passes and four tu"e passes. The coolant Ac P
@C56 !JD!g [ 0B enters the shell at 567 and lea(es the shell at
@57. For an o(erall tu"e=side heat=transfer coefFcient of
3566 WDm5 [ 0 and an oil Jo2 of 33 !gDs, determine
a. the coolant mass Jo2 rateT
". the re?uired surface area in the e8changer.
55.35 + shell=and=tu"e e8changer ha(ing one shell pass and
eight tu"e passes is to heat !erosene from 76 to 3>67F. The
!erosene enters at a rate of 5566 l"mDh. Water entering at 5667F
and at a rate of :66 l"mDh is to Jo2 on the shell side. The o(erall
heat=transfer coefFcient if 5;6 -tuDh ft5 7F. Determine the
re?uired heat=transfer area.
55.3> *f the o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient, initial Juid tem=
perature, and total heat=transfer area determined in ,ro"lem 55.@
remain the same, Fnd the e8it oil temperature if the conFguration
is changed to
a. crossJo2, "oth Juids unmi8edT
". shell=and=tu"e 2ith t2o tu"e passes and one shell pass.
55.37 For the heat e8changer descri"ed in ,ro"lem 55.39 it is
o"ser(ed, after a long period of operation, that the cold stream
lea(es at 37@7F instead of at the design (alue of 5567F. This is
for the same Jo2 rates and entering temperatures of "oth streams.
E(aluate the fouling factor that e8ists at the ne2 conditions.
55.3: Water Jo2ing at a rate of 36 !gDs through 56 tu"es in a
dou"le=pass shell=and=tu"e heat e8changer heats air that Jo2s on
the shell side. The tu"es are made of "rass 2ith outside diameters
of 5.; cm and are ;.9 m long. &urface coefFcients on the inside
and outside tu"e surfaces are @96 and 536 WDm5 [ 0, respec=
ti(ely. +ir enters the unit at 357 2ith a Jo2 rate of 3; !gDs. The
entering 2ater temperature is >56 0. Determine the follo2ingC
a. heat=e8changer effecti(enessT
". heat=transfer rate to the airT
c. e8iting temperatures of the 2ater and air streams.
*f, after a long period of operation, a scale has "een "uilt
up inside the tu"es resulting in an added fouling resistance of
6C6653 m5 [ 0DW, determine the ne2 results for parts AaB, A"B, and
AcB, a"o(e.
55.56 Water Jo2ing at a rate of >.7 !gDs is heated from >7 to
557 in the tu"es of a shell=and=tu"e heat e8changer. The shell
side is one=pass 2ith 2ater, Jo2ing at 3.: !gDs entering at :@7.
The o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient is 3@56 WDm5 [ 0. The
a(erage 2ater (elocity in the 3.:65=cm=*D tu"es is 6.>;; mDs.
-ecause of space limitations, the tu"es may not e8ceed 5.@@ m in
length. Determine the re?uired num"er of tu"e passes, the
num"er of tu"es per pass, and the length of tu"es consistent
2ith this restriction.
55.53 &aturated steam at >9> 0 is to "e condensed in a shell=
and=tu"e e8changerT it is to enter as steam at >9> 0 and lea(e as
condensate at appro8imately >9> 0. *f the /T' rating for the
condenser is gi(en "y the manufacturer as 3.55 in this ser(ice for
a circulating 2ater Jo2 of 6.69 !gDs, and circulating 2ater is
a(aila"le at 576 0, 2hat 2ill "e the appro8imate ma8imum Jo2
rate of steam in !gDs that can "e condenseda What 2ill "e the
lea(ing temperature of the circulating 2ater under these condi=
tionsa 'nder these conditions, the heat (apori<ation is 5559 !JD!g
and cp is @C37 !JD!g [ 0.
55.3@ + condenser unit is of a shell=and=tu"e conFguration
2ith steam condensing at 757 in the shell. The coefFcient on
the condensate side is 36,;66 WDm5 [ 0. Water at 567 enters the
tu"es, 2hich ma!e t2o passes through the single=shell unit. The
2ater lea(es the unit at a temperature of >77. +n o(erall heat=
transfer coefFcient of @;66 WDm5 [ 0 may "e assumed to apply.
The heat transfer rate is 6C5 ` 36; !W. What must "e the
re?uired length of tu"es for this casea
55.35 Determine the re?uired heat=transfer surface area for a
heat e8changer constructed from 36=cm %D tu"es. + :5b
ethanol solution Acp P >C736 !JD!g [ 0B, Jo2ing at ;.:> !gDs is
cooled from >@6 to >35 0 "y ;.>6 !gDs of 2ater that is a(aila"le at
57> 0. The o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient "ased on outside
tu"e area is 5;7 WDm5 [ 0. Three different e8changer conFgura=
tions are of interestC
a. counterJo2, single passT
". parallel Jo2, single passT
c. crossJo2 2ith one tu"e pass and one shell pass, shell=side
Juid mi8ed.
55.3; ompressed air is used in a heat=pump system to heat
2ater, 2hich is su"se?uently used to 2arm a house. The house
demand is :5,666 -tuDh. +ir enters the e8changer at 5667F and
lea(es at 3567F, and 2ater enters and lea(es the e8changer at :6
and 3557F, respecti(ely. hoose from the follo2ing alternati(e
units the one that is most compact.
a. + counterJo2 surface 2ith ' P >6 -tuDh ft5 7F and a
surface=to=(olume ratio of 3>6 ft5Dft>.
". + crossJo2 conFguration 2ith the 2ater unmi8ed and air
mi8ed ha(ing ' P @6 -tuDh ft5 7F and a surface=to=(olume
ratio of 366 ft5Dft>.
c. + crossJo2 unit 2ith "oth Juids unmi8ed 2ith ' P 56 -tuD
h ft5 7F and surface=to=(olume ratio of :6 ft5Dft>.
55.39 + shell=and=tu"e heat e8changer 2ith t2o shell passes
and four tu"e passes is used to e8change energy "et2een t2o
pressuri<ed 2ater streams. %ne stream Jo2ing at 5666 l"mDh is
heated from 95 to 5567F. The hot stream Jo2s at 5@66 l"mDh and
enters at @667F. *f the o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient is
>66 WDm5 [ 0, determine the re?uired surface area.
hapter
5>
Radiation Heat Transfer
The mechanism of radiation heat transfer has no analogy in either momentum or mass
transfer. Radiation heat transfer is e8tremely important in many phases of engineering
design such as "oilers, home heating, and spacecraft. *n this chapter, 2e 2ill concern
oursel(es Frst 2ith understanding the nature of thermal radiation. /e8t, 2e 2ill discuss
properties of surfaces and consider ho2 system geometry inJuences radiant heat
transfer. Finally, 2e 2ill illustrate some techni?ues for sol(ing relati(ely simple
pro"lems 2here surfaces and some gases participate in radiant energy e8change.
5>.3 /+T'RE %F R+D*+T*%/
The transfer of energy "y radiation has se(eral uni?ue characteristics 2hen contrasted 2ith
conduction or con(ection. First, matter is not re?uired for radiant heat transferT indeed the
presence of a medium 2ill impede radiation transfer "et2een surfaces. loud co(er is
o"ser(ed to reduce ma8imum daytime temperatures and to increase minimum e(ening
temperatures, "oth of 2hich are dependent upon radiant energy transfer "et2een earth and
space. + second uni?ue aspect of radiation is that "oth the amount of radiation and the
?uality of the radiation depend upon temperature. *n conduction and con(ection, the amount
of heat transfer 2as found to depend upon the temperature differenceT in radiation, the
amount of heat transfer depends upon "oth the temperature difference "et2een t2o "odies
and their a"solute temperatures. *n addition, radiation from a hot o"Iect 2ill "e different in
?uality than radiation from a "ody at a lo2er temperature. The color of incandescent o"Iects
is o"ser(ed to change as the temperature is changed. The changing optical properties of
radiation 2ith temperature are of paramount importance in determining the radiant=energy
e8change "et2een "odies.
Radiation tra(els at the speed of light, ha(ing "oth 2a(e properties and particle=li!e
properties. The electromagnetic spectrum sho2n in Figure 5>.3 illustrates the tremendous
range of fre?uency and 2a(elength o(er 2hich radiation occurs.
The unit of 2a(elength 2hich 2e shall use in discussing radiation is the micron,
sym"oli<ed m. %ne micron is 36U; m or >C:@A36BU5 inC The fre?uency, (, of radiation is
related to the 2a(elength l, "y l( P c, 2here c is the speed of light. &hort=2a(elength
radiation such as gamma rays and 8=rays is associated 2ith (ery high energies. To produce
radiation of this type 2e must distur" the nucleus or the inner=shell electrons of an atom.
#amma rays and 8=rays also ha(e great penetrating a"ilityT surfaces that are opa?ue to
(isi"le radiation are easily tra(ersed "y gamma and 8=rays. 1ery=long=2a(elength radiation,
such as radio 2a(es, also may pass through solidsT ho2e(er, the energy associated 2ith these
2a(es is much less than that for short=2a(elength radiation. *n the range from l P 6C>7 to
6.9; microns, radiation is sensed "y the optical ner(e of the eye and is 2hat 2e call light.
Radiation in the (isi"le range is o"ser(ed to ha(e little penetrating po2er e8cept in some
li?uids, plastics, and glasses. The radiation "et2een 2a(elengths of 6.3 and 366 microns is
>5:
>;6 hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer
36O;
osmic
rays
36O5 36O@ 36O> 36O5 36O3
'ltra=
(iolet
366 363 365 36> 36@ 365 36;
#amma
rays
8=rays *nfrared Radio 2a(es
1isi"le spectrum
-lue, green Eello2 Red
6.> 6.@ 6.56.;
Wa(elength, in microns
6.9 6.7
Figure 5>.3 The electromagnetic spectrum.
termed as thermal radiation. The thermal "and of the spectrum includes a portion of the
ultra(iolet and all of the infrared regions.
5>.5 THERM+$ R+D*+T*%/
Thermal radiation incident upon a surface as sho2n in Figure 5>.5 may "e either a"sor"ed,
reJected, or transmitted.
Reflected
radiation
*ncident
radiation
+"sor"ed radiation
Transmitted radiation
Figure 5>.5 Fate of
radiation incident upon a
surface.
*f r, a, and t are the fractions of the incident radiation that are reJected, a"sor"ed and
transmitted, respecti(ely, then
rVaVt P3
A5>=3B
2here r is called the reflecti(ity, a is called the a"sorpti(ity, and t is called
transmissi(ity.
There are t2o types of reJection that can occur, specular reJection and diffuse
reJection. *n specular reJection, the angle of incidence of the radiation is e?ual to the
angle of reJection. The reJection sho2n in Figure 5>.5 is specular reJection. Most "odies
do not reJect in a specular manner, they reJect radiation in all directions. Diffuse reJection
is sometimes li!ened to a situation in 2hich the incident thermal radiation is a"sor"ed and
then reemitted from the surface, still retaining its initial 2a(elength.
+"sorption of thermal radiation in solids ta!es place in a (ery short distance, on the
order of 3 mm in electrical conductors and a"out 6.65 in. in electrical nonconductors, the
difference "eing caused "y the different population of energy states in electrical conductors,
2hich can a"sor" energy at thermal radiation fre?uencies.
5>.> The *ntensity of Radiation >;3
For most solids, the transmissi(ity is <ero, and thus they may "e called opa?ue to
thermal radiation. e?uation A5>=3B "ecomes, for an opa?ue "ody, r V a P 3C
The ideally a"sor"ing "ody, for 2hich a P 3, is called a "lac! "ody. + "lac! "ody
neither reJects nor transmits any thermal radiation. +s 2e see reJected light AradiationB, a
so=called "lac! "ody 2ill appear "lac!, no light "eing reJected from it. + small hole in a
large ca(ity closely approaches a "lac! "ody, regardless of the nature of the interior surface.
Radiation incident to the hole has (ery little opportunity to "e reJected "ac! out of the hole.
-lac! "odies may also "e made of "right o"Iects, as can "e sho2n "y loo!ing at a stac! of
ra<or "lades, sharp edge for2ard.
The total emissi(e po2er, E, of a surface is deFned as the total rate of thermal energy
emitted (ia radiation from a surface in all directions and at all 2a(elengths per unit surface
area. The total emissi(e po2er is also referred to else2here as the emittance or the total
hemispheric intensity. losely related to the total emissi(e po2er is the emissi(ity. The
emissi(ity, e, is deFned as the ratio of the total emissi(e po2er of a surface to the total
emissi(e po2er of an ideally radiating surface at the same temperature. The ideal radiating
surface is also called a "lac! "ody, so 2e may 2rite
eP
E
E"
A5>=5B
2here E" is the total emissi(e po2er of a "lac! "ody. +s the total emissi(e po2er
includes radiant=energy contri"utions from all 2a(elengths, the monochromatic emissi(e
po2er, El , may also "e defined. The radiant energy El contained "et2een 2a(elengths l
and l V dl is the monochromatic emissi(e po2erT thus
f 3
dE P El dl, or E PEl dl
6
The monochromatic emissi(ity, el , is simply el P El DEl,", 2here El," is the monochromatic
emissi(e po2er of a "lac! "ody at 2a(elength l at the same temperature. + monochromatic
a"sorpti(ity, al , may "e deFned in the same manner as the monochromatic emissi(ity. The
monochromatic a"sorpti(ity is deFned as the ratio of the incident radiation of 2a(elength
l that is a"sor"ed "y a surface to the incident radiation a"sor"ed "y a "lac! surface.
+ relation "et2een the a"sorpti(ity and the emissi(ity is gi(en "y 0irchhoffHs la2.
0irchhoffHs la2 states that, for a system in thermodynamic e?uili"rium, the follo2ing
e?uality holds for each surfaceC
el P a l
A5>=>B
Thermodynamic e?uili"rium re?uires that all surfaces "e at the same temperature so that
there is no net heat transfer. The utility of 0irchhoffHs la2 lies in its use for situations in
2hich the departure from e?uili"rium is small. *n such situations the emissi(ity and the
a"sorpti(ity may "e assumed to "e e?ual. For radiation "et2een "odies at greatly
different temperatures, such as "et2een Earth and the sun, 0irchhoffHs la2 does not
apply. + fre?uent error in using 0irchhoffHs la2 arises from confusing thermal
e?uili"rium 2ith steady=state conditions. &teady state means that time deri(ati(es are
<ero, 2hereas e?uili"rium refers to the e?uality of temperatures.
5>.> THE */TE/&*TE %F R+D*+T*%/
*n order to characteri<e the ?uantity of radiation that tra(els from a surface along a speciFed
path, the concept of a single ray is not ade?uate. The amount of energy tra(eling in a gi(en
direction is determined from *, the intensity of radiation. With reference to Figure 5>.>, 2e
are interested in !no2ing the rate at
2hich radiant energy is emitted from a
representati(e portion, d+, of the surface
sho2n in a prescri"ed direction. %ur per=
specti(e 2ill "e that of an o"ser(er at
point , loo!ing at d+. &tandard spherical
coordinates 2ill "e used, these "eing r,
the radial coordinateT u, the <enith angle
sho2n in Figure 5>.>T and f, the a<i=
muthal angle, 2hich 2ill "e discussed
shortly. *f a unit area of surface, d+, emits
a total energy d?, then the intensity of
radiation is gi(en "y
d5 ?
*
d+ d1 cos u
A5>=@B
d+
,
*
dy
?
Figure 5>.> The intensity of radiation.
2here d1 is a differential solid angle,
that is, a portion of space. /ote that 2ith
the eye located at point ,, in Figure 5>.>,
the apparent si<e of the emitting area is d+ cos u. *t is important to remem"er that the
intensity of radiation is independent of direction for a diffusely radiating surface. Rearran=
ging e?uation A5>=@B, 2e see that the relation "et2een the total emissi(e po2er, E P d?Dd+,
and the intensity, *, is
ff
d?
P E P * cos u d1 P * cos u d1A5>=5B
d+
The relation is seen to "e purely geometric for
a diffusely radiating A* ;P *AuBB surface. onsi=
?
der an imaginary hemisphere of radius r co(er=
ing the plane surface on 2hich d+ is located.
d?
The solid angle d1 intersects the shaded area
on the hemisphere as sho2n in Figure 5>.@. +
r6 sin ?
solid angle is defined "y 1 P +Dr 5 or d1 P
d+Dr 5 , and thus
Ar sin u dfBAr duB
d1 PP sin u du df
r5
The total emissi(e po2er per unit area "ecomes
f
E P * cos u d1
f
P*
6
5p f pD5
r6
df
d+
f
Figure 5>.@ *ntegration of intensity o(er
solid angles.
cos u sin u du df
6
or simply
E P p*
*f the surface does not radiate diffusely, then
f 5p f pD5
EP* cos u sin u du df
6 6
A5>=;B
5>.@ ,lanc!Hs $a2 of Radiation >;>
The relation "et2een the intensity of radiation, *, and the total emissi(e po2er is an
important step in determining the total emissi(e po2er.
Radiation intensity is fundamental in formulating a ?uantitati(e description of radiant
heat transfer "ut its deFnition, as already discussed, is cum"ersome. E?uation A5>=;B relates
intensity to emissi(e po2er that, potentially, is much easier to descri"e. We 2ill no2
consider the means of such a description.
5>.@ ,$+/0H& $+W %F R+D*+T*%/
,lanc!3 introduced the ?uantum concept in 3:66 and 2ith it the idea that radiation is emitted
not in a continuous energy state "ut in discrete amounts or ?uanta. The intensity of radiation
emitted "y a "lac! "ody, deri(ed "y ,lanc!, is
*",l P
5c5 hlU5

ch
e8pU3
!lT
2here *",l is the intensity of radiation from a "lac! "ody "et2een 2a(elengths l and l V
dl, c is the speed of light, h is ,lanc!Hs constant, ! is the -olt<mann constant, and T is the
temperature. The total emissi(e po2er "et2een 2a(elengths l and l V dl is then
5pc5 hlU5
E " ,l P
ch
e8pU3
!lT
A5>=9B
Figure 5>.5 illustrates the spectral energy distri"ution of energy of a "lac! "ody as gi(en
"y e?uation A5>=9B.
*n Figure 5>.5 the area under the cur(e of E",l (s. l Athe total emitted energyB is seen to
increase rapidly 2ith temperature. The pea! energy is also o"ser(ed to occur at shorter and
shorter 2a(elengths as the temperature is increased. For a "lac! "ody at 5766 0 Athe
effecti(e temperature of solar radiationB, a large part of the emitted energy is in the (isi"le
region. E?uation A5>=9B e8presses, functionally, E",l as a function of 2a(elength and
temperature. Di(iding "oth sides of this e?uation "y T 5, 2e get
E"l
P
T5
5p5 hAlTBU5

ch
e8pU3
!lT
A5>=7B
2here the ?uantity E"l DT 5 is e8pressed as a function of the lT product, 2hich can "e
treated as a single independent (aria"le. This functional relationship is plotted in Figure
5>.;, and discrete (alues of E"l DsT 5 are gi(en in Ta"le 5>.3. The constant, s, 2ill "e
discussed in the ne8t section.
The pea! energy is o"ser(ed to "e emitted at lT P 57:9C; mm 0A5535C; mm RB, as can "e
determined "y ma8imi<ing e?uation A5>=7B. The relation, lma8 T P 57:9 m 0, is called WienHs
displacement la2. Wien o"tained this result in 37:>, 9 years prior to ,lanc!Hs de(elopment.
Weare ofteninterestedin!no2ing ho2 much emissionoccursin aspeciFcportion ofthetotal
2a(elength spectrum. This is con(eniently e8pressed as a fraction of the total emissi(e po2er. The
fraction "et2een 2a(elengths l3 and l5 is designated Fl3 Ul5 and may "e e8pressed as
R l5R l5
E"l dl
l3l E"l dl
P 3 @Fl3 Ul5 P R 3A5>=:B
sTE"l dl6
3
M. ,lanc!, 1erh. d. deut. physi!. #esell., 5, 5>9 A3:66B.
>;@ hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer
367
367
369
369
Hemispherical
spectral
emissi(e po2er
E"Al, TB, WD
Am5 q mB
Hemispherical
spectral
emissi(e po2er
El"A, TB, WDm
5 q mmB
36;
36;
365
365
-lac!"ody
temperature, T, gRT 0
36 , 666T 5555
36@
5666T 5997
>666T 3;;9
36>
3566T 7>>
365
3666T 555
$ocus of ma8imum
1alues, e l"A lma8, T B
363
36@
36>
365
363
366
6
1iolet
5@57
RedWa(elength l, mm
1isi"le region
A6.@O6.9mmB
36 35
Figure 5>.5 &pectral emissi(e po2er for a "lac! "ody for se(eral temperatures.
AFrom R. &iegel and J. R. Ho2ell, Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, Third Edition, Hemisphere
,u"lishers, Washington, 3::5. -y permission of the pu"lishers.B
E?uation A5>=:B is con(eniently "ro!en into t2o integrals as follo2sC
f l5f l3
3
E"l dl UE"l dl
Fl3 Ul5 P @
sT66
P F6Ul5 U F6Ul3
A5>=36B
&o, at a gi(en temperature, the fraction of emission "et2een any t2o 2a(elengths can "e
determined "y su"traction.
This process can "e simpliFed if the temperature is eliminated as a separate (aria"le.
This may "e accomplished "y using the fraction E"l DsT 5 , as discussed. E?uation A5>=36B
5>.5 &tefanO-olt<mann $a2 >;5
3@,666 o 36O35 5@6 o 36O35
lT, AmBAgRB 5;6;
lT, AmBA0 B 3@@7
,ercent
566 emissi(e
po2er "elo2
lT, F6 O T
,lanc!Hs la2
WienHs distri"ution
RayleighOJeansd, distri"ution
553; 9>:7 33,6;9
57:7 @369 ;3@7
5556 95
@3,566
55,7:6
::
36,666
El"Al, TBD T5, -tuD
Ah q ft 5 q 7R 5 q
mmB
35,666
El"Al, TBD T5, WD
Am5 q 0 5 q mmB
3;6
7666
356
;666
76
@666
@6
5666
6
6
3
5@; 7 35@ ; > 36@
Wa(elengthOtemperature product lT, m q gR
; 7 35@; 7 3656
Wa(elengthOtemperature product lT, m q 0
@6 > 36>
Figure 5>.; &pectral energy distri"ution for a "lac! "ody as a function of lT.
AFrom R. &iegel and J. R. Ho2ell, Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, Third Edition, Hemisphere
,u"lishers, Washington, 3::5. -y permission of the pu"lishers.B
may "e modiFed in this manner to yield
f l5 Tf l3 T
E"lE"l
Fl3 TUl5 T PdAlTB UdAlTB
sT 5sT 566
P F6Ul5 T U F6Ul3 T
1alues of F6UlT are gi(en as functions of the product, lT, in Ta"le 5>.3.
A5>=33B
5>.5 &TEF+/O-%$TfM+// $+W
,lanc!Hs la2 of radiation may "e integrated o(er 2a(elengths from <ero to inFnity to
determine the total emissi(e po2er. The result is
f 3
5p5 !@ T @
E",l dl PP sT @A5>=35BE" P
35c5 h>6
2here s is called the &tefanO-olt<mann constant and has the (alue s P 5C;9; `
36U7 WDm5 [ 0@ A6C393@ ` 36U7 -tuDh ft5 R@ B. This constant is o"ser(ed to "e a com"ina=
tion of other physical constants. The &tefanO-olt<mann relation, E" P sT @ , 2as o"tained
prior to ,lanc!Hs la2, (ia e8periment "y &tefan in 379: and (ia a thermodynamic
deri(ation "y -olt<mann in 377@. The e8act (alue of the &tefanO-olt<mann constant, s,
and its relation to other physical constants 2ere o"tained after the presentation of
,lanc!Hs la2 in 3:66.
>;; hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer

E"3
sT 5 cm 0
3.6>>:
6.::>7
6.:555
6.:373
6.775;
6.7@75
6.7357
6.97@@
6.95@>
6.9555
6.;:9:
6.;935
6.;@;5
6.;556
6.5:79
6.59;5
6.5555
6.5>@7
6.5355
6.@:;5
6.@97;
6.@;3@
6.@@@:
6.@5:3
6.@3@6
6.>::5
6.>75;
6.>955
6.>5:@
6.>@95
6.>>5@
6.>5@3
6.>3>5
6.>657
6.5:57
6.57>5
6.59>:
6.5;56
6.55;5
6.5@7>
6.5@6@
6.5>57
6.5555
6.5375
6.5339
Ta"le 5>.3 ,lanc! radiation functions
lTAmm 0B
3666
3366
3566
3>66
3@66
3566
3;66
3966
3766
3:66
5666
5366
5566
5>66
5@66
5566
5;66
5966
5766
5:66
>666
>366
>566
>>66
>@66
>566
>;66
>966
>766
>:66
@666
@366
@566
@>66
@@66
@566
@;66
@966
@766
@:66
5666
5366
5566
5>66
5@66
F6UlT
6.666>
6.666:
6.6653
6.66@>
6.6697
6.6357
6.63:9
6.6575
6.6>:>
6.6553
6.6;;9
6.67>6
6.366:
6.3566
6.3@65
6.3;3>
6.37>3
6.565>
6.559:
6.5565
6.59>5
6.5:57
6.>373
6.>@63
6.>;39
6.>75:
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3.@3>5
3.>;6@
3.>67:
3.55:6
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3.33:6
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lTAmm 0B
5566
5;66
5966
5766
5:66
;666
;366
;566
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6.9636
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6.9>97
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6.7>@@
6.7>:3
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6.7@76
6.7555
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6.7;65
6.7;@6
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6.7736
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6.7793
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6.:6>6
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6.:699
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6.5655
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6.63:;
6.63;@
6.63>:
6.6337
6.6363
6.6679
6.6695
6.66;5
6.6659
6.6656
Emissi(ity and +"sorpti(ity of &olid &urfaces >;9
lTAmm 0B
36,666
33,666
35,666
3>,666
3@,666
35,666
3;,666
39,666
37,666
3:,666
56,666
53,666
55,666
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>6,666
>3,666
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>@,666
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>9,666
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6.::75
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6.::7;
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6.::77
6.::77

E"3
sT 5 cm 0
6.66@@
6.66>:
6.66>5
6.66>3
6.6657
6.6655
6.6655
6.6656
6.6637
6.663;
6.6635
6.663@
6.6635
6.6633
6.6636
6.666:
6.666:
6.6667
6.6669
6.6669
AFrom M. .. -re2ster, Thermal Radiati(e Transfer and ,roperties, John Wiley ) &ons, /e2 Eor!, 3::5. -y permission of the pu"lishersB.
5>.; EM*&&*1*TE +/D +-&%R,T*1*TE %F &%$*D &'RF+E&
Whereas thermal conducti(ity, speciFc heat, density, and (iscosity are the important
physical properties of matter in heat conduction and con(ection, emissi(ity and a"sorpti(ity
are the controlling properties in heat e8change "y radiation.
From preceding sections it is seen that, for "lac!="ody radiation, E" P sT @ . For actual
surfaces, E P eE" , follo2ing the deFnition of emissi(ity. The emissi(ity of the surface, so
deFned, is a gross factor, as radiant energy is "eing sent out from a "ody not only in all
directions "ut also o(er (arious 2a(elengths. For actual surfaces, the emissi(ity may (ary
2ith 2a(elength as 2ell as the direction of emission. onse?uently, 2e ha(e to differentiate
the monochromatic emissi(ity el and the directional emissi(ity eu from the total emissi(ity e.
Monochromatic Emissi(ity. -y deFnition, the monochromatic emissi(ity of an actual
surface is the ratio of its monochromatic emissi(e po2er to that of a "lac! surface at the same
temperature. Figure 5>.9 represents a typical distri"ution of the intensity of radiation of t2o
E,"
,
.
6
3
Figure 5>.9 Emissi(ity at

(arious 2a(elengths.
56g
@6g
AgB
;6g
Af B
76g
AaB
76g
AdB
A"B
6g
AeB
AcB
;6g
56g
@6g
3.6
?
6.7 6.; 6.@ 6.5 6 6.5 6.@ 6.; 6.7
?
3.6
Figure 5>.7 Emissi(ity
(ariation 2ith direction for
nonconductors. AaB Wet
ice. A"B Wood. AcB #lass.
AdB ,aper. AeB lay. AfB
opper o8ide. AgB
+luminum o8ide.
such surfaces at the same temperature o(er (arious 2a(elengths. The monochromatic
emissi(ity at a certain 2a(elength, l3 , is seen to "e the ratio of t2o ordinates such as %. and
%,. That is
el3 P
%.
%,
2hich is e?ual to the monochromatic a"sorpti(ity al3 from radiation of a "ody at the same
temperature. This is the direct conse?uence of 0irchhoffHs la2. The total emissi(ity of the
surface is gi(en "y the ratio of the shaded area sho2n in Figure 5>.9 to that under the cur(e
for the "lac!="ody radiation.
Directional Emissi(ity. The cosine (ariation discussed pre(iously, e?uation A5>=5B, is
strictly applica"le to radiation from a "lac! surface "ut fulFlled only appro8imately "y
materials present in nature. This is due to the fact that the emissi(ity Aa(eraged o(er all
2a(elengthsB of actual surfaces is not a constant in all directions. The (ariation of emissi(ity
of materials 2ith the direction of emission can "e con(eniently represented "y polar
diagrams.
*f the cosine la2 is fulFlled, the distri"ution cur(es should ta!e the form of semicircles.
Most nonconductors ha(e much smaller emissi(ities for emission angles in the neigh"or=
hood of :67 Asee Figure 5>.7B.
De(iation from the cosine la2 is e(en greater for many conductors Asee Figure 5>.:B.
The emissi(ity stays fairly constant in the neigh"orhood of the normal direction of emissionT
as the emission angle is increased, it Frst increases and then decreases as the former
approaches :67.
;6g @6g 56g 6g 56g @6g ;6g
Mn
/i polished
/i dull
6.3@ 6.35 6.36 6.67 6.6; 6.6@ 6.65
?
6
r
+l
6.65 6.6@ 6.6; 6.67 6.36 6.35 6.3@
?
Figure 5>.: Emissi(ity (ariation 2ith direction for conductors.
5>.; Emissi(ity and +"sorpti(ity of &olid &urfaces >;:
Ta"le 5>.5 The ratio eDen for "right metallic surfaces
+luminum, "right rolled A@@> 0B
/ic!el, "right matte A>9> 0B
/ic!el, polished A>9> 0B
Manganin, "right rolled A>:5 0B
hromium, polished A@5> 0B
*ron, "right etched A@5> 0B
-ismuth, "right A>5> 0B
6C6@:
P 3C55
6C6>:
6C6@;
P 3C35
6C6@3
6C65>
P 3C37
6C6@5
6C659
P 3C3:
6C6@7
6C693
P 3C55
6C657
6C357
P 3C5>
6C357
6C>@6
P 3C67
6C>>;
The a(erage total emissi(ity may "e determined "y using the follo2ing e8pressionC
f pD5
ePeu sin 5u du
6
The emissi(ity, e, is, in general, different from the normal emissi(ity, en Aemissi(ity in the
normal directionB. *t has "een found that for most "right metallic surfaces, the total
emissi(ity is appro8imately 56b higher than en . Ta"le 5>.5 lists the ratio of eDen for a
fe2 representati(e "right metallic surfaces. For nonmetallic or other surfaces, the ratio eDen
is slightly less than unity. -ecause of the inconsistency that can often "e found among
(arious sources, the normal emissi(ity (alues can "e used, 2ithout apprecia"le error, for
total emissi(ity Asee Ta"le 5>.>B.
Ta"le 5>.> The ratio eDen for nonmetallic
and other surfaces
opper o8ide A>667FB
Fire clay A37>7FB
,aper A5667FB
,ly2ood A3577FB
#lass A5667FB
*ce A>57FB
6.:;
6.::
6.:9
6.:9
6.:>
6.:5
+ fe2 generali<ations may "e made concerning the emissi(ity of surfacesC
AaB *n general, emissi(ity depends on surface conditions.
A"B The emissi(ity of highly polished metallic surfaces is (ery lo2.
AcB The emissi(ity of all metallic surfaces increases 2ith temperature.
AdB The formation of a thic! o8ide layer and roughening of the surface increase the
emissi(ity apprecia"ly.
AeB The ratio eDen is al2ays greater than unity for "right metallic surfaces. The (alue
3.5 can "e ta!en as a good a(erage.
AfB The emissi(ities of nonmetallic surfaces are much higher than for metallic surfaces
and sho2 a decrease as temperature increases.
>96 hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer
AgB The emissi(ities of colored o8ides of hea(y metals li!e fn, Fe, and r are much
larger than emissi(ities of 2hite o8ides of light metals li!e a, Mg, and +l.
+"sorpti(ity. The a"sorpti(ity of a surface depends on the factors affecting the emissi(ity
and, in addition, on the ?uality of the incident radiation. *t may "e remar!ed once again that
0irchhoffHs la2 holds strictly true under thermal e?uili"rium. That is, if a "ody at
temperature T3 is recei(ing radiation from a "lac! "ody also at temperature T3 , then
a P e. For most materials, in the usual range of temperature encountered in practice Afrom
room temperature up to a"out 3>96 0B the simple relationship a P e holds 2ith good
accuracy. Ho2e(er, if the incident radiation is that from a (ery=high=temperature source, say
solar radiation A u 5766 0B, the emissi(ity and a"sorpti(ity of ordinary surfaces may differ
2idely. White metal o8ides usually e8hi"it an emissi(ity Aand a"sorpti(ityB (alue of a"out
6.:5 at ordinary temperature, "ut their a"sorpti(ity drops sharply to 6.35 if these o8ides are
e8posed to solar radiation. ontrary to the a"o(e, freshly polished metallic surfaces ha(e an
emissi(ity (alue Aand a"sorpti(ity under e?uili"rium conditionsB of a"out 6.65. When
e8posed to solar radiation, their a"sorpti(ity increases to 6.5 or e(en 6.@.
'nder these latter circumstances a dou"le=su"script notation, a3,5 , may "e employed,
the Frst su"script referring to the temperature of the recei(ing surface and the second
su"script to the temperature of the incident radiation.
#ray surfaces. $i!e emissi(ity, the monochromatic a"sorpti(ity, al , of a surface may
(ary 2ith 2a(elength. *f al is a constant and thus independent of l, the surface is called
gray. For a gray surface, the total a(erage a"sorpti(ity 2ill "e independent of the spectral=
energy distri"ution of the incident radiation. onse?uently, the emissi(ity, e, may "e used in
place of a, e(en though the temperatures of the incident radiation and the recei(er are not
the same. #ood appro8imations of a gray surface are slate, tar "oard, and dar! linoleum.
Ta"le 5>.@ lists emissi(ities, at (arious temperatures, for se(eral materials.
5>.9 R+D*+/T HE+T TR+/&FER -ETWEE/ -$+0 -%D*E&
The e8change of energy "et2een "lac! "odies is dependent upon the temperature difference
and the geometry 2ith the geometry, in particular, playing a dominant role. onsider the t2o
surfaces illustrated in Figure 5>.36. The radiant energy emitted from a "lac! surface at d+3
and recei(ed at d+5 is
d?3Q5 P *"3 cos u3 d13U5 d+3
?5
+5
d+5
r
?3
d+3
+3
Figure 5>.36 Radiant heat transfer "et2een t2o surfaces.
5>.9 Radiant Heat Transfer -et2een -lac! -odies >93
Ta"le 5>.@ /ormal total emissi(ity of (arious surfaces Aompiled "y H. . HottelBy
&urface
+. Metals and their o8ides
+luminumC
Highly polished plate, :7.>b pure
ommercial sheet
%8idi<ed at 33367F
Hea(ily o8idi<ed
-rassC
,olished
%8idi<ed "y heating at 33367F
hromium Asee nic!el alloys for /iOr steelsBC
,olished
opper
,olished
,late heated at 33367F
uprous o8ide
Molten copper
#oldC
,ure, highly polished
*ron and steel Anot including stainlessBC
Metallic surfaces Aor (ery thin o8ide layerB
*ron, polished
ast iron, polished
Wrought iron, highly polished
%8idi<ed surfaces
*ron plate, completely rusted
&teel plate, rough
Molten surfaces
ast iron
Mild steel
$eadC
,ure A::.:;bB, uno8idi<ed
#ray o8idi<ed
/ic!el alloysC
hromnic!el
opperOnic!el, polished
/ichrome 2ire, "right
/ichrome 2ire, o8idi<ed
,latinumC
,ure, polished plate
&trip
Filament
Wire
&il(erC
,olished, pure
,olished
@@6O3696
535
>:6O3336
566O:@6
366O;66
>:6O3336
366O5666
535
>:6O3336
3@96O5636
3:96O5>>6
@@6O33;6
6.6>:O6.659
6.6:
6.33O6.3:
6.56O6.>3
6.36
6.;3O6.5:
6.67O6.>;
6.655
6.59
6.;;O6.5@
6.3;O6.3>
6.637O6.6>5
T, 7F<
Emissi(ity
766O3776
>:5
366O@76
;9
366O966
5>96O5556
5:36O>596
5;6O@@6
95
355O37:@
535
356O37>6
356O:>6
@@6O33;6
3966O5:;6
76O55@6
@@6O5536
@@6O33;6
366O966
6.3@O6.>7
6.53
6.57
6.;:
6.:@O6.:9
6.5:
6.57
6.659O6.695
6.57
6.;@O6.9;
6.65:
6.;5O6.9:
6.:5O6.:7
6.65@O6.36@
6.35O6.39
6.6>;O6.3:5
6.69>O6.375
6.656O6.6>5
6.655O6.6>3
Aontinued B
Ta"le 5>.@ /ormal total emissi(ity of (arious surfaces Aompiled "y H. . HottelBy
&urface
+. Metals and their o8ides
&tainless steelsC
,olished
Type >36 A55 rT 56 /iB
-ro2n, splotched, o8idi<ed from furnace ser(ice
TinC
-right tinned iron
-right
ommercial tin=plated sheet iron
TungstenC
Filament, aged
Filament
,olished coat
fincC
ommercial ::.3b pure, polished
%8idi<ed "y heating at 9567F
+s"estosC
-oard
,aper
-ric!
Red, rough, "ut no gross irregularities
-ric!, gla<ed
-uilding
Fireclay
ar"onC
Filament
$amp"lac!=2aterglass coating
Thin layer of same on iron plate
#lassC
&mooth
,yre8, lead, and soda
#ypsum, 6.65 in. thic! on smooth or "lac!ened plate
Magnesite refractory "ric!
Mar"le, light gray, polished
%a!, planed
,aints, lac?uers, (arnishesC
&no2=2hite enamel (arnish on rough iron plate
-lac! shiny lac?uer, sprayed on iron
-lac! shiny shellac on tinned iron sheet
-lac! matte shellac
-lac! or 2hite lac?uer
Flat "lac! lac?uer
%il paints, 3; different, all colors
+3 paint, after heating to ;567F
T, 7F<
Emissi(ity
535
@56O:76
9;
355
535
76O;666
;666
535
@@6O;56
956
6.69@
6.:6O6.:9
6.6@> and 6.6;@
6.6;
6.69, 6.67
6.6>5O6.>5
6.>:
6.6;;
6.6@5O6.65>
6.33
-. Refractories, "uilding materials, paints, and miscellaneous
9@
366O966
96
5635
37>5
37>5
3:66O55;6
56:O@@6
;:
95
566O3666
96
37>5
95
96
9>
9;
96
396O5:5
366O566
366O566
535
>66O;66
6.:;
6.:>O6.:@
6.:>
6.95
6.@5
6.95
6.55;
6.:;O6.:5
6.:59
6.:@
6.:5O6.75
6.:6>
6.>7
6.:>
6.:6
6.:6;
6.795
6.753
6.:3
6.76O6.:5
6.:;O6.:7
6.:5O6.:;
6.>5
5>.9
Ta"le 5>.@ AontinuedB
&urface
Radiant Heat Transfer -et2een -lac! -odies >9>
T, 7F<
-. Refractories, "uilding materials, paints, and miscellaneous
Emissi(ity
,laster, rough lime
RooFng paper
Ru""erC
Hard, glossy plate
&oft, gray, rough AreclaimedB
Water
56O3:6
;:
9@
9;
>5O535
6.:3
6.:3
6.:@
6.7;
6.:5O6.:;>
y -y permission from W. H. Mc+dams Aed.B, Heat Transmission, Third Edition, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany,
3:5@. Ta"le of normal total emissi(ity compiled "y H. . Hottel.
< When temperatures and emissi(ities appear in pairs separated "y dashes, they correspond and linear interpolation
is permissi"le.
The reader should note that the units of temperatures in Ta"le 5>.@ are F, in contrast to 0, as has "een used
throughout the te8t thus far. Ta"le 5>.@ is presented as originally pu"lished "y Mc+dams.
2here d13U5 is the solid angle su"tended "y d+5 as seen from d+3 . Thus
d13U5 P cos u5
d+5
r5
and as *"3 P E"3 Dp, the heat transfer from 3 to 5 is
n cos u cos u d+ o355d?3Q5 P E"3 d+35pr
The "rac!eted term is seen to depend solely upon geometry. *n e8actly the same manner the
energy emitted "y d+5 and captured "y d+3, may "e determined. This is
n cos u cos u d+ o533d?5Q3 P E"5 d+55pr
The net heat transfer "et2een surfaces d+3 and d+5 is then simply
d?3U5 net P d?35 P d?3Q5 U d?5Q3
or
d?35 P AE"3 U E"5 B
cos u3 cos u5 d+3 d+5
pr 5
*ntegrating o(er surfaces 3 and 5, 2e o"tain
f f
?35 P AE"3 U E"5 B
pr 5
+3 +5
the insertion of +3 D+3 yields
?35
3
P AE"3 U E"5 B+3
+3
f f
+3
pr 5
+5
Q
A5>=3>B
>9@ hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer
The "rac!eted term in the a"o(e e?uation is called the (ie2 factor F3U5. *f 2e had used
+5 as a reference, then the (ie2 factor 2ould "e F53. learly, the net heat transfer is not
affected "y these operations, and thus +3 F35 P +5 F53 . This simple "ut e8tremely import=
ant e8pression is called the reciprocity relationship.
+ physical interpretation of the (ie2 factor may "e o"tained from the follo2ing
argument. +s the total energy lea(ing surface +3 is E" +3 , the amount of heat that sur=
face +5 recei(es is E"3 +3 F35 . The amount of heat lost "y surface +5 is E"5 +5 , 2hereas
the amount that reaches +3 is E"5 +5 F53 . The net rate of heat transfer "et2een +3 and +5 is the
difference or E"3 +3 F35 U E"5 +5 F53. This may "e arranged to yield AE"3 U E"5 B+3 F35 . Thus,
the (ie2 factor F35 can "e interpreted as the fraction of "lac!="ody energy lea(ing +3 2hich
reaches +5. learly the (ie2 factor cannot e8ceed unity.
-efore some speciFc (ie2 factors are e8amined, there are se(eral generali<ations
2orthy of note concerning (ie2 factors.
3. The reciprocity relation, +3 F35 P +5 F53 , is al2ays (alid.
5. The (ie2 factor is independent of temperature. *t is purely geometric.
>. For an enclosure, F33 V F35 V F3> V [ [ [ P 3.
*n many cases the (ie2 factor may "e determined 2ithout integration. +n e8ample of
such a case follo2s.
EM+M,$E 3 onsider the (ie2 factor "et2een a hemisphere and a plane as sho2n in the Fgure. Determine the
(ie2 factors F33, F35, and F53.
The (ie2 factor F53 is unity, as surface 5 sees only surface 3. For surface 3 2e may 2rite
55F33 V F35 P 3 and +3 F35 P +5 F53 . +s F53 P 3, +5 P pr6 , and +3 P 5pr6 , the
a"o(e relations
gi(e
5pr6+5
P F53P A3B
5+35pr6
&urface 3
Q
P
r6
F35
and
3
5
&urface 5
F33 P 3 U F35 P
3
5
The (ie2 factor F35 can, in general, "e determined "y integration. +s
3
F35
+3
f f
+3
pr 5
+5
A5>=3@B
this integration process "ecomes ?uite tedious, and the (ie2 factor for a comple8 geometry
is seen to re?uire numerical methods. *n order to illustrate the analytical e(aluation of (ie2
factors, consider the (ie2 factor "et2een the differential area d+3 and the parallel plane +5
sho2n in Figure 5>.33. The (ie2 factor Fd+3 +5 is gi(en "y
Fd+3 +5
3
P
d+3
f
d+3
f
pr 5
+5
5>.9
y
d+5
$5
Radiant Heat Transfer -et2een -lac! -odies >95
+5
$3
D
?3
r ?5
8
d+3
Figure 5>.33 Differential area
and parallel=Fnite area.
and as +5 B d+3 the (ie2 of d+5 from d+3 is independent of the position on d+3, hence
f
3cos u3 cos u5
Fd+3 +5 Pd+5
p +5r5
+lso, it may "e noted that u3 P u5 and cos u P DDr, 2here r 5 P D5 V 85 V y5 . The resulting
integral "ecomes
f f
3 $3 $5D5 d8 dy
Fd+3 +5 P
555 5p 66 AD V 8 V y B
or
Fd+3 +5
AB
3$3$5$5$3
? tan U3
? V ? tan U3
? PA5>=35B
5p5 V $55 V $55 V $55 V $5DDDD
3355
The (ie2 factor gi(en "y e?uation A5>=35B is sho2n graphically in Figure 5>.35. Figures
5>.3>O5>.35 also illustrate some (ie2 factors for simple geometries.
>.5
Fd+3 O +5 N 6.65
>.6
$3 and $5 are sides
of rectangle, D is
5.5
distance from d+
to rectangle
5.6
3.5
3.6
$5
D
d+
6.6@
$3
6.6>
DD$5,
Dimension
ratio
6.65
6.35
6.3@
6.67
6.6;
6.3;
6.37
6.56
6.5 6.55
6.5@
6
6 6.5 3.6 3.5
6.36
5.65.5>.6>.5
DD$3, Dimension ratio
@.6 @.5 5.6 5.5
Figure 5>.35 1ie2 factor for a surface element and a rectangular surface parallel to it.
AFrom H. . Hottel, GGRadiant Heat Transmission,HH Mech. Engrg., 55 A3:>6B. -y permission of the
pu"lishers.B
>9; hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer
6.56
E N 6.3
6.@6
6.5
6.>
6.@
1ie2 factor F35 6.>6
6.;
6.7
6.56
3.6
3.5
5.6
6.36
>.6
@.6
;.6
+symptotes
; 7 36
Dimension ratio, E N 6.3
6
6
7.6
3.6
&cale changes here
5.6 >.6@.6
Dimension ratio, f
< +5
8
+3 y
+3 N +rea on 2hich heat=
transfer e?uation is "ased
E N yD8
f N <D8
Figure 5>.3> 1ie2 factor for adIacent rectangles in perpendicular planes.
AFrom H. . Hottel, GGRadiant Heat Transmission,HH Mech. Engrg., 55 A3:>6B. -y permission of
the pu"lishers.B
3.6
6.7
O1ie2
factor F or F
7
9
;
5
@
>
5
3
Radiation "et2een parallel
planes, directly opposed
3=5=>=@ Direct radiation
"et2een the planes, FT
5=;=9=7 ,lanes connected "y
nonconducting "ut reradiating
O
2all, FT 3, 5 Dis!sT >, 9 5C3
RectangleT 5, ; &?uaresT @, 7
long, narro2 rectangles
5 >@5
smaller side or diameter
Ratio,
distance "et2een planes
; 9
6.;
6.@
6.5
6
6 3
Figure 5>.3@ 1ie2 factors for e?ual and parallel s?uares, rectangles, and dis!s. The cur(es la"eled 5,
;, 9, and 7 allo2 for continuous (ariation in the side2all temperatures from top to "ottom.
AFrom H. . Hottel, GGRadiant Heat Transmission,HH Mech. Engrg., 55 A3:>6B. -y permission of the
pu"lishers.B
5>.9
3.6 36
7
6.7
;
5
6.;
F+3 O +5
@
>
5
6.@
3.5
r5D% N 3.5
Radiant Heat Transfer -et2een -lac! -odies >99
3
3.6
6.7
5
6.;
6.5
6.@
r3
D
r5
6.5
6.>
6.5
@ ; 7 36 56
6
6.3 6.5 6.@ 6.; 6.7 3 5
DDr3
Figure 5>.35 1ie2 factors for parallel opposed circular dis!s of une?ual si<e.
EM+M,$E 5 Determine the (ie2 factor from a 3 m s?uare to a parallel rectangular plane 36 m "y 35 m centered 7 m
a"o(e the 3 m s?uare.
The smaller area may "e considered a differential area, and Figure 5>.35 may "e used. The 36 m
"y 35 m area may "e di(ided into four 5 m "y ; m rectangles directly o(er the smaller area. Thus, the
total (ie2 factor is the sum of the (ie2 factors to each su"di(ided rectangle. 'sing
D P 7, $3 P ;, $5 P 5, 2e Fnd that the (ie2 factor from Figure 5>.35 is 6.6:. The total (ie2
factor is the sum of the (ie2 factors or 6.>;.
1ie2=Factor +lge"ra
1ie2 factors "et2een com"inations of differential= and Fnite=si<e areas ha(e "een e8=
pressed in e?uation form thus far. &ome generali<ations can "e made that 2ill "e useful in
e(aluating radiant energy e8change in cases that, at Frst glance, seem ?uite difFcult.
*n an enclosure all energy lea(ing one surface, designated i, 2ill "e incident on the other
surfaces that it can GGsee.HH *f there are n surfaces in total, 2ith I designating any surface that
recei(es energy from i, 2e may 2rite
IP3
c FiI P 3
n
A5>=3;B
+ general form of the reciprocity relationship may "e 2ritten as
+i FiI P +I FIi
A5>=39B
these t2o e8pressions form the "asis of a techni?ue designated (ie2=factor alge"ra.
+ simpliFed notation 2ill "e introduced, using the sym"ol #iI, deFned as
#iI +i FiI
E?uations A5>=3;B and A5>=39B may no2 "e 2ritten as
c#iI P +i
#iI P #Ii
A5>=37B
A5>=3:B
The ?uantity #iI is designated the geometric flu8. Relations in(ol(ing geometric flu8es
are dictated "y energy conser(ation principles.
&ome special sym"olism 2ill no2 "e e8plained. *f surface 3 GGseesHH t2o surfaces,
designated 5 and >, 2e may 2rite
#3UA5V>B P #3U5 V #3U>
A5>=56B
This relation says simply that the energy lea(ing surface 3 and stri!ing "oth surfaces
5 and > is the total of that stri!ing each separately. E?uation A5>=56B can "e reduced
further to
+3 F3UA5V>B P +3 F35 V +3 F3>
or
F3UA5V>B P F35 V F3>
+ second e8pression, in(ol(ing four surfaces, is reduced to
#A3V5BUA>V@B P #3UA>V@B V #5UA>V@B
2hich decomposes further to the form
#A3V5BUA>V@B P #3U> V #3U@ V #5U> V #5U@
E8amples of ho2 (ie2=factor alge"ra can "e used follo2.
EM+M,$E > Determine the (ie2 factors, F3U5 , for the Fnite areas sho2n.
5
5
5m
>
3
>m
5m
5m
3
>m
5m
5m
>
@
5m
>m
*nspection indicates that, in case AaB, (ie2 factors F5U> and F5UW3V>X can "e read directly from
Figure 5>.3>. The desired (ie2 factor, F3U5 , can "e o"tained using (ie2=factor alge"ra in the
follo2ing steps.
#5UA3V>B P #5U3 V #5U>
Thus,
#5U3 P #5UA3V>B U #5U>
5>.7 Radiant E8change in -lac! Enclosures >9:
Finally, "y reciprocity, 2e may sol(e for F3U5 according to
#3U5 P #5U3 P #5UA3V>B U #5U>
+3 F3U5 P +5 F5UA3V>BU +5 F5U>
F3U5 P
From Figure 5>.3> 2e read
F5UA3V>B P 6C35
Thus, for conFguration AaB, 2e o"tain
F3U5 P
5
A6C35 U 6C36B P 6C355
5
F5U> P 6C36
+5
U F5U> ^\F
+3 5UA3V>B
/o2, for case A"B, the solution steps are
#3U5 P #3UA5V@B U #3U@
2hich may "e 2ritten as
F3U5 P F3UA5V@B U F3U@
The result from part AaB can no2 "e utili<ed to 2rite
F3UA5V@B P
F3U@
+5 V +@
\FA5V@BUA3V>B U FA5V@BU> ^
+3
+@
U F@U> ^P\F
+3 @UA3V>B
Each of the (ie2 factors on the right side of these t2o e8pressions may "e e(aluated from
Figure 5>.3>T the appropriate (alues are
FA5V@BUA3V>B P 6C35F@UA3V>B P 6C55
F@U> P 6C3;5FA5V@BU> P 6C36
Ma!ing these su"stitutions, 2e ha(e
F3UA5V@B P
F3U@
The solution to case A"B no2 "ecomes
F3U5 P 6C355 U 6C6755 P 6C6@55
5
A6C35 U 6C36B P 6C355
5
>
P A6C55 U 6C3;5B P 6C6755
5
5>.7 R+D*+/T EMH+/#E */ -$+0 E/$%&'RE&
+s pointed out earlier, a surface that (ie2s n other surfaces may "e descri"ed according to
F33 V F35 V [ [ [ V F3i V [ [ [ V F3n P 3
or
iP3
n
c F3i P 3
A5>=53B
%"(iously, the inclusion of +3 2ith e?uation A5>=35B yields
iP3
c +3 F3i P +3
n
A5>=55B
-et2een any t2o "lac! surfaces the radiant heat e8change rate is gi(en "y
?35 P +3 F35 AE"3 U E"5 B P +5 F53 AE"3 U E"5 B
A5>=5>B
For surface 3 and any other surface, designated i, in a "lac! enclosure the radiant
e8change is gi(en as
?3i P +3 F3i AE"3 U E"i B
A5>=5@B
For an enclosure 2here surface 3 (ie2s n other surfaces, 2e may 2rite for the net heat
transfer 2ith 3,
?3Uothers P c ?3i P c +3 F3i AE"3 U E"i B
iP3 iP3
n n
A5>=55B
E?uation A5>=55B can "e thought of as an analog to %hmHs la2 2here the ?uantity of
transfer, ?T the potential dri(ing force, E"3 U E"i T and the thermal resistance, 3D+3 F3i T ha(e
electrical counterparts *, D1, and R, respecti(ely.
Figure 5>.3; depicts the analogous electrical circuits for enclosures 2ith three and four
surfaces, respecti(ely.
E"@
E">
3
+3F3 O >
3
+5 F5 O >
3
+3F3 O @
3
+>F> O @
3
+3F3 O >
E">
3
+5F5 O >
3
+5F5 O @
E"3
3
+3F3 O 5 E"5
E"3
3
+3F3 O 5
E"5
Figure 5>.3; Radiation analogs.
The solution to a three=surface pro"lem, that is, to Fnd ?35, ?3>, ?5>, although some2hat
tedious, can "e accomplished in reasona"le time. When analy<ing enclosures 2ith four or
more surfaces, an analytical solution "ecomes impractical. *n such situations one 2ould
resort to numerical methods.
5>.: R+D*+/T EMH+/#E W*TH RER+D*+T*/# &'RF+E& ,RE&E/T
The circuit diagrams sho2n in Figure 5>.3; sho2 a path to ground at each of the Iunctions.
The thermal analog is a surface that has some e8ternal inJuence 2here"y its temperature
is maintained at a certain le(el "y the addition or reIection of energy. &uch a surface is in
contact 2ith its surroundings and 2ill conduct heat "y (irtue of an imposed temperature
difference across it.
5>.36 Radiant Heat Transfer -et2een #ray &urfaces
>
3
+3F3 O >
>73
*n radiation applications, 2e encounter surfaces that
effecti(ely are insulated from the surroundings. &uch a
surface 2ill reemit all radiant energy that is a"sor"edK
usually in a diffuse fashion. These surfaces thus act as
reJectors and their temperatures GGJoatHH at some (alue that
is re?uired for the system to "e in e?uili"rium. Figure 5>.39
sho2s a physical situation and the corresponding electric
analog for a three=surface enclosure 2ith one "eing a
nona"sor"ing reradiating surface.
E(aluating the net heat transfer "et2een the t2o "lac!
surfaces, ?3U5 , 2e ha(e
?35 P
E"3 U E"5
Re?ui(
3
+5F5 O >
E"3
3
+3F3 O 5
E"5
Figure 5>.39
Q
3
P +3 F35 VAE"3 U E"5 B
3D+3 F3> V 3D+5 F5>
Q
3
P +3 F35 VAE"3 U E"5 B
3DF3> V +3 D+5 F5>
P +3 F 35 AE"3 U E"5 B
A5>=5;B
The resulting e8pression, e?uation A5>=;5B, contains a ne2 term, F 35 , the reradiating
(ie2 factor. This ne2 factor, F 35 , is seen e?ui(alent to the s?uare="rac!eted term in the
pre(ious e8pression, 2hich includes direct e8change "et2een surfaces 3 and 5, F35, plus terms
that account for the energy that is e8changed "et2een these surfaces (ia the inter(ening
reradiating surface. *t is apparent that F 35 2ill al2ays "e greater than F35. Figure 5>.3@ allo2s
reradiating (ie2 factors to "e read directly for some simple geometries. *n other situations
2here cur(es such as in this Fgure are not a(aila"le, the electrical analog may "e used "y the
simple modiFcation that no path to ground e8ists at the reradiating surface.
5>.36 R+D*+/T HE+T TR+/&FER -ETWEE/ #R+E &'RF+E&
*n the case of surfaces that are not "lac!,
determination of heat transfer "ecomes*ncident
radiation, #more in(ol(ed. For gray "odies, that is,
surfaces for 2hich the a"sorpti(ity and
emissi(ity are independent of 2a(elength,
Radiation lea(ing
considera"le simpliFcations can "e made.
surface, J
The net heat transfer from the surface
sho2n in Figure 5>.37 is determined "y
the difference "et2een the radiation lea(=
ing the surface and the radiation incident
upon the surface. The radiosity, J, is
Figure 5>.37 Heat transfer at a surface.
deFned as the rate at 2hich radiation lea(es
a gi(en surface per unit area. The irradia=
tion, #, is deFned as the rate at 2hich
radiation is incident on a surface per unit area. For a gray "ody, the radiosity, irradiation,
and the total emissi(e po2er are related "y
J P r# V eE"
A5>=59B
2here r is the reflecti(ity and e is the emissi(ity. The net heat transfer from a surface
is
?net
P J U # P eE" V r# U # P eE" U A3 U rB#A5>=57B
+
*n most cases it is useful to eliminate # from e?uation A5>=57B. This yields
?netAJ U eE" B
P eE" U A3 U rB
r+
+s a V r P 3 for an opa?ue surface
?net eE" aJ
PU
r+r
A5>=5:B
When the emissi(ity and a"sorpti(ity can "e considered e?ual, an important simpli=
fication may "e made in e?uation A5>=5:B. &etting a P e, 2e o"tain
?net P
+e
AE" U JB
r
A5>=>6B
E"JAE" O JB2hich suggests an analogy 2ith %hmHs la2,
?net N
rD +1 P *R, 2here the net heat lea(ing a surface can
rD+
"e thought of in terms of a current, the difference
Figure 5>.3: Electrical analogy for
E" U J may "e li!ened to a potential difference,
radiation from a surface.
and the ?uotient rDe+ may "e termed a
resistance. Figure 5>.3: illustrates this analogy.
/o2 the net e8change of heat (ia radiation "et2een t2o surfaces 2ill depend upon
their radiosities and their relati(e GG(ie2sHH of each other. From e?uation A5>=39B 2e may
2rite
?35 P +3 F35 AJ3 U J 5 B P +5 F53 AJ3 U J5 B
We may no2 2rite the net heat e8change in terms of the different GGresistancesHH offered "y
each part of the heat transfer path as follo2sC
?P
+3 e3
AE"3 U J3 B
r3
+5 e5
AJ5 U E"5 B
r5
Rate of heat lea(ing surface 3C
Rate of heat e8change "et2een surfaces 3 and 5C
Rate of heat recei(ed at surface 5C
? P +3 F35 AJ3 U J5 B
?P
*f surfaces 3 and 5 (ie2 each other and no others then each of the ?s in the pre(ious e?uations
is e?ui(alent. *n such a case an additional e8pression for ? can "e 2ritten in terms of the
o(erall dri(ing force, E"3 U E"5 . &uch an e8pression is
?P
E" 3 U E" 5
r3 D+3 e3 V 3D+3 F35 V r5 D+5 e5
A5>=>3B
2here the terms in the denominator are the e?ui(alent resistances due to the characteristics
of surface 3, geometry, and the characteristics of surface 5, respecti(ely. The electrical
analog to this e?uation is portrayed in Figure 5>.56.
5>.36
E"3
RN
r3
e3+3
J3
RN
r5
+3F35
J5
RN
Radiant Heat Transfer -et2een #ray &urfaces
E"5
r5
e5 +5
>7>
Figure 5>.56 E?ui(alent net2or! for gray="ody relations "et2een t2o surfaces.
The assumptions re?uired to use the electrical analog approach to sol(e radiation
pro"lems are the follo2ingC
3. Each surface must "e gray,
5. Each surface must "e isothermal,
>. 0irchhoffHs la2 must apply, that is, a P e,
@. There is no heat a"sor"ing medium "et2een the participating surfaces.
E8amples @ and 5, 2hich follo2, illustrate features of gray="ody pro"lem solutions.
EM+M,$E @ T2o parallel gray surfaces maintained at temperatures T3 and T5 (ie2 each other. Each surface is
sufFciently large that they may "e considered inFnite. #enerate an e8pression for the net heat transfer
"et2een these surfaces.
+ simple series electrical circuit is useful in sol(ing this pro"lem. The circuit and important
?uantities are sho2n here.
R3 N r3D+3e3
@E"3 N sT 3
R5 N 3D+3F35
J3 J5
R> N r5D+5e5 @E"5 N sT 5
'tili<ing %hmHs la2, 2e o"tain the e8pression
?35
[U
s T3@ U T5@E"3 U E"5
PP
r33rcR
VV 5
+3 e3 +3 F35 +5 e5
/o2, noting that for inFnite parallel planes +3 P +5 P + and F35 P F53 P 3 and 2riting r3 P
3 U e3 and r5 P 3 U e5 , 2e o"tain the result
?35 P
@@+sWT3 U T5 X
3 U e33 U e5
V3 V
e3e5
@ U T @X+sWT35P
3 3
V U3
e3 e5
EM+M,$E 5 T2o parallel planes measuring 5 m "y 5 m are situated 5 m apart. ,late 3 is maintained at a
temperature of 3366 0 and plate 5 is maintained at 556 0. Determine the net heat transfer from the
high temperature surface under the follo2ing conditionsC
AaB the plates are "lac! and the surroundings are at 6 0 and totally a"sor"ingT
A"B the plates are "lac! and the 2alls connecting the plates are reradiatingT
>7@ hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer
AcB the plates are gray 2ith emissi(ities of 6.@ and 6.7, respecti(ely, 2ith "lac! surroundings at
6 0.
+nalog electrical circuits for parts AaB, A"B, and AcB are sho2n in Figure 5>.53.
F3R N 3 O F35 N 6.76
E "R N 6
RN
3
+3F3R
ER
RN
3 N 3
+3F3R +R FR3
RN
3
+5 F5R
RN
3 N 3
+RFR5 +5F5R
E"3
RN
3
+3F35
E"5
N 3
+5F53
E"3
RN
3
+3F35
E"5
N 3
+5F53
AaB A"B
RN
E"3
3
+3F3R
RN
3
+5F5R
E"5
J3
r3
RN
+3e3
RN
J3
RN
3N 3
+3F35 +5F53
AcB
r5
+5e5
Figure 5>.53 E?ui(alent circuits for e8ample >.
Heat Ju8 e(aluations 2ill re?uire e(aluating the ?uantities F35 T F3R , and F 35 . The appropriate
(alues are
F35 P 6C56
F 35 P 6C5@
and
F3R P 3 U F35 P 6C76
,art AaB. The net rate of heat lea(ing plate 3 is
?3 net P ?35 V ?3R
P +3 F35 AE"3 U E"5 B V +3 F3R E"3
P A@ m5 BA6C5BA5C;9; ` 36U7 WDm5 C 0@ BA3366@ U 556@ B0@
V A@ m5 BA6C7BA5C;9; ` 36U7 WNm5 C 0@ BA3366 0B@
P ;5T >66 W V 5;;T 666 W
P >57C> !W
from Figure 5>.3@
from Figure 5>.3@
5>.36 Radiant Heat Transfer -et2een #ray &urfaces >75
,art A"B. When reradiating 2alls are present the heat Ju8 "ecomes
5>
;
?35 P AE"3 U E"5 B;+3 F35 V
@
and, since +3 P +5 and F3R N F5R
?35
F3R
P AE"3 U E"5 B+3 F35 V
5
Q
3
33
V
+3 F3R +5 F5R
9
9
5
&ince F35 V F3R P 3, the "rac!eted term is e(aluated as
F35 V
and, Fnally, the heat Ju8 is
?35 P A@ m@ BA5C;97 ` 36U@ WDm5 C 0@ BA3366@ U 556@ B0@ A6C;B
P 379 !W
We should note that an e?ui(alent e8pression for the heat Ju8 is
?35 P +3 F 35 AE"3 U E"5 B
and, using the (alue F 35 P 6C5@, from Figure 5>.3@, the result 2ould "e
?35 P 3;7C> !W
This alternate result is the more accurate in that the (alues of F 35 plotted in Figure 5>.3@
allo2 for the temperatures along the reradiating 2alls to (ary from T3 to T5 . The use of the analog
circuit considers the radiating surface to "e a constant temperature. &uch an assumption, in this
e8ample, leads to an error of appro8imately 33b.
,art AcB. +n e(aluation of the circuit sho2n in Figure 5>.5AB yields ?3Tout P 3>3C> !W.
F3R6C7
P 6C5 VP 6C;
55
The concepts related to the ?uantities, radiosity, and irradiation are particularly useful
in generali<ing the analysis of radiant heat e8change in an enclosure containing any num"er
of surfaces. The formalism to "e de(eloped in this section is directly applica"le for solution
"y numerical methods.
For a representati(e surface ha(ing area, +i , in an enclosure "ounded "y n surfaces,
e?uations A56O57B and A56O>6B can "e 2ritten as
?i P
E"i U Ji
P +i AJi U #i B
ri D+i ei
A5>=>5B
2here ?i is the net rate of heat transfer lea(ing surface i.
The irradiation, #i, can "e e8pressed as
+i #i P c JI +I FIi
IP3
n
A5>=>>B
or, using reciprocity, as
+i #i P +i c JI FiI
IP3
n
A5>=>@B
>7; hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer
om"ining e?uations A5>=>5B and A5>=>@B 2e o"tain
?i P +i Ji U c FiI JI
IP3
n
Q
A5>=>5B
A5>=>;B
+i e i+i e i
P r E"i U r Jiii
We can no2 2rite the t2o "asic e8pressions for a general surface in an enclosure.
*f the surface heat Ju8 is !no2n, e?uation A5>=>5B can "e e8pressed in the form
Ji U c FiI JI P
IP3
n
?i
+i
or
Ji A3 U Fii B U c FiI JI P
IP3
I ;P i
n
?i
+i
A5>=>9B
and, if the temperature at surface i is !no2n, e?uations A5>=>5B and A5>=>;B yield
Q
n+i e i
cri AE"i U Ji B P +i Ji U IP3FiI JI
5>
P +i @Ji A3 U Fii B U c FiI JI 5
IP3
I ;P i
n
and, Fnally
neiei
3 U Fii VJi U c FiI JI P r E"iIP3
rii
I ;P i
A5>=>7B
E?uations A5>=>9B and A5>=>7B comprise the algorithm for e(aluating ?uantities of
interest in a many=surface enclosure. The former applies to a surface of !no2n heat flu8T
the latter is 2ritten 2hen the surface temperature is specified.
*n these t2o e?uations the terms in(ol(ing the (ie2 factor, Fii , ha(e "een separated out
of the summation. This ?uantity, Fii 2ill ha(e a non<ero (alue in those cases 2hen surface i
GGseesHHT itself, i.e., it is conca(e. *n most cases Fii 2ill "e 6.
When 2riting e?uation A5>=>9B or A5>=>7B for each surface in an enclosure a series of n
simultaneous e?uations is generated, in(ol(ing the un!no2ns Ji . This set of e?uations can "e
represented in matri8 form as
w+xwJx P w-x
A5>=>:B
2here w+x is the coefficient matri8, w-x is a column matri8 in(ol(ing the right=hand sides
of e?uations A5>=>9B and A5>=>7B, and wJx is a column matri8 of the un!no2ns, Ji. The
solution for the Ji then proceeds according to
wJx P wxw-x
2here
wx P w+xU3
is the in(erse of the coefficient matri8.
E8ample ; illustrates the application of this approach.
A5>=@3B
A5>=@6B
5>.36
EM+M,$E ;
Radiant Heat Transfer -et2een #ray &urfaces >79
&ol(e the pro"lem posed in e8ample 5 using the methods de(eloped in this section.
For this case n P > and the pro"lem formulation 2ill in(ol(e > e?uationsKone for each
surface.
,art AaB. Each of the surfaces is at a !no2n temperature in this case, thus e?uation A5>=>7B
applies. The follo2ing conditions are !no2nC
T3 P 3366 0
F33 P 6
F35 P 6C5
F3> P 6C7
e3 P 3
We can 2rite the follo2ingC

e3e3
3VJ3 U \F35 J5 V F3> J> ^ P r E"3
r33

e5e5
J5 U \F53 J3 V F5> J> ^ P r E"53V
r55
e>e>
J> U \F>3 J3 V F>5 J5 ^ P r E">3 U F>> V
r>>
2hich, for the gi(en conditions, reduce to
@J3 P E"3 P sT3
@J5 P E"5 P sT5
T5 P 556 0
F53 P 6C5
F5> P 6
F5> P 6C7
e5 P 3
T> P 6 0
F>3 P 6C5
F>5 P 6C5
F>> P 6C;
e> P 3
J> P 6
The net heat lea(ing plate 3 is thus, according to e?uation A5>=>9B, e?ual to
?3 P +3 wJ3 U F35 J5 x
@@P +3 wsT3 U 6C5sT5 x
P @ m5 A5C;9; ` 36U7 WDm [ 0@ Bw3366@ U 6C5A556B@ x0@
P >57C> !W
,art A"B. 1alues of Ti and FiI remain the same. The only change from part AaB is that e> P 6.
The set of e?uations, applying to the three surfaces are again

e3e3
J3 U \F35 J5 V F3> J> ^ P r E"33V
r33

e5e5
J5 U \F53 J3 V F5> J> ^ P r E"53V
r55
e>e>
J> U \F>3 J3 V F>5 J5 ^ P r E">3 U F>> V
r>>
as "efore. &u"stituting (alues for Ti, FiI , and ei , 2e ha(e
@J3 P E"3 P sT3
@J5 P E"5 P sT5
A3 U F>> BJ> U F>3 J3 U F>5 J5 P 6
The e8pression for ?i is
F3>
AF>3 J3 V F>5 J5 B?3 P +3 wJ3 U F35 J5 U F3> J> x P +3 J3 U F35 J5 U
3 U F>>
Q
F3> F>3F3> F>5
U J5 F35 VP +3 J3 3 U
3 U F>>3 U F>>
Q
and, 2ith numerical (alues inserted, 2e o"tain
)QQd
A6C7BA6C5BA6C7BA6C5BU7@@?3 P @A5C;9; ` 36 B A3366B 3 UU A556B 6C5 VP 379C6 !W
3 U 6C;3 U 6C;
,art AcB. 1alues of Ti and FiI remain the same. Emissi(ities are
e3 P 6C@ e5 P 6C7 e> P 3
E?uations for the three surfaces are, again

e3e3
3VJ3 U wF35 J5 V F3> J> x P E"3
r3r3

e5e5
J5 U wF53 J3 V F5> J> x P E"53V
r5r5

e>e>
J> U wF>3 J3 V F>5 J5 x P E">3 U F>> V
r>r>
2hich "ecome
6C@6C@
J3 U AF35 J5 V F3> J> B PE"33V
6C;6C;
6C76C7
J5 U AF53 J3 V F5> J> B PE"53V
6C56C5
J> P 6
We no2 ha(e
3C;9J3 U 6C5J5 P 6C;9E"3
5J5 U 6C5J3 P @E"5
&ol(ing these t2o e?uations simultaneously for J3 and J5 2e get
J3 P >> :66 WDm5
J5 P 5536 WDm5
and the (alue for ?i is e(aluated as
Q
5536
@?3 P >> :66 U
5
P 3>3C5 !W
5>.33 R+D*+T*%/ FR%M #+&E&
&o far, the interaction of radiation 2ith gases has "een neglected. #ases emit and a"sor"
radiation in discrete energy "ands dictated "y the allo2ed energy states 2ithin the molecule. +s
the energy associated 2ith, say, the (i"rational or rotational motion of a molecule may ha(e only
certain (alues, it follo2s that the amount of energy emitted or a"sor"ed "y a molecule 2ill ha(e a
5>.33 Radiation From #ases >7:
5666 gR
*ntensity
ar"on dio8ide
Water (apor
6 5 @ ; 35736
Wa(elength, in microns
3@ 3; 37
Figure 5>.55 Emission "ands of %5 and H5%.
fre?uency, n P DEDh, corresponding to the difference in energy DE "et2een allo2ed states.
Thus, 2hile the energy emitted "y a solid 2ill comprise a continuous spectrum, the radiation
emitted and a"sor"ed "y a gas 2ill "e restricted to "ands. Figure 5>.55 illustrates the emission
"ands of car"on dio8ide and 2ater (apor relati(e to "lac!="ody radiation at 35667F.
The emission of radiation for these gases is seen to occur in the infrared region of the
spectrum.
For nonluminous gases, the inert gases and diatomic gases of symmetrical composition
such as %5, /5, and H5 may "e considered transparent to thermal radiation. *mportant types
of media that a"sor" and emit radiations are polyatomic gases such as %5 and H5% and
unsymmetrical molecules such as %. These gases are also associated 2ith the products of
com"ustion of hydrocar"ons. The determination of the a"sorption and emission of radiation
is (ery difFcult, as it in(ol(es the temperature, composition, density, and geometry of the
gas. There are se(eral simpliFcations that allo2 estimation of radiation in gases to "e made
in a straightfor2ard manner. These ideali<ations are as follo2sC
3. The gas is in thermodynamic e?uili"rium. The state of the gas may therefore "e
characteri<ed locally "y a single temperature.
5. The gas may "e considered gray. This simpliFcation allo2s the a"sorption and
emission of radiation to "e characteri<ed "y one parameter as a P e for a gray "ody.
*n the range of temperatures associated 2ith the products of hydrocar"on com"ustion,
the gray gas emissi(ities of H5% and %5 may "e o"tained from the results of Hottel. +
hemispherical mass of gas at 3 atm pressure 2as used "y Hottel to e(aluate the emissi(ity.
While the graphs apply strictly only to a hemispherical gas mass of radius $, other shapes
can "e treated "y consideration of a mean "eam length $ as gi(en in Ta"le 5>.5. For
geometries not co(ered in the ta"le, the mean "eam length may "e appro8imated "y the
relation $ P >C@ A(olumeBDAsurface areaB.
Figure 5>.5> gi(es the emissi(ity of a hemispherical mass of 2ater (apor at 3 atm total
pressure and near=<ero partial pressure as a function of temperature and the product p2 $,
2here p2 is the partial pressure of the 2ater (apor. For pressures other than atmospheric,
Figure 5>.5@ gi(es the correction factor, 2 , 2hich is the ratio of the emissi(ity at total
pressure , to the emissi(ity at a total pressure of 3 atm. Figures 5>.55 and 5>.5; gi(e the
corresponding data for %5.
From Figure 5>.55, it may "e seen that the emission "ands of %5 and H5% o(erlap.
When "oth car"on dio8ide and 2ater (apor are present, the total emissi(ity may "e
determined from the relation
etotal P eH5 % V e%5 U De
2here De is gi(en in Figure 5>.59.
>:6 hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer
Ta"le 5>.5 Mean "eam length, $, for (arious geometriesy
&hape
&phere
*nFnite cylinder
&pace "et2een inFnite parallel planes
u"e
&pace outside inFnite "an! of tu"es
2ith centers on e?uilateral trianglesT
tu"e diameter e?uals clearance
&ame as preceding e8cept tu"e
diameter e?uals one=half clearance
$
3 ` diameter
3C7 ` distance
"et2een planes
5 ` side
>
5 ` diameter
>
5C7 ` clearance
>C7 ` clearance
yFrom H. . Hottel, GGRadiation,HH hap. *1 in W. H. Mc+dams Aed.B,
Heat Transmission, Third Edition, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2
Eor!, 3:;@. -y permission of the pu"lishers.
6.9
6.;
6.5
6.@
6.>
6.5
6.35
as
emissi(ity,
6.35
6.36
6.6:
6.67
6.69
6.6;
6.65
6.6@
6.6>
6.65
6.635
6.635
6.636
6.66:
6.667
6.669
566
6.
,2 $ N 56 atm ft
36
>
3.5
3.6
5
5
3.5
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
5
6.5
6.>
6.5
6.3
6.3
5
6.
6.
65
6.
6>
6@
6.
6.
65
5
6>
5
6.3
6
6.
69
6.
65
5
63
5
6.
67
6.
63
56.
63
6
6.
6;
3666
Figure 5>.5> Emissi(ity of 2ater (apor at one atmosphere total pressure and near=<ero partial
pressure.
9
66
6. 65
6
6.
3566 5666 5566 >666 >566
+"solute temperature, in gR
@666 @566 5666
5>.33
3.7
3.;
3.@
3.5
3.6
2
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6
6 6.5 6.@
3
5
Radiation From #ases >:3
p2 $ N 36.6 atm ft
3.6
5.6
p2 $ N 36.6 atm ft
6.55
6.56
5.5
6.;
A, i p2B, in atm
6.7 3.6 3.5
Figure 5>.5@ orrection factor for con(erting emissi(ity of H5% at one atmosphere total pressure
to emissi(ity at , atmospheres total pressure.
6.>
6.5
6.35
6.36
6.6:
6.67
6.69
6.6;
6.65
6.6@
6.6>
6.65
6.635
6.636
6.66:
6.667
6.669
6.66;
6.665
6.66@
6.66>
566
6.6
67
p $ N 5.6 atm ft
5.6
3.6
6.;
6.>
6.35
6.6
7
6.6
@
>.6
3.5
6.7
6.@
6.5
6.36
6.6
;
6.6
5
6.6
6.6
>
6.6
6.6
6.6
35
36
65
6;
6@
6>
6.6
6.6
6.663 6.665
3666 3566 5666 5566 >666 >566 @666 @566 5666
+"solute temperature, in gR
Figure 5>.55 Emissi(ity of %5 at one atmosphere total pressure and near=<ero partial pressure.
>:5 hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer
5.6
3.5
3.6
c 6.7
6.;
6.5
6.@
6.>
6.65
pc $ N 5.5 atm
ft
pc
6
$N
=6.6
5
3.6
6.5
6.55
6.35
6.65
6=6.65
6.67 6.3 6.5 6.>6.56.7 3.6
Total pressure ,, in atm
6.35
6.5
5.5
6.65
6.55
3.6
5.6 >.6 5.6
Figure 5>.5; orrection factor for con(erting emissi(ity of %5 at one atmosphere total pressure
to emissi(ity at , atmospheres total pressure.
6.69
5;6gF
6.6;
6.65
6.6@
6.6>
6.65
6.63
6
6
3.6
>.6
5.6
3.5
6.95
6.5 6.> 6.5
6.5 6.@ 6.; 6.7 3.6
p2
pc i p2
3666gF 3966gF and a"o(e
pc$ i p2$ N 5 atm ft
>
5
3.5
3.6
6.95
6.56
6.>6
6.56
6.5 6.@ 6.; 6.7 3.6
p2
pc i p2
>.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.95
6.56
6.>6 6.56
6.5 6.@ 6.; 6.7 3.6
p2
pc i p2
6 6
Figure 5>.59 orrection to gas emissi(ity due to spectral o(erlap of H5% and %5.
The results presented here for the gray gas are gross simpliFcations. For a more
complete treatment, te8t"oo!s "y &iegel and Ho2ell,5 Modest,> and -re2ster@ present the
fundamentals of nongray=gas radiation, along 2ith e8tensi(e "i"liographies.
5>.35 THE R+D*+T*%/ HE+T=TR+/&FER %EFF**E/T
Fre?uently in engineering analysis, con(ection and radiation occur simultaneously rather
than as isolated phenomena. +n important appro8imation in such cases is the lineari<ation
of the radiation contri"ution so that
htotal P hcon(ection V hradiation
A5>=@5B
R. &iegel and J. R. Ho2ell, Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, >rd Edition, Hemisphere ,u"lishing orp.,
Washington, 3::5.
>M. F. Modest, Radiati(e Heat Transfer, Mc#ra2=Hill, /e2 Eor!, 3::>.
@M. .. -re2ster, Thermal Radiati(e Transfer and ,roperties, J. Wiley and &ons, /e2 Eor!, 3::5.
5
,ro"lems >:>
2here
hr
?r D+3
AT U TR B
@sAT @ U T5 B
T U TR
?r
+3
Q
A5>=@>B
P F3U5
Here TR is a reference temperature,
and T3 and T5 are the respecti(e sur=
face temperatures. *n effect, e?uation
A5>=@>B represents a straight=line
appro8imation to the radiant heat
transfer as illustrated in Figure 5>.57.
The factor, F, accounts for geometry
and surface condition of the radiating
and a"sor"ing surface.
-y constructing a tangent to the
relation cur(e at T P T3 , the follo2ing
relations are o"tained for hr and TR C
and
35sAT
@
O T @B5
hr AT O TRB
T O T5
T3 O T5
Figure 5>.57 Tangent appro8imation for hr .
hr P @sT > F3U53
T@ U T@
TR P T3 U 3 > 5
@T 3
A5>=@@B
A5>=@5B
5>.3> $%&'RE
Radiation heat transfer has "een considered in this chapter. Radiant energy transfer is
associated 2ith the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum "et2een 6.3 and 366 mm, 2hich
is generally referred to as the thermal "and.
The fundamental rate e?uation for thermal radiation, introduced in hapter 35, is
designated the &tefanO-olt<mann e?uationT it is e8pressed as
E" P sT @
A5>=35B
2here E" is the "lac! "ody emissi(e po2er, T is the a"solute temperature, and s is the
&tefanO-olt<mann constant, ha(ing units of WDm5 [ 0@ in the &* system.
ModiFcations to this relationship 2ere made for non"lac! surfaces and for geometric
relationships "et2een multiple surfaces in (ie2 of each other.
The presence of a"sor"ing and emitting gases "et2een surfaces 2as also e8amined. The
gases of principle interest in this regard are 2ater (apor and car"on dio8ide.
,R%-$EM&
5>.3 The sun is appro8imately :> million miles distant from
Earth, and its diameter is 7;6,666 miles. %n a clear day solar
irradiation at EarthHs surface has "een measured at >;6 -tuDh ft5
and an additional :6 -tuDh ft5 are a"sor"ed "y EarthHs atmo=
sphere. With this information, estimate the sunHs effecti(e sur=
face temperature.
5>.5 + greenhouse is constructed of silica glass that is !no2n
to transmit :5b of incident radiant energy "et2een 2a(elengths
of 6.>5 and 5.9 mm. The glass may "e considered opa?ue for
2a(elengths a"o(e and "elo2 these limits.
onsidering the sun to emit as a "lac! "ody at 5766 0, deter=
mine the percent of solar radiation that 2ill pass through the glass.
>:@ hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer
5>.7 + satellite may "e considered spherical 2ith its surface
properties roughly those of aluminum. *ts or"it may "e con=
sidered circular at a height of 566 miles a"o(e Earth. Ta!ing the
satellite diameter as 56 in., estimate the temperature of the
satellite s!in. Earth may "e considered to "e at a uniform
temperature of 567F, and the emissi(ity of Earth may "e ta!en
as 6.:5. &olar irradiation may "e ta!en as @56 -tuDh ft5 of
satellite disc area.
5>.: +n opa?ue gray surface 2ith e P 6C> is irradiated 2ith
3666 WDcm. For an effecti(e con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient
of 35 WDm5 [ 0 applying, and air at 567 adIacent to the plate,
2hat 2ill "e the net heat Ju8 to or from a >67 surfacea
5>.36 + "lac! solar collector, 2ith a surface area of ;6 m5 , is
placed on the roof of a house. *ncident solar energy reaches the
collector 2ith a Ju8 of 766 WDm5 . The surroundings are con=
sidered "lac! 2ith an effecti(e temperature of >67. The con=
(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient "et2een the collector and the
surrounding air, at >67, is >5 WDm5 [ 0. /eglecting any con=
ducti(e loss from the collector, determineC
a. the net radiant e8change "et2een the collector and its
surroundingsT
". the e?uili"rium temperature of the collector.
5>.33 + 9.5=cm=diameter hole is drilled in a 36=cm=thic! iron
plate. *f the plate temperature is 966 0 and the surroundings are
at >36 0, determine the energy loss through the hole. The hole
sides may "e considered to "e "lac!.
5>.35 *f the 9.5=cm=diameter hole in ,ro"lem 5>.33 2ere
drilled to a depth of 5 cm, 2hat heat loss 2ould resulta
5>.3> + sheet=metal "o8 in the shape of a 6.96=m cu"e has a
surface emissi(ity of 6.9. The "o8 encloses electronic e?uipment
that dissipates 3566 W of energy. *f the surroundings are ta!en to
"e "lac! at 576 0, and the top and sides of the "o8 are considered to
radiate uniformly, 2hat 2ill "e the temperature of the "o8 surfacea
5>.3@ T2o (ery large "lac! plane surfaces are maintained at
:66 and 576 0, respecti(ely. + third large plane surface, ha(ing
e P 6C7, is placed "et2een these t2o. Determine the fractional
change in radiant e8change "et2een the t2o plane surfaces due
to the inter(ening plane and e(aluate the temperature of this
inter(ening plane.
5>.35 The Flament of an ordinary 366 W light "ul" is at 5:36
0 and it is presumed to "e a "lac! "ody. Determine AaB the
2a(elength of ma8imum emission and A"B the fraction of
emission in the (isi"le region of the spectrum.
5>.3; + small circular hole is to "e drilled in the surface of a
large, hollo2, spherical enclosure maintained at 5666 0. *f
366 W of radiant energy e8its through the hole, determine AaB
the hole diameter, A"B the num"er of 2atts emitted in the (isi"le
range from 6.@ and 6.9 mm, AcB the ultra(iolet range "et2een 6
and 6.@ mm, and AdB the infrared range from 6.9 to 366 mm.
5>.39 + large ca(ity 2ith a small opening, 6.6655 m5 in area,
emits 7 W. Determine the 2all temperature of the ca(ity.
*f the plants on the inside of the greenhouse ha(e an a(erage
temperature of >66 0, and emit as a "lac! "ody, 2hat fraction of
their emitted energy 2ill "e transmitted through the glassa
5>.> + tungsten Flament, radiating as a gray "ody, is heated to
a temperature of @6667R. +t 2hat 2a(elength is the emissi(e
po2er ma8imuma What portion of the total emission lies 2ithin
the (isi"le=light range, 6.> to 6.95 mma
5>.@ + radiation detector, oriented as sho2n in the s!etch, is
used to estimate heat loss through an opening in a furnace 2all.
The opening in this case is circular 2ith a diameter of 5.5 cm.
The detector has a surface area of 6.36 cm5 and is located 3 m
from the furnace opening. Determine the amount of radiant
energy reaching the detector under t2o conditionsC
a. the detector has a clear (ie2 of the openingT
". the opening is co(ered "y a semitransparent material 2ith
spectral transmissi(ity gi(en "y
t l P 6C7
tl P 6
for 6 l 5 mm
for 5 mm ] l ] 3
%pening diameter N 55 cm
Furnace
>6g
T N 3566 0
Detector
5>.5 The distri"ution of solar energy, incident on Earth, can "e
appro8imated as "eing from a "lac! "ody at 5766 0.
T2o !inds of glass, plain and tinted, are "eing considered
for use in 2indo2s. The spectral transmissi(ity for these t2o
glasses is appro8imated as
plain glass C tl P 6
6C:
6
tl P 6
6C:
6
for
for
for
for
for
for
6 ] l ] 6C> mm
6C> ] l ] 5C5 m
5C5 mm ] l
6 ] l ] 6C5 mm
6C5 ] l ] 3C5 m
3C5 mm ] l
tinted glass C
ompare the fraction of incident solar energy transmitted
through each material.
ompare the fraction of (isi"le radiant energy transmitted
through each.
5>.; Determine the fraction of total energy emitted "y a "lac!
"ody, 2hich lies in the 2a(elength "and "et2een 6.7 and 5.6 mm
for surface temperatures of 566, 5666, >666, and @566 0.
5>.9 The sunHs temperature is appro8imately 5766 0 and the
(isi"le light range is ta!en to "e "et2een 6.@ and 6.9 mm.
What fraction of solar emission is (isi"lea What fraction of
solar emission lies in the ultra(iolet rangea The infrared
rangea +t 2hat 2a(elength is solar emissi(e po2er a ma8=
imuma
5>.37 Determine the 2a(elength of ma8imum emission for AaB
the sun 2ith an assumed temperature of 59:6 0, A"B a light "ul!
Flament at 5:36 0, AcB a surface at 3556 0, and AdB human s!in at
>67 0.
5>.3: + furnace that has "lac! interior 2alls maintained at
3566 0 contains a peephole 2ith a diameter of 36 cm. The glass
in the peephole has a transmissi(ity of 6.97 "et2een 6 and
>.5 mm and 6.67 "et2een >.5 mm and 3. Determine the heat lost
through the peephole.
5>.56 + cryogenic Juid Jo2s in a 56=mm=diameter tu"e 2ith
an outer surface temperature of 95 0 and an emissi(ity of 6.5.
+ larger tu"e, ha(ing a diameter of 56 mm, is concentric 2ith the
smaller one. This larger tu"e is gray, 2ith e P 6C65 and its
surface temperature is >66 0. The inter(ening space "et2een the
t2o tu"es is e(acuated.
Determine the heat gain "y the cryogenic Juid, in 2atts per
meter of tu"e length.
E(aluate the heat gain per meter of length if there is a thin
2alled radiation shield placed mid2ay "et2een the t2o tu"es.
The shield surfaces may "e considered gray and diffuse 2ith an
emissi(ity of 6.6@ on "oth sides.
5>.53 + circular duct 5 ft long 2ith a diameter of > in. has a
thermocouple in its center 2ith a surface area of 6.> in.5. The
duct 2alls are at 5667F, and the thermocouple indicates >367F.
+ssuming the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient "et2een the
thermocouple and gas in the duct to "e >6 -tuDh ft5 7F, estimate
the actual temperature of the gas. The emissi(ity of the duct
2alls may "e ta!en as 6.7 and that of the thermocouple as 6.;.
5>.55 + heating element in the shape of a cylinder is main=
tained at 56667F and placed at the center of a half=cylindrical
reJector as sho2n. The rod diameter is 5 in. and that of the
reJector is 37 in. The emissi(ity of the heater surface is 6.7, and
the entire assem"ly is placed in a room maintained at 967F. What
is the radiant energy loss from the heater per foot of lengtha Ho2
does this compare to the loss from the heater 2ithout the
reJector presenta
5>.5@ The circular "ase of the cylindrical enclosure sho2n
may "e considered a reradiating surface. The cylindrical 2alls
ha(e an effecti(e emissi(ity of 6.76 and are maintained at 5@67F.
The top of the enclosure is open to the surroundings, 2hich are
maintained at @67F. What is the net rate of radiant transfer to the
surroundingsa
; ft
35 ft
5>.55 The hemispherical ca(ity sho2n in the Fgure has an in=
side surface temperature of 966 0. + plate of refractory material
is placed o(er the ca(ity 2ith a circular hole of 5 cm diameter
in the center. Ho2 much energy 2ill "e lost through the hole if
the ca(ity is
a. "lac!a
". gray 2ith an emissi(ity of 6.9a
What 2ill "e the temperature of the refractory under each
conditiona
35=cm
radius
5>.5; + room measuring 35 ft "y 56 ft "y 7 ft high has its Joor
and ceiling temperatures maintained at 75 and ;57F, respec=
ti(ely. +ssuming the 2alls to "e reradiating and all surfaces to
ha(e an emissi(ity of 6.7, determine the net energy e8change
"et2een the Joor and ceiling.
5>.59 + de2ar Jas!, used to contain li?uid nitrogen, is made
of t2o concentric spheres separated "y an e(acuated space. The
inner sphere has an outside diameter of 3 m and the outer sphere
has an inside diameter of 3.> m. These surfaces are "oth gray=
diffuse 2ith e P 6C5. /itrogen, at 3 atmosphere, has a saturation
temperature of 97 0 and a latent heat of (apori<ation of 566 !JD!g.
'nder conditions 2hen the inner sphere is full of li?uid
nitrogen and the outer sphere is at a temperature of >66 0,
estimate the "oil=off rate of nitrogen.
5>.57 + cylindrical ca(ity is closed at the "ottom and has an
opening centered in the top surface. + cross section of this
conFguration is sho2n in the s!etch. For the conditions stated
"elo2, determine the rate of radiant energy passing through the
5>.5> + 35=ft=long, >=in.=%D iron pipe e P 6C9, passes hori=
<ontally through a 35 ` 3@ ` : ft room 2hose 2alls are main=
tained at 967F and ha(e an emissi(ity of 6.7. The pipe surface is at
a temperature of 5657F. ompare the radiant energy loss from the
pipe 2ith that due to con(ection to the surrounding air at 967F.
>:; hapter 5> Radiation Heat Transfer
respecti(ely. The dis! surface temperature is 5367F. Find the
heat e8change "et2een these dis!s if
a. they are "lac!T
". they are gray e3 P 6C;, e5 P 6C>.
5 3
5=mm=diameter ca(ity opening. What 2ill "e effecti(e emissi(=
ity of the openinga
a. +ll interior surfaces are "lac! at ;66 0.
". The "ottom surface is diffuse=gray 2ith e P 6C;, and has a
temperature of ;66 0. +ll other surfaces are reradiating.
c. +ll interior surfaces are diffuse=gray 2ith e P 6C; and are at
a uniform temperature of ;66 0.
3
@6 mm
5
>6 mm
>
5.5 in @ in
36 in
5>.5: + circular heater, measuring 56 cm in diameter, has its
surface temperature maintained at 36667. The "ottom of a
tan!, ha(ing the same diameter, is oriented parallel to the heater
2ith a separation distance of 36 cm. The heater surface is gray
Ae P 6C;B and the tan! surface is also gray Ae P 6C9B.
Determine the radiant energy reaching the "ottom of the
tan! if
a. the surroundings are "lac! at 597T
". the space "et2een the t2o cylindrical surfaces is enclosed
"y an adia"atic surface.
5>.>6 T2o parallel "lac! rectangular surfaces, 2hose "ac!
sides are insulated, are oriented parallel to each other 2ith a
spacing of 5 m. They measure 5 m "y 36 m. The surroundings are
"lac! at 6 0. The t2o surfaces are maintained at 566 and 366 0,
respecti(ely. Determine the follo2ingC
a. the net radiant heat transfer "et2een the t2o surfacesT
". the net heat supplied to each surfaceT
c. the net heat transfer "et2een each surface and the
surroundings.
5>.>3 T2o parallel rectangles ha(e emissi(ities of 6.; and 6.:,
respecti(ely. These rectangles are 3.5 m 2ide and 5.@ m high and
are 6.; m apart. The plate ha(ing e P 6C; is maintained at 3666 0
and the other is at @56 0. The surroundings may "e considered to
a"sor" all energy that escapes the t2o=plate system. Determine
a. the total energy lost from the hot plateT
". the radiant energy interchange "et2een the t2o plates.
5>.>5 *f a third rectangular plate, 2ith "oth surfaces ha(ing an
emissi(ity of 6.7 is placed "et2een the t2o plates descri"ed in
,ro"lem 5>.>3, ho2 2ill the ans2er to part AaB of ,ro"lem 5>.>3
"e affecteda Dra2 the thermal circuit for this case.
5>.>> T2o dis!s are oriented on parallel planes separated "y
a distance of 36 in., as sho2n in the accompanying Fgure. The
dis! to the right is @ in. in diameter and is at a temperature of
5667F. The dis! to the left has an inner ring cut out such that it is
annular in shape 2ith inner and outer diameters of 5.5 and @ in.,
5>.>@ E(aluate the net heat transfer "et2een the dis!s
descri"ed in ,ro"lem 5>.>> if they are "ases of a cylinder
2ith the side 2all considered a nonconducting, reradiating
surface. Ho2 much energy 2ill "e lost through the holea
5>.>5 E(aluate the heat transfer lea(ing dis! 3 for the geometry
sho2n in ,ro"lem 5>.>>. *n this case the t2o dis!s comprise the
"ases of a cylinder 2ith side 2all at constant temperature of
>567F. E(aluate for the case 2hereC
a. the side 2all is "lac!T
". the side 2all is gray 2ith e P 6C5C
Determine the rate of heat loss through the hole in each case.
5>.>; + hea(ily o8idi<ed aluminum surface at 955 0 is the
source of energy in an enclosure, 2hich radiantly heats the
side 2alls of a circular cylinder surface as sho2n, to >:5 0.
The side 2all is made of polished stainless steel. The top of the
enclosure is made of Fre clay "ric! and is adia"atic. For purposes
of calculation, assume that all three surfaces ha(e uniform
temperatures and that they are diffuse and gray. E(aluate the
heat transfer to the stainless steel surface.
Fire clay "ric!
5m
&tainless steel
+luminum
5m
5>.>9 + gray, diffuse circular heater 2ith a diameter of 35 cm
is placed parallel to a second gray, diffuse recei(er 2ith a spacing
of 9.5 "et2een them. The "ac!s of "oth surfaces are insulated
and con(ecti(e effects are to "e neglected. This heaterOrecei(er
assem"ly is placed in a large room at a temperature of 595 0. The
surroundings Athe roomB can "e considered "lac! and the heater
surface emissi(ity is 6.7. When the po2er input to the heater is
>66 W, determine
a. the heater surface temperatureT
". the recei(er surface temperatureT
,ro"lems
c. the net radiant e8change to the surroundingsT
d. the net radiant e8change "et2een the heater and recei(er.
5>.>7 + small A3D@ in. diameter ` 3 in. longB metal test
specimen is suspended "y (ery Fne 2ires in a large e(acuated
tu"e. The metal is maintained at a temperature of 55667F, at
2hich temperature it has an emissi(ity of appro8imately 6.5.
The 2ater=cooled 2alls and ends of the tu"e are maintained at
567F. *n the upper end is a small A3D@=in.=diameterB silica glass
(ie2ing port. The inside surfaces of the steel tu"e are ne2ly
gal(ani<ed. Room temperature is 967F. Estimate
a. the (ie2 factor from the specimen to the 2indo2T
". the total net heat=transfer rate "y radiation from the test
specimenT
c. the energy radiated through the (ie2ing port.
1ie2ing port
>:9
5>.>: + duct 2ith s?uare cross section measuring 56 cm "y
56 cm has 2ater (apor at 3 atmosphere and ;66 0 Jo2ing
through it. %ne 2all of the duct is held at @56 0 and has an
emissi(ity of 6.7. The other three 2alls may "e considered
refractory surfaces. Determine the rate of radiant energy transfer
to the cold 2all from the 2ater (apor.
5>.@6 + gas of mi8ture at 3666 0 and a pressure of 5 atm is
introduced into an e(acuated spherical ca(ity 2ith a diameter of
> m. The ca(ity 2alls are "lac! and initially at a temperature of
;66 0. What initial rate of heat transfer 2ill occur "et2een the
gas and spherical 2alls if the gas contains 35b %5 2ith the
remainder of the gas "eing nonradiatinga
5>.@3 + gas consisting of 56b %5 and 76b o8ygen and
nitrogen lea(es a lime !iln at 56667F and enters a s?uare duct
measuring ; in. "y ; in. in cross section. The speciFc heat of the
gas is 6C57 -tuDl"m F, and it is to "e cooled to 36667F in the
duct, 2hose inside surface is maintained at 7667F, and 2hose
2alls ha(e an emissi(ity of 6.:. The mass (elocity of the !iln gas
is 6C@ l"m Dft5 C s and the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient
"et2een the gas and duct 2alls is 3C5 -tuDh ft5 F.
a. Determine the re?uired length of duct to cool the gas to
36667F.
". Determine the ratio of radiant energy transfer to that "y
con(ection.
c. +t 2hat temperature 2ould the gas lea(e the duct if the
length of the duct 2ere t2ice the (alue determined in part
AaBa
Aourtesy of the +merican *nstitute of hemical Engineers.B
Hint. +s the response of the gas to emission and a"sorp=
tion of radiant energy differs, an appro8imation for the radiant
energy e8change "et2een the enclosure and gas contained
2ithin an ar"itrary control (olume is gi(en "y +2 F2Ug se2
@@Aeg Tg U ag T2 BC
35 in
Test
specimen
@ in
hapter
5@
Fundamentals of Mass Transfer
The pre(ious chapters dealing 2ith the transport phenomena of momentum and heat
transfer ha(e dealt 2ith one=component phases that possessed a natural tendency to
reach e?uili"rium conditions. When a system contains t2o or more components 2hose
concentrations (ary from point to point, there is a natural tendency for mass to "e
transferred, minimi<ing the concentration differences 2ithin the system. The transport
of one constituent from a region of higher concentration to that of a lo2er concentration
is called mass transfer.
Many of our day=to=day e8periences in(ol(e mass transfer. + lump of sugar added
to a cup of "lac! coffee e(entually dissol(es and then diffuses uniformly throughout the
coffee. Water e(aporates from ponds to increase the humidity of the passing air stream.
,erfume presents a pleasant fragrance that is imparted throughout the surrounding
atmosphere.
Mass transfer is the "asis for many "iological and chemical processes. -iological
processes include the o8ygenation of "lood and the transport of ions across mem"ranes
2ithin the !idney. hemical processes include the chemical (apor deposition A1DB of
silane A&iH@B onto a silicon 2afer, the doping of a silicon 2afer to form a
semiconducting thin Flm, the aeration of 2aste2ater, and the puriFcation of ores and
isotopes. Mass transfer underlies the (arious chemical separation processes 2here one
or more components migrate from one phase to the interface "et2een the t2o phases in
contact. For e8ample, in adsorption or crystalli<ation processes, the components remain
at the interface, 2hereas in gas a"sorption and li?uidOli?uid e8traction processes, the
components penetrate the interface and then transfer into the "ul! of the second phase.
*f 2e consider the lump of sugar added to the cup of "lac! coffee, e8perience
teaches us that the length of time re?uired to distri"ute the sugar 2ill depend upon
2hether the li?uid is ?uiescent or 2hether it is mechanically agitated "y a spoon. The
mechanism of mass transfer, as 2e ha(e also o"ser(ed in heat transfer, depends upon
the dynamics of the system in 2hich it occurs. Mass can "e transferred "y random
molecular motion in ?uiescent Juids, or it can "e transferred from a surface into
a mo(ing Juid, aided "y the dynamic characteristics of the Jo2. These t2o distinct
modes of transport, molecular mass transfer and con(ecti(e mass transfer, are
analogous to conduction heat transfer and con(ecti(e heat transfer. Each of these modes
of mass transfer 2ill "e descri"ed and analy<ed. +s in the case of heat transfer, 2e
should immediately reali<e that the t2o mechanisms often act simultaneously. Ho2e(er,
in the conJuence of the t2o modes of mass transfer, one mechanism can dominate
?uantitati(ely so that appro8imate solutions in(ol(ing only the dominant mode need "e
used.
>:7
5@.3 Molecular Mass Transfer >::
5@.3 M%$E'$+R M+&& TR+/&FER
+s early as 3735, ,arrot o"ser(ed ?ualitati(ely that 2hene(er a gas mi8ture contains t2o or
more molecular species, 2hose relati(e concentrations (ary from point to point, an
apparently natural process results, 2hich tends to diminish any ine?ualities of composition.
This macroscopic transport of mass, independent of any con(ection 2ithin the system, is
deFned as molecular diffusion.
*n the speciFc case of gaseous mi8tures, a logical e8planation of this transport
phenomenon can "e deduced from the !inetic theory of gases. +t temperatures a"o(e
a"solute <ero, indi(idual molecules are in a state of continual yet random motion. Within
dilute gas mi8tures, each solute molecule "eha(es independently of the other solute
molecules, as it seldom encounters them. ollisions "et2een the solute and the sol(ent
molecules are continually occurring. +s a result of the collisions, the solute molecules mo(e
along a <ig<ag path, sometimes to2ard a region of higher concentration, sometimes to2ard a
lo2er concentration.
$et us consider a hypothetical section passing normal to the concentration gradient
2ithin an isothermal, iso"aric gaseous mi8ture containing solute and sol(ent molecules.
The t2o thin, e?ual elements of (olume a"o(e and "elo2 the section 2ill contain the same
num"er of molecules, as stipulated "y +(ogadroHs la2. +lthough it is not possi"le to state
2hich 2ay any particular molecule 2ill tra(el in a gi(en inter(al of time, a deFnite num"er
of the molecules in the lo2er element of the (olume 2ill cross the hypothetical section from
"elo2, and the same num"er of molecules 2ill lea(e the upper element and cross the section
from a"o(e. With the e8istence of a concentration gradient, there are more solute molecules
in one of the elements of (olume than in the otherT accordingly, an o(erall net transfer from a
region of higher concentration to one of lo2er concentration 2ill result. The net Jo2 of each
molecular species occurs in the direction of a negati(e concentration gradient.
+s pointed out in hapters 9 and 35, the molecular transport of momentum and the
transport of energy "y conduction are also due to random molecular motion. +ccordingly,
one should e8pect that the three transport phenomena 2ill depend upon many of the same
characteristic properties, such as mean free path, and that the theoretical analyses of all three
phenomena 2ill ha(e much in common.
The Fic! Rate E?uation
The la2s of mass transfer sho2 the relation "et2een the Ju8 of the diffusing su"stance and
the concentration gradient responsi"le for this mass transfer. 'nfortunately, the ?uantitati(e
description of molecular diffusion is considera"ly more comple8 than the analogous
descriptions for the molecular transfer of momentum and energy that occur in a one=
component phase. +s mass transfer, or diffusion, as it is also called, occurs only in mi8tures,
its e(aluation must in(ol(e an e8amination of the effect of each component. For e8ample, 2e
2ill often desire to !no2 the diffusion rate of a speciFc component relati(e to the (elocity of
Molecule of the mi8ture in 2hich it is mo(ing. +s each component may possess a different mo"ility, the
species +
mi8ture (elocity must "e e(aluated "y a(eraging the (elocities of all of the components
present.
*n order to esta"lish a common "asis for future discussions, let us Frst consider deFnitions
and relations that are often used to e8plain the role of components 2ithin a mi8ture.
Figure 5@.3 Elemental
(olume containing a
multicomponent mi8ture.
oncentrations. *n a multicomponent mi8ture, the concentration of a molecular species
can "e e8pressed in many 2ays. Figure 5@.3 sho2s an elemental (olume d1 that contains a
@66 hapter 5@ Fundamentals of Mass Transfer
mi8ture of components, including species +. +s each molecule of each species has a mass, a
mass concentration for each species, as 2ell as for the mi8ture, can "e deFned. For species
+, mass concentration, r+ , is deFned as the mass of + per unit (olume of the mi8ture. The
total mass concentration or density, r, is the total mass of the mi8ture contained in the unit
(olumeT that is,
r P c ri
iP3
n
A5@=3B
2here n is the num"er of species in the mi8ture. The mass fraction, (+ , is the mass
concentration of species + di(ided "y the total mass density
(+ P
r+
cri
i
n
P
r+
r
A5@=5B
The sum of the mass fractions, "y deFnition, must "e 3C
c (i P 3
n
A5@=>B
iP3
The molecular concentration of species +, c+, is deFned as the num"er of moles of +
present per unit (olume of the mi8ture. -y deFnition, one mole of any species contains a
mass e?ui(alent to its molecular 2eightT the mass concentration and molar concentration
terms are related "y the follo2ing relationC
c+ P
r+
M+
A5@=@B
2here M+ is the molecular 2eight of species +. When dealing 2ith a gas phase,
concentrations are often e8pressed in terms of partial pressures. 'nder conditions in 2hich
the ideal gas la2, p+ 1 P n+ RT, applies, the molar concentration is
n+p+
PA5@=5Bc+ P
1RT
2here p+ is the partial pressure of the species + in the mi8ture, n+ is the num"er of moles of
species +, 1 is the gas (olume, T is the a"solute temperature, and R is the gas constant. The
total molar concentration, c, is the total moles of the mi8ture contained in the unit (olumeT
that is,
c P c ci
iP3
n
A5@=;B
or for a gaseous mi8ture that o"eys the ideal gas la2, c P ntotal D1 P ,DRT, 2here , is the
total pressure. The mole fraction for li?uid or solid mi8tures, 8+, and for gaseous mi8tures,
y+, are the molar concentrations of species + di(ided "y the total molar density
c+
Ali?uids and solidsB
c
c+
AgasesBy+ P
c
8+ P
A5@=9B
For a gaseous mi8ture that o"eys the ideal gas la2, the mole fraction, y+, can "e 2ritten in
terms of pressures
y+ P
c+p+ DRTp+
PP
,DRTc,
A5@=7B
5@.3 Molecular Mass Transfer @63
E?uation A5@=7B is an alge"raic representation of DaltonHs la2 for gas mi8tures. The sum
of the mole fractions, "y definition, must "e 3C
iP3
n
iP3
c 8i P 3
A5@=:B
c yi P 3
n
+ summary of the (arious concentration terms and of the interrelations for a "inary
system containing species + and - is gi(en in Ta"le 5@.3.
Ta"le 5@.3 oncentrations in a "inary mi8ture of + and -
Mass concentrations
r P total mass density of the mi8ture
r+ P mass density of species +
r- P mass density of species -
(+ P mass fraction of species + P r+ Dr
(- P mass fraction of species - P r- Dr
r P r+ V r-
3 P (+ V (-
Molar concentrations
$i?uid or solid mi8ture
c P molar density of mi8ture P nN1
c+ P molar density of species + P n+ D1
c- P molar density of species - P n- D1
8+ P mole fraction of species + P c+ Dc P n+ Dn
8- P mole fraction of species - P c- Dc P n- Dn
c P c+ V c-
3 P 8+ V 8-
*nterrelations
r+ P c+ M+
(+ DM+
y+ P
(+ DM+ V (- DM-
8+ M+
(+ P
8+ M+ V 8+ M+
A5@=36B
or
y+ M+
y+ M+ V y- M-
A5@=33B
#as mi8ture
c P nD1 P ,DRT
c+ P n+ D1 P p+ DRT
c- P n- D1 P p- DRT
y+ P c+ Dc P n+ Dn P p+ Dp
y- P c- Dc P n- Dn P p- Dp
p+ p-,
c P c+ V c- PVP
RT RT RT
3 P y+ V y-
8+ or
EM+M,$E 3 The composition of air is often gi(en in terms of only the t2o principal species in the gas mi8ture
o8ygen,
nitrogen,
%5 ,
/5 ,
yo5 P 6C53
y/5 P 6C9:
Determine the mass fraction of "oth o8ygen and nitrogen and the mean molecular 2eight of the air
2hen it is maintained at 557 A5:7 0B and 3 atm A3.63> ` 365 ,aB. The molecular 2eight of o8ygen is
6.6>5 !gDmol and of nitrogen is 6.657 !gDmol.
+s a "asis for our calculations, consider 3 mol of the gas mi8ture
o8ygen present P A3 molBA6C53B P 6C53 mol
A6C6>5 !gB
P 6C66;95 !g
mol
nitrogen present P A3 molBA6C9:B P 6C9: mol
P A6C53 molB
A6C657 !gB
P 6C6553 !g
mol
total mass present P 6C66;95 V 6C6553 P 6C6577 !g
P A6C9: molB
(%5 P
(/5
6C66;95 !g
P 6C5>
6C6577 !g
6C6553 !g
PP 6C99
6C6577 !g
+s 3 mol of the gas mi8ture has a mass of 6.6577 !g, the mean molecular 2eight of the air must "e
6.6577. When one ta!es into account the other constituents that are present in air, the mean
molecular 2eight of air is often rounded off to 6.65: !gDmol.
This pro"lem could also "e sol(ed using the ideal gas la2, ,1 P nRT. +t ideal conditions, 6
or 59> 0 and 3 atm of 3C63> ` 365 ,a pressure, the gas constant is e(aluated to "e
RP
,1 A3C63> ` 365 ,aBA55C@ m> B,a [ m>
PP 7C>3@
nTA3 !g molBA59> 0Bmol [ 0

,a [ m>
A5:7 0BA3 molB 7C>3@
nRTmol [ 0
P1P
,3C63> ` 365 ,a
P 6C65@5 m>
The concentrations are
c%5 P
c/5
6C53 molmol %5
P 7C59
>6C65@5 mm>
6C9: molmol /5
PP >5C>
>6C65@5 mm>
n
iP3
A5@=35B
The (olume of the gas mi8ture, at 5:7 0, is
c P c ci P 7C59 V >5C> P @6C: molDm>
The total density, r, is
rP
6C6577 !g
P 3C376 !gDm>
>6C65@5 m
and the mean molecular 2eight of the mi8ture is
MP
r 3C376 !gDm>
PP 6C6577 !gDmol
c @6C: molDm>
1elocities. *n a multicomponent system the (arious species 2ill normally mo(e at
different (elocitiesT accordingly, an e(aluation of a (elocity for the gas mi8ture re?uires
the a(eraging of the (elocities of each species present.
5@.3 Molecular Mass Transfer @6>
The mass=a(erage (elocity for a multicomponent mi8ture is deFned in terms of the
mass densities and (elocities of all components "y
(P
iP3
n
c r i (i
iP3
n
P
iP3
c ri (i
r
A5@=3>B
n
c ri
2here (i denotes the a"solute (elocity of species i relati(e to stationary coordinate a8es. This
is the (elocity that 2ould "e measured "y a pitot tu"e and is the (elocity that 2as pre(iously
encountered in the e?uations of momentum transfer. The molar=a(erage (elocity for a
multicomponent mi8ture is defined in terms of the molar concentrations of all components "y
1 P iP3P iP3
nc
c ci
iP3
c c i (i
n
c c i (i
A5@=3@B
n
The (elocity of a particular species relati(e to the mass=a(erage or molar=a(erage
(elocity is termed a diffusion (elocity. We can deFne t2o different diffusion (elocities
(i U (T the diffusion (elocity of species i relati(e to the mass=a(erage (elocity
and
(i U 1, the diffusion (elocity of species i relati(e to the molar=(elocity a(erage
+ccording to Fic!Hs la2, a species can ha(e a (elocity relati(e to the mass= or molar=a(erage
(elocity only if gradients in the concentration e8ist.
Flu8es. The mass Aor molarB Ju8 of a gi(en species is a (ector ?uantity denoting the
amount of the particular species, in either mass or molar units, that passes per gi(en
increment of time through a unit area normal to the (ector. The Ju8 may "e deFned 2ith
reference to coordinates that are F8ed in space, coordinates that are mo(ing 2ith the mass=
a(erage (elocity, or coordinates that are mo(ing 2ith the molar=a(erage (elocity.
The "asic relation for molecular diffusion deFnes the molar Ju8 relati(e to the molar=
a(erage (elocity, J+. +n empirical relation for this molar Ju8, Frst postulated "y Fic!3 and,
accordingly, often referred to as Fic!Hs Frst la2, deFnes the diffusion of component + in an
isothermal, iso"aric systemC
J+ P UD+- rc+
For diffusion in only the < direction, the Fic! rate e?uation is
dc+
A5@=35B
d<
2here J+,< is the molar flu8 in the < direction relati(e to the molar=a(erage (elocity, dc+Dd<
is the concentration gradient in the < direction, and D+-, the proportionality factor, is the
mass diffusi(ity or diffusion coefficient for component + diffusing through component -.
+ more general Ju8 relation that is not restricted to isothermal, iso"aric systems 2as
proposed "y de #root5 2ho chose to 2rite

concentrationdiffusiono(erall
flu8 P U
gradientcoefficientdensity
J+,< P UD+-
3
5
+. Fic!, +nn. ,hysi!., :@, 5: A3755B.
&. R. de #root, Thermodynamics of *rre(ersi"le ,rocesses, /orth=Holland, +msterdam, 3:53.
@6@ hapter 5@ Fundamentals of Mass Transfer
or
dy+
A5@=3;B
d<
+s the total concentration c is constant under isothermal, iso"aric conditions, e?uation
A5@=35B is a special form of the more general relation A5@=3;B. +n e?ui(alent e8pression for
I+,<, the mass Ju8 in the < direction relati(e to the mass=a(erage (elocity, is
J+,< P UcD+-
d(+
A5@=39B
d<
2here d(+ Dd< is the concentration gradient in terms of the mass fraction. When the
density is constant, this relation simplifies to
I+,< P UrD+-
I+,< P UD+-
dr+
d<
*nitial e8perimental in(estigations of molecular diffusion 2ere una"le to (erify Fic!Hs
la2 of diffusion. This 2as apparently due to the fact that mass is often transferred
simultaneously "y t2o possi"le meansC A3B as a result of the concentration differences
as postulated "y Fic! and A5B "y con(ection differences induced "y the density differences
that resulted from the concentration (ariation. &teffan A3795B and Ma82ell A3799B, using the
!inetic theory of gases, pro(ed that the mass Ju8 relati(e to a F8ed coordinate 2as a result of
t2o contri"utionsC the concentration gradient contri"ution and the "ul! motion contri"ution.
For a "inary system 2ith a constant a(erage (elocity in the < direction, the molar Ju8 in
the < direction relati(e to the molar=a(erage (elocity may also "e e8pressed "y
J+,< P c+ A( +,< U 1< B
E?uating e8pressions A5@=3;B and A5@=37B, 2e o"tain
J+,< P c+ A( +,< U 1< B P UcD+-
2hich, upon rearrangement, yields
c+ ( +,< P UcD+-
dy+
V c + 1<
d<
dy+
d<
A5@=37B
For this "inary system, 1< can "e e(aluated "y e?uation A5@=3@B as
3
1< P Ac+ ( +,< V c- ( +,< B
c
c+ 1< P y+ Ac+ ( +,< V c- ( -,< B
&u"stituting this e8pression into our relation, 2e o"tain
c+ ( +,< P UcD+-
dy-
V y+ Ac+ ( +,< V c- ( -,< B
d<
A5@=3:B
or
+s the component (elocities, ( +,< and ( -,<, are (elocities relati(e to the F8ed < a8is, the
?uantities c+( +,< and c-( -,< are Ju8es of components + and - relati(e to a F8ed < coordinateT
accordingly, 2e sym"oli<e this ne2 type of Ju8 that is relati(e to a set of stationary a8es "y
/ + P c + (+
5@.3 Molecular Mass Transfer @65
and
/- P c- (-
&u"stituting these sym"ols into e?uation A5@=3:B, 2e o"tain a relation for the Ju8 of
component + relati(e to the < a8is
/+,< P UcD+-
dy+
V y+ A/+,< V /-,< B
d<
A5@=56B
This relation may "e generali<ed and 2ritten in (ector form as
/+ P UcD+- N y+ V y+ A/+ V /- B
A5@=53B
*t is important to note that the molar flu8, /+, is a resultant of the t2o (ector ?uantitiesC
UcD+- Ny+
and
y+ A/+ V /- B P c+ 1 the molar flu8 resulting as component + is carried in the "ul! flo2 of
the fluidC This flu8 term is designated the "ul! motion contri"utionC
Either or "oth ?uantities can "e a signiFcant part of the total molar Ju8, /+. Whene(er
e?uation A5@=53B is applied to descri"e molar diffusion, the (ector nature of the indi(idual
Ju8es, /+ and /-, must "e considered and then, in turn, the direction of each of t2o (ector
?uantities must "e e(aluated.
*f species + 2ere diffusing in a multicomponent mi8ture, the e8pression e?ui(alent to
e?uation A5@=53B 2ould "e
/+ P UcD+M Ny+ V y+ c /i
iP3
n
the molar flu8, J+ , resulting from the concentration gradientC This
term is referred to as the concentration gradient contri"utionT
2here D+M is the diffusion coefFcient of + in the mi8ture.
The mass Ju8, n+, relati(e to a F8ed spatial coordinate system, is deFned for a "inary
system in terms of mass density and mass fraction "y
n+ P UrD+- N(+ V (+ An+ V n- B
2here
n+ P r+ (+
and
n- P r- (-
'nder isothermal, iso"aric conditions, this relation simpliFes to
n+ P UD+- Nr+ V (+ An+ V n- B
+s pre(iously noted, the Ju8 is a resultant of t2o (ector ?uantitiesC
UD+- Nr+ ,
the mass flu8, I+ , resulting from a concentration gradientT the
concentration gradient contri"utionC
A5@=55B
(+ An+ V n- B P r+ (T the mass flu8 resulting as component + is carried in the "ul!
flo2 of the fluidT the "ul! motion contri"utionC
@6; hapter 5@ Fundamentals of Mass Transfer
Ta"le 5@.5 E?ui(alent forms of the mass Ju8 e?uation for "inary system + and -
Flu8
n+
/+
I+
I+
#radient
N(+
Nr+
Ny+
Nc+
N(+
Nr+
Ny+
Nc+
Fic! rate e?uation
n+ P UD+- Nr+ V (+ An+ V n- B
/+ P UcD+- Ny+ V y+ A/+ V /- B
/+ P UD+- Nc+ V y+ A/+ V /- B
I+ P UrD+- N(+
I+ P UD+- Nr+
J+ P UcD+- Ny+
J+ P UD+- Nc+
Restrictions
onstant r
onstant c
onstant r
onstant c
*f a "alloon, Flled 2ith a color dye, is dropped into a large la!e, the dye 2ill diffuse radially
as a concentration gradient contri"ution. When a stic! is dropped into a mo(ing stream, it
2ill Joat do2nstream "y the "ul! motion contri"ution. *f the dye=Flled "alloon 2ere
dropped into the mo(ing stream, the dye 2ould diffuse radially 2hile "eing carried
do2nstreamT thus "oth contri"utions participate simultaneously in the mass transfer.
The four e?uations deFning the Ju8es, J+, I+, /+, and n+ are e?ui(alent statements of
the Fic! rate e?uation. The diffusion coefFcient, D+-, is identical in all four e?uations. +ny
one of these e?uations is ade?uate to descri"e molecular diffusionT ho2e(er, certain Ju8es
are easier to use for speciFc cases. The mass Ju8es, n+ and I+, are used 2hen the /a(ierO
&to!es e?uations are also re?uired to descri"e the process. &ince chemical reactions are
descri"ed in terms of moles of the participating reactants, the molar Ju8es, J+ and /+, are
used to descri"e mass=transfer operations in 2hich chemical reactions are in(ol(ed. The
Ju8es relati(e to coordinates F8es in space, n+ and /+, are often used to descri"e
engineering operations 2ithin process e?uipment. The Ju8es J+ and I+ are used to descri"e
the mass transfer in diffusion cells used for measuring the diffusion coefFcient. Ta"le 5@.5
summari<es the e?ui(alent forms of the Fic! rate e?uation.
Related Types of Molecular Mass Transfer
+ccording to the second la2 of thermodynamics, systems not in e?uili"rium 2ill tend to
mo(e to2ard e?uili"rium 2ith time. + generali<ed dri(ing force in chemical thermo=
dynamic terms is Udmc Dd< 2here mc is the chemical potential. The molar diffusion (elocity
of component + is deFned in terms of the chemical potential "y
( + ,B
2here u+ is the GGmo"ilityHH of component +, or the resultant (elocity of the molecule
2hile under the influence of a unit dri(ing force. E?uation A5@=5>B is !no2n as the
/ernstOEinstein relation. The molar flu8 of + "ecomes
J+,< P c+ A( +,< U 1< B P Uc+
D+- dmc
RT d<
A5@=5@B
E?uation A5@=5@B may "e used to deFne all molecular mass=transfer phenomena. +s an
e8ample, consider the conditions speciFed for e?uation A5@=35BT the chemical potential of a
component in a homogeneous ideal solution at constant temperature and pressure is deFned "y
mc P m6 V RT ln c+
A5@=55B
5@.5 The Diffusion oefFcient @69
2here m6 is a constant, the chemical potential of the standard state. When 2e su"stitute this
relation into e?uation A5@=5@B, the Fic! rate e?uation for a homogeneous phase is o"tained
J+,< P UD+-
dc+
d<
A5@=35B
There are a num"er of other physical conditions, in addition to differences in con=
centration, 2hich 2ill produce a chemical potential gradientC temperature differences,
pressure differences, and differences in the forces created "y e8ternal Felds, such as gra(ity,
magnetic, and electrical Felds. We can, for e8ample, o"tain mass transfer "y applying a
temperature gradient to a multicomponent system. This transport phenomenon, the &oret
effect or thermal diffusion, although normally small relati(e to other diffusion effects, is used
successfully in the separation of isotopes. omponents in a li?uid mi8ture can "e separated
2ith a centrifuge "y pressure diffusion. There are many 2ell=!no2n e8amples of mass Ju8es
"eing induced in a mi8ture su"Iected to an e8ternal force FeldC separation "y sedimentation
under the inJuence of gra(ity, electrolytic precipitation due to an electrostatic force Feld, and
magnetic separation of mineral mi8tures through the action of a magnetic force Feld.
+lthough these mass=transfer phenomena are important, they are (ery speciFc processes.
The molecular mass transfer, resulting from concentration differences and descri"ed "y
Fic!Hs la2, results from the random molecular motion o(er small mean free paths,
independent of any containment 2alls. The diffusion of fast neutrons and molecules in
e8tremely small pores or at (ery lo2 gas density cannot "e descri"ed "y this relationship.
/eutrons, produced in a nuclear Fssion process, initially possess high !inetic energies
and are termed fast neutrons "ecause of their high (elocitiesT that is, up to 35 million meters
per second. +t these high (elocities, neutrons pass through the electronic shells of other
atoms or molecules 2ith little hindrance. To "e deJected, the fast neutrons must collide 2ith a
nucleus, 2hich is a (ery small target compared to the (olume of most atoms and molecules.
The mean free path of fast neutrons is appro8imately one million times greater than the free
paths of gases at ordinary pressures. +fter the fast neutrons are slo2ed do2n through elastic=
scattering collisions "et2een the neutrons and the nuclei of the reactorHs moderator, these
slo2er mo(ing neutrons, thermal neutrons, migrate from positions of higher concentration to
positions of lo2er concentration, and their migration is descri"ed "y Fic!Hs la2 of diffusion.
5@.5 THE D*FF'&*%/ %EFF**E/T
Fic!Hs la2 of proportionality, D+-, is !no2n as the diffusion coefFcient. *ts fundamental
dimensions, 2hich may "e o"tained from e?uation A5@=35B

UJ+,<M3$5
D+- PPP
$5 t MD$> [ 3D$dc+ Dd<t
are identical to the fundamental dimensions of the other transport propertiesC !inematic
(iscosity, n, and thermal diffusi(ity, a, or its e?ui(alent ratio, !Drc p . The mass diffusi(ity has
"een reported in cm5DsT the &* units are m5Ds, 2hich is a factor 36U@ smaller. *n the English
system ft5Dh is commonly used. on(ersion "et2een these systems in(ol(es the simple
relations
D+- Acm5 DsB
P 36@
5 DsBD+- Am
D+- Aft5 DhB
P >C79
D+- Acm5 DsB
A5@=5;B
The diffusion coefficient depends upon the pressure, temperature, and composition of the
system. E8perimental (alues for the diffusi(ities of gases, li?uids, and solids are ta"ulated in
+ppendi8 Ta"les J.3, J.5, and J.>, respecti(ely. +s one might e8pect from the consideration of
the mo"ility of the molecules, the diffusion coefficients are generally higher for gases Ain the
range of 5 ` 36U; to 3 ` 36U5 m5 DsB, than for li?uids Ain the range of 36U36 to 36U: m5 DsB,
2hich are higher than the (alues reported for solids Ain the range of 36U3@ to 36U36 m5 DsB.
*n the a"sence of e8perimental data, semitheoretical e8pressions ha(e "een de(eloped
2hich gi(e appro8imations, sometimes as (alid as e8perimental (alues due to the difFculties
encountered in their measurement.
#as Mass Diffusi(ity
Theoretical e8pressions for the diffusion coefFcient in lo2=density gaseous mi8tures as a
function of the systemHs molecular properties 2ere deri(ed "y &utherland,> Jeans,@ and
hapman and o2ling,5 "ased upon the !inetic theory of gases. *n the simplest model of gas
dynamics, the molecules are regarded as rigid spheres that e8ert no intermolecular forces.
ollisions "et2een these rigid molecules are considered to "e completely elastic. With these
assumptions, a simpliFed model for an ideal gas mi8ture of species + diffusing through its
isotope +} yields an e?uation for the self=diffusion coefFcient, deFned as
3
A5@=59BD++} P lu
>
and l is the mean free path of length of species +, gi(en "y
!T
A5@=57B
l P p 5
5ps + ,
2here u is the mean speed of species + 2ith respect to the molar=a(erage (elocity
r
7!/T
A5@=5:BuP
pM+
*nsertion of e?uations A5@=57B and A5@=5:B into e?uation A5@=59B results in
> 3N5
5T >D5! /
D++} PA5@=>6B
>p>D5 s 5 , M+
+
2here M+ is the molecular 2eight of the diffusing species +, AgDmolB, / is +(ogadroHs
num"er A;C655 ` 365> moleculesDmolB, , is the system pressure, T is the a"solute
temperature A0B, 0 is the -olt<mann constant A3C>7 ` 36U3; ergsD0B, and s +- is the
$ennardOJones diameter of the spherical molecules.
'sing a similar !inetic theory of gases approach for a "inary mi8ture of species + and -
composed of rigid spheres of une?ual diameters, the gas=phase diffusion coefFcient is
sho2n to "e

33 3D5
V
5 0 >D5 3D5 >D5 5M+ 5M-
/ TA5@=>3BD+- P
s V s 5> p-+
,
5
>
@
W. &utherland, ,hil. Mag., >;, 569T >7, 3 A37:@B.
J. Jeans, Dynamical Theory of #ases, am"ridge 'ni(ersity ,ress, $ondon, 3:53.
5&. hapman and T. #. o2ling, Mathematical Theory of /on='niform #ases, am"ridge 'ni(ersity ,ress,
$ondon, 3:5:.
5@.5 The Diffusion oefFcient @6:
'nli!e the other t2o molecular transport coefficients for gases, the (iscosity and thermal
conducti(ity, the gas=phase diffusion coefficient is dependent on the pressure and the
temperature. &pecifically, the gas=phase diffusion coefficient is
an in(erse function of total system pressure
D+- D
3
,
a >D5 po2er=la2 function of the a"solute temperature
D+- D T>D5
+s e?uation A5@=>3B re(eals, and as one of the pro"lems at the end of this chapter points out,
the diffusion coefFcients for gases D+- P D-+ . This is not the case for li?uid diffusion
coefFcients.
Modern (ersions of the !inetic theory ha(e "een attempted to account for forces of
attraction and repulsion "et2een the molecules. Hirschfelder et al. A3:@:B,; using the
$ennardOJones potential to e(aluate the inJuence of the molecular forces, presented an
e?uation for the diffusion coefFcient for gas pairs of nonpolar, nonreacting moleculesC
Q
33 3D5
6C663757T >N5V
M+ M-
D+- PA5@=>>B
,s 5 1D+-
2here D+- is the mass diffusi(ity of + through -, in cm5DsT T is the a"solute temperature,
in 0T M+, M- are the molecular 2eights of + and -, respecti(elyT , is the a"solute
pressure, in atmospheresT s +- is the GGcollision diameter,HH a $ennardOJones parameter, in
t
+T and 1D is the GGcollision integralHH for molecular diffusion, a dimensionless function of
the temperature and of the intermolecular potential field for one molecule of + and one
molecule of -. +ppendi8 Ta"le 0.3 lists 1D as a function of !TDe+- , ! is the -olt<mann
constant, 2hich is 3C>7 ` 36U3; ergsD0, and e+- is the energy of molecular interaction for
the "inary system + and -, a $ennardOJones parameter, in ergs, see e?uation A5@=>3B.
'nli!e the other t2o molecular transport coefficients, (iscosity and thermal conducti(ity,
the diffusion coefficient is dependent on pressure as 2ell as on a higher order of the
a"solute temperature. When the transport process in a single component phase 2as
e8amined, 2e did not find any composition dependency in e?uation A5@=>6B or in the
similar e?uations for (iscosity and thermal conducti(ity. Figure 5@.5 presents the graphical
dependency of the GGcollision integral,HH 1D , on the dimensionless temperature, !TDe+- .
The $ennardOJones parameters, r and eD , are usually o"tained from (iscosity data.
'nfortunately, this information is a(aila"le for only a (ery fe2 pure gases. +ppendi8 Ta"le
0.5 ta"ulates these (alues. *n the a"sence of e8perimental data, the (alues for pure
components may "e estimated from the follo2ing empirical relationsC
3s P 3C37 1" D>
3s P 6C7@3 1c D>
3D>
Tc
s P 5C@@
,c
e+ D! P 6C99 Tc
A5@=>@B
A5@=>5B
A5@=>;B
A5@=>9B
;
J. %. Hirschfelder, R. -. -ird, and E. $. &pot<, hem. Re(.,@@, 565 A3:@:B.
>.66
ollision
integral for
diffusion, WD
5.56
5.66
3.56
3.66
6.56
6.66
6.66
5.66 @.66 ;.66 7.66 36.66
Dimensionless temperature, !TDe
Figure 5@.5 -inary gas=
phase $ennardOJones
GGcollision integral.HH
and
e+ D! P 3C35 T"
A5@=>7B
2here 1" is the molecular (olume at the normal "oiling point, in AcmB>Dg mol Athis is
e(aluated "y using Ta"le 5@.>BT 1c is the critical molecular (olume, in AcmB>Dg molT Tc is
the critical temperature, in 0T T" is the normal "oiling temperature, in 0T and ,c is the
critical pressure, in atmospheres.
Ta"le 5@.> +tomic diffusion (olumes for use in estimating D+- "y method of
Fuller, &chettler, and #iddings
+tomic and structure diffusion=(olume increments, (
H
%
/
3;.5
3.:7
5.@7
5.;:
l
&
+romatic ring
Heterocyclic ring
3:.5
39.6
U56.5
U56.5
Diffusion (olumes for simple molecules, (
H5
D5
He
/5
%5
+ir
9.69
;.96
5.77
39.:
3;.;
56.3
+r
0r
%
%5
/5%
/H>
3;.3
55.7
37.:
5;.:
>5.:
3@.:
H5%
*F5
&F;
l5
-r5
&%5
35.9
33@.7
;:.9
>9.9
;9.5
@3.3
For a "inary system composed of nonpolar molecular pairs, the $ennardOJones
parameters of the pure component may "e com"ined empirically "y the follo2ing relationsC
s +- P
and
e+- P
s+ V s-
5
p
e+ e-
A5@=>:B
A5@=@6B
These relations must "e modified for polarOpolar and polarOnonpolar molecular pairsT the
proposed modifications are discussed "y Hirschfelder, urtiss, and -ird.9
The Hirschfelder e?uation A5@=>>B is often used to e8trapolate e8perimental data. For
moderate ranges of pressure, up to 55 atm, the diffusion coefFcient (aries in(ersely 2ith the
pressure. Higher pressures apparently re?uire dense gas correctionsT unfortunately, no
satisfactory correlation is a(aila"le for high pressures. E?uation A5@=>>B also states that the
diffusion coefFcient (aries 2ith the temperature as T >D5 D1D (aries. &implifying e?uation
A5@=>>B, 2e can predict the diffusion coefFcient at any temperature and at any pressure
"elo2 55 atm from a !no2n e8perimental (alue "y
D5
,3T5 > 1D IT3
A5@=@3B
D+-T5 , ,3 P D+-T3 , ,3
,T1 I
5 3 D T5
*n +ppendi8 Ta"le J.3, e8perimental (alues of the product D+-, are listed for se(eral gas
pairs at a particular temperature. 'sing e?uation A5@=@3B, 2e may e8tend these (alues to
other temperatures.
EM+M,$E 5
E(aluate the diffusion coefFcient of car"on dio8ide in air at 56 and atmospheric pressure.
ompare this (alue 2ith the e8perimental (alue reported in appendi8 ta"le J.3.
From +ppendi8 Ta"le 0.5, the (alues of s and eD! are o"tained
7sT in + e+ D!T in 0
ar"on dio8ide >C::;3:6
+ir>C;39:9
The (arious parameters for e?uation A5@=>>B may "e e(aluated as follo2sC
s + V s - >C::; V >C;397PP >C76; +
55 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ p
e+- D! P Ae+ D!BAe- D!B P A3:6BA:9B P 3>;
T P 56 V 59> P 5:> 0
, P 3 atm
e+- 3>;
PP 6C@;>
!T5:>
!T
P 5C3;
e+-
1D ATa"le 0C3B P 3C6@9
M%5 P @@
s +- P
and
M+ir P 5:
&u"stituting these (alues into e?uation A5@=>>B, 2e o"tain
D+- P
P
6C663757 T >D5 A3DM+ V 3DM- B3D5
,s 5 1D+-
A6C663757BA5:>B>D5 A3D@@ V 3D5:B3D5
A3BA>C76;B5 A3C6@9B
P 6C3@9 cm5 Ds
J. %. Hirschfelder, . F. urtiss, and R. -. -ird, Molecular Theory of #ases and $i?uids, John Wiley )
&ons, *nc., /e2 Eor!, 3:5@.
9
From +ppendi8 Ta"le J.3 for %5 in air at 59> 0, 3 atm, 2e ha(e
D+- P 6C3>; cm5 Ds
E?uation A5@=@3B 2ill "e used to correct for the differences in temperature
>D5
D+-,T3T31D IT5
P
D+-,T5T51D IT3
1alues for 1D may "e e(aluated as follo2sC
at T5 P 59> e+- D!T P
at T3 P 5:>
3>;
P 6C@:7
59>
1D IT5 P 3C69@
1D IT3 P 3C69@
Apre(ious calculationsB
The corrected (alue for the diffusion coefFcient at 567 is
>D5
5:>3C69@
A6C3>;B P 6C355 cm5 DsD+-,T3 P
59>3C6@9
A3C55 ` 36U5 m5 DsB
We readily see that the temperature dependency of the GGcollision integralHH is (ery small.
+ccordingly, most scaling of diffusi(ities relati(e to temperature include only the ratio
WT3 DT5 X>D5 .
E?uation A5@=>>B 2as de(eloped for dilute gases consisting of nonpolar, spherical
monatomic molecules. Ho2e(er, this e?uation gi(es good results for most nonpolar,
"inary gas systems o(er a 2ide range of temperatures.7 %ther empirical e?uations ha(e
"een proposed: for estimating the diffusion coefFcient for nonpolar, "inary gas systems
at lo2 pressures. The empirical correlation recommended "y Fuller, &chettler, and
#iddings permits the e(aluation of the diffusi(ity 2hen relia"le $ennardOJones para=
meters, s i and ei , are una(aila"le. The Fuller correlation is

33 3D5
U> T 3C9536V
M+ M-
D+- PA5@=@5B}`
33 5, A&(B+D> V A&(B-D>
2here D+- is in cm5Ds, T is in 0, and , is in atmospheres. To determine the ( terms, the
authors recommend the addition of the atomic and structural diffusion=(olume increments
( reported in Ta"le 5@.>.
Danner and Dau"ert36 ha(e recommended the atomic and structure diffusion=(olume
increments for to "e corrected to 35.: and for H to 5.>3 and the diffusion (olumes for H5 to
"e corrected to ;.35 and for air to 3:.9.
R. . Reid, J. M. ,rausnit<, and T. 0. &her2ood, The ,roperties of #ases and $i?uids, Third Edition,
Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:99, hapter 33.
:J. H. +rnold, J. +m. hem. &oc., 55, >:>9 A3:>6B. E. R. #illiland, *nd. Eng. hem., 5;, ;73 A3:>@B. J. .
&lattery and R. -. -ird, +.*.h.E. J., @, 3>9 A3:57B. D. F. %thmer and H. T. hen, *nd. Eng. hem. ,rocess
Des. De(., 3, 5@: A3:;5B. R. #. -ailey, hem. Engr., 75A;B, 7;, A3:95B. E. /. Fuller, ,. D. &chettler, and J. .
#iddings, *nd. Eng. hem., 57A5B, 37 A3:;;B.
36R. ,. Danner, and T. E. Dau"ert, Manual for ,redicting hemical ,rocess Design Data, +.*.h.E. A3:7>B.
7
5@.5
EM+M,$E >
The Diffusion oefFcient @3>
Ree(aluate the diffusion coefFcient of car"on dio8ide in air at 567 and atmospheric pressure using
the Fuller, &chettler, and #iddings e?uation and compare the ne2 (alue 2ith the one reported in
e8ample 5.

33 3D5
U> T 3C9536V
M+ M-
D+- P hi
3N> 53, Ac(B+D> V Ac(B-

33 3D5
V
@@ 5:
P
A3BwA5;C:B3D> V A56C3B3D> x5
36U> A5:>B3C95
P 6C355 cm5 Ds
This (alue compares (ery fa(ora"ly to the (alue e(aluated 2ith Hirschfelder e?uation, 6.355 cm5Ds,
and its determination 2as easily accomplished.
-ro!a233 has suggested a method for estimating diffusion coefFcient for "inary gas
mi8tures containing polar compounds. The Hirschfelder e?uation AB is still usedT ho2e(er,
the collision integral is e(aluated "y
1D P 1D6 V
2here
d+- P Ad+ d- B3D5
dP
m p P dipole moment, De"ye
1" P li?uid molar (olume of the specific compound at its "oiling point, cm> Dg mol
T" P normal "oiling point, 0
and
T } P !TDe+-
2here
e+- e+ e- 3D5
P
!! !
eD! P 3C37A3 V 3C> d5 BT"
d is e(aluated 2ith A5@O@@B. +nd
1D6 P
+E#
VVV
AT } B- e8pADT } B e8pAFT } B e8pAHT } B
A5@=@;B
A5@=@5B
3C:@ ` 36> m5p
1D TD
A5@=@@B
6C3:;d5
+-
}
T
A5@=@>B
33
R. &. -ro!a2, *nd. Engr. hem. ,rocess Des. De(., 7, 5@6 A3:;:B.
2ith
+ P 3C6;6,>;
- P 6C35;,36
P 6C3:>,66
D P 6C@9;,>5
E
F
#
H
P 3C6>5,79
P 3C55:,:;
P 3C9;@,9@
P >C7:@,33
The collision diameter, s +- , is e(aluated 2ith
s +- P As + s - B3D5
2ith each componentHs characteristic length e(aluated "y

3C575 1D 3D>
sP
3 V 3C> d5
A5@=@9B
A5@=@7B
Reid, ,rausnit<, and &her2ood35 noted that the -ro!a2 e?uation is fairly relia"le,
permitting the e(aluation of the diffusion coefficients for gases in(ol(ing polar compounds
2ith errors less than 35b.
Mass transfer in gas mi8tures of se(eral components can "e descri"ed "y theoretical
e?uations in(ol(ing the diffusion coefFcients for the (arious "inary pairs in(ol(ed in the
mi8ture. Hirschfelder, urtiss, and -ird3> present an e8pression in its most general form.
Wil!e3@ has simpliFed the theory and has sho2n that a close appro8imation to the correct
form is gi(en "y the relation
D3Umi8ture P
3
y6 DD3U55 V y6 DD3U>> V [ [ [ V y6 DD3Unn
A5@=@:B
2here D3Umi8ture is the mass diffusi(ity for component 3 in the gas mi8tureT D3Un is the
mass diffusi(ity for the "inary pair, component 3 diffusing through component nT and y6
n
is the mole fraction of component n in the gas mi8ture e(aluated on a component=3=free
"asis, that is
y5y5
Py6 P5y5 V y> V [ [ [ y n 3 U y3
*n ,ro"lem 5@.9 at the end of this chapter, e?uation A5@=@:B is de(eloped "y using
Wil!eHs approach for e8tending the &tefan and Ma82ell theory in order to e8plain the
diffusion of species + through a gas mi8ture of se(eral components.
EM+M,$E @ *n the chemical (apor deposition of silane A&iH@B on a silicon 2afer, a process gas stream rich in an
inert nitrogen A/5B carrier gas has the follo2ing compositionC
y&*H@ P 6C6695, yH5 P 6C635, y/5 P 6C:995
The gas mi8ture is maintained at :66 0 and 366 ,a total system pressure. Determine the diffusi(ity of
silane through the gas mi8ture. The $ennardOJones constants for silane are e+ D! P 569C; 0 and
t.s + P @C67 +
3>J. %. Hirschfelder, . F. urtiss, and R. -. -ird, Molecular Theory of #ases and $i?uids, Wiley, /e2 Eor!,
p. 937.
3@. R. Wil!e, hem. Engr. ,rog., @;, :5O36@ A3:56B.
35
The "inary diffusion coefFcients at :66 0 and 366 ,a total system pressure estimated "y the
Hirschfelder e?uation A5@=>>B are
D&iH@ U/5 P 3C6: ` 36> cm5 Ds
and
D&iH@ UH5 P @C6; ` 36> cm5 Ds
The "inary diffusion coefFcients are relati(ely high "ecause the temperature is high and the total
system pressure is lo2. The composition of nitrogen and hydrogen on a silane=free "asis are
y6 5 P/
6C:995
P 6C:7@:
3 U 6C6695
and
y6 5 PH
6C635
P 6C6353
3 U 6C6695
'pon su"stituting these (alues into the Wil!e e?uation A5@=@:B, 2e o"tain
D&iH@ Umi8ture P
3
y6 5/
D&iH@ U/5
V
y6 5H
D&iH@ UH5
P
3
6C:7@:6C6353
V
>3C6: ` 36@C6; ` 36>
P 3C36 ` 36>
cm5
s
This e8ample (eriFes that for a dilute multicomponent gas mi8ture, the diffusion coefFcient of the
diffusing species in the gas mi8ture is appro8imated "y the "inary diffusion coefFcient of the
diffusing species in the carrier gas.
$i?uid=Mass Diffusi(ity
*n contrast to the case for gases, 2here 2e ha(e a(aila"le an ad(anced !inetic theory for
e8plaining molecular motion, theories of the structure of li?uids and their transport
characteristics are still inade?uate to permit a rigorous treatment. *nspection of pu"lished
e8perimental (alues for li?uid diffusion coefFcients in +ppendi8 J.5 re(eals that they are
se(eral orders of magnitude smaller than gas diffusion coefFcients and that they depend on
concentration due to the changes in (iscosity 2ith concentration and changes in the degree
of ideality of the solution.
ertain molecules diffuse as molecules, 2hile others that are designated as electrolytes
ioni<e in solutions and diffuse as ions. For e8ample, sodium chloride, /al, diffuses in
2ater as the ions /aV and lU . Though each ion has a different mo"ility, the electrical
neutrality of the solution indicates that the ions must diffuse at the same rateT accordingly, it
is possi"le to spea! of a diffusion coefFcient for molecular electrolytes such as /al.
Ho2e(er, if se(eral ions are present, the diffusion rates of the indi(idual cations and anions
must "e considered, and molecular diffusion coefFcients ha(e no meaning. /eedless to say,
separate correlations for predicting the relation "et2een the li?uid mass diffusi(ities and the
properties of the li?uid solution 2ill "e re?uired for electrolytes and nonelectrolytes.
T2o theories, the Eyring GGholeHH theory and the hydrodynamical theory, ha(e "een
postulated as possi"le e8planations for diffusion of nonelectrolyte solutes in lo2=
concentration solutions. *n the Eyring concept, the ideal li?uid is treated as a ?uasi=
crystalline lattice model interspersed 2ith holes. The transport phenomenon is then
descri"ed "y a unimolecular rate process in(ol(ing the Iumping of solute molecules into
the holes 2ithin the lattice model. These Iumps are empirically related to EyringHs theory
of reaction rate.35 The hydrodynamical theory states that the li?uid diffusion coefFcient
is related to the solute moleculeHs mo"ilityT that is, to the net (elocity of the molecule
2hile under the inJuence of a unit dri(ing force. The la2s of hydrodynamics pro(ide
&. #lasstone, 0. J. $aidler, and H. Eyring, Theory of Rate ,rocesses, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2
Eor!, 3:@3, hap. *M.
35
relations "et2een the force and the (elocity. +n e?uation that has "een de(eloped from
the hydrodynamical theory is the &to!esOEinstein e?uation
D+- P
!T
;prm-
A5@=56B
2here D+- is the diffusi(ity of + in dilute solution in D, ! is the -olt<mann constant, T is
the a"solute temperature, r is the solute particle radius, and m- is the sol(ent (iscosity.
This e?uation has "een fairly successful in descri"ing the diffusion of colloidal particles
or large round molecules through a sol(ent that "eha(es as a continuum relati(e to the
diffusing species.
The results of the t2o theories can "e rearranged into the general form
D+- m-
P fA1B
!T
A5@=53B
in 2hich fA1B is a function of the molecular (olume of the diffusing solute. Empirical
correlations, using the general form of e?uation A5@=53B, ha(e "een de(eloped, 2hich
attempt to predict the li?uid diffusion coefficient in terms of the solute and sol(ent
properties. Wil!e and hang3; ha(e proposed the follo2ing correlation for none=
lectrolytes in an infinitely dilute solutionC
D+- m-9C@ ` 36U7 AF- M- B3D5
P
6C;T1+
A5@=55B
2here D+- is the mass diffusi(ity of + diffusing through li?uid sol(ent -, in cm5 DsT m- is
the (iscosity of the solution, in centipoisesT T is a"solute temperature, in 0T M- is the
molecular 2eight of the sol(entT 1+ is the molal (olume of solute at normal "oiling point,
in cm> Dg molT and F- is the GGassociationHH parameter for sol(ent -.
Molecular (olumes at normal "oiling points, 1+ , for some commonly encountered
compounds, are ta"ulated in Ta"le 5@.@. For other compounds, the atomic (olumes of each
element present are added together as per the molecular formulas. Ta"le 5@.5 lists the
contri"utions for each of the constituent atoms. When certain ring structures are in(ol(ed,
corrections must "e made to account for the speciFc ring conFgurationT the follo2ing
Ta"le 5@.@ Molecular (olumes at normal "oiling point for some commonly encountered
compounds
ompound
Hydrogen, H5
%8ygen, %5
/itrogen, /5
+ir
ar"on mono8ide, %
ar"on dio8ide, %5
ar"onyl sulFde, %&
&ulfur dio8ide, &%5
Molecular (olume,
in cm> Dg mol
3@.>
55.;
>3.5
5:.:
>6.9
>@.6
53.5
@@.7
ompound
/itric o8ide, /%
/itrous o8ide, /5%
+mmonia, /H>
Water, H5%
Hydrogen sulFde, H5&
-romine, -r5
hlorine, l5
*odine, *5
Molecular (olume,
in cm> Dg mol
5>.;
>;.@
55.7
37.:
>5.:
5>.5
@7.@
93.5
3;
. R. Wil!e and ,. hang, +.*.h.E.J., 3, 5;@ A3:55B.
Ta"le 5@.5 +tomic (olumes for comple8 molecular (olumes for simple su"stancesy
Element
-romine
ar"on
hlorine
Hydrogen
*odine
/itrogen, dou"le "ond
/itrogen, in primary amines
/itrogen, in secondary amines
y
+tomic (olume,
in cm> Dg mol
59.6
3@.7
53.;
>.9
>9.6
35.;
36.5
35.6
Element
%8ygen, e8cept as noted "elo2
%8ygen, in methyl esters
%8ygen, in methyl ethers
%8ygen, in higher ethers
and other esters
%8ygen, in acids
&ulfur
+tomic (olume,
in cm> Dg mol
9.@
:.3
:.:
33.6
35.6
55.;
#. $e -as, The Molecular 1olumes of $i?uid hemical ompounds, $ongmans, #reen ) ompany, $td.,
$ondon, 3:35.
corrections are recommendedC
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
three=mem"ered ring, as ethylene o8ide
four=mem"ered ring, as cyclo"utane
F(e=mem"ered ring, as furan
pyridine
"en<ene ring
naphthalene ring
anthracene ring
deduct
deduct
deduct
deduct
deduct
deduct
deduct
;
7.5
33.5
35
35
>6
@9.5
Recommended (alues of the association parameter, F- , are gi(en "elo2 for a fe2
common sol(ents.
&ol(ent
Water
Methanol
Ethanol
-en<ene, ether, heptane,
and other unassociated sol(ents
F-
5.5;39
3.:
3.5
3.6
*f data for computing the molar (olume of solute at its normal "oiling point, 1+, are not
a(aila"le, Tyn and alus37 recommend the correlation
3C6@71+ P 6C5751c
2here 1c is the critical (olume of species + in cm>Dg. mol. 1alues of 1c are ta"ulated in
Reid, ,rausnit<, and &her2ood.3:
The correction of F- is recommended "y R. . Reid, J. M. ,rausnit<, and T. 0. &her2ood, The ,roperties
of #ases and $i?uids, Third Edition, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:99, p. 597.
37Tyn, M.T. and W.F. alus, ,rocessing, 53, A@BC 3; A3:95B.
3:R.. Reid, J.M. ,rausnit< and, T.0. &her2ood, The ,roperties of #ases and $i?uids, Third Edition,
Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:99, +ppendi8 +.
39
Estimate the li?uid diffusion coefFcient of ethanol, 5 H5 %H, in a dilute solution of 2ater at 367.
The molecular (olume of ethanol may "e e(aluated "y using (alues from Ta"le 5@.5 as follo2sC
15 H5 %H P 51 V ;1H V 1%
15 H5 %H P 5A3@C7B V ;A>C9B V 9C@ P 5:C5 cm> Dmol
+t 36 , the (iscosity of a solution containing 6.65 mol of alcoholDliter of 2ater is 3.@5
centipoisesT the remaining parameters to "e used are
T P 57> 0
F- for 2ater P 5C5;
and
M- for 2ater P 37
&u"stituting these (alues into e?uation A5@=55B, 2e o"tain
D5 H5 %HUH5 % P
9C@ ` 36U7 A5C5; ` 37B3D5
A5:C5B6C;
Q

57>
3C@5
EM+M,$E 5
P 9C:; ` 36U; cm5 Ds A9C:; ` 36U36 m5 DsB
This (alue is in good agreement 2ith the e8perimental (alue of 7C> ` 36U36 m5 Ds reported in
+ppendi8 J.
$et us compare this (alue of the li?uid diffusi(ity of ethanol in a dilute solution of 2ater at 36 ,
9C:; ` 36U; cm5 Ds, 2ith the (alue of the gas diffusi(ity of ethanol in air at 36 and 3 atm pressure,
6C337 cm5 Ds. This emphasi<es the order of magnitude difference "et2een the (alues of the li?uid and
gas diffusi(ities.
,erforming a similar calculation, the li?uid diffusion coefFcient of 2ater in an inFnite dilute
solution of ethanol at the same 36 temperature predicts that the diffusion coefFcient D-+ is e?ual
to 3C37 ` 36U5 cm5 Ds. *t is important to note that li?uid diffusi(ities D+-$ and D-+$ are not e?ual as
2ere the gas diffusi(ities at the same temperature and pressure.
Haydu! and $audie56 ha(e proposed a much simpler e?uation for e(aluating inFnite dilution
diffusion coefFcients of nonelectrolytes in 2ater
U6C57:D+- P 3>C5; ` 36U5 mU3C3@
1+-
A5@=5>B
2here D+- is the mass diffusi(ity of + through li?uid -, in cm5 DsT m- is the (iscosity of 2ater, in
centipoisesT and 1+ is the molal (olume of the solute at normal "oiling point, in cm> Dg [ mol.
This relation is much simpler to use and gi(es similar results to the Wil!eOhang e?uation. *f
2e su"stitute the (alues used in e8ample @ into the Haydu! and $audie relationship, 2e 2ould
o"tain a diffusion coefficient for ethanol in a dilute 2ater solution of 9C75 ` 36U; cm5 DsT this
(alue is essentially the same (alue o"tained using the Wil!eOhang e?uation.
&chei"el53 has proposed that the Wil!eOhang relation "e modiFed to eliminate the
association factor, F- , yielding
D+- m-0
P
3T1+D>
56
53
A5@=5@B
W. Haydu! and H. $audie, +.*.h.E. J., 56, ;33 A3:9@B.
E. #. &chei"el, *nd. Eng. hem., @;, 5669 A3:5@B.
5@.5 The Diffusion oefFcient @3:
2here 0 is determined "y
4
>1- 5D>
0 P A7C5 ` 36U7 B 3 V
1+
s
e8cept
3. For "en<ene as a sol(ent, if 1+ ] 51- , use 0 P 37C: ` 36U7 .
5. For other organic sol(ents, if 1+ ] 5C51- , use 0 P 39C5 ` 36U7 .
Reid, ,rausnit<, and &her2ood55 recommend this e?uation for solutes diffusing into
organic sol(entsT ho2e(er, they noted that this e?uation might e(aluate (alues that had
errors up to 56b.
Most methods for predicting the li?uid diffusion coefFcients in concentration solutions
ha(e com"ined the inFnite dilution coefFcients, D+- and D-+ , in a simple function of
composition. 1ignes5> recommended the follo2ing relationshipC
D+- P AD+- B8- AD-+ B8+
2here D+- is the inFnitely dilute diffusion coefFcient of + in sol(ent -, D-+ is the
inFnitely dilute diffusion coefFcient of - in sol(ent +, and 8+ and 8- are the molar
fraction composition of + and -. This 1ignes e?uation has "een less successful for
mi8tures containing an associating compound, such as an alcohol. + modiFcation for this
type of concentrated solution has "een proposed "y $efJer and ullinan5@
D+- m P AD+- m- B8- AD-+ m+ B8+
+s the (alues of li?uid diffusion coefFcients reported in the literature 2ere o"tained in
the neigh"orhood of the am"ient temperature, Tyne55 recommended the follo2ing e?uation
for e8trapolating to higher temperatures

AD+- T3 BTc U T5 n
PA5@=55B
AD+- T5 BTc U T3
2here T3 and T5 are in 0, Tc is the critical temperature of sol(ent - in 0, and n is the
e8ponent related to the latent heat of (apori<ation of sol(ent, DH( , at its normal "oiling
point temperature. This e8ponent may "e e(aluated from the follo2ing ta"leC
DH( , A!JD!molB
n
9,:66O>6,666
>
>6,666O>:,666
@
>:,666O@;,666
;
@;,666O56,666
7
_56,666
36
The properties of electrically conducting solutions ha(e "een studied intensi(ely
for more than 95 years. E(en so, the !no2n relations "et2een electrical conductance
and the li?uid diffusion coefFcient are (alid only for dilute solutions of salts in 2ater.
55
55
M. J. Tyne, Trans. *. hem. E., :, 335 A3:73B.
5>+. 1ignes, *nd. Eng. hem. Fundam., 5, 37: A3:;;B.
5@J. $efJer and H. T. ullinan, *nd. Eng. hem., :, 7@ A3:96B.
55M. J. Tyne, Trans. *. hem. E., :, 335 A3:73B.
The diffusion coefFcient of a uni(alent salt in dilute solution is gi(en "y the /ernst
e?uation
D+- P
5RT
A3Dl6 V 3Dl6 BF
VU
A5@=5;B
2here D+- is the diffusion coefficient "ased on the molecular concentration of +, in
cm5 DsT R is the gas constant, 7.>3; IoulesDA0BAg molBT T is a"solute temperature, in 0, l6 ,
V
l6 are the limiting A<ero concentrationB ionic conductances in AampDcm5 B A(oltDcmB Ag
U
e?ui(alentDcm> B, and F is FaradayHs constant, :;,566 coulom"sDg e?ui(alent. This
e?uation has "een e8tended to poly(alent ions "y replacing the numerical constant 5 "y
A3DnV V 3DnU B, 2here nV and nU are the (alences of the cation and anion, respecti(ely.
,ore Diffusi(ity
There are many instances 2here molecular diffusion occurs inside the pores of porous
solids. For e8ample, many catalysts are porous solid pellets containing catalytically acti(e
sites on the pore 2alls. The porous catalyst possesses a high internal surface area to
promote chemical reactions at the catalytic surface. The separation of solutes from dilute
solution "y the process of adsorption is another e8ample. *n an adsorption process, the
solute stic!s to a feature on the solid surface that is attracti(e to the solute. Many adsor"ent
materials are porous to pro(ide a high internal surface area for solute adsorption. *n "oth
e8amples, the molecules must diffuse through a gas or li?uid phase residing inside the
pores. +s the pore diameter approaches the diameter of the diffusing molecule, the
diffusing molecule can interact 2ith the 2all of the pore. -elo2, 2e descri"e t2o types of
pore diffusionC the 0nudsen diffusion of gases in cylindrical pores and the hindered
diffusion of solutes in sol(ent=Flled cylindrical pores.
0nudsen diffusion. onsider the diffusion of gas molecules through (ery small capillary
pores. *f the pore diameter is smaller than the mean free path of the diffusing gas molecules
and the density of the gas is lo2, the gas molecules 2ill collide 2ith the pore 2alls more
fre?uently than 2ith each other. This process is !no2n as 0nudsen Jo2 or 0nudsen
diffusion. The gas Ju8 is reduced "y the 2all collisions.
The 0nudsen num"er, 0n, gi(en "y
0n P
l
dpore
P
mean free path length of the diffusing species
pore diameter
is a good measure of the relati(e importance of 0nudsen diffusion. *f the 0n num"er is much
greater than one, then 0nudsen diffusion can "e important. +t a gi(en pore diameter, the 0n
num"er goes up as the total system pressure , decreases and a"solute temperature T
increases. *n practice, 0nudsen diffusion applies only to gases "ecause the mean free path
for molecules in the li?uid state is (ery small, typically near the molecular diameter of the
molecule itself. onse?uently, 0n for li?uids is (ery small. The diffusi(ity for 0nudsen
diffusion is o"tained from the self=diffusion coefFcient deri(ed from the !inetic theory of
gases
r
lu l 7!/T
D++} PPA5@=59B
>> pM+
For 0nudsen diffusion, 2e replace path length l 2ith pore diameter dpore, as species + is
no2 more li!ely to collide 2ith the pore 2all as opposed to another molecule. *n this
instance, the 0nudsen diffusi(ity for diffusing species +, D0+ , is
r
dporedpore 7!/T
D0+ PuP
pM+>>

s
r
dpore 7 g [ cmmoleculesT
3C>7 [ 36U3; 5D0+ P;C65> [ 365>
ps 0molM+>
r
T
P @756dpore
M+
A5@=57B
This simpliFed e?uation re?uires that dpore has units of cm, M+ has units of gDmol, and
temperature T has units of 0. The 0nudsen diffusi(ity, D0+ , is dependent on the pore
diameter, species + molecular 2eight, and temperature. We can ma!e t2o comparisons of
D0+ to the "inary gas phase diffusi(ity, D+- . First, it is not a function of a"solute pressure
,, or the presence of species - in the "inary gas mi8ture. &econd, the temperature
dependence for the 0nudsen diffusi(ity is D0+ D T 3N5 , (s. D+- D T >N5 for the "inary
gas phase diffusi(ity.
#enerally, the 0nudsen process is signiFcant only at lo2 pressure and small pore diameter.
Ho2e(er, there are instances 2here "oth 0nudsen diffusion and molecular diffusion AD+- B can
"e important. *f 2e consider that 0nudsen diffusion and molecular diffusion compete 2ith one
another "y a GGresistances in seriesHH approach, then the effecti(e diffusi(ity of species + in a
"inary mi8ture of + and -, D+e , is determined "y
33 U ay+3
PV
D+eD0+D+-
2ith
aP3V
/-
/+
A5@=5:B
For cases 2here a P 6 A/+ P U/- B, or 2here y+ is close to <ero, e?uation A5@=5:B reduces
to
333
PV
D+e D+- D0+
A5@=;6B
The a"o(e relationships for the effecti(e diffusion coefficient are "ased on diffusion
2ithin straight, cylindrical pores aligned in a parallel array. Ho2e(er, in most porous
materials, pores of (arious diameters are t2isted and interconnected 2ith one another,
and the path for diffusion of the gas molecule 2ithin the pores is GGtortuous.HH For these
materials, if an a(erage pore diameter is assumed, a reasona"le appro8imation for the
effecti(e diffusion coefficient in random pores is
D6 P e5 D+e+e
the (olume occupied "y pores 2ithin the porous solid
total (olume of porous solid Wsolid V poresX
A5@=;3B
2here e P
e is the (olume (oid fraction of the porous (olume 2ithin the porous material. This GG(oid
fractionHH is usually e8perimentally determined for a speciFc material.
The four possi"le types of pore diffusion are illustrated in Figure 5@.>, each 2ith their
respecti(e diffusi(ity correlation. The Frst three, pure molecular diffusion, pure 0nudsen
,ure molecular
diffusion
,ore 2all
+
-
+
,ure !nudsen
diffusion
,ore 2all
dpore
6.663757T>D5
D +-
N
3 i 3
M+ M-
, s5+- WD
3D5
D 0+ N
d pore 7!/T
pM+ >
0nudsen i molecular
diffusion
,ore 2all
+
-
Random porous
material
3
D +e
Y
3
D +-
i
3
D 0+
Dd +e N e 5 D +e
Figure 5@.> Types of porous diffusion. &haded areas represent nonporous solids.
diffusion, and 0nudsen and molecular com"ined diffusion, are "ased on diffusion 2ithin
straight, cylindrical pores that are aligned in parallel array. The fourth in(ol(es diffusion (ia
GGtortuous pathsHH that e8ist 2ithin the compacted solid.
EM+M,$E ; %ne step in the manufacture of optical F"ers is the chemical (apor deposition of silane A&iH@ B on the
inside surface of a hollo2 glass F"er to form a (ery thin cladding of solid silicon "y the reaction
&iH@ AgB Q &iAsB V 5H5 AgB
%ptical fi"er
as sho2n in Figure 5@.@. Typically, the pro=
cess is carried out at high temperature and
&iH@ gas
(ery lo2 total system pressure. %ptical F"ers:66 0, 366 ,a
for high "and2idth data transmission ha(e dpore N 36 m
(ery small inner pore diameters, typically&i thin film
U; mB. *fH5 gasless than 56 mm A3 mm P 3 ` 36
the inner diameter of the &i=coated hollo2
glass F"er is 36 mm, assess the importance of
Hollo2 glass fi"er
0nudsen diffusion for &iH@ inside the F"er
Figure 5@.@ %ptical F"er.
lumen at :66 0 and 366 ,a A6.3 !,aB total
system pressure. &ilane is diluted to 3.6 mol
b in the inert carrier gas helium AHeB. The "inary gas phase diffusi(ity of silane in helium at 55
tA5:7 0B and 3.6 atm A363.> !,aB total system pressure is
6C593 cm5 Ds, 2ith s &iH @ P @C67 +and
e&iH @ D! P 569C; 0. The molecular 2eight of silane is >5 gDmol.
The gas=phase molecular diffusi(ity of &iH@ OHe, 0nudsen diffusi(ity for &iH@, and effecti(e
diffusi(ity for &iH@ at :66 0 and 366 ,a total system pressure must "e calculated. The gas=phase
5@.5 The Diffusion oefFcient @5>
molecular diffusi(ity of silane in helium is scaled to process temperature and pressure using the
Hirschfelder e8trapolation, e?uation A5@=@3B

:66 0cm5 :66 0 3C5 363C> !,a 6C765cm5
P >C>5 ` 36>D&iH@ UHe P 6C593
6C3 !,a
5:7 06C3 !,a6C;;7ss
*t is left to the reader to sho2 that the collision integral 1D is e?ual to 6.765 at 5:7 0 and 6.;;7 at :66
0 for gaseous &iH@ OHe mi8tures. /ote that the gas phase molecular diffusi(ity is high due to high
temperature and (ery lo2 system pressure. The 0nudsen diffusi(ity of &iH@ inside the optical F"er is
calculated using e?uation A5@=57B, 2ith dpore P 3 ` 36U> cm A36 mmB
s^^^^^^^^^^^^r^^^^^^^^
T:66cm5
D0 ,&iH@ P @756 dporeP 55C9P @756A3 ` 36U> B
sM&iH@>5
+s the &iH@ is signiFcantly diluted in He, the process is dilute 2ith respect to &iH@ and so e?uation
A5@=;6B can "e used to estimate the effecti(e diffusi(ity
D&iH@ ,e P
3
3
D&iH@ UHe
V
3
D0T&iH@
cm5
PP 55C5
33s> V 55C9
>C>5 ` 36
3
The effecti(e diffusi(ity for &iH@ is smaller than its 0nudsen diffusi(ity, reJecting the resistance in
series approach. Finally, 2e calculate the 0nudsen num"er for &iH@
erg 3 / m
:66 0
0 369 erg!T
l P p^^^ 5 PP 3C;7 ` 36U@ m P 3;7 mm5
5ps + , p^^^3m/
366 55p 6C@67 nm :
36 nmm
l3;7 mm
P 3;C7P0n P
dpore36 mm
3C>7 ` 36U3;
+s 0n B 3 and the effecti(e diffusi(ity is close to the 0nudsen diffusi(ity, then 0nudsen diffusion
controls the silane transport inside the optical F"er if no e8ternal "ul! transport is supplied.
Hindered solute diffusion in sol(ent=Flled pores. onsider the diffusion of a solute
molecule through a tiny capillary pore Flled 2ith li?uid sol(ent. +s the molecular diameter
of the solute approaches the diameter of the pore, the diffusi(e transport of the solute
through the sol(ent is hindered "y the presence of the pore and the pore 2all. #eneral models
for diffusion coefFcients descri"ing the GGhindered diffusionHH of solutes in sol(ent=Flled
pores assume the form of
D+e P D+- F3 A2BF5 A2B
A5@=;5B
The molecular diffusion coefficient of solute + in the sol(ent - at infinite
dilution, D+e , is
reduced "y t2o correction factors, F3 A2B, and F5 A2B, "oth of 2hich are theoretically
"ounded "y 6 and 3. Furthermore, "oth correction factors are functions of the reduced
pore diameter 2
2P
ds
dpore
P
solute molecular diameter
pore diameter
A5@=;>B
*f 2 _ 3, then the solute is too large to enter the pore. This phenomena is !no2n as solute
e8clusion, and is used to separate large "iomolecules such as proteins from dilute a?ueous
mi8tures containing solutes of much smaller diameter. +s 2 approaches 3, "oth F3 A2B and
F5 A2B decrease asymptotically to2ard <ero so at 2 P 3, the effecti(e diffusion coefficient
is <ero.
The correction factor F3 A2B, the stearic partition coefFcient, is "ased on simple
geometric arguments for stearic e8clusion, that is,
flu8 area a(aila"le to solute pAdpore U ds B5
F3 A2B PPP A3 U 2B5
5total flu8 areapdpore
A5@=;@B
and holds for 6 F3 A2B 3C6
The correction factor F5 W2X, the hydrodynamic hindrance factor, is "ased on the compli=
cated hydrodynamic calculations in(ol(ing the hindered -ro2nian motion of the solute
2ithin the sol(ent=Flled pore. E?uations for F5 A2B, assuming diffusion of a rigid spherical
solute in a straight cylindrical pore, ha(e "een de(eloped. The analytical models are
generally asymptotic solutions o(er a limited range of 2, and ignore electrostatic or other
energetic soluteOsol(ent=pore 2all intereactions, polydisperity of solute diameters, and
noncircular pore cross sections. The most common e?uation, de(eloped "y Ren!in,5; is
reasona"le for 6 2 6C;
F5 A2B P 3 U 5C36@2 V 5C6:2> U 6C:525
A5@=;5B
EM+M,$E 9 *t is desired to separate a mi8ture of t2o industrial en<ymes, lyso<yme and catalase, in a dilute,
a?ueous solution "y a gel Fltration mem"rane. + mesoporous mem"rane 2ith cylindrical pores of
>6 nm diameter is a(aila"le AFigure 5@.5B. The follo2ing separation factor AaB for the process is
proposed
aP
D+e
D-e
ds, - N 36.@@ nm
ds, + N @.35 nm
-ul! sol(ent
dpore N >6 nm
Figure 5@.5 Hindered diffusion
of solutes in sol(ent=Flled
pores.
Determine the separation factor for this process. The properties of each en<yme as reported "y
Tanford59 are gi(en "elo2.
5;
59
E. M. Ren!in, J. #en. ,hysiol., >7, 555 A3:5@B.
. Tanford, ,hysical hemistry of Macromolecules, John Wiley ) &ons, /e2 Eor!, 3:;3.
5@.5
$yso<yme Aspecies +B
M+ P 3@ 366 gDg mol
dsT+ P @C35 nm
Do 5 % P 3C6@ ` 36U; cm5 Ds+UH
The Diffusion oefFcient @55
atalase Aspecies -B
M- P 556 666 gDg mol
dsT- P 36C@@ nm
Do 5 % P @C36 ` 36U9 cm5 Ds-UH
The transport of large en<yme molecules through pores Flled 2ith li?uid 2ater represents a hindered
diffusion process. The reduced pore diameters for lyso<yme and catalase are
2+ P
ds,+@C35 nm
PP 6C3>9
dpore >6C6 nm
and
2- P
dsT-36C@@ nm
PP 6C>@7
dpore>6C6 nm
For lyso<yme, F3 W2+ X "y e?uation A5@=;@B and F5 W2+ X "y the Ren!in e?uation A5@=;5B are
F3 A2+ B P A3 U 2+ B5 P A3 U 6C3>9B5 P 6C9@@
F5 A2+ B P 3 U 5C36@2+ V 5C6:2> U 6C:525++
P 3 U 5C36@A6C3>9B V 5C6:A6C3>9B> U 6C:5A6C3>9B5 P 6C93;
The effecti(e diffusi(ity of lyso<yme in the pore, D+e is estimated "y e?uation A5@=;5B
D+e P D 5 % F3 A2+ BF5 A2+ B P 3C6@ ` 36U;+UH
cm5cm5
A6C9@@BA6C93;B P 5C5@ ` 36U9
ss
$i!e2ise, for catalase F3 A2- B P 6C@55T F5 A2- B P 6C>53, and D-e P ;C35 ` 36U7 cm5 DsC Finally, the
separation factor is
D+e 5C5@ ` 36U9 cm5 Ds
aPP :C6;P
D-e ;C35 ` 36U7 cm5 Ds
*t is interesting to compare the (alue a"o(e 2ith a6 , the ratio of molecular diffusi(ities at inFnite
dilution
D3C6@ ` 36U; cm5 Ds+UH %P 3C95a6 P 5 P
@C3 ` 36U9 cm5 Ds
D-UH5 %
The small pore diameter enhances the (alue for a "ecause the diffusion of the large catalase molecule
is signiFcantly hindered inside the pore relati(e to the smaller lyso<yme molecule.
&olid Mass Diffusi(ity
The diffusion of atoms 2ithin solids underlies the synthesis of many engineering materials.
*n semiconductor manufacturing processes, GGimpurity atoms,HH commonly called dopants,
are introduced into solid silicon to control the conducti(ity in a semiconductor de(ice. The
hardening of steel results from the diffusion of car"on and other elements through iron.
1acancy diffusion and interstitial diffusion are the t2o most fre?uently encountered solid
diffusion mechanisms.
*n (acancy diffusion, the transported atom GGIumpsHH from a lattice position of the solid
into a neigh"oring unoccupied lattice site or (acancy, as illustrated in Figure 5@.;. The atom
continues to diffuse through the solid "y a series of Iumps into other neigh"oring (acancies
that appear to it from time to time. This normally re?uires a distortion of the lattice. This
mechanism has "een mathematically descri"ed "y assuming a unimolecular rate process
and applying EyringHs GGacti(ated stateHH concept, as discussed in the GGholeHH theory for
li?uid diffusion. The resulting e?uation is a comple8 e?uation relating the diffusi(ity in
terms of the geometric relations "et2een the lattice positions, the length of the Iump path,
and the energy of acti(ation associated 2ith the Iump.
&tate 3 &tate 5 &tate >
Energy
5
+cti(ation
energy
3 >
&tate
Figure 5@.; &olid=state
(acancy diffusion.
+n atom mo(es in interstitial diffusion "y Iumping from one interstitial site to a
neigh"oring one, as illustrated in Figure 5@.9. This normally in(ol(es a dilation or distortion
of the lattice. This mechanism is also mathematically descri"ed "y EyringHs unimolecular
rate theory. E8cellent references are a(aila"le for a more detailed discussion on the diffusion
characteristics of atoms in solids A-arrerT &he2monT Middleman and Hoch"ergT 0ou.57
+ppendi8 Ta"le J.> lists a fe2 (alues of "inary diffusi(ities in solids. Figure 5@.7
illustrates the dependence of solid=phase diffusion coefFcients on temperature, speciFcally
for the diffusion of common dopants in solid silicon. The solid=phase diffusion coefFcient
has "een o"ser(ed to increase 2ith increasing temperature according to an +rrhenius
e?uation of the form
D+- P Do eU.DRT
or
lnAD+- B P U
. 3
V lnADo B
RT
A5@=;9B
A5@=;;B
2here D+- is solid diffusion coefficient for the diffusing species + 2ithin solid -, Do is a
proportionality constant of units consistent 2ith D+- , . is the acti(ation energy AJDmolB,
R is the thermodynamic constant A7.>3@ JDmol [ 0B, and T is the a"solute temperature A0B.
&tate 3 &tate 5 &tate >
Energy
+cti(ation
energy
3
&tate
5
>
Figure 5@.9 &olid=state
interstitial diffusion.
R. M. -arrer, Diffusion *n and Through &olids, am"ridge 'ni(ersity ,ress, $ondon, 3:@3T ,. #.
&he2mon, Diffusion of &olids, Mc#ra2=Hill *nc., /e2 Eor!, 3:;>T &. Middleman and +. 0. Hoch"erg,
,rocess Engineering +nalysis in &emiconductor De(ice Fa"rication, Mc#ra2=Hill *nc., /e2 Eor!, 3::>T
&. 0ou, Transport ,henomena and Materials ,rocessing, John Wiley ) &ons *nc., /e2 Eor!, 3::;.
57
5@.5
36O:
The Diffusion oefFcient @59
36O36
D+-, - N &i
Acm5DsB
36O33
36O35
36O3>
#a
&"
36O3@
6.;
*n
+l
-, ,
6.: 6.96.7
3666D T A 0 O3B
Figure 5@.7 Diffusion coefFcients of
su"stitutional dopants in crystalline
silicon.
Data from Figure 5@.7 can "e used to estimate . for a gi(en dopant in silicon using
e?uation A5@=;9B. Ta"les 5@.; and 5@.9 pro(ide the diffusion data needed to e(aluate D+-
"y e?uation A5@=;;B for self=diffusion in pure metals and interstitial solutes in iron. These
ta"les point out the significant energy "arrier that must "e surpassed 2hen an atom Iumps
"et2een t2o lattice sites "y (acancy diffusion ATa"le 5@.;B and a significantly smaller
energy "arrier encountered in interstitial diffusion ATa"le 5@.9B.
Ta"le 5@.; Data for self=diffusion in pure metals
&tructure
fcc
fcc
fcc
fcc
"cc
"cc
Metal
+u
u
/i
FeWgX
FeWaX
FeWdX
Do
Amm5 DsB
36.9
>3
3:6
@:
566
3:76
.
A!JDmoleB
39;.:
566.>
59:.9
57@.3
5>:.9
5>7.5
Diffusion coefFcients and solu"ilities of solutes in polymers are reported "y Rogers,5:
and "y ran! and ,ar!.>6 Diffusi(ities of solutes in dilute "iological gels are reported "y
Friedman and 0ramer>3 and "y &palding.>5
5:
>6
>3
>5
. E. Rogers, Engineering Design for ,lastics, Reinhold ,ress, /e2 Eor!, 3:;@.
J. ran! and #. &. ,ar!, Diffusion in ,olymers, +cademic ,ress, /e2 Eor!, 3:;7.
$. Friedman and E. %. 0ramer, J. +m. hem. &oc., 55, 3>33 A3:>6B.
#. E. &palding, J. ,hys. hem., >>76 A3:;:B.
Ta"le 5@.9 Diffusion parameters for interstitial solutes in iron
&tructure
"cc
"cc
"cc
fcc
&olute
/
H
Do
Amm5 DsB
5.6
6.>
6.3
5.5
.
A!JDmoleB
7@.3
9;.3
3>.@
3@@.5
5@.> %/1ET*1E M+&& TR+/&FER
Mass transfer "et2een a mo(ing Juid and a surface or "et2een immisci"le mo(ing Juids
separated "y a mo"ile interface Aas in a gasDli?uid or li?uidDli?uid contactorB is often aided
"y the dynamic characteristics of the mo(ing Juid. This mode of transfer is called con(ecti(e
mass transfer, 2ith the transfer al2ays going from a higher to a lo2er concentration of the
species "eing transferred. on(ecti(e transfer depends on "oth the transport properties and
the dynamic characteristics of the Jo2ing Juid.
+s in the case of con(ecti(e heat transfer, a distinction must "e made "et2een t2o
types of Jo2. When an e8ternal pump or similar de(ice causes the Juid motion, the process
is called forced con(ection. *f the Juid motion is due to a density difference, the process is
called free or natural con(ection.
The rate e?uation for con(ecti(e mass transfer, generali<ed in a manner analogous to
/e2tonHs GGla2HH of cooling, e?uation 35.33 is
/+ P !c Dc+
A5@=;7B
2here /+ is the molar mass transfer of species + measured relati(e to fi8ed spatial
coordinates, Dc+ is the concentration difference "et2een the "oundary surface
concentration and the a(erage concentration of the fluid stream of the diffusing species
+, and !c is the con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefficient.
+s in the case of molecular mass transfer, con(ecti(e mass transfer occurs in the
direction of a decreasing concentration. E?uation A5@=;7B deFnes the coefFcient !c in terms
of the mass Ju8 and the concentration difference from the "eginning to the end of the mass=
transfer path. The reciprocal of the coefFcient, 3D!c, represents the resistance to the transfer
through the mo(ing Juid. hapters 57 and >6 consider the methods of determining this
coefFcient. *t is, in general, a function of system geometry, Juid and Jo2 properties, and the
concentration difference Dc+ C
From our e8periences in dealing 2ith a Juid Jo2ing past a surface, 2e can recall that
there is al2ays a layer, sometimes e8tremely thin, close to the surface 2here the Juid is
laminar, and that Juid particles ne8t to the solid "oundary are at rest. +s this is al2ays true,
the mechanism of mass transfer "et2een a surface and a Juid must in(ol(e molecular mass
transfer through the stagnant and laminar Jo2ing Juid layers. The controlling resistance to
con(ecti(e mass transfer is often the result of this GGFlmHH of Juid and the coefFcient, !c, is
accordingly referred to as the Flm mass=transfer coefFcient.
*t is important for the student to recogni<e the close similarity "et2een the con(ecti(e
mass=transfer coefFcient and the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcient. This immediately
suggests that the techni?ues de(eloped for e(aluating the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefF=
cient may "e repeated for con(ecti(e mass transfer. + complete discussion of con(ecti(e
mass=transfer coefFcients and their e(aluation is gi(en in hapters 57 and >6.
,ro"lems @5:
EM+M,$E 7
+ pure nitrogen carrier gas Jo2s parallel to the 6C; m5 surface of a li?uid acetone in an open tan!. The
acetone temperature is maintained at 5:6 0. *f the a(erage mass=transfer coefFcient, !c, for the mass
transfer of acetone into the nitrogen stream is 6.6>5@ mDs, determine the total rate of acetone release
in units of !g.molDs.
The total molar rate of acetone transfer from the li?uid to the gas phase can "e e(aluated "y
W+ P /+ + P !c +Ac+s U c+3 B
The mass transfer area is speciFed as 6C; m5 C +t 5:6 0, acetone e8erts a (apor pressure of 3;3 mmHg
or 5C3@7 ` 36@ ,aC Therefore, the concentration of acetone in the gas phase at the acetone surface is
c+s P
,+5C3@7 ` 36@ ,a!g mol
PP 7C:3>
RTm>,a ` m
A5:6 0B7C>3@
!g mol ` 0
and the concentration of acetone in the nitrogen carrier gas is near <ero "ecause the molar Jo2rate of
the carrier gas is in a large e8cess relati(e to the rate of acetone transfer. Thus

m!gCmol!gCmol5U 6 P 6C39>5W+ P !c +Ac+s U c+3 B P 6C6>5@A6C; m B 7C:3
sm>s
5@.@ $%&'RE
*n this chapter, the t2o modes of mass transport, molecular and con(ecti(e mass transfer,
ha(e "een introduced. +s diffusion of mass in(ol(es a multicomponent mi8ture, funda=
mental relations 2ere presented for concentrations and (elocities of the indi(idual species
as 2ell as for the mi8ture. The molecular transport property, D+- , the diffusion coefFcient or
mass diffusi(ity in gas, li?uid, and solid systems, has "een discussed and correlating
e?uations presented.
The rate e?uations for the mass transfer of species + in a "inary mi8ture are as follo2sC
molecular mass transferC
J+ P UcD+- Ny+
I+ P UrD+- N(+
/+ P UcD+- Ny+ V y+ A/+ V /- B
con(ecti(e mass transferC
/+ P !c Dc+
molar Ju8 relati(e to the molar=a(erage (elocity
mass Ju8 relati(e to the mass=a(erage (elocity
molar Ju8 relati(e to F8ed spatial coordinates
mass Ju8 relati(e to F8ed spatial coordinates
,R%-$EM&
5@.3 $i?uiFed natural gas, $/#, is to "e shipped from the
+las!an 0enai ,eninsula "y an ocean carrier to processing plant
on Ea?uina -ay, %regon. The molar composition of the com=
mercial $/# is
determine
a. the 2eight fraction of ethaneT
". the a(erage molecular 2eight of the $/# mi8tureT
c. the density of the gas mi8ture 2hen heated to 569 0 and at
3.@ `365 ,aT
d. the partial pressure of methane 2hen the total pressure is
3C@ ` 365 ,aT
e. the mass fraction of car"on dio8ide in parts per million "y
2eight.
methane, H@:>.5 mol b
ethane, 5H;@.;b
,ropane, 5H73.5b
ar"on dio8ide, %5 6.9b
@>6 hapter 5@ Fundamentals of Mass Transfer
The appropriate form of the Ma82ell=type e?uation 2as
assumed to "e
U
dc+r rr r
P "+- + - W(+< U (-< X V "+ + W(+< U (< X
d<M+ M-M+ M
r+ rD
V"+DW(+< U (6< X V [ [ [
M+ MD
5@.5 *n the manufacture of microelectronic de(ices, a thin Flm
of solid silicon A&iB is uniformly deposited on a 2afer surface "y
the chemical decomposition of silane A&iH@B in the presence of
H5 gas. *f the gas composition is maintained at @6 mol b &iH@
and ;6 mol b H5, determine
a. the 2eight fraction of these speciesT
". the a(erage molecular 2eight of the gas mi8tureT
c. the molar concentration, c+, of &iH@ if the feed gas is
maintained at :66 0 and a system pressure of ;6 torr.
5@.> +ir is contained in a >6 m> container at @66 0 and 3C63> `
365 ,aC Determine the follo2ing properties of the gas mi8tureC
a.
".
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
mole fraction of %5T
(olume fraction of %5T
2eight of the mi8tureT
mass density of %5T
mass density of /5T
mass density of the airT
mass density of the airT
a(erage molecular 2eight of the gas mi8ture.
'sing this relation, (erify e?uation A5@=@:B.
5@.7 Determine the (alue of the follo2ing gas diffusi(ites
using the Hirschfelder e?uationC
a.
".
c.
d.
car"on dio8ideDair at >36 0 and 3C5 ` 365 ,a
ethanolDair at >55 0 and 5C6 ` 365 ,a
car"on mono8ideDair at >36 0 and 3C5 ` 365 ,a
car"on tetrachlorideDair at 5:7 0 and 3C:3> ` 365 ,a
5@.: The isomeri<ation of n="utane to iso="utane is carried out
on a catalyst surface at 5.6 atm and @667. What is the gas=phase
molecular diffusion coefFcient of n="utane in iso="utanea om=
pare (alues o"tained from "oth the Hirschfelder and FullerO
&chettlerO#iddings e?uations.
5@.36 Determine the diffusi(ity of methane in air using AaB the
Hirschfelder e?uation and A"B the Wil!e e?uation for a gas
mi8ture. The air is at >9> 0 and 3C5 ` 365 ,a.
5@.33 +n a"sorption to2er is proposed to remo(e selecti(ely
ammonia from an e8haust gas stream. Estimate the diffusi(ity of
ammonia in air at 3C63> ` 365 ,a and >9> 0 using the -ro!a2
e?uation A5@=@>B. The dipole moment for ammonia is 3.@;
de"ye. ompare the e(aluated (alue 2ith the e8perimental (alue
reported in +ppendi8 Ta"le J.3.
5@.35 Highly puriFed tetrachlorosilane A&il@B gas is reacted
2ith hydrogen gas AH5B to produce electronic=grade polycrys=
talline silicon at 7667 and 3C5 ` 365 ,a according to the
e?uctionC
&il@ WgX V 5H5 WgX Q &iWsX V @HlWgXC
There are concerns that the reaction e8periences diffusional
limitations at the gro2ing &i solid surface. Estimate the mole=
cular diffusion coefFcient for AaB &il@ in H5 and A"B &il@ in a
gas phase mi8ture containing @6 mol b &il@, @6 mol b H5, and
56 mol b Hl. The $ennardOJones parameters for &il@
tAspecies +B are e+ D! P >57 0T s + P 5C67 +.
5@.3> +n a"sorption to2er has "een proposed to remo(e
selecti(ely t2o pollutants, hydrogen sulFde AH5&B and sulfur
dio8ide A&%5B, from an e8haust gas stream containing
H5&
&%5
/5
> (ol b
5 (ol b
:5 (ol b
5@.@ &tarting 2ith Fic!Hs e?uation for the diffusion of +
through a "inary mi8ture of species + and - as gi(en "y /+< P
UcD+- dy+ Vy+ W/+< V /-< X and Fic!Hs e?uation for the diffu=d<
sion of - through the same "inary mi8ture gi(en "y /-< P
UcD-+ dy- Vy- A/-< V /+< B, pro(e the t2o gas diffusi(ities,d<
D+- and D-+ , are e?ual. Does the Hirshfelder e?uation for
gas e(aluating gas diffusi(ities (erify this same e?ualitya
5@.5 &tarting 2ith the Fic!Hs e?uation for the diffusion of +
through a "inary mi8ture of components + and -
/+ P UcD+- Ny+ V y+ A/+ V /- B
deri(e the follo2ing relations, stating the assumptions made in
the deri(ationsC
a. n+ P UD+- Nr+ V 2+ Wn+ V n- X
". J+ P UD+- Nc+
5@.; &tarting 2ith Fic!Hs e?uation for the diffusion of +
through a "inary mi8ture of + and -, pro(e
a. /+ V /- P c1T
". n+ V n- P r(
c. I+ V I- P 6C
5@.9 &tefan and Ma82ell e8plained the diffusion of + through
- in terms of the dri(ing force dc+ , the resistances that must
o(ercome the molecular mass transfer, and a proportionality
constant, ". The follo2ing e?uation e8presses mathematically
the resistances for an isothermal, iso"aric gaseous systemC
Udc+ P "
r+ r-
W(+> e8tended this theory to a multicomponent gas mi8ture.
>>
. Wil!e, hem. Eng. ,rog., @;, :5 A3:56B.
Estimate the diffusi(ity of hydrogen sulFde in the gas mi8ture
at >56 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,aC The critical temperature ATB
of H5& is >9>.5 0 and the critical (olume A1B of H5& is :7.5
cm>Dmol.
,ro"lems
5@.3@ The &to!esOEinstein e?uation is often used to estimate
the molecular diameter of large spherical molecules from the
molecular diffusion coefFcient. The measured molecular diffu=
sion coefFcient of the serum al"umin Aan important "lood
proteinB in 2ater at inFnite dilution is 5C:@ ` 36U9 cm5 Ns at
5:> 0. Estimate the mean diameter of a serum al"umin mole=
cule. The !no2n (alue is 9.55 nm.
5@.35 Estimate the li?uid diffusi(ity of the follo2ing solutes
that are transferred through dilute solutionsC
a. o8ygen in ethanol at 5:> 0T
". methanol in 2ater at 57> 0T
c. 2ater in methanol at 577 0T
d. n="utanol in 2ater at 577 0.
ompare this (alue 2ith e8perimental (alue reported in
+ppendi8 J.5.
5@.3; Water supplies are often treated 2ith chlorine as one of
the processing steps in treating 2aste2ater. Determine the li?uid
diffusion coefFcient of chlorine in an inFnitely dilute solution of
2ater at 57: 0 using AaB the Wil!eOhang e?uation and A"B the
Haydu!O$audie e?uation. ompare the results 2ith the e8peri=
mental (alue reported in +ppendi8 J.5.
5@.39 -en<ene Aspecies +B is often added to ethanol to dena=
ture the ethanol Aspecies -B. Estimate the li?uid=phase diffusion
of "en<ene in ethanol and ethanol in "en<ene at 577 0 "y AaB the
Wil!eOhang e?uation and A"B the &chei"el e?uation. Does
D+- P D-+ a
5@.37 The aeration of 2ater is an important industrial opera=
tion. Determine the li?uid diffusion coefFcient of o8ygen in an
inFnitely dilute solution of 2ater at 577 0 using AaB the Wil!eO
hang e?uation and A"B the Haydu!O$audie e?uation.
5@.3: + silicon 2afer is doped 2ith phosphorus. From Figure
5@.7, the nominal (alue of the diffusion coefFcient for phos=
phorus in silicon at 3>3; 0 is 3 ` 36U3> cm5 Ds and at 3@67 0 is
3 ` 36U35 cm5 DsC Determine the (alue of the diffusion coefF=
cient at 3>9> 0.
5@.56 The case=hardening of mild steel in(ol(es the diffu=
sion of car"on into iron. Estimate the diffusion coefFcient for
car"on diffusing into fcc iron and "cc iron at 3666 0. $earn
a"out the structures of fcc and "cc iron in a materials science
te8t"oo!, and then e8plain 2hy the diffusion coefFcients are
different.
5@.53 Determine the effecti(e diffusion coefFcient for hydro=
gen gas AH5, species +B diffusing into nitrogen gas A/5,
species -B at 3667 and 3.6 atm 2ithin the follo2ing materialsC
ta. &traight 366 + pores in parallel arrayT
t". Random pores 366 + in diameter 2ith (oid fraction
of 6.@T
tc. Random pores 3666 + in diameter 2ith (oid fraction
of 6.@T
td. &traight 56,666 + pores in parallel array.
@>3
5@.55 Researchers are proposing the de(elopment of a GGnano=
channel reactorHH for steam reforming of methane AH@B to fuel=
cell hydrogen gas to po2er microscale de(ices.
#as phase diffusion in nanochannel
+ N H@, -N H5%
+i-
56 molb H @
/anochannel
>66g, 6.5 atm 566 nm
/+D/- N 6.55
+s each channel diameter is so small, the gas Jo2 is li!ely to "e
(ery small 2ithin a gi(en channel. Hence, gas diffusion pro=
cesses may play a role in the operation of this de(ice, particularly
during the mi8ing and heating steps. We are speciFcally inter=
ested in e(aluating the effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of methane
gas Aspecies +, M+ P 3;gDgC molB in 2ater (apor Aspecies -,
M- P 37 gDgC molB at >667 and 6.5 atm total system pressure.
The diameter of the channel is 566 nm W3 ` 36: nm P 36 mXC +
feed gas containing 56 mol b H@ in 2ater (apor is fed to the
nanochannel 2ith a Ju8 ratio /+ D/- P 6C55. What is effecti(e
diffusion coefFcient of H@ in the nanochannel at the feed gas
conditionsa *s 0nudsen diffusion importanta
5@.5> Diffusion e8periments 2ere conducted 2ith a "inary
mi8ture of synthesistic gas containing H5 Aspecies +B diluted in a
large e8cess of % Aspecies -B at 5.6 atm total system pressure
and 767 in a porous material of monodispersed pore si<e
distri"ution and (oid (olume fraction of 6.>. From the measure=
ments, the measured effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of hydrogen
2as 6.6>; cm5Ds. What is the mean pore si<e Wdpore X of this
materiala
5@.5@ + mi8ture 3.6 mol b %5 Aspecies +B in a helium carrler
gas Aspecies -B enters the microscale cham"er. The cham"er
consists of a channel that is 5C6 mm AmicronsB in diameter. The
total system pressure 2ithin the cham"er is >66 ,a, 2hich is (ery
small. The cham"er temperature is maintained at 3667. The
molecular 2eight of o8ygen is >5 gDg. mol and helium is @.6 gDg.
mol.
a. What is the molar concentration of o8ygen gas at the
entrance to the microcham"era
". What is the effecti(e diffusion coefFcent of %5 AD+e< B 2ithin
the microcham"era
5@.55 onsider a single, porous, spherical, inert mineral par=
ticle. The pores inside the particle are Flled 2ith li?uid 2ater
Aspecies -B. We are interested in analy<ing the molecular
diffusion of the contaminant "en<ene ;H;, species + 2ithin
the 2ater=Flled pores of the particle. The a(erage diameter of the
pores is 356 nm and the (oid fraction is 6.@6. The "en<ene solute
does not adsor" onto the intersurfaces of the pores. -en<ene is
(ery sparingly solu"le in 2ater and has a molecular diameter of
6.35 nm. The process is isothermal at 5:7 0. The concentration
of dissol(ed "en<ene in the 2ater surrounding the particle, +c ,
@>5 hapter 5@ Fundamentals of Mass Transfer
The thic!ness of the mem"rane is 5.6 mm, and the pores running
through the mem"rane consists of parallel channels of >.6 nm
diameter. The temperature is >67. The mean diameter of a
single glucose molecule is 6.7; nm AnanometersB. +ssume that
the molecular diffusion coefFcient of glucose in 2ater is
descri"ed "y &to!esOEinstein relationship. What is the effecti(e
diffusion coefFcient, D+< , of glucose through the mem"ranea
5@.57 ,rotein mi8tures in a?ueous solution are commonly
separated "y molecular sie(e chromatography. +n important
aspect of this separation process is the diffusion of the protein
into the porous matri8 of the chromatography support used to
affect the separation. Estimate the effecti(e diffusion coefFcient
of the en<yme urease in a silica gel support 2ith 366 nm
diameter pores. The molecular diffusion coefFcient of urease
in 2ater at inFnite dilution is >C@; ` 36U9 cm5 Ds at 5:77 0, and
the diameter of the molecule is 35.>7 nm.
5@.5: The diffusion rate of the en<yme ri"onuclease into a
porous chromatography support 2as measured at 5:7 0, and an
effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of 5C6 ` 36U9 cm5 Ds 2as "ac!ed
out of the data. Estimate the mean pore diameter of the support.
The molecular diffusion coefFcient of ri"onuclease in 2ater is
3C3: ` 36U; cm5 Ds at 5:7 0, and the diameter of the molecule is
>.; nm.
is constant 2ith time. *nitially, there is no dissol(ed "en<ene
inside the 2ater=Flled pores. The critical (olume A1cB of "en<ene
is 55: cm> DgCmolC
What is the effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of "en<ene inside
the porous particlea *s pore diffusion importanta
5@.5; &team reforming of hydrocar"ons is one 2ay to ma!e
hydrogen gas AH5B for fuel cells. Ho2e(er, the product gas
contains H5 contaminated 2ith car"on mono8ide A%B, 2hich
must "e further enriched in H5 in order for the fuel cell to 2or!
"etter. *t is desired to separate a mi8ture of % and H5 using a
microporous ceramic mem"rane. The a(erage pore diameter of
the porous mem"rane material is 35 nm, and the (oid fraction
e P 6C36. The system operates at 5.6 atm total system pressure
and @667.
Determine the effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of % in the
gas mi8ture 2ithin the microporous mem"rane. *s 0nudsen
diffusion importanta Eou may assume that the % is dilute in
the gas mi8ture.
5@.59 +s part of a "ioseparation process, glucose Asolute +B in
a?ueous solution is diffusing across a microporous mem"rane,
as sho2n in the follo2ing Fgure.
Diffusion of glucose across a microporus polymer mem"rane
ds,+ N 6.7; nm
Microporous
mem"rane
A5 mm thic!B
#lucose solution A>6gB
>.6 nm
#lucose solution A>6gB
hapter
55
of Mass Transfer
*n hapter :, the general differential e?uations for momentum transfer are deri(ed "y
the use of a differential control (olume concept. -y an analogous treatment, the general
differential e?uations for heat transfer are generated in hapter 3;. %nce again, 2e
shall use this approach to de(elop the differential e?uations for mass transfer. -y
ma!ing a mass "alance o(er a differential control (olume, 2e shall esta"lish the
e?uation of continuity for a gi(en species.
+dditional differential e?uations 2ill "e o"tained 2hen 2e insert, into the
continuity e?uation, mass Ju8 relationships de(eloped in the pre(ious chapter.
55.3 THE D*FFERE/T*+$ E.'+T*%/ F%R M+&& TR+/&FER
onsider the control (olume, D8 Dy D<, through 2hich a mi8ture including component + is
Jo2ing, as sho2n in Figure 55.3. The control=(olume e8pression for the conser(ation of
mass is
ff
cCsC
rW( C nXd+ V
Y
Yt
fff
r d1 P 6
cC(C
y
A@=3B
Ry
R<
R8
8
2hich may "e stated in 2ords as
7: 7:
]net rate of massN ]net rate of accumulationN
efflu8 fromV of mass 2ithin control P 6
CT CT
control (olume(olume
<
*f 2e consider the conser(ation of a gi(en species +,
this relation should also include a term that accounts for Figure 55.3 + differential control
(olume.
the production or disappearance of + "y chemical
reaction 2ithin the (olume. The general relation for
a mass "alance of species + for our control (olume may
"e stated as
:7
7: 7: _ rate of chemical _
_
N] net rate of mass N ] net rate of accum N _]
production of +
P 6 A55=3Befflu8 of + from V ulation of + 2ithin U
CT CT _ 2ithin the control _
__control (olumecontrol (olumeTC
(olume
@>>
@>@ hapter 55 Differential E?uations of Mass Transfer
The indi(idual terms 2ill "e e(aluated for constituent +, and a discussion of their
meanings 2ill "e gi(en "elo2.
The net rate of mass efJu8 from the control (olume may "e e(aluated "y considering the
mass transferred across control surfaces. For e8ample, the mass of + transferred across the
area Dy D< at 8 2ill "e r+ ( +8 Dy D<I8 , or in terms of the Ju8 (ector, n+ P r+ (+ , it 2ould "e
n+T 8 Dy D<I8 . The net rate of mass efJu8 of constituent + 2ill "e
in the 8 directionC n+,8 Dy D<I8VD8 U n+,8 Dy D<I8
in the y directionC n+,y D8 D<IyVDy U n+,y D8 D<Iy
and
in the < directionC n+,< D8 DyI<VD< U n+,< D8 DyI<
The rate of accumulation of + in the control (olume is
Yr+
D8 Dy D<
Yt
*f + is produced 2ithin the control (olume "y a chemical reaction at a rate r+, 2here r+ has
the units Amass of + producedBDA(olumeBAtimeB, the rate of production of + is
r+ D8 Dy D<
This production term is analogous to the energy generation term that appeared in the
differential e?uation for energy transfer, as discussed in hapter 3;.
&u"stituting each term in e?uation A55=3B, 2e o"tain
n+,8 Dy D<I8VD8 U n+,8 Dy D<I8 V n+,y D8 D<IyVDy
U n+,y D8 D<Iy V n+,< D8 DyI<VD< U n+,< D8 DyI<
V
Yr+
D8 Dy D< U r+ D8 Dy D< P 6
Yt
A55=5B
Di(iding through "y the (olume, D8 Dy D<, and canceling terms, 2e ha(e
n+,8 I8VD8 U n+,8 I8 n+,y IyVDy U n+,y Iy n+,< I<VDB
E?uation A55=@B is the e?uation of continuity for component +. +s n+,8 T n+,y T and n+,<
are the rectangular components of the mass flu8 (ector, n+, e?uation A55=@B may "e
2ritten
Yr
A55=5BNC n+ V + Ur+ P 6
Yt
+ similar e?uation of continuity may "e de(eloped for a second constituent - in the
same manner. The differential e?uations are
YYYYr
n-T 8 V n-T y V n-T < V - Ur- P 6
Y8YyY<Yt
A55=;B
55.3 The Differential E?uation for Mass Transfer @>5
and
NC n- V
Yr-
Ur- P 6
Yt
A55=9B
2here r- is the rate at 2hich - 2ill "e produced 2ithin the control (olume "y a chemical
reaction. +dding e?uations A55=5B and A55=9B, 2e o"tain
NC An+ V n- B V
YAr+ V r- B
UWr+ V r- X P 6
Yt
A55=7B
For a "inary mi8ture of + and -, 2e ha(e
n+ V n- P r+ (+ V r- (- P r(
r+ V r- P r
and
r + P Ur -
"y the la2 of conser(ation of mass. &u"stituting these relations into A55=7B, 2e o"tain
NC r( V
Yr
P6
Yt
A55=:B
This is the e?uation of continuity for the mi8ture. E?uation A55=:B is identical to the
e?uation of continuity A:=5B for a homogeneous fluid.
The e?uation of continuity for the mi8ture and for a gi(en species can "e 2ritten in
terms of the su"stantial deri(ati(e. +s sho2n in hapter :, the continuity e?uation for the
mi8ture can "e rearranged and 2ritten
DrVrNC ( P 6
Dt
A:=5B
Through similar mathematical manipulations, the e?uation of continuity for species + in
terms of the su"stantial deri(ati(e may "e deri(ed. This e?uation is
rD(+VNC I+ U r+ P 6
Dt
A55=36B
We could follo2 the same de(elopment in terms of molar units. *f R+ represents the rate
of molar production of + per unit (olume, and R- represents the rate of molar production of -
per unit (olume, the molar=e?ui(alent e?uations are
for component +
NC /+ V
for component -
Yc+
U R+ P 6
Yt
Yc-
U R- P 6
Yt
A55=33B
NC /- V
A55=35B
and for the mi8ture
NC W/+ V /- X V
YWc+ V c- X
U WR+ V R- X P 6
Yt
A55=3>B
@>; hapter 55 Differential E?uations of Mass Transfer
For the "inary mi8ture of + and -, 2e ha(e
/+ V /- P c+ ( + V c- ( - P c1
and
c+ V c- P c
Ho2e(er, only 2hen the stoichiometry of the reaction is
+F -
2hich stipulates that one molecule of - is produced for each mole of + disappearing, can 2e
stipulate that R+ P UR- . *n general, the e?uation of continuity for the mi8ture in molar
units is
NC c1 V
Yc
U WR+ V R- X P 6
Yt
A55=3@B
55.5 &,E*+$ F%RM& %F THE D*FFERE/T*+$ M+&&=TR+/&FER E.'+T*%/
&pecial forms of the e?uation of continuity applica"le to commonly encountered situations
follo2. *n order to use the e?uations for e(aluating the concentration proFles, 2e replace the
Ju8es, n+ and /+ , "y the appropriate e8pressions de(eloped in hapter 5@. These e8pres=
sions are
/+ P UcD+- Ny+ V y+ A/+ V /- B
or its e?ui(alent
/+ P UcD+- Ny+ V c+ 1
and
or its e?ui(alent
n+ P UrD+- N(+ V r+ (
&u"stituting e?uation A5@=55B into e?uation A55=5B, 2e o"tain
UNC rD+- N(+ V NC r+ ( V
Yr+
Ur+ P 6
Yt
Yc+
UR+ P 6
Yt
A55=35B
A5@=55B
A5@=53B
and su"stituting e?uation A5@=53B into e?uation A55=33B, 2e o"tain
UNC cD+- Ny+ V NC c+ 1 V
A55=3;B
Either e?uation A55=35B or A55=3;B may "e used to descri"e concentration profiles 2ithin
a diffusing system. -oth e?uations are completely generalT ho2e(er, they are relati(ely
un2ieldy. These e?uations can "e simplified "y ma!ing restricti(e assumptions.
*mportant forms of the e?uation of continuity, 2ith their ?ualifying assumptions, includeC
AiB *f the density, r, and the diffusion coefFcient, D+- can "e assumed constant,
e?uation A55=35B "ecomes
UD+- N5 r+ V r+ NC ( V (C Nr+ V
6
Q
Yr+
Ur+ P 6
Yt
55.5 &pecial Forms of the Differential Mass=Transfer E?uation @>9
Di(iding each term "y the molecular 2eight of + and rearranging, 2e o"tain
(C Nc+ V
Yc+
P D+- N5 c+ V R+
Yt
A55=39B
AiiB *f there is no production term, R+ P 6, and if the density and diffusion coefFcient
are assumed constant, e?uation A55=39B reduces to
Yc+V(C Nc+ P D+- N5 c+
Yt
A55=37B
We recogni<e that WYc+ NYtX V (C Nc+ is the su"stantial deri(ati(e of c+T re2riting the
left=hand side of e?uation A55=37B, 2e o"tain
Dc+
P D+- N5 c+
Dt
2hich is analogous to e?uation A3;=3@B from heat transfer
DT! 5
PN T
Dtrc,
or
DT
P aN5 T
Dt
2here a is the thermal diffusi(ity. The similarity "et2een these t2o e?uations is the "asis for
the analogies dra2n "et2een heat and mass transfer.
AiiiB *n a situation in 2hich there is no Juid motion, ( P 6, no production term, R+ P 6,
and no (ariation in the diffusi(ity or density, e?uation A55=37B reduces to
Yc+
P D+- N5 c+
Yt
A55=56B
A3;=3@B
A55=3:B
E?uation A55=56B is commonly referred to as Fic!Hs second GGla2HH of diffusion. The
assumption of no fluid motion restricts its applica"ility to diffusion in solids, or stationary
li?uids, and for "inary systems of gases or li?uids, 2here /+ is e?ual in magnitude, "ut
acting in the opposite direction to /T that is, the case of e?uimolar counterdiffusion.
E?uation A55=56B is analogous to FourierHs second GGla2HH of heat conduction
YT
P aN5 T
Yt
A3;=37B
Ai(B E?uations A55=39B, A55=37B, and A55=56B may "e simpliFed further 2hen the
process to "e deFned is a steady=state processT that is, Yc+ NYt P 6. For constant density
and a constant=diffusion coefFcient, the e?uation "ecomes
(C Nc+ P D+- N5 c+ V R+
A55=53B
For constant density, constant diffusi(ity, and no chemical production, R+ P 6, 2e
o"tain
(C Nc+ P D+- r5 c+A55=55B
*f additionally, ( P 6 the e?uation reduces to
N5 c+ P 6
E?uation A55=5>B is the $aplace e?uation in terms of molar concentration.
A55=5>B
@>7 hapter 55 Differential E?uations of Mass Transfer
Each of the e?uations A55=35B through A55=5>B has "een 2ritten in (ector form, thus
each applies to any orthogonal coordinate system. -y 2riting the $aplacian operator, N5, in
the appropriate form, the transformation of the e?uation to the desired coordinate system is
accomplished. Fic!Hs second GGla2HH of diffusion 2ritten in rectangular coordinates is
Q
Yc+Y 5 c+ Y 5 c+ Y 5 c+
P D+-V 5 V 5
A55=5@B
YtY85YyY<
in cylindrical coordinates is
Yc+Y 5 c+ 3 Yc+ 3 Y 5 c+ Y 5 c+
P D+-VVV 5
YtYr 5 r Yr r 5 Yu5Y<
Q
A55=55B
and in spherical coordinates is
Q
Yc+3 Y3YYc+3Y 5 c+5 Yc+
rsin u
P D+- 5V 5V 5 5
r Yrr sin u YuYtYrYur sin u Yf5
A55=5;B
The general differential e?uation for mass transfer of component +, or the e?uation of
continuity of +, 2ritten in rectangular coordinates is
Q
Y/+T8 Y/+Ty Y/+T<Yc+
VVVA55=59BP R+
YtY8YyY<
in cylindrical coordinates is
Q
Yc+3Y3 Y/+Tu Y/+T<
Ar/+Tr B VVVP R+
r Yrr YuYtY<
and in spherical coordinates is
Q
Yc+3 Y 53 u3 Y/+Tf
A/+Tu sin uB VV 5 Ar /+Tr B VP R+
r Yrr sin u Yur sin u YfYt
A55=5:B
A55=57B
55.> %MM%/$E E/%'/TERED -%'/D+RE %/D*T*%/&
+ mass=transfer process is fully descri"ed "y the differential e?uations of mass transfer only
if the initial "oundary and initial conditions are speciFed. Typically, initial and "oundary
conditions are used to specify limits of integration or to determine integration constants
associated 2ith the mathematical solution of the differential e?uations for mass transfer.
The initial and "oundary conditions used for mass transfer are (ery similar to those used in
&ection 3;.> for energy transfer. The reader may 2ish to refer to that section for further
discussion of initial and "oundary conditions.
The initial condition in mass transfer processes is the concentration of the diffusing
species at the start of the time inter(al of interest e8pressed in either mass or molar
concentration units. The concentration may "e simply e?ual to a constant, for e8ample
at t P 6T c+ P c+o Wmolar unitsX
at t P 6T r+ P r+o Wmass unitsX
or may "e more comple8 if the initial concentration distri"ution 2ithin the control (olume
for diffusion is speciFed. *nitial conditions are associated only 2ith unsteady=state or
pseudo=steady=state processes.
55.> ommonly Encountered -oundary onditions @>:
Four types of "oundary conditions are commonly encountered in mass transfer.
A3B The concentration of the transferring species + at a "oundary surface is speciFed.
&urface concentration can assume a (ariety of units, for e8ample, molar concentration c+s,
mass concentration r+s , gas mole fraction y+s, li?uid mole fraction 8+s, etc. When the
"oundary surface is deFned "y a pure component in one phase and a mi8ture in the second
phase, then the concentration of transferring species + in the mi8ture at the interface is
usually at thermodynamic saturation conditions. &peciFcally, for a gas mi8ture in contact
2ith a pure (olatile li?uid + or pure (olatile solid +, the partial pressure of species + in the
gas at the surface is saturation (apor pressure, ,+, so that p+s P ,+ . For a li?uid mi8ture in
contact 2ith a pure solid +, the concentration of species + in the li?uid at the surface is the
solu"ility limit of + in the li?uid, c} so that c+s P c} .++
For a contacting gas and li?uid 2here transferring species + is present in "oth phases,
there are t2o 2ays to specify the concentration at the gasOli?uid interface. First, if "oth of
the species in the li?uid phase are (olatile, then the "oundary condition at the gasOli?uid
surface is deFned for an ideal li?uid mi8ture "y RaoultHs la2
p+s P 8+ ,+
2here 8+ is the mole fraction in the li?uid, ,+ is the (apor pressure of species + e(aluated at
the temperature of the li?uid, and ,+s is the partial pressure of species + in the gas. The
partial pressure of species + at the interface is related to surface mole fraction y+s "y
DaltonHs la2
p+s
y+s P
,
or to surface concentration c+s "y the *deal #as la2
p+s
c+s P
RT
&econd, for solutions 2here species + is only 2ea!ly solu"le in the li?uid, HenryHs la2
may "e used to relate the mole fraction of + in the li?uid to the partial pressure of + in
the gas
p + P H [ 8+
2here coefFcient H is !no2n as HenryHs constant. 1alues of H in pressure units for
selected gaseous solutes dissol(ed in a?ueous solution are listed in Ta"le 55.3. + similar
e?uation may also "e used to determine the "oundary conditions at a gasOsolid
interface
c+Tsolid P & [ p+
Ta"le 55.3 HenryHs constant for (arious gases in a?ueous solutions AH in "arsB
T A0B
59>
576
5:6
>66
>36
>56
/H>
53
5>
5;
>6
l5
5;5
>;5
@76
;35
955
7;6
H5&
5;6
>>5
@56
596
966
7>5
&%5
3;5
536
>35
@@6
;66
766
%5
936
:;6
3>66
39>6
5395
5;56
H@
55,766
59,766
>5,566
@5,766
56,666
5;,>66
%5
55,566
>6,566
>9,;66
@5,966
55,566
5;,766
H5
57,666
;3,566
;;,566
93,;66
9;,666
97,;66
@@6 hapter 55 Differential E?uations of Mass Transfer
Ta"le 55.5 &olu"ility constants for selected gasOsolid com"inations A3 "ar P 365 ,aB
#as
%5
/5
%5
He
H5
&olid
/atural ru""er
/atural ru""er
/atural ru""er
&ilicon
/i
T A0B
5:7
5:7
5:7
5:>
>57
& P c+Tsolid D,+
A!g molDm> "arB
>C35 ` 36U>
3C5; ` 36U>
@6C35 ` 36U>
6C@5 ` 36U>
:C63 ` 36U>
2here c+T solid is the molar concentration of + 2ithin the solid at the interface in units of
!g molDm> and p+ is the partial pressure of gas phase species + o(er the solid in units of ,a.
The partition coefFcient &, also !no2n as the solu"ility constant, has units of !g molDm> C ,a.
1alues of & for se(eral gasOsolid pairs reported "y -arrer3 are listed in Ta"le 55.5.
A5B + reacting surface "oundary is speciFed. There are three common situations, all
dealing 2ith heterogeneous surface reactions. First, the Ju8 of one species may "e related
to the Ju8 of another species "y chemical reaction stoichiometry. For e8ample, consider the
generic chemical reaction at the "oundary surface + V 5- Q >, 2here reactants + and -
diffuse to the surface, and product diffuses a2ay from the surface. The Ju8es for + and -
mo(e in the opposite direction to the Ju8 for . onse?uently, the Ju8 /+ is related to the
Ju8 of the other species "y /- P V5 /+ or / P U> /+. &econd, a Fnite rate of chemical
reaction might e8ist at the surface, 2hich in turn sets the Ju8 at the surface. For e8ample, if
component + is consumed "y a Frst=order on a surface at < N 6, and the positi(e < direction
is opposite to the direction of Ju8 of + along <, then

P U!c c+s/+ <P6
2here !s is a surface reaction rate constant 2ith units of mDs. Third, the reaction may "e so
rapid that c+s P 6 if species + is the limiting reagent in the chemical reaction.
A>B The Ju8 of the transferring species is <ero at a "oundary or at a centerline of
symmetry. This situation can arise at an impermea"le "oundary, or at the centerline of
symmetry of the control (olume, 2here the net Ju8 is e?ual to <ero. *n either case, for a
one=dimensional Ju8 along <
Yc+ Yc+
P UD+-P6orP6
/+ <P6Y< <P6Y< <P6
2here the impermea"le "oundary or the centerline of symmetry is located at < N 6.
A@B The con(ecti(e mass transfer Ju8 at the "oundary surface is speciFed. When a
Juid Jo2s o(er the "oundary, the Ju8 can "e deFned "y con(ection. For e8ample, at some
surface located at < N 6, the con(ecti(e mass transfer Ju8 across the Juid "oundary layer is

P !c Wc+s U c+3 X/+ <P6
2here c+3 is the "ul! concentration of + the Jo2ing Juid, c+s is the surface concentration of
+ at < N 6 and !c is the con(ection mass=transfer coefFcient deFned in &ection 5@.>.
3
R. M. -arrer, Diffusion *n and Through &olids, Macmillan ,ress, /e2 Eor!, 3:@3.
55.@ &teps for Modeling ,rocesses *n(ol(ing Molecular Diffusion @@3
55.@ &TE,& F%R M%DE$*/# ,R%E&&E& */1%$1*/#
M%$E'$+R D*FF'&*%/
,rocesses in(ol(ing molecular diffusion can "e modeled "y the appropriate simpliFcations
to Fic!Hs e?uation and the general differential e?uation for mass transfer. *n general, most
molecular diffusion pro"lems in(ol(e 2or!ing through the follo2ing F(e stepsC
Dra2 a picture of the physical system. $a"el the important features, including
the system "oundaries. Decide 2here the source and the sin! of mass transfer are
located.
&tep 5C Ma!e a GGlist of assumptionsHH "ased on your consideration of the physical
system. +s appropriate, ma!e a GGlist of nomenclatureHH and update the list as you
add more terms to the model de(elopment.
&tep 3C
&tep >C ,ic! the coordinate system that "est descri"es the geometry of the physical
systemC rectilinear A8, y, <B, cylindrical Ar, <, uB, or spherical Ar, u, fB. Then
formulate differential material "alances to descri"e the mass transfer 2ithin a
(olume element of the process "ased on the geometry of the physical system and
the assumptions proposed, ma!ing use of Fic!Hs la2 and the general differential
e?uation for mass transfer. T2o approaches may "e used to simplify the general
differential e?uation for mass transfer. *n the Frst approach, simply reduce or
eliminate the terms that do not apply to the physical system. For e8ampleC
AaB *f the process is steady state, then
Yc+
P 6.
Yt
A"B *f no chemical reaction occurs uniformly 2ithin the control (olume for
diffusion, then R+ P 6.
AcB *f the molecular mass transfer process of species + is one=dimensional in
the < direction,
N [ /+ P
Y/+<
Y<
"y cylindrical geometry in the r and < directions,
N [ /+ P
Y/+< 3 YAr/+r B
V
Y<r Yr
for radial symmetry in spherical coordinates,
3 YAr5 /+r B
N [ /+ P 5
rYr
*n the second approach, perform a GGshell "alanceHH for the component of interest
on a differential (olume element of the process. -oth of these approaches are
discussed and illustrated in hapter 5;. /e8t, Fic!Hs la2 is simpliFed "y
esta"lishing the relationship "et2een the Ju8es in the "ul!=contri"ution
term. For e8ample, recall the one=dimensional Ju8 of a "inary mi8ture of
components + and -
/+< P UcD+-
dy+
V y+ A/+< V /-< B
d<
*f /+< P U/-< , then y+ A/+< V /-< B P 6. *f y+ A/+< V /-< B does not e?ual 6, then
/+ is al2ays e?ual to c+ 1< and reduces to c+ ( < for lo2 concentrations of + in the
Differential
e?uation for
mass transfer
+ssumptions
&implified differential
e?uation for
mass transfer A/+B
More
assumptions
&implified differential
e?uation for
mass transfer Ac+B
+nalytical
integration
*ntegral form
flu8 A/+B or
transfer rate A2+B
Differentiation
-oundary
conditions
Fic!ds e?uation
+ssumptions
Fic!ds e?uation
differential from A/+B
+nalytical
integration
-oundary
conditions
*ntegral form
flu8 A/+B or
transfer rate A2+B
oncentration
profile Ac+B
Figure 55.5 Model
de(elopment path2ays for
processes in(ol(ing
molecular diffusion.
mi8ture. *f a differential e?uation for the concentration proFle is desired, then the
simpliFed form of Fic!Hs la2 must "e su"stituted into the simpliFed form of the
general differential e?uation for mass transfer. Figure 55.5 illustrates this
process.
&tep @C Recogni<e and specify the "oundary conditions and initial conditions. For
e8ample
AaB 0no2n concentration of species + at a surface or interface at < P 6 e.g.,
c+ P c+o . This concentration can "e speciFed or !no2n "y e?uili"rium
relationships such as HenryHs la2.
A"B &ymmetry condition at a centerline of the control (olume for diffusion,
or no net diffusi(e Ju8 of species + at a surface or interface at < P 6T
/+< I<P6 P 6 P dc+ Nd<.
AcB on(ecti(e Ju8 of species + at a surface or interface, e.g., /+ P
!c Ac+s U c+3 B.
AdB 0no2n Ju8 of species + at a surface or interface, e.g., at < P 6,
/+< I<P6 P /+o .
AeB 0no2n chemical reaction at a surface or interface. For the rapid disappearance
of species + at the surface or interface, e.g., at < P 6T c+s P 6. For a slo2er
chemical reaction at the surface or interface 2ith Fnite c+s at < P 6, e.g.,
/+< P !6 c+s , 2here !6 is a Frst=order chemical reaction rate constant.
&tep 5C &ol(e the differential e?uations resulting from the differential material "alances
and the "oundaryDinitial conditions descri"ed to get the concentration proFle,
the Ju8, or other parameters of engineering interest. *f appropriate, consider
asymptotic solutions or limiting cases to more difFcult pro"lems Frst.
The follo2ing e8amples illustrate ho2 physical and chemical processes in(ol(ing
molecular diffusion can "e modeled "y the appropriate simpliFcations of Fic!Hs e?uation
and the general differential e?uation for mass transfer. The e8amples co(er many of
55.@ &teps for Modeling ,rocesses *n(ol(ing Molecular Diffusion @@>
typically encountered "oundary conditions in "oth rectilinear and cylindrical geometry. The
e8amples emphasi<e the Frst four steps of model de(elopment outlined, and the Fnal model
e?uations are generally left in differential=e?uation form. hapters 5; and 59 pro(ide
analytical solution techni?ues for steady=state and unsteady=state diffusion processes.
We ha(e ta!en e8tra time at the "eginning of each e8ample to descri"e the interesting
technology "ehind the process.
EM+M,$E 3 Microelectronic de(ices are fa"ricated "y forming many layers of thin Flms onto a silicon 2afer.
Each Flm has uni?ue chemical and electrical properties. For e8ample, a thin Flm of solid silicon
A&iB ser(es as a semiconductor. &ilicon thin Flms are commonly formed "y the chemical
(apor deposition, or 1D, of silane (apor A&iH@B onto the surface of the 2afer. The chemical
reaction is
&iH@ WgX Q &iWsX V 5H5 WgX
This surface reaction is usually carried out at (ery lo2 pressure A366 ,aB and high temperature
A:66 0B. *n many 1D reactors, the gas phase o(er the &i Flm is not mi8ed. Furthermore, at high
temperatures, the surface reaction is (ery rapid. onse?uently, the molecular diffusion of the
&iH@ (apor to the surface often controls the rate of &i Flm formation. onsider the (ery simpliFed
1D reactor sho2n in Figure 55.>. + mi8ture of silane and hydrogen gas Jo2s into the reactor. +
diffuser pro(ides a ?uiescent gas space o(er the gro2ing &i Flm. De(elop a differential model for
this process, including statements of assumptions and "oundary conditions.
&iH@ (apor
i H5 gas
Diffuser
&iH@
.uiescent
gas
H5
&i thin
film
To (acuum
<N6
<NS
Heated plate
&iAsB i 5 H5 AgB&iH@AgB
Figure 55.> hemical
(apor deposition of silicon
hydride.
The silane in the feed gas ser(es as the source for mass transfer, 2hereas the &i Flm ser(es as
the sin! for silane mass transfer. *n contrast, the formation of H5 at the &i Flm surface ser(es as the
source for H5 mass transfer, 2hereas the feed gas ser(es as the sin! for H5 mass transfer. The physical
system possesses rectilinear geometry, and the maIor assumptions for model de(elopment are listed
here.
A3B The reaction occurs only at the surface of gro2ing &i thin Flm. onse?uently, there is no
homogeneous reaction of silane 2ithin the diffusion <one, so that R+ P 6. *n this conte8t, the
surface reaction is the sin! for silane mass transfer. A5B The gas space in the GGdiffusion <oneHH is
not e8ternally mi8ed, so that molecular diffusion dominates. A>B The feed gas pro(ides silane in
high e8cess relati(e to that consumed "y reaction, so the silane concentration in the gas space at
the diffusion=<one "oundary is constant. A@B The Ju8 of silane is one=dimensional along <, as
the source and sin! for silane mass transfer are aligned at the "oundaries along the < direction.
A5B The thic!ness of the &i Flm is (ery thin relati(e to d, the diffusion path length along the
< direction. Therefore, d is essentially constant. A;B The mass transfer process 2ithin the diffusion
<one is at steady state.
The assumptions are used to reduce the general forms of the differential e?uation for mass
transfer and Fic!Hs e?uation. The general differential e?uation for mass transfer in terms of rectilinear
coordinates is

Y/+8 Y/+y Y/+<Yc+
UVVV R+ P
Y8YyY<Yt
@@@ hapter 55 Differential E?uations of Mass Transfer
For steady=state one=dimensional Ju8 along the < direction 2ith no homogeneous chemical reaction
WR+ P 6X, the general differential e?uation for mass transfer reduces to
d/+<
P6
d<
2hich sho2s that the Ju8 is constant along the < direction. +s the diffusion Ju8 is 2ith respect to only
one dimension, the partial deri(ati(e "ecomes an ordinary deri(ati(e. Fic!Hs e?uation for the one=
dimensional Ju8 silane through a "inary mi8ture in the gas phase is
/+< P UcD+-
dy+<
V y+ W/+< V /-< X
d<
2here species + represents silane (apor A&iH@B reactant and species - represents the hydro=
gen gas AH5B product. The Ju8 of the gaseous reactant is opposite in direction to the Ju8 of the
gaseous product. From the reaction stoichiometry and Figure 55.>, /+< is related to /-< as
follo2sC
/+< U3 mol &iH@ reacted3
PUP
V5 mol H5 formed5/-<
Therefore, /-< P U5 /+< and Fic!Hs e?uation further reduces to
/+< P UcD+-
dy+cD+- dy+
V y+ W/+< U 5/+< X P U
d<3 V y+ d<
*t is interesting to note that increasing y+ decreases the Ju8. T2o "oundary conditions must "e
speciFed. +t the surface of the &i Flm, the reaction is so rapid that the concentration of silane (apor is
<ero. Furthermore, the concentration of silane in the feed gas is constant.
+t the &i Flm surface, < P dT y+ P y+s , and y-s P 3 Ay+ V y- P 3 for "inary mi8tureB.
+t the diffusion screen, < P 6T y+ P y+o T and y- P y-o P 3 U y+o .
The differential model is no2 speciFed. +lthough the analytical solution 2as not as!ed for in
the pro"lem statement, it is easy to o"tain. We Frst recogni<e that for this particular system, /+< is a
constant along <. *f /+< is a constant, then Fic!Hs e?uation can "e integrated "y separation of
dependent (aria"le y+ from independent (aria"le <, 2ith integration limits deFned "y the "oundary
conditions
fd
/+<
6
yf+s
d< P
y+o
UcD+- dy+
3 V y+ d<
*f the system temperature T and total system pressure , are constant, then the total molar
concentration of the gas, c P ,NRT, is also constant. $i!e2ise, the "inary gas phase diffusion
coefFcient of silane (apor in hydrogen gas, D+-, is also constant. The Fnal integrated e?uation is

cD+-3 V y+o
/+< Pln
d3 V y+s
*f y+s is speciFed, then /+< can "e determined. With the silane Ju8 /+< !no2n, parameters of
engineering interest, such as the &i Flm formation rate, can "e easily determined. These ?uestions are
considered in a pro"lem e8ercise at the end of hapter 5;.
EM+M,$E 5 The formation of a tungsten thin Flm on unmas!ed surfaces of a silicon 2afer is an important step in
the fa"rication of solid=state microelectronic de(ices. The tungsten metal ser(es as conductor for
current Jo2 "et2een de(ices on the 2afer. *n one typical process, the tungsten thin Flm is formed "y
the chemical (apor deposition of tungsten he8aJuoride AWF;B onto the surface of the 2afer in the
presence of hydrogen AH5B gas and an inert helium carrier gas
>H5 WgX V WF; WgX Q WWsX V ;HFWgX
as sho2n in Figure 55.@. What is the differential form of Fic!Hs la2 for the Ju8 of WF; gas onto the
surfacea
Tungsten thin film formation
WF;AgB H5AgB HFAgB
<N6
Tungsten
thin film
&ilicon su"strate
<NS
Figure 55.@ hemical (apor
deposition of tungsten
he8aJuoride.
The assumptions for analysis are similar to those made in e8ample 3. The Ju8 of WF;
Aspecies +B is one dimensional in the < direction. +s there are four components in the gas phase
mi8ture, Fic!Hs e?uation is
/+< P UcD+Umi8ture
dy+
V y+ A/+< V /-< V /< V /D< B
d<
2here D+Umi8ture is the diffusion coefFcient of WF; in the mi8ture of H5 gas Aspecies -B, HF gas
Aspecies B, and inert He gas Aspecies DB. The Ju8 of the gaseous reactants AWF;, H5B is opposite in
direction to the Ju8 of the gaseous product AHFB. The reaction stoichiometry at the surface of the
tungsten Flm relate the Ju8es of all diffusing species to WF;
/+< U3 mol WF; reacted 3
PP
U> mol H5 reacted>/-<
or
/-/+<
/< P U;/+<
/+< U3 mol WF; reacted3
PUorP
V; mol HF formed;/<
The net Ju8 of He, /D< , is <ero "ecause it has no sin! for mass transfer. +ccordingly, Fic!Hs e?uation
for WF; reduces to
/+/+< U ;/+< V 6X
d<
UcD+Umi8ture dy+
3 V 5y+d<
The Ju8 of WF; to the surface is hindered "y the Ju8 of the HF product gas from the surface since the
denominator term A3 V 5y+ B is greater than one. The differential form of Fic!Hs e?uation cannot "e
integrated analytically unless a mean (alue for the mi8ture="ased diffusion coefFcient is ta!en.
EM+M,$E > +n emerging area of "iotechnology called GGtissue engineeringHH de(elops ne2 processes to gro2
organi<ed li(ing tissues of human or animal origin. + typical conFguration is the engineered tissue
"undle. Engineered tissue "undles ha(e se(eral potential "iomedical applications, including the
production of replacement "ody tissue As!in, "one marro2, etc.B for transplantation into the human
"ody, or in the future, may ser(e as artiFcial organs for direct implantation into the human "ody.
@@; hapter 55 Differential E?uations of Mass Transfer
$i(ing tissues re?uire o8ygen to stay ali(e. The mass transport of o8ygen A%5B to the tissue is an
important design consideration. %ne potential system is schematically illustrated in Figure 55.5. Thin
tu"es arranged on a triangular pitch pass longitudinally through the tissue "undle. The tu"es ser(e as
a GGscaffoldHH for supporting the li(ing tissue matri8 and supply o8ygen and nutrients to the tissue at
the same time. $et us focus on a single %5 deli(ery tu"e 2ith tissue surrounding it, as illustrated in
Figure 55.5. ,ure o8ygen A%5B gas Jo2s through the tu"e. The tu"e 2all is e8tremely permea"le
to %5, and the %5 partial pressure through the porous tu"e 2all can "e ta!en as the %5 partial
366b %5 gas
Tu"e
A366b %5 gasB
Tissue "undle
/utrient
Tissue
Tissue
r N R3, c+ N c+s
ross section
Tu"e
/+r
&implified cross section
r N R5, dc+Ddr N 6
Figure 55.5 %8ygen transport 2ithin an engineered tissue "undle.
pressure inside the tu"e. %8ygen is only sparingly solu"le in the tissue, 2hich is mostly 2ater. The
concentration of dissol(ed %5 at r P R3 , is
p+
c+s P
H
2here H is the HenryHs la2 constant for the dissolution of %5 in li(ing tissue at the process
temperature, and p+ is the partial pressure of %5 in the tu"e. The dissol(ed %5 diffuses through the
tissue and is meta"olically consumed. The meta"olic consumption of dissol(ed %5 is descri"ed "y a
!inetic rate e?uation of the form
R+T ma8 c+
R+ P U
0 + V c+
+ !ey parameter in the design of the engineered tissue "undle is the spacing "et2een the tu"es. *f the
tu"e spacing is too 2ide, the dissol(ed %5 concentration 2ill go to near <ero and star(e the tissue.
Therefore, it is important to !no2 the radial concentration proFle, c+ WrX of dissol(ed %5. De(elop a
differential model to predict c+ WrX.
The physical system possesses cylindrical geometry, and the follo2ing assumptions for model
de(elopment are listed here. A3B The source for %5 mass transfer is the pure %5 gas inside the tu"e, and
the sin! for mass transfer is the meta"olic consumption of dissol(ed o8ygen "y the tissue. *f the %5
partial pressure p+ is maintained constant inside the tu"e along longitudinal coordinate <, then the
Ju8 of o8ygen through the tissue is one dimensional along the radial ArB direction. A5B Tissue remains
(ia"le and maintains constant physical properties. A>B The %5 transfer process is at steady state. A@B
The tissue is stationary, and the dissol(ed %5 concentration is dilute. A5B +t r P R3 , the tu"e material
is thin and highly permea"le to %5 so that the dissol(ed %5 concentration in the tissue is in
e?uili"rium 2ith the %5 partial pressure in the tu"e. A;B +t r P R5 , there is no net Ju8 of %5.
The general differential e?uation for mass transfer in cylindrical coordinates is

3 Y3 Y/+u Y/+<Yc+
VV R+ PWr/+r X VU
Y<Ytr Yrr Yu
For steady=state one=dimensional Ju8 along the r direction, the general e?uation for mass transfer
reduces to
3 Y
UWr/+r X V R+ P 6
r Yr
For a one=dimensional system, the partial deri(ati(es can "e replaced 2ith ordinary deri(ati(es.
+lternati(ely, 2e can perform a material "alance for dissol(ed %5 on the differential element of
(olume 5p$r Dr sho2n in Figure 55.5 and get the same result. &peciFcally, for steady=state one=
dimensional Ju8 along the r direction 2ith a homogeneous reaction R+ 2ithin the differential (olume
element, 2e ha(e

U5p$r / V R+ C 5p$r C Dr P 65p$r /+r rPr+r rPrVDr
Di(ing through "y 5p$ Dr, and rearranging, 2e get
Q
r/+r rPrVDr U r/+r rPr
V R+ r P 6U
Dr
Finally, ta!ing the limits as Dr Q 6 yields
U
3 d
Wr/+r X V R+ P 6
r dr
For one=dimensional Ju8 of dissol(ed %5 through the stagnant tissue in cylindrical coordinates
along the r direction, Fic!Hs e?uation reduces to
/+r P UD+-
dc+ c+dc+
V W/+r X ^ U D+-
drcdr
"ecause %5 is only sparingly solu"le in the tissue so that c+ A c, 2here c is the total molar
concentration of the tissue, 2hich appro8imates the molar concentration of 2ater. *n cylindrical
geometry, /+r is not constant along diffusion path r, "ecause AaB cross=sectional area for Ju8 is
increasing along r and A"B the R+ term is present. +s a result, the Ju8 e?uation cannot "e integrated, as
2as the case in e8ample 3. *t is no2 necessary to com"ine Fic!Hs e?uation and the differential
e?uation for mass transfer in order to get the concentration proFle

3 ddc+
V R+ P 6UUrD+-
drr dr
or
Q
R+T ma8 c+d 5 c+ 3 dc+
D+-UVP6
dr 50 + V c+r dr
The concentration proFle c+ WrX is no2 e8pressed as a second=order differential e?uation. Therefore,
t2o "oundary conditions on c+ WrX must "e speciFedC
r P R3 T
dc+
P 6 Wnet flu8 /+ P 6 at r P R3 X
dr
p+
r P R5 T c+ P c+s P
H
The analytical solution for c+ WrX and its e8tension to predicting the o(erall rate of o8ygen
consumption in the tissue "undle has "een left as a pro"lem e8ercise in hapter 5;.
55.5 $%&'RE
The general differential e?uation for mass transfer 2as de(eloped to descri"e the mass
"alances associated 2ith a diffusing component in a mi8ture. &pecial forms of the general
differential e?uation for mass transfer that apply to speciFc situations 2ere presented.
ommonly encountered "oundary conditions for molecular diffusion processes 2ere also
listed. From this theoretical frame2or!, a F(e=step method for mathematically modeling
processes in(ol(ing molecular diffusion 2as proposed. Three e8amples illustrated ho2 the
differential form of Fic!Hs e?uation presented in hapter 5@, and the general differential
e?uation for mass transfer presented in this chapter, are reduced to simple differential
e?uations that descri"e the molecular diffusion aspects of a speciFc process. The approaches
presented in this chapter ser(e as the "asis for pro"lem sol(ing in hapters 5; and 59.
,R%-$EM&
55.3 Deri(e e?uation A55=33B for component + in terms of
molar units, starting 2ith the control=(olume e8pression for the
conser(ation of mass.
55.5 &ho2 that the A55=33B may "e 2ritten in the form
Yr+
VWN [ r+ (X U D+- r5 r+ P r+
Yt
55.> The follo2ing s!etch illustrates the gas diffusion in the
neigh"orhood of a catalytic surface. Hot gases of hea(y hydro=
car"ons diffuse to the catalytic surface 2here they are crac!ed
into lighter compounds "y the reactionC H Q 5$, the light
products diffuse "ac! into the gas stream.
H $
process, list at least F(e reasona"le assumptions for the
mass=transfer aspects of the 2ater=e(aporation process and
simplify the general differential e?uation for mass transfer
in terms of the Ju8 /+.
". What is the simpliFed differential form of Fic!Hs e?uation
for 2ater (apor Aspecies +Ba
55.5 + large deep la!e, 2hich initially had a uniform o8ygen
concentration of 3!gDm>, has its surface concentration suddenly
raised and maintained at : !gDm> concentration le(el.
Reduce the general differential e?uation for mass transfer to
2rite the speciFc differential e?uation for
a. the transfer of o8ygen into the la!e 2ithout the presence of a
chemical reactionT
". the transfer of o8ygen into the la!e that occurs 2ith the
simultaneous disappearance of o8ygen "y a Frst=order
"iological reaction.
55.; The moisture in hot, humid, stagnant air surrounding a
cold=2ater pipeline continually diffuses to the cold surface
2here it condenses. The condensed 2ater forms a li?uid Flm
around the pipe, and then continuously drops off the pipe to the
ground "elo2. +t a distance of 36 cm from the surface of the pipe,
the moisture content of the air is constant. lose to the pipe, the
moisture content approaches the (apor pressure of 2ater e(al=
uated at the temperature of the pipe.
a. Dra2 a picture of the physical system, select the coordinate
system that "est descri"es the transfer process and state at
least F(e reasona"le assumptions of the mass=transfer
aspects of the 2ater condensation process.
". What is the simpliFed form of the general differential
e?uation for mass transfer in terms of the Ju8 of 2ater
(apor, /+a
c. What is the simpliFed differential form of Fic!Hs e?uation
for 2ater (apor, /+a
d. What is the simpliFed form of the general differential
e?uation for mass transfer in terms of the concentration
of 2ater (apor, c+a
<N6
<NS
a. Reduce the general differential e?uation for mass transfer to
2rite the speciFc differential e?uation that 2ill descri"e this
steady=state transfer process if the catalyst is considered a
Jat surface. $ist all of the assumptions you ha(e made in
simplifying the general differential e?uation.
". Determine the Fic!Hs la2 relationship in terms of only
compound H and insert it into the differential e?uation
you o"tained in part AaB.
55.@ + hemispherical droplet of li?uid 2ater, lying on a Jat
surface, e(aporates "y molecular diffusion through still air
surrounding the droplet. The droplet initially has a radius R.
+s the li?uid 2ater slo2ly e(aporates, the droplet shrin!s slo2ly
2ith time, "ut the Ju8 of the 2ater (apor is at a nominal steady
state. The temperature of the droplet and the surrounding still air
are !ept constant. The air contains 2ater (apor at an inFnitely
long distance from the dropletHs surface.
a. +fter dra2ing a picture of the physical process, select a
coordinate system that 2ill "est descri"e this diffusion
,ro"lems
55.9 + li?uid Jo2s o(er a thin, Jat sheet of a slightly solu"le
solid. %(er the region in 2hich diffusion is occurring, the li?uid
(elocity may "e assumed to "e parallel to the plate and to "e
gi(en "y ( P ay, 2here y is the (ertical distance from the plate
and a is a constant. &ho2 that the e?uation go(erning the mass
transfer, 2ith certain simplifying assumptions, is
5
Y c+ Y 5 c+Yc+
D+-
V 5 P ay5Y8YyY8
$ist the simplifying assumptions, and propose reasona"le
55.7 onsider one of the cylindrical channels that run through
an isomeri<ation catalyst as sho2n "elo2. + catalyst coats the
inner 2alls of each channel. This catalyst promotes the isomer=
i<ation of n="utane Wn U @ H36 X species + to iso"utene Wi U
@ H36 X species -.
n U @ H36 WgX Q i U @ H36 WgX
@@:
to e8plain the meta"olic consumption of the o8ygen to produce
car"on dio8ide.
'se the general differential e?uation for mass transfer of o8ygen
to 2rite the speciFc differential e?uation that 2ill descri"e the
diffusion of o8ygen in the human tissue. What 2ould "e the form of
Flic!s relationship 2ritten in terms of only the diffusing o8ygena
55.36 + Juidi<ed coal reactor has "een proposed for a ne2
po2er plant. *f the coal can "e assumed to "e spherical, reduce
the general differential e?uation for mass transfer to o"tain a
speciFc differential e?uation for descri"ing the steady=state
diffusion of o8ygen to the surface of the coal particle.
Determine the Fic!Hs la2 relationship for the Ju8 of o8ygen
from the surrounding air en(ironment if
a. only car"on mono8ide, %, is produced at the surface of the
car"on particleT
". only car"on dio8ide, %5, is produced at the surface of the
car"on particle.
*f the reaction at the surface of the car"on particle is instan=
tenous, gi(e t2o "oundary conditions that might "e used in
sol(ing the differential e?uation.
55.33 *n the manufacture of semiconducting thin Flms, a thin
Flm of solid arsenic laid do2n on the surface of a silicon 2ater "y
the diffusion=limited chemical (apor deposition of arsine, +sH>.
5+sH> WgX Q 5+sWsX V >H5 WgX
The gas head space, 5 cm a"o(e the surface of the 2afer, is
stagnant. +rsenic atoms deposited on the surface then diffuse
into the solid silicon to GGdopeHH the 2afer and impart semicon=
ducting properties to the silicon, as sho2n in the Fgure "elo2.=
Well mi8ed feed gas Aconstant compositionB.
Well=mi8ed feed gas Aconstant compositionB.
Diffuser screen
+sH> AgB
H5 AgB
+s, thin film
&i 2afer
/+
The gas phase a"o(e the channels contains mi8ture of + and -
maintained at a constant composition of ;6 mol b n U @ H36
A+B and @6 mol b i U @ H36 A-B. #as phase species + diffuses
do2n a straight channel of diameter d P 6C3 cm and length
$ P 5C6 cm. The "ase of each channel is sealed. This is rapid
reaction so that the production rate of - is diffusion limited.
The ?uiescent gas space in the channel consists of only species +
and -.
a. &tate three rele(ant assumptions for the mass transfer
process.
". -ased on your assumptions, simplify the general differential
e?uation for the mass transfer of species +, lea(ing the
e?uation in terms of the Ju8 /+.
c. 'sing e?uations for the Ju8 of + in your determined
e?uation, e8press the general differential e?uation in terms
of the concentration c+.
d. &pecify rele(ant "oundary conditions for the gas phase
concentration c+.
55.: +n early mass=transfer study of o8ygen transport in
human tissue 2on a /o"el pri<e for +ugust 0rough. -y con=
sidering a tissue cylinder surrounding each "lood (essel, he
proposed the diffusion of o8ygen a2ay from the "lood (essel into
the annular tissue 2as accompanied "y a <ero=order reaction, that
is, R+ P Um, 2here m is a constant. This reaction 2as necessary
The process temperature is 3656 . The diffusion coefFcient of
aresenic in silicon is 5 ` 36U3> cmDs at this temperature and the
ma8imum solu"ility of aresenic in silicon is 5 ` 3653
atomsDcm> . The density of solid silicon is 5 ` 3655 atomsN
cm> . +s the diffusion coefFcient is so small, the aresenic atoms
do not GGpenetrateHH (ery far into the silicon solid, usually less
than a fe2 microns. onse?uently, a relati(ely thin silicon 2ater
can "e considered as a GGsemi=inFniteHH medium for diffusion.
a. &tate at least F(e reasona"le assumptions for the mass
transfer of aresenic in this doping process.
". What is the simpliFed form of the general differential
e?uation for the mass transfer of the aresenic concentration
@56 hapter 55 Differential E?uations of Mass Transfer
2ithout disintegrating. + 2ater=solu"le drug Asolute +B is uni=
formly dissol(ed 2ithin the gel, has an initial concentration,
c+o of 56 mgDcm> . The drug loaded 2ithin the spherical gel
capsule is the sin! for mass transfer. onsider a limiting case
2here the drug is immediately consumed or s2ept a2ay once it
reaches the surface, i.e., Y R, c+ P 6.
a. *n analy<ing the process, choose a coordinate system and
simplify the general differential e?uation for the mass
transfer of the drug in terms of the Ju8.
". What reasona"le assumptions 2ere used in your simplifying
of the general differential e?uation.
c. &implify Fic!Hs e?uation for the drug species and o"tain a
differential e?uation in terms of concentration, c+.
55.3@ onsider a single, porous, spherical, inert mineral par=
ticle. The pores inside the particle are Flled 2ith li?uid 2ater
Aspecies -B. We are interested in analy<ing the molecular diffu=
sion of the contaminant "en<ene ;H; species + 2ithin the
2ater=Flled pores of the particle. The a(erage diameter of
the pores is 356 nm and the (oid fraction AporosityB is 6.@6.
The "en<ene solute does not adsor" onto the inter surfaces of the
pores. -en<ene is (ery sparingly solu"le in 2ater, and has a
molecular diameter of 6.35 nm. The process is isothermal at 5:7
0. The concentration of dissol(ed "en<ene in the 2ater sur=
rounding the particle, c+o , is constant 2ith time. The critical
(olume A1cB of "en<ene is 55: cm> Ngmol. The effecti(e diffu=
sion coefFcient of "en<ene inside the porous particle 2as to "e
calculated in ,ro"lem 5@.55.
&tarting 2ith the general differential e?uation for mass trans=
fer of "en<ene, de(elop a differential model to descri"e the
concentration proFle of "en<ene, species + 2ithin the single,
porous, spherical, inert mineral particle. &tate reasona"le
assumptions and "oundaryDinitial conditions for the process.
55.35 + large tan! truc! o(erturns and spills a her"icide o(er a
Feld. The Juid remains on the soil >6 min "efore e(aporating into
the atmosphere. &implify the general differential e?uation for the
mass transfer of the her"icide to 2rite the follo2ingC
a. the steady=state differential e?uation that 2ill descri"e the
e(aporation of the her"icide into the airT
". the differential e?uation that 2ill descri"e the diffusion of
the her"icide into the soil.
55.3; onsider the drug treatment system sho2n "elo2.
+ hemisphere cluster of unhealthy cells is surrounded "y a
larger hemisphere of stagnant dead dead tissue Aspecies -B,
2hich is in turn surrounded "y a Jo2ing Juid. The "ul!, 2ell=
mi8ed Juid contains a drug compound Aspecies +B of constant
"ut dilute concentration c+o . Drug + is also solu"le in the
unhealthy tissue "ut does not preferentially partition into it
relati(e to the Juid. The drug Aspecies +B enters the dead tissue
and homes in on the unhealthy cells. +t the unhealthy cell
"oundary Wr P R3 X the Ju8 of + to the unhealthy cells is
diffusion limited. +ll meta"olites of drug + produced "y
2ithin the silicona ,urpose reasona"le "oundary and initial
conditions.
55.35 + de(ice has "een proposed that 2ill ser(e as a GG"lood
o8ygenatorHH for a heartOlung "ypass machine. *n this process,
"lood A2hich is mostly 2ater, species -B containing no dissol(ed
o8ygen A%5 species +B enters the top of the cham"er and then
falls (ertically do2n as a li?uid Flm of uniform thic!ness, along a
surface designed to appropriately 2et "lood. ontacting the
li?uid surface is a 366b %5 gas phase.
*nlet "lood containing
no dissol(ed o8ygen, @6g
Falling
li?uid
film
*nert
solid surface
366b %5 gas
<N6
1m
<N$
8Nd 8N6
e8iting o8ygenated
"lood, @6 g
%8ygen is solu"le in "lood, 2ith the e?uili"rium solu"ility
descri"ed "y HenryHs la2, c} P p+ NH, 2here p+ is the partial+
pressure of o8ygen AatmB, H is the HenryHs la2 constant, and c} is
+
the solu"ility concentration limit of o8ygen dissol(ed in "lood
AmmolD$B at p+.
*n analy<ing the mass transport of dissol(ed o8ygen into the
falling Flm, you may assume the follo2ingC A3B the process is
dilute 2ith respect to dissol(ed o8ygen in the JuidT A5B the falling
li?uid Flm has a Jat (elocity proFle 2ith (elocity ( ma8T A>B the
gas space al2ays contains 366b o8ygenT A5B the 2idth of the
li?uid Flm, W, is much larger than the length of the li?uid Flm, $.
a. &implify the general differential e?uation for %5 transfer. *f
your analysis suggests more than one dimension for Ju8,
pro(ide a simpliFed Ju8 e?uation for each coordinate of
interest.
". ,ro(ide one simpliFed differential e?uation in terms of the
Ju8es and another simpliFed differential e?uation in terms
of the o8ygen concentration c+.
c. $ist "oundary conditions associated 2ith the o8ygen mass
transfer process.
55.3> %ne 2ay to deli(er a timed dosage 2ithin the human
"ody is to ingest a capsule and allo2 it to settle in the gastro=
intestinal system. %nce inside the "ody, the capsule slo2ly
releases the drug to the "ody "y a diffusion=limited process.
+ suita"le drug carrier is a spherical "ead of a nonto8ic gela=
tinous material that can pass through the gastrointestinal system
,ro"lems @53
Well=mi8ed flo2ing "ul! fluid A+%B
+
Dead
tissue A-B
clump of
unhealthy
cells
*nert surface
+ D
+ D
R3 R5
the unhealthy cells stay 2ithin the unhealthy cells. Ho2e(er,
drug + can also degrade to inert meta"olite D "y the Frst=order
reaction on c+, i.e., + Q D, that occurs only 2ithin the stagnant
dead tissue.
&implify the general differential e?uation in terms for mass
transfer for drug +. &pecify the Fnal differential e?uation in
terms of /+ and again in terms of c+. &tate all assumptions as
necessary.
hapter
5;
&teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
*n this chapter, 2e 2ill direct our attention to descri"ing the steady=state transfer of
mass from a differential point of (ie2. To accomplish this tas!, the differential e?uation
and the "oundary conditions that descri"e the physical situation must "e esta"lished.
The approach 2ill parallel those pre(iously used in hapter 7 for the analysis of a
differential Juid element in laminar Jo2 and in hapter 39 for the analysis of a
differential (olume element of a ?uiescent material for steady=state heat conduction.
During our discussion of steady=state diffusion, t2o approaches 2ill "e used to
simplify the differential e?uations of mass transfer as recommended in &ection 5@.@.
First, Fic!Hs e?uation and the general differential e?uation for mass transfer can "e
simpliFed "y eliminating the terms that do not apply to the physical situation. &econd,
a material "alance can "e performed on a differential (olume element of the control
(olume for mass transfer. *n using "oth approaches, the student 2ill "ecome more
familiar 2ith the (arious terms in the general differential e?uation for mass transfer
NC /+ V
Yc+
U R+ P 6
Yt
A55=33B
To gain confidence in treating mass=transfer processes, 2e 2ill initially treat the sim=
plest case, steady=state diffusion in only one direction, 2hich is free of any chemical
production occurring uniformly throughout the process Ai.e., R+ P 6B. We 2ill then
o"tain solutions for increasingly more comple8 mass=transfer operations.
5;.3 %/E=D*ME/&*%/+$ M+&& TR+/&FER
*/DE,E/DE/T %F HEM*+$ RE+T*%/
*n this section, steady=state molecular mass transfer through simple systems in 2hich the
concentration and the mass Ju8 are functions of a single space coordinate 2ill "e consi=
dered. +lthough all four Ju8es, /+, n+, J+, and I+, may "e used to descri"e mass=transfer
operations, only the molar Ju8 relati(e to a set of a8es F8ed in space, /+, 2ill "e used in the
follo2ing discussions. *n a "inary system, the < component of this Ju8 is e8pressed "y
e?uation A5@=56B
/+T< P UcD+-
dy+
V y+ A/+T< V /-T< B
d<
A5@=56B
'nimolecular Diffusion
The diffusion coefFcient or mass diffusi(ity for a gas may "e e8perimentally measured in an
+rnold diffusion cell. This cell is illustrated schematically in Figure 5;.3. The narro2 tu"e,
@55
5;.3
Flo2 of gas -
%ne=Dimensional Mass Transfer *ndependent of hemical Reaction @5>
< N <5
/+<j<iR<
R<
/+< j<
< N <3
2hich is partially Flled 2ith pure li?uid +, is maintained at a constant tem=
perature and pressure. #as -, 2hich Jo2s across the open end of the tu"e, has a
negligi"le solu"ility in li?uid + and is also chemically inert to +. omponent +
(apori<es and diffuses into the gas phaseT the rate of (apori<ation may "e
physically measured and may also "e mathematically e8pressed in terms of the
molar mass Ju8.
Recall that the general differential e?uation for mass transfer is gi(en "y
Yc+NC /+ VU R+ P 6A55=33B
Yt
*n rectilinear coordinates, this e?uation is
Y/+8 Y/+y Y/+< Yc+
VVVU R+ P 6
Y8YyY<Yt
,ure li?uid +
Figure 5;.3 +rnold diffusion cell.
A55=59B
+ssume that A3B the mass=transfer process is at steady state 2ith Yc+ DYt P 6T A5B there is no
chemical production of + in the diffusion path so that R+ P 6T and A>B the diffusion is only
in the < direction, so that 2e are only concerned 2ith the < component of the mass flu8
(ector, /+. For this physical situation, e?uation A55=33B reduces to
d/+<
P6A5;=3B
d<
We can also generate this go(erning differential e?uation "y considering the mass transfer
occurring in the differential control (olume of & D<, 2here & is the uniform cross=sectional
area of the control (olume and D< is the depth of the control (olume. + mass "alance o(er
this control (olume for a steady=state operation, free of any chemical production of +, yields
&/+< I<VD< U &/+< I< P 6
Di(iding through "y the control (olume, & D<, and ta!ing limit as D< approaches <ero, 2e
once again o"tain e?uation A5;=3B.
+ similar differential e?uation could also "e generated for component -
d
/-T< P 6A5;=5B
d<
and, accordingly, the molar flu8 of - is also constant o(er the entire diffusion path from <3
to <5. onsidering only the plane at <3 and the restriction that gas - is insolu"le in li?uid
+, 2e reali<e that /-< at plane <3 is <ero and conclude that /-<, the net flu8 of -, is <ero
throughout the diffusion pathT accordingly, component - is a stagnant gas.
The constant molar Ju8 of + 2as descri"ed in hapter 5@ "y the e?uation
/+TB
dy+
V y+ A/+T< V /-T< B
d<
A5@=56B
This e?uation may "e integrated "et2een the t2o "oundary conditionsC
at < P <3
and
at < P <5
@5@ hapter 5; &teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
+ssuming the diffusion coefFcient to "e independent of concentration, and reali<ing from
e?uation A5;=3B that /+T< is constant along the diffusion path, 2e o"tain, "y integrating,
f <5f y+5
dy+
d< P cD+-UA5;=@B/+T<
3 U y+<3y+3
&ol(ing for /+T<, 2e o"tain
/+T< P
cD+-A3 U y+5 B
ln
A<5 U <3 B A3 U y+3 B
A5;=5B
The log=mean a(erage concentration of component - is defined as
y - U y -3
y-Tlm P 5
lnAy-5 Dy-3 B
or, in the case of a "inary mi8ture, this e?uation may "e e8pressed in terms of component
+ as follo2sC
y-Tlm P
A3 U y+5 B U A3 U y+3 By +3 U y + 5
P
ln\A3 U y+5 BDA3 U y+3 B^ ln\A3 U y+5 BDA3 U y+3 B^
cD+- Ay+3 U y+5 B
<5 U <3y-Tlm
A5;=;B
*nserting e?uation A5;=;B into e?uation A5;=5B, 2e o"tain
/+T< P
A5;=9B
E?uation A5;=9B may also "e 2ritten in terms of pressures. For an ideal gas
cP
and
y+ P
The e?uation e?ui(alent to e?uation A5;=9B is
/+T< P
D+- ,A p +3 U p +5 B
RTA<5 U <3 Bp-Tlm
A5;=7B
p+
,
n,
P
1 RT
E?uations A5;=9B and A5;=7B are commonly referred to as e?uations for steady=state
diffusion of one gas through a second stagnant gas. Many mass=transfer operations
in(ol(e the diffusion of one gas component through another nondiffusing componentT
a"sorption and humidification are typical operations defined "y these t2o e?uations.
E?uation A5;=7B has also "een used to descri"e the con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcients
"y the GGFlm conceptHH or Flm theory. *n Figure 5;.5, the Jo2 of gas o(er a li?uid surface is
Main gas stream
Flo2 of
gas -
$i?uid +
<Nd
< N 6 /+<
&lo2ly mo(ing
gas film
$i?uid +
Figure 5;.5 Film model for mass transfer of component + into a mo(ing gas stream.
5;.3 %ne=Dimensional Mass Transfer *ndependent of hemical Reaction @55
illustrated. The GGFlm conceptHH is "ased upon a model in 2hich the entire resistance to
diffusion from the li?uid surface to the main gas stream is assumed to occur in a stagnant or
laminar Flm of constant thic!ness d. *n other 2ords, for this model, d is a Fctitious length
2hich represents the thic!ness of a Juid layer offering the same resistance to molecular
diffusion as is encountered in the com"ined process of molecular diffusion and diffusion due
to the mi8ing "y the mo(ing Juid. *f this model is accurate, the con(ecti(e mass=transfer
coefFcient may "e e8pressed in terms of the gas diffusion coefFcient. *f <5 U <3 is set e?ual
to d, e?uation A5;=7B "ecomes
/+,6B, 2e ha(e
/+T< P !c Ac+3 U c+5 B
and
/+T< P
!c
A p + 3 U p +5 B
RT
D+- ,
p-Tlm d
D+- ,
A p +3 U p + 5 B
RTp-,lm d
omparison re(eals that the Flm coefFcient is e8pressed as
!c P
A5;=:B
2hen the diffusing component is transported through a nondiffusing gas. +lthough this
model is physically unrealistic, the GGfilm conceptHH has had educational (alue in supply=
ing a simple picture of a complicated process. The film concept has pro(ed fre?uently
misleading in suggesting that the con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefficient is al2ays directly
proportional to the mass diffusi(ity. %ther models for the con(ecti(e coefficient 2ill "e
discussed in this chapter and in hapter 57. +t that time 2e 2ill find that !c is a function
of the diffusion coefficient raised to an e8ponent (arying from 6.5 to 3.6.
Fre?uently, in order to complete the description of the physical operation in 2hich
mass is "eing transported, it is necessary to e8press the concentration proFle. Recalling
e?uation A5;=3B
d
/ +, B
/+,B
A5;=3B
2e can o"tain the differential e?uation that descri"es the (ariation in concentration along
the diffusing path. This e?uation is

dcD+- dy+
P6A5;=36BU
3 U y+ d<d<
+s c and D+- are constant under isothermal and iso"aric conditions, the e?uation
reduces to

d3 dy+
P6A5;=33B
d< 3 U y+ d<
@5; hapter 5; &teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
This second=order e?uation may "e integrated t2ice 2ith respect to < to yield
UlnA3 U y+ B P c3 < V c5
The t2o constants of integration are e(aluated, using the "oundary conditions
at < P <3
and
at < P <5 y+ P y+5
y+ P y+3
A5;=35B
&u"stituting the resulting constants into e?uation A5;=35B, 2e o"tain the follo2ing e8pres=
sion for the concentration proFle of component +C

3 U y+3 U y+5 A<U<3 BDA<5 U<3 B
A5;=3>BP
3 U y +33 U y+3
or, as y+ V y- P 3
y-
y -3
P

y-5 A<U<3 BDA<5 U<3 B
y-3
A5;=3@B
E?uations A5;=3>B and A5;=3@B descri"e logarithmic concentration profiles for "oth
species. The a(erage concentration of one of the species along the diffusion path may "e
e(aluated, as an e8ample for species -, "y
f <5
y- d<
<3
A5;=35B
y- P f <5
d< <3
'pon su"stitution of e?uation A5;=3@B into e?uation A5;=35B, 2e o"tain
f <5 A<U<3 BDA<5 U<3 B
y -5
d<
y -3<3y- P y- 3
<5 U <3
P
Ay-5 U y-3 BA<5 U <3 By - U y -3
P 5
lnAy-5 Dy-3 BA<5 U <3 B lnAy-5 Dy-3 B
W5;=;X P y-,lm
The follo2ing e8ample pro"lem illustrates the application of the foregoing analysis to a
mass=transfer situation.
EM+M,$E 3 1apor degreasers li!e the one sho2n in Figure 5;.> are 2idely used for cleaning metal parts. $i?uid
sol(ent rests at the "ottom of the degreaser tan!. + heating coil immersed in the sol(ent (apori<es a
small portion of the sol(ent and maintains a constant temperature, so that the sol(ent e8erts a constant
(apor pressure. The cold parts to "e cleaned are suspended in the sol(ent (apor <one 2here the
concentration of sol(ent (apors is highest. The sol(ent condenses on the part, dissol(es the grease,
and then drips "ac! do2n into the tan!, there"y cleaning the part. 1apor degreasers are often left open
to the atmosphere for ease of dipping and remo(ing parts and "ecause co(ering them might release an
e8plosi(e mi8ture. When the degreaser is not in use, molecular diffusion of the sol(ent (apor through
the stagnant air inside the headspace can result in signiFcant sol(ent emissions, "ecause the
surrounding atmosphere ser(es as an inFnite sin! for the mass=transfer process. +s the amount
5;.3
+tmosphere
< N <5 N 5 m
y+5 N 6
%ne=Dimensional Mass Transfer *ndependent of hemical Reaction @59
of sol(ent in the degreaser tan! is large relati(e to the amount of (apor
emitted, a steady=state diffusion process 2ith a constant diffusion path
&till airlength ta!es place.
+t present, a cylindrical degreaser tan! 2ith a diameter of 5 m
TE&till
and total height of 5 m is in operation, and the sol(ent le(el height isTE(apors (apors air
!ept constant at 6.5 m. The temperatures of the sol(ent and headspace
of the degreaser are "oth constant at >57. The sol(ent used for (apor
degreasing is trichloroethylene ATEB. urrent regulations re?uire that
the degreaser cannot emit more than 3.6 !g TE per day. Does the
Metalestimated emission rate of the degreaser e8ceed this limita TE has a
partmolecular 2eight of 3>3.@ gDmol and a (apor pressure of 335.5 mmHg
at >57. The "inary=diffusion coefFcient TE in air is 6.677 cm5Ds at
>57, as determined "y the FullerO&chettlerO#iddings correlation.1apor <one
The source of TE mass transfer is the li?uid sol(ent at the< N <3 N 6.5 m
Heater"ottom of the tan!, and the sin! for mass transfer is the surrounding
TE li?. >5g
D, N 6.355 atmosphere outside the tan!. The steady=state molecular diffusion Ju8y+3 N ,+
of TE (apor through the stagnant gas headspace of the degreaser in
1apor degreaser tan!
the < direction is descri"ed "y
5 m diameter
cD+-3 U y+5Figure 5;.> TE emissions from a (apor degreaser./+< Pln
<5 U <33 U y+3
2ith species + representing TE (apor and species - representing air. The total molar concentration
of the gas, c, is determined from the ideal gas la2.
cP
,3C6 atm!g mol
P 6C6>:;P
> atmRT 6C6756; mm>
A59> V >5B0!g mol C 0
The mole fraction of TE (apor at the sol(ent surface Ay+3 B is determined from the (apor pressure of
the sol(ent at >57.
,+ 335C3 mmHg 3C6 atm
Py +3 PP 6C355
,3C6 atm 9;6 mmHg
The mole fraction of TE (apor at the e8it of the degreaser tan! is ta!en as <ero Ay+5 P 6B, as
the surrounding atmosphere ser(es as an inFnite sin! for mass transfer. The path length for diffu=
sion is simply the difference "et2een the sol(ent le(el height and the top of the degreaser tan!
<5 U <3 P 5C6 m U 6C5 m P @C7 m
From these input (alues, the Ju8 of TE (apor from the degreaser is
Q

!g molcm5 3 m5
6C6>:;6C677
m>s W366 cmX53U6
ln/+< P
@C7 m3 U 6C355
P 3C3:9 ` 36U7
!g mol TE
m5 C s
The TE emissions rate AW+B is the product of the Ju8 and the cross=sectional area of the degreaser
tan! of diameter D
W+ P /+<
pD5!g mol TE pA5C6 mB5
P 3C3:9 ` 36U7
@@m5 C s
3>3C@ !g TE >;66 s 5@ h!g TE
P 6C@5>
!g mol TE3 h dayday
@57 hapter 5; &teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
The estimated TE (apor emission rate is "elo2 the current regulatory limit of 3.6 !g TE per day.
*n a real degreaser, it may "e difFcult to ensure a completely still gas space, as local air currents
induced from a (ariety of sources may occur. The air currents 2ould increase the mass=transfer Ju8
"y con(ection. onse?uently, this analysis considers only the limiting case for the minimum (apor
emissions from a diffusion=limited process.
,seudo=&teady=&tate Diffusion
*n many mass=transfer operations, one of the
"oundaries may mo(e 2ith time. *f the length
of the diffusion path changes a small amount
o(er a long period of time, a pseudo=steady=
state diffusion model may "e used. When this
condition e8ists, e?uation A5;=9B descri"es
the mass Ju8 in the stagnant gas Flm. Reconsider
Figure 5;.3, 2ith a mo(ing li?uid surface as
illustrated in Figure 5;.@. T2o surface le(els
are sho2n, one at time t6 and the other at time
t3. *f the difference in the le(el of li?uid + o(er
the time inter(al considered is only a small
fraction of the total diffusion path, and t3 U t6
is a relati(ely long period of time, at any instant
in that period the molar Ju8 in the gas phase may
"e e(aluated "y
/ +, < P
cD+- Ay+3 U y+5 B
<y-,lm
Flo2 of gas -
< N <5
/+<j< i R<
R<
/+<j<
< N <3 at t6
< N <3 at t3
,ure li?uid +
Figure 5;.@ +rnold diffusion cell 2ith
mo(ing li?uid surface.
A5;=9B
2here < is the length of the diffusion path at time t.
The molar Ju8 /+,f is related to the amount of + lea(ing the li?uid "y
/ +, < P
r+,$ d<
M+ dt
A5;=3;B
2here r+,$ DM+ is the molar density of + in the li?uid phase. 'nder pseudo=steady=state
conditions, e?uations A5;=9B and A5;=3;B may "e com"ined to gi(e
r+,$ d< cD+- Ay+3 U y+5 B
P
<y-,lmM+ dt
f f
A5;=39B
E?uation A5;=39B may "e integrated from t P 6 to t P t from < P <to to < P <t as follo2sC
r+,$ y-,lm DM+
dt P
cD+- Ay+3 U y+5 BtP6
t <t
< d<
<t6
This yields
tP
r+,$ y-,lm DM+
cD+,- Ay+3 U y+5 B
<5
t
U <56t
5
Q
A5;=37B
5;.3 %ne=Dimensional Mass Transfer *ndependent of hemical Reaction @5:
Therefore, for the pseudo=steady=state diffusion process, a plot of <5 U <56 (s. time t shouldtt
"e linear. Rearranging this e8pression, 2e o"tain the e?uation commonly used to e(aluate
the gas=diffusion coefficient from +rnold cell e8perimental data. This e?uation is
Q
r+,$ y-,lm DM+ <5 U <56ttD+- PA5;=3:B
cAy+3 U y+5 Bt5
+s illustrated "y the +rnold diffusion cell a"o(e, pseudo=steady=state diffusion
processes usually in(ol(e the slo2 depletion of the source or sin! for the mass=transfer
process 2ith time. -elo2, 2e consider another process that is modeled "y pseudo=steady=
state diffusion, the thermal o8idation of a silicon 2afer.
EM+M,$E 5 The formation of a silicon o8ide A&i%5B thin Flm on a silicon A&iB 2afer surface is an important step
in the fa"rication of solid=state microelectronic de(ices. + thin Flm of &i%5 ser(es as a "arrier to
dopant diffusion or as a dielectric insulator to isolate (arious de(ices "eing formed on the 2afer.
*n one common process, silicon is o8idi<ed "y e8posure to o8ygen A%5B gas at temperatures
a"o(e 9667
&iAsB V %5 AgB Q &i%5 AsB
Molecular %5 dissol(es into the &i%5 solid, diffuses through the &i%5 Flm, and then reacts 2ith &i
at the &iD&i%5 interface, as sho2n in Figure 5;.5. +ssuming that the diffusion of %5 through the
&i%5 Flm limits the o8idation process, de(elop a model to predict the thic!ness of the &i%5 layer AdB
as a function of time at 36667. The density of solid &i%5 Ar-B is 5.59 gDcm>, and the molecular
2eight of &i%5 AM-B is ;6 gDmol. The molecular diffusion coefFcient of %5 in &i%5 AD+-B is 5C9 `
36U: cm5 Ds at 36667, and the ma8imum solu"ility of %5 in &i%5 Ac+sB is :C; ` 36U7 mol %5 Dcm>
solid at 36667 and 3 atm %5 partial pressure, using data pro(ided "y /orton.3
%5AgB
<N6
c+ N c+s
<NS
c+d N 6
<N$
%5
&i%5 AnonporousB
&i AcrystallineB
&iAsB i %5 &i%5AsB
Figure 5;.5 Thermal o8idation
of a silicon 2afer.
The physical system is represented in the rectilinear coordinate system. The model de(elop=
ment follo2s the approach outlined earlier in &ection 55.@. The assumptions for model de(elopment
are listed here. A3B The o8idation of &i to &i%5 occurs only at the &iD&i%5 interface. The unreacted &i at
the interface ser(es as the sin! for molecular mass transfer of %5 through the Flm. A5B The %5 in the
gas phase a"o(e the 2afer represents an inFnite source for %5 transfer. The %5 molecules GGdissol(eHH
into the nonporous &i%5 solid at the gasDsolid interface. A>B The rate of &i%5 formation is controlled
"y the rate of molecular diffusion of %5 Aspecies +B through the solid &i%5 layer Aspecies -B
to the unreacted &i layer. The reaction is (ery rapid, so that the concentration of molecular
%5 at the interface is <ero, that is, c+,d P 6. Furthermore, there are no mass=transfer resistances
3
F. J. /orton, /ature, 3:3, 963 A3:;3B.
@;6 hapter 5; &teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
in the gas Flm a"o(e the 2afer surface, as %5 is a pure component in the gas phase. A@B The Ju8 of %5
through the &i%5 layer is one dimensional along coordinate <. A5B The rate of &i%5 Flm formation is
slo2 enough so that at a gi(en Flm thic!ness d, there is no accumulation of reactants or products
2ithin the &i%5 Flm. Ho2e(er, the thic!ness of the Flm 2ill still increase 2ith time. onse?uently,
this is a GGpseudo=steady=stateHH process. A;B The o(erall thic!ness of the 2afer does not change as the
result of the formation of the &i%5 layer. A9B The process is isothermal.
-ased on the pre(ious assumptions, the general differential e?uation for mass transfer
reduces to
d/+<
P6
d<
and Fic!Hs e?uation for one=dimensional diffusion of %5 Aspecies +B through crystalline solid &i%5
Aspecies -B is
/+< P UD+-
dc+ c+dc+ c+
V A/+< V /-< B P UD+-V /+<
d<cd<c
'sually, the concentration of molecular %5 in the &i%5 layer is dilute enough so that c+ Dc term is (ery
small in magnitude relati(e to the other terms. Therefore, Fic!Hs e?uation reduces to
/+< P UD+-
dc+
d<
*t is interesting to note here that unimolecular diffusion A'MDB Ju8 mathematically simpliFes to
the e?uimolar counter diffusion AEMDB Ju8 at dilute concentration of the diffusing species. +s
/+ is constant along <, the differential Ju8 e?uation can "e integrated directly follo2ing separation of
dependent (aria"le c+ from independent (aria"le <
fd
/+< d< P UD+-
6 c+s
6f
dc+
or simply
/+ solidB.
We !no2 that d increases slo2ly 2ith time, e(en though there is no accumulation term for %5
in the &i%5 layer. *n other 2ords, the process operates under the pseudo=steady=state assumption.
*n order to disco(er ho2 d increases 2ith time, consider an unsteady=state material "alance for &i%5
2ithin the 2afer
Amolar rate of &i%5 formationB P Amolar rate of accumulation of &i%5 B
or

r- &d
d
M-
Amolar rate of accumulation of &i%5 B P
dt
2here r- is the density of solid &i%5 A5.59 gDcm>B, M- is the molecular 2eight of the &i%5 layer
A;6 gDmolB, and & is the surface area of the 2afer. #i(en the stoichiometry of the reaction, one mole of
&i%5 is formed for e(ery mole of %5 consumed. Therefore,
Wrate of &i%5 formationX P /+< & P
D+- c+s
&
d
5;.3
or
%ne=Dimensional Mass Transfer *ndependent of hemical Reaction @;3
r- dd D+- c+s
P
M- dtd
&eparation of dependent (aria"le d from the independent (aria"le t, follo2ed "y integration at t P 6,
d P 6 to t P t, d P d gi(es
fd
6
M- D+- c+s
d dd P
r-
ft
dt
6
or
s^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
5M- D+- c+s

tdP
r-
The a"o(e e?uation predicts that the thic!ness of the &i%5 thin Flm is proportional to the s?uare root
of time. Recall that the molecular diffusion coefFcient of %5 in &i%5 AD+-B is 5C9 ` 36U: cm5 Ds at
36667, and the solu"ility of %5 in &i%5 Ac+sB is :C; ` 36U7 mol %5 Dcm> solid at 36667. Figure 5;.;
compares the predicted Flm thic!ness d (s. time to process data pro(ided "y Hess5 for 3 atm %5
at 36667. +s one can see, the model ade?uately predicts the data trend. The Flm is (ery thin, less
than 6.5 mm, in part "ecause the (alue for D+- c+s is so small.
6.@
Data
Model
&i%5 film
thic!ness, S
AmB
6.>
6.5
6.3
6.6
6 5 @ ; 736
Time, t AhB
35 3@ 3;
Figure 5;.; &i%5 Flm
thic!ness (s. time at
36667.
This e8ample illustrates ho2 a chemical reaction at a "oundary surface can ser(e as the dri(ing
force for molecular diffusion. This concept is formally presented in &ection 5;.5.
5
D. W. Hess, hem. Eng. Educ., 5@, >@ A3::6B.
E?uimolar ounterdiffusion
+ physical situation that is encountered in the distillation of t2o constituents 2hose molar
latent heats of (apori<ation are essentially e?ual stipulates that the Ju8 of one gaseous
component is e?ual to "ut acting in the opposite direction from the other gaseous compo=
nentT that is, /+T< P U/-T< . E?uation A55=33B
NC /+ V
Yc+
UR+ P 6
Yt
A55=33B
for the case of steady=state mass transfer 2ithout chemical reaction may "e reduced to
NC /+ P 6
For the transfer in the < direction, this e?uation reduces to
d
/ +, < P 6
d<
This relation stipulates that /+,< is constant along the path of transfer. The molar Ju8, /+, < ,
for a "inary system at constant temperature and pressure is descri"ed "y
/+,< P UD+-
dc+
V y+ A/+,< V /-,< B
d<
A5@=56B
The su"stitution of the restriction, /+,< P U/-,< , into the a"o(e e?uation gi(es an e?ua=
tion descri"ing the flu8 of + 2hen e?uimolar=counterdiffusion conditions e8ist
/+,< P UD+-
dc+
d<
A5;=56B
E?uation A5;=56B may "e integrated, using the "oundary conditions
at < P <3
and
at < P <5
gi(ing
/+,<
<3
c+ P c+3
c+ P c+5
f
c+5
c+3
f
<5
d< P UD+-
dc+
from 2hich 2e o"tain
/+,< P
D+-
Ac+ U c+5 B
A<5 U <3 B 3
A5;=53B
When the ideal gas la2 is o"eyed, the molar concentration of + is related to the partial
pressure of + "y
n+p+
c+ PP
1RT
&u"stituting this e8pression for c+ into e?uation A5;=53B, 2e o"tain
/+,< P
D+-
A p +3 U p +5 B
RTA<5 U <3 B
A5;=55B
E?uations A5;=53B and A5;=55B are commonly referred to as the e?uations for steady=state
e?uimolar counterdiffusion.
5;.5 %ne=Dimensional &ystems +ssociated 2ith hemical Reaction @;>
The concentration proFle for e?uimolar=counterdiffusion processes may "e o"tained
"y su"stituting e?uation A5;=56B into the differential e?uation 2hich descri"es transfer in the
< direction
d
/ +, < P 6
d<
or
d 5 c+
P6
d<5
This second=order e?uation may "e integrated t2ice 2ith respect to < to yield
c+ P 3 < V 5
The t2o constants of integration are e(aluated, using the "oundary conditions
at B
E?uations A5;=53B and A5;=5>B may "e used to descri"e any process 2here the "ul!=
contri"ution term is <ero. -esides the e?uimolar=counterdiffusion phenomenon, a neglig=
i"le "ul!=contri"ution term is also encountered 2hen a solute diffuses into or through a solid
as "oth the mole fraction, 8+, and the Ju8 of the diffusing species, /+< , are (ery small.
+ccordingly, their resulting product is therefore negligi"le.
*t is interesting to note that 2hen 2e consider the GGFlm conceptHH for mass transfer 2ith
e?uimolar counterdiffusion, the deFnition of the con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcient is differ=
ent from that for diffusion in a stagnant gas Flm. *n the case of e?uimolar counterdiffusion
!6 P
D+-
d
A5;=5@B
The superscript on the mass=transfer coefficient is used to designate that there is no net
molar transfer into the film due to the e?uimolar counterdiffusion. omparing e?uation
A5;=5@B 2ith e?uation A5;O:B, 2e reali<e that these t2o defining e?uations yield the same
results only 2hen the concentration of + is (ery small and p-Tlm is essentially e?ual to ,.
5;.5 %/E=D*ME/&*%/+$ &E&TEM& +&&%*+TED
W*TH HEM*+$ RE+T*%/
Many diffusional operations in(ol(e the simultaneous diffusion of a molecular species and
the disappearance or appearance of the species through a chemical reaction either 2ithin or
at the "oundary of the phase of interest. We distinguish "et2een the t2o types of chemical
reactions, deFning the reaction that occurs uniformly throughout a gi(en phase as a
homogeneous reaction and the reaction that ta!es place in a restricted region 2ithin or
at a "oundary of the phase as a heterogeneous reaction.
The rate of appearance of species + "y a homogeneous reaction appears in the general
differential e?uation of mass transfer as the source term, R+
NC /+ V
Yc+
U R+ P 6
Yt
A55=33B
@;@ hapter 5; &teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
E8amples of the source term, R+, include the Frst=order con(ersion of reactant + to product
,, thus R+ P U!3 c+ , 2here !3 is the Frst=order rate constant in 3Ds, and the second=order
reaction of reactants + and - to form the product , 2ith R+ P !5 c+ c- , 2here !5 is the
second=order rate constant in units cm5 Dmol [ s.
The rate of disappearance of + "y a heterogeneous reaction on a surface or at an
interface does not appear in the general differential e?uation as R+ in(ol(es only reactions
2ithin the control (olume. + heterogeneous reaction enters the analysis as a "oundary
condition and pro(ides information on the Ju8es of the species in(ol(ed in the reactionT for
e8ample, if the surface reaction is %5 AgB V AsB Q %5 AgB, the Ju8 of %5AgB 2ill "e the
same as the Ju8 of %5AgB, lea(ing in the opposite direction.
*n this section, 2e shall consider t2o simple cases in(ol(ing "oth types of chemical
reactions. For a treatment of more complicated pro"lems, the student is referred to the t2o
e8cellent treatises "y ran!> and Jost.@
&imultaneous Diffusion and Heterogeneous, First=%rder
hemical ReactionC Diffusion 2ith 1arying +rea
Many industrial processes in(ol(e the diffusion of a reactant to a surface 2here a chemical
reaction occurs. +s "oth diffusion and reaction steps are in(ol(ed in the o(erall process, the
relati(e rates of each step are important. When the reaction rate is instantaneous relati(e to
the rate of diffusion, then the process is diffusion controlled. *n contrast, 2hen the reaction
rate of the transferring species at the surface limits the mass=transfer rate, then the process is
reaction controlled.
*n many po2er plants, pul(eri<ed coal particles are Juidi<ed 2ithin a hot com"ustion
cham"er, 2here o8ygen in the air reacts 2ith coal to produce car"on mono8ide andDor car"on
dio8ide gas. This process, 2hich produces energy "y the heat of com"ustion, is an e8ample of a
simultaneous diffusion and a heterogeneous reaction process that is diffusion controlled.
$et us consider the steady=state, one=dimensional diffusion of o8ygen to the surface of a
spherical particle of coal along the r coordinate. +t the surface of the particle, o8ygen gas
A%5B reacts 2ith solid car"on AB in the
coal to form car"on mono8ide gas
&urrounding still airA%B and car"on dio8ide A%5B gas
according to the heterogeneous reac=
/% , r5tion e?uation
>AsB V 5C5%5 AgB Q 5%5 AgB V %AgB
as illustrated in Figure 5;.9. /o homo=
geneous chemical reaction occurs
along the diffusion path so that Ro5 P
6. +s the coal particle is o8idi<ed, the
particle shrin!s 2ith time as the car"on
is con(erted to car"on mono8ide and
car"on dio8ide. *t is desired to predict
the si<e of the particle 2ith time.
-ased on the a"o(e physical
situation, the general differential
R
Rr
r
/%
5, r
ar"on sphere
/%, r
Figure 5;.9 Diffusion through a spherical Flm.
>
@
J. ran!, The Mathematics of Diffusion, %8ford 'ni(ersity ,ress, $ondon, 3:59.
W. Jost, Diffusion in &olids, $i?uids and #ases, +cademic ,ress, /e2 Eor!, 3:55.
5;.5 %ne=Dimensional &ystems +ssociated 2ith hemical Reaction @;5
e?uation for mass transfer A55=5:B reduces from
Yc+ 3 YAr5 /+r B3 YA/+u sin uB3 Y/+f
V 5UR+ P 6VV
Yt rYrr sin uYur sin u Yf
to
3 dAr 5 /+r B
P6
r5dr
or
dAr 5 /+r B
P6A5;=55B
dr
2here + represents %5, the transferring species.
+s this is the Frst time 2e ha(e encountered diffusion through a (arying area, let us
also deri(e e?uation A5;=55B "y ma!ing a mass "alance in terms of moles of o8ygen per
time o(er the control (olume "ounded "y the spherical surfaces at r and r V Dr
/%5 r @pr r 5 Ir U /%5 r @pr 5 IrVDr P 6
A5;=5;B
A55=5:B
Di(iding e?uation A5;=5;B "y @p Dr and e(aluating the limit as Dr approaches <ero, 2e
o"tain
dAr 5 /%5 r B
P6A5;=55B
dr
is constant o(er the diffusion path in the r direction,
A5;=59B
This e?uation specifies that r 5 /%5 r
so that
r5 /%5 r Ir P R5 /%5 r IR
When 2e compare e?uation A5;=55B 2ith e?uation A5;=3B, 2e o"ser(e that for spherical
coordinates, r 5 /+r is constant along the r direction, 2hereas for rectilinear coordinates,
/+< is constant along the < direction.
Fic!Hs e?uation A5@=53B can "e simpliFed once 2e recogni<e the relationship
among the Ju8es of the in(ol(ed species. From the stoichiometry of the surface reaction,
2e recogni<e that 5.5 moles of o8ygen are transferred to the surface, 2hereas 5 moles of
car"on dio8ide per 3 mole of car"on mono8ide are transferred a2ay from the surface.
Therefore,
/%5 r P U5C5 /%r
and
/%5 r P U3C55 /%5 r
There is no net transfer of the nitrogen in the air, as it is an inert. Therefore, //5 P 6.
Fic!Hs e?uation can no2 "e 2ritten in terms of only o8ygen
/%5 r P UcD%5 =mi8
or
/%5 r

dy%533
V y%5 /%5 r U/% r U/% r V 6P UcD%5 =mi8
dr5C5 53C55 5
dy%5
V y%5 A/%5 r V /%r V /%5 r V //5 B
dr
onse?uently, Fic!Hs e?uation reduces to
/%5 r P U cD%5 =mi8
dy%5
U 6C5y%5 /%5 r
dr
@;; hapter 5; &teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
or
/ %5 r P U
cD%5 =mi8 dy%5
3 V 6C5 y%5 dr
A5;=57B
-oth sides of e?uation A5;=57B must "e multiplied "y r5 to o"tain the constant r 5 /%5 r
term. The diffusi(ity, D%5 =mi8 , and the total molar concentration, c, can "e treated as con=
stants if e(aluated at an a(erage temperature and an a(erage composition. T2o "oundary
conditions are also needed. +t the surface of the sphere, the reaction is instantaneous so
that the o8ygen concentration is <ero
r P R, y %5 P 6
Ho2e(er, a long r=distance a2ay from the sphere
r P 3,
Finally, e?uation A5;=57B "ecomes
f
Ar /%5 r B
2hich upon integration yields

3cD%5 =mi83
lnAr /%5 r BP
R3C6@56C5
5
5
R
3
y%5 P 6C53
f
6
drcD%5 =mi8
PU
r56C5
6C53
6C5 dy%5
3 V 6C5 y%5
The moles of o8ygen transferred per time is the product of the o8ygen Ju8 and the cross=
sectional area @pr 5
cD%5 =mi8
lnA3C6@5BA5;=5:B
6C5
*t is important to recogni<e that this e?uation predicts a negati(e (alue for the rate
of o8ygen "eing transferred. The reason is that the direction of o8ygen flu8 from the
"ul! gas to the particle surface is opposite to the increasing r direction from r P R to
r P 3.
The pure car"on particle is the source for the %5 Ju8 and the sin! for %5 Ju8. +s the
coal particle is o8idi<ed, there 2ill "e an output of car"on as stipulated "y the stoichiometry
of the reaction. +lthough the spherical particle 2ill decrease in si<e 2ith time, the diffusion
path from r P R to r P 3 2ill "e essentially constant 2ith time. This allo2s us to use a
pseudo=steady=state approach for descri"ing the material "alance on the car"on particle.
The material "alance for car"on stipulates that
W%5 P @pr 5 /%5 r P U@pR
Ainput car"on rateB U Aoutput car"on rateB P Arate of car"on accumulationB
The output rate of car"on from the spherical particle in mol Dtime is related to output rate of
%5 that is in turn related to the input mass transfer rate of %5
>>>cD%5 =mi8
W%5 P V@pRlnA3C6@5BW P W%5 P U
55C55C56C5
The car"on accumulation rate in the spherical particle in mol Dtime is
r d1rdR
P @pR5
dtM dtM
A5;=>6B
5;.5 %ne=Dimensional &ystems +ssociated 2ith hemical Reaction @;9
2here r is the density of solid car"on, M is the molecular 2eight of car"on, and 1 is the
total (olume of the solid car"on sphere. -y su"stituting these terms into the car"on "alance,
2e o"tain
6U
>cD%5 =mi8rdR
@pRlnA3C6@5B P @pR5
5C5dt6C5M
Rearrangement of this e?uation follo2ed "y separation of (aria"les R and t gi(es
u
f
U; cD%5 =mi8 lnA3C6@5B
6
dt P
r
M
Rff
R dR
Ri
2here Rf is the Fnal radius of the spherical particle, Ri is the initial radius of the particle, and
u is the time re?uired for the particle to shrin! from the initial to the Fnal radius. Follo2ing
integration, 2e o"tain the Fnal e8pression for estimating u
r 5
ARi U R5 Bf
M
uP
35 cD%5 =mi8 lnA3C6@5B
A5;=>3B
+lternati(e reaction e?uations may "e proposed for the com"ustion process. For
e8ample, if only car"on dio8ide 2ere produced "y the reaction
AsB V %5 AgB Q %5 AgB
A5;=>5B
then "ul! contri"ution term to Fic!Hs e?uation is <ero as /%5 r P U/%5 r . Therefore,
Fic!Hs e?uation reduces to
/%5 r P UcD%5 =mi8
dy%5
dr
2here the gas mi8ture consists of %5, %5, and /5. *t is not difFcult to sho2 that the moles
of o8ygen transferred per time is
W%5 P U@pRcD%5 =mi8 y%5 3
A5;=>>B
For heterogeneous reactions, information on the rate of the chemical reaction can also
pro(ide an important "oundary condition
/+ IrPR P U!s c+s
2here !s is the Frst=order reaction=rate constant for a surface reaction, in units of mDs. The
negati(e sign indicates that species + is disappearing at the surface. *f the chemical reaction
is instantaneous relati(e to the diffusion step, then the concentration of the reacting species
+ at the surface is essentially <eroT that is, c+s P 6, as 2e assumed a"o(e. Ho2e(er, if the
reaction is not instantaneous at the surface, then c+s 2ill "e Fnite.
onsider no2 that the reaction descri"ed "y e?uation A5;=>5B is not instantaneous, and
its heterogeneous rate e?uation can "e e8pressed as a Frst=order surface reaction 2ith
respect to %5. onse?uently, the %5 concentration at the surface is not e?ual to <ero. *n this
conte8t, it is easy to sho2 that e?uation A5;=>>B "ecomes
W%5 P U@pRcD%5 =mi8 Ay%5 3 U y%5 s B
A5;=>@B
2here y%5 3 is the mole fraction of %5 in the "ul! gas and y%5 s is the mole fraction of %5
at the surface Ar P RB. For a first=order surface reaction /+s IR P U!s c+s , the mole
fraction of %5 at the surface can "e e8pressed as
y %5 s P
c %5 s/% R
PU 5
c!s c
A5;=>5B
The minus sign indicates that the direction of %5 flu8 is opposite to increasing r. &u"sti=
tution of e?uation A5;=>5B into e?uation A5;=>@B yields

/%5 R
W%5 P U@pRcD%5 =mi8 y%5 3 VA5;=>;B
!s c
/o2 recall
W%5 P @pR5 /%5 R P @pR5 /%5 r
om"ination of e?uations A5;=>;B and A5;=59B to eliminate /%5 R results in

D%5 =mi85r /%5 r 3 VP URcD%5 =mi8 y%5 3
!s R
Finally, the o8ygen=transfer rate for the com"ined diffusion and reaction process is
@pRcD%5 =mi8 y%5 3
W%5 P UA5;=>9B
D%5 =mi8
3V
!s R
/ote that as !s gets (ery large, e?uation A5;=>9B is appro8imated "y e?uation A5;=>>B.
A5;=59B
EM+M,$E > + Juidi<ed coal reactor has "een proposed for a ne2 po2er plant. *f operated at 33@5 0, the process
2ill "e limited "y the diffusion of o8ygen countercurrent to the car"on dio8ide, %5, formed at
the particle surface. +ssume that the coal is pure solid car"on 2ith a density of 3C57 ` 36> !gDm> and
that the particle is spherical 2ith an initial diameter of 3C5 ` 36U@ m A356 mmB. +ir A53b %5 and
9:b /5B e8ists se(eral diameters a2ay from the sphere. 'nder the conditions of the com"ustion
process, the diffusi(ity of o8ygen in the gas mi8ture at 33@5 0 is 3C> ` 36U@ m5 Ds. *f a steady=state
process is assumed, calculate the time necessary to reduce the diameter of the car"on particle to
5 ` 36U5 m A56 mmB.
The surrounding air ser(es as an inFnite source for %5 transfer, 2hereas the o8idation of the car"on at
the surface of the particle is the sin! for %5 mass transfer. The reaction at the surface is
/ote that the reaction esta"lishes a EMD process 2here the Ju8 of %5 to the particle is e?ual to
"ut opposite in the direction of the %5 Ju8 a2ay from the particle, that is,
/%5 r P U/%5 r
+t the surface of the coal particle, the reaction is so rapid that the concentration of o8ygen is
<ero. 'nder this assumption, the instantaneous mass transfer of o8ygen to the surface of the coal
particle is
W%5 P U@pRcD%5 =mi8 y%5 3
A5;=>>B
The stoichiometry of the surface reaction stipulates that 3 atom of car"on 2ill disappear per each
mole of o8ygen reacting at the surface. Therefore,
W P W%5 P UW%5 P V@pRcD%5 =mi8 y%5 3
5;.5 %ne=Dimensional &ystems +ssociated 2ith hemical Reaction @;:
The total car"on "alance can "e 2ritten as
6 U @pRcD%5 =mi8 y%5 3 P
2hich simpliFes to
dt P U
rR dR
M cD%5 =mi8 y%5 3
rdR
@pR5
Mdt
This e?uation can "e integrated "et2een the follo2ing limits
t P 6, R P Ri P 9C5 ` 36U5 mA95 mmB
t P u, R P Rf P 5C5 ` 36U5 mA55 mmB
to gi(e
uP
r AR5 U R5 Bif
5M cD%5 =mi8 y%5 3
The total gas molar concentration, c, is o"tained "y the ideal gas la2
cP
,3C6 atm!g mol
PP 6C636;
> atmRT 6C6756; mm>
33@5 0
!g mol 0
Finally,

> !g AA9C5 ` 36U5 mB5 U A5C5 ` 36U5 mB5 B
3C57 ` 36 >
m
P 6C:5 suP
35 !g!g molm5
53C> ` 36U@A6C53B6C636;
s!g molm>
Diffusion 2ith a Homogeneous, First=%rder hemical Reaction
*n the unit operation of a"sorption, one of the constituents of a gas mi8ture is preferentially
dissol(ed in a contacting li?uid. Depending upon the chemical nature of the in(ol(ed
molecules, the a"sorption may or may not in(ol(e chemical
reactions. When there is a production or disappearance of the
diffusing component, e?uation A55=33B may "e used to analy<e the
<#as mi8ture
$i?uid
mass transfer 2ithin the li?uid phase. The follo2ing analysis
A + and inert gasBsurface
illustrates mass transfer that is accompanied "y a homogeneous
<N6
chemical reaction.
/+<j<onsider a layer of the a"sor"ing medium as illustrated in
R<
Figure 5;.7. +t the li?uid surface, the composition of + is c+6 . The
/+<j< iR<thic!ness of the Flm, d, is deFned so that "eyond this Flm the
concentration of + is al2ays <eroT that is, c+d P 6. *f there is (ery
$i?uid -little Juid motion 2ithin the Flm, and if the concentration of + in<NS
the Flm is assumed small, the molar Ju8 2ithin the Flm is des=
cri"ed "y
dc+
Figure 5;.7 +"sorption 2ith homogeneousA5;=>7B/+T< P UD+-
d<chemical reaction.
For one=directional steady=state mass transfer, the general differential e?uation of mass
transfer reduces to
d
/+T:B
2here !3 is the chemical reaction rate constant. &u"stitution of e?uations A5;=>7B and A5;=
@6B into e?uation A5;=>:B gi(es a second=order differential e?uation that descri"es simul=
taneous mass transfer accompanied "y a first=order chemical reaction

ddc+
D+-A5;=@3BUV !3 c+ P 6
d<d<
or 2ith a constant diffusion coefficient, this reduces to
UD+-
d 5 c+
V !3 c+ P 6
d<5
A5;=@5B
The general solution to e?uation A5;=@5B is

p p
c+ P c3 cosh !3 DD+- < V c5 sinh !3 DD+- <
The "oundary conditions
at B
permit the e(aluation of the t2o constants of integration. The constant c3 is e?ual to c+6 ,
andp
c5 is e?ual to UAc+6 BDWtanh !3 DD+- dB, 2here d is the thic!ness of the li?uid Flm.
&u"stituting these constants into e?uation A5;=@>B, 2e o"tain an e?uation for the concen=
tration proFle
p
p
c+6 sinh !3 DD+- <
p c +
P c+6 cosh !3 DD+- < UA5;=@@B
tanh !3 DD+- d
The molar mass flu8 at the li?uid surface can "e determined "y differentiating e?ua=
tion A5;=@@B and e(aluating the deri(ati(e, Adc+ Dd<BI<P6 . The deri(ati(e of c+ 2ith res=
pect to < is

p p
p p dc +c+6 !3 DD+-
cosh !3 DD+- <

p P V c +6 !3 DD+- sinh !3 DD+- < U
d<tanh !3 DD+- d
2hich, 2hen < e?uals <ero, "ecomes

p p
dc+ c+6 !3 DD+-c+6 !3 DD+-

p P
Up P6U
d< <P6tanh !3 DD+- dtanh !3 DD+- d

p Q
!3 DD+- dD+- c+6

p P
dtanh !3 DD+- d
A5;=@5B
&u"stituting e?uation A5;=@5B into e?uation A5;=>7B and multiplying "y dDd, 2e o"tain
/+,< I<P6
A5;=@;B
5;.5 %ne=Dimensional &ystems +ssociated 2ith hemical Reaction @93
*t is interesting to consider the simpler mass=transfer operation in(ol(ing the a"sorp=
tion of + into li?uid - 2ithout an accompanying chemical reaction. The molar Ju8 of + is
easily determined "y integrating e?uation A5;=>7B "et2een the t2o "oundary conditions,
gi(ing
D+- c+6
/+,< PA5;=@9B
d

p p
*t is apparent "y comparing the t2o e?uations that the term \A !3 DD+- dBDAtanh !3 DD+- dB^
sho2s the influence of the chemical reaction. This term is a dimensionless ?uantity, often
called the Hatta num"er.5
+s the rate of the chemical reaction increases, the reaction rate constant, !3,
increasesp
and the hyper"olic tangent term, tanh !3 DD+- d, approaches the (alue of 3.6. +ccordingly,
e?uation A5;=@;B reduces to
p
/+,< I<P6 P D+- !3 Ac+6 U 6B
+ comparison of this e?uation 2ith e?uation A55=>6B
/+T6B
re(eals that the film coefficient, !c, is proportional to the diffusion coefficient raised to
the 3 po2er. With a relati(ely rapid chemical reaction, component + 2ill disappear after
5
penetrating only a short distance into the a"sor"ing mediumT thus, a second model for
con(ecti(e mass transfer has "een proposed, the penetration theory model, in 2hich !c is
considered a function of D+- raised to the 3 po2er. *n our earlier discussion of another5
model for con(ecti(e mass transfer, the film theory model, the mass=transfer coefficient
2as a function of the diffusion coefficient raised to the first po2er. We shall reconsider
the penetration model in &ection 5;.@ and also in hapter 57, 2hen 2e discuss con(ecti(e
mass=transfer coefficients.
The follo2ing e8ample considers diffusion 2ith a homogeneous Frst=order chemical
reaction under a different set of "oundary conditions.
EM+M,$E @ Dilute concentrations of to8ic organic solutes can often "e degraded "y a GG"ioFlmHH attached to an
inert, nonporous solid surface. + "ioFlm consists of li(ing cells immo"ili<ed in a gelatinous matri8.
-ioFlms are not (ery thic!, usually less than a fe2 millimeters. + to8ic organic solute Aspecies +B
diffuses into the "ioFlm and is degraded to harmless products, hopefully %5 and 2ater, "y the cells
2ithin the "ioFlm. For engineering applications, the "ioFlm can "e appro8imated as a homogeneous
su"stance Ai.e., species -B. The rate of degradation of the to8ic solute per unit (olume of the "ioFlm is
descri"ed "y a !inetic rate e?uation of the form
R+ P U
R+, ma8 c+
0+ V c+
2here R+, ma8 is the ma8imum possi"le degradation rate of species + in the "ioFlm and 0+ AmolDcm> B is
the half=saturation constant for the degradation of species + 2ithin the "ioFlm at hand.
onsider the simple GGrotating dis!HH process unit sho2n in Figure 5;.: for the treatment of
phenol Aspecies +B in 2aste2ater. The "ioFlm contains a microorganism rich in the en<yme
pero8idase that o8idati(ely degrades phenol. The concentration of species + in the "ul!=Juid phase
o(er the "ioFlm is constant if the Juid phase is 2ell mi8ed. Ho2e(er, the concentration of + 2ithin
the "ioFlm 2ill decrease along the depth of the "ioFlm < as species + is degraded. There are no
5
&. Hatta, Technol. Rep. Toho!u *mp. 'ni(., 36, 3:: A3:>5B.
Waste2ater
feed stream
c+i N 6.3 molDm>
-iofilm
-iofilm cross section
c+o
c+A<B
*nert solid
surface
Well=mi8ed contactor
Treated
2aste2ater
c+o
-iofilm
<N6 <Nd
dc+
N6
d<
Figure 5;.: -ioFlm for 2aste2ater treatment.
resistances to con(ecti(e mass transfer across the Juid "oundary layer "et2een the "ul! Juid and
the "ioFlm surface. Furthermore, phenol is e?ually solu"le in "oth 2ater and the "ioFlm, and the
density difference "et2een the "ioFlm and 2ater can "e neglected, so that the surface concentration
of phenol in the a?ueous phase e?uals the surface concentration of phenol in the gel phase Iust inside
the "ioFlm, that is, at per hour of 2aste2ater containing 6C3 molDm> of the to8ic su"=
stance phenol. *f the "ioFlm thic!ness is 5.6 mm A6.665 mB, 2hat is the re?uired surface area of
the "ioFlm necessary to achie(e the desired outlet concentration of 6C65 molDm> a The !inetic
and mass=transport properties for the "ioFlm at hand are 0+ P 6C> molDm> , R+T ma8 P 5C9`
36U> molDm> [ s, and D+- P 5C6 ` 36U36 m5 Ds at the process temperature of 557.
The source for phenol mass transfer is the inlet 2aste2ater stream, 2hereas the sin! for mass
transfer is the steady=state consumption of phenol 2ithin the "ioFlm. First, a steady=state process
material "alance is performed on the contactor to determine the re?uired rate of phenol degradation.
+ material "alance on species + on the process unit is
Arate of phenol degradedB P Arate of phenol added to processB U Arate of phenol e8iting processB
or
6C3 m>molmol
W+ P ni c+i U no c+o ^ no Ac+i U c+o B PA6C3 U 6C65B > P 7C6 ` 36U>
hmh
2here the su"script GGiHH represents the inlet stream and su"script GGoHH represents the outlet stream.
/ote that c+o is the "ul! concentration of phenol inside the contactor. The "ioFlm possesses sla"
geometry "est descri"ed "y rectilinear coordinates. The rate of degradation W+ is proportional to the
Ju8 of species + into the "ioFlm at < P 6

dc+

W+ P &C /+< P &C UD+-
d< <P6
2here & is the re?uired surface area of the "ioFlm. +t lo2 concentrations 2here 0+ B c+ , the a"o(e
rate e?uation appro8imates a Frst=order process 2ith respect to c+
R+ P U
R+,ma8 c+R+,ma8
Ûc+ P U!3 c+
0+ V c+0+
5;.5
2ith !3 e?ual to
%ne=Dimensional &ystems +ssociated 2ith hemical Reaction @9>
U> mol
R+Tma8 5C9 ` 36 m> [ s
!3 PPP 3C: ` 36U5 sU3
mol0+
6C> >
m
The Ju8 can "e o"tained from the concentration proFle. Recall e?uation A5;=@5B for one=
dimensional, steady=state diffusion 2ith a homogeneous Frst=order chemical reaction
D+-
d 5 c+
U !3 c+ P 6
d<5
A5;=@5B
Recall also that this homogeneous second=order differential e?uation has a general solution of the
form
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
A5;=@>Bc+ A<B P c3 coshA< !3 DD+- B V
c5 sinhA< !3 DD+- B
2here c3 and c5 are integration constants to "e determined "y application of the "oundary conditions.
The "ioFlm is immo"ili<ed onto a nonporous solid surface. Therefore, the Ju8 at < P d is <ero.
onse?uently, the "oundary conditions are
< P d,
< P 6,
dc+
P6
d<
c+ P c+s P c+o
/ote that the "oundary conditions pre(iously discussed are different from the ones descri"ed
earlier to de(elop e?uations A5;=@@B and A5;=@;B. With a little math and a fe2 handy identities for
hyper"olic functions that can "e found in any calculus te8t, the concentration proFle is
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
c+o coshAAd U <B !3 DD+- B
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^Â5;=@7Bc+ A<B P
coshAd !3 DD+- B
and

p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^dc+
P Uc+o !3 DD+- tanhAd !3 DD+- B
d< <P6
From this, the Ju8 of phenol into the "ioFlm is
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^D+- c+o p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Ad !3 DD+- B tanhAd !3 DD+- B/+ I<P6 P
d
*t is useful Frst to calculate the dimensionless parameter, F, the Thiele modulusC
(^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
u
r^^^^^^^^û 3C: ` 36U5 3
u!3s
FPdP 6C665 muP 3:C@:
t
D+-m5
U365 ` 36
s
A5;=@:B
This parameter represents the ratio of reaction rate to diffusion rate. When F is less than 6.3, tanh AFB
essentially e?uals <ero and
[5D+- c+o U p^^^^^
d !3 D+-/+ I<P6 P
d
the reaction rate is (ery rapid AcontrollingB relati(e to the rate of diffusion. When F is greater than
5, tanh AFB b 3.6 and
[D+- c+o U p^^^^^
/+< I<P6 Pd !3 D+-
d
6.655
oncentration,
+AB
6.656
6.635
6.636
6.665
6.666
6.66 6.56 6.@66.;6
Depth into "iofilm, < AmmB
6.76 3.66
Figure 5;.36 ,henol concentration proFle in "ioFlm.
The rate of diffusion is said to control. *n our e8ample, the molecular diffusion Ju8 of phenol through
the "ioFlm (ery strongly inJuences the o(erall phenol degeneration rate. The Ju8 of phenol into the
"ioFlm is

m5mol
6C65 >5 ` 36U36 smolm
/+< PA3:C@:Btanh A3:C@:B P >C: ` 36U7 5
m Cs6C665 m
Finally, the re?uired surface area of the "ioFlm is "ac!ed out from the re?uired degradation rate and
the Ju8
W+
P
/+<
7C6 ` 36U>
mol 3 h
h >;66 s
P 59C6 m5
mol
>C: ` 36U7 5m Cs
&P
The steady=state concentration proFle c+ W<X 2ithin the "ioFlm is sho2n in Figure 5;.36. *t is
interesting to note that concentration proFle rapidly goes to <ero 2ithin the Frst millimeter of the
"ioFlm, again illustrating a strong diffusional resistance to the phenol degradation reaction.
5;.> TW%= +/D THREE=D*ME/&*%/+$ &E&TEM&
*n &ections 5;.3 and 5;.5, 2e ha(e discussed pro"lems in 2hich the concentration and the
mass transfer 2ere functions of a single=space (aria"le. +lthough many pro"lems fall into
this category, there are systems in(ol(ing irregular "oundaries or nonuniform concentra=
tions along the "oundary for 2hich the one=dimensional treatment may not apply. *n such
cases, the concentration proFle may "e a function of t2o or e(en three spatial coordinates.
*n this section, 2e shall re(ie2 some of the methods for analy<ing molecular mass
transfer in t2o= and three=dimensional systems. +s the transfer of heat "y conduction is
analogous to molecular mass transfer, 2e shall Fnd the analytical, analogical, and numerical
techni?ues descri"ed in hapter 39 to "e directly applica"le.
+n analytical solution to any transfer pro"lem must satisfy the general differ=
ential e?uation descri"ing the transfer as 2ell as the "oundary conditions speciFed "y
the physical situation. + complete treatment of the analytical solutions for t2o= and
5;.> T2o= and Three=Dimensional &ystems @95
three=dimensional systems re?uires a prior !no2ledge of partial differential e?uation and
comple8 (aria"le theory. +s most of this material is too ad(anced for an introductory course,
2e shall limit our discussions to a relati(ely simple t2o=dimensional e8ample. ran!; has
2ritten an e8cellent treatise dealing e8clusi(ely 2ith mathematical solutions for more
comple8 diffusion pro"lems.
The classical approach to the e8act solution of the $aplace e?uation is the
y
separation of (aria"les techni?ue. We 2ill illustrate this approach "y considering the
c+ N c+A8Bsteady=state diffusion in a t2o=dimensional cloth strip that is used to deli(er an
$
insecticide to the surrounding atmosphere. There is no chemical reaction 2ithin the
strip.
onsider a thin rectangular cloth strip, W units 2ide and $ units long. The top of
the strip is immersed in an insecticide source at y P $. omponent + diffuses from
c+ N 6c+ N 6
this source do2n the strip to the three surfaces 2here it lea(es "y con(ecti(e mass
transfer. Figure 5;.33 illustrates the strip and the assumed "oundary conditions. The
concentration at the surface, y P $, 2ill "e e8pressed functionally as c+ A8B, although
it physically is often a constant concentration, c+o . The con(ecti(e mass transfer8c+ N 66W
from the three surfaces maintains <ero surface concentrations. Due to the lo2
Figure 5;.33 T2o=dimensional
concentration and lo2 Ju8 of + 2ithin the solid strip, the "ul! contri"ution term in
model for insecticide transport.
the Fic!Hs e?uation is negligi"le.
The general differential e?uation for mass transfer A55=59B can "e simpliFed to produce
the descri"ing partial differential e?uation.
or
Y/+8 Y/+y
VP6
Y8Yy
With negligi"le "ul! contri"ution terms, the t2o Fic!Hs e?uations are
/+8 P UD+-
and
/+y P UD+-
dc+
dy
dc+
d8
A5;=56B
'pon su"stitution of these Ju8es into the partial differential e?uation and 2ith the
assumption of constant diffusi(ity, one o"tains
Y 5 c+ Y 5 c+
V 5 P6
Y85Yy
A5;=53B
E?uation A5;=53B is a linear, homogeneous partial differential e?uation. This type of
e?uation can often "e integrated "y assuming a product solution of the form
c+ A8T yB P MA8BEAyB
A5;=55B
;
@9; hapter 5; &teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
2here MA8B is a function of 8 only and EAyB is a function of y only. 'pon su"stituting
e?uation A5;=55B into e?uation A55=53B, 2e o"tain an e8pression in 2hich the (aria"les are
separated
U
3 d5 M 3 d5 E
P
M d85 E dy5
A5;=5>B
The left=hand side of this e?uation is a function of 8 only, 2hereas the right=hand side is a
function of y only. +s neither side can change as 8 and y (ary, "oth must "e e?ual to a
constant, say l5. We ha(e, therefore, t2o ordinary differential e?uations
d5 M
Vl5 M P 6
5d8
and
d5 E
Ul5 E P 6
5dy
The general solution to e?uation A5;=5@B is
M P + cosl8 V - sin l8
and the general solution to e?uation A5;=55B is
E P DeUly V Eely
A5;=59B
A5;=5;B
A5;=55B
A5;=5@B
+ccording to the e?uation A5;=@7B, the concentration is defined in terms of the product
MET conse?uently,
c+ P A+ cos l8 V - sin l8BADeUly V Eely B
at 8 P 6
at 8 P W
at y P 6
and
at y P $ c+ P c+ A8B
The constants in e?uation A5;=57B may "e e(aluated "y the follo2ing su"stitutionsC for the
Frst condition at 8 P 6
+ADeUly V Eely B P 6
for the second condition at 8 P W
A+ cos lW V - sin lWBADeUly V Eely B P 6
and for the third condition, at y P 6
A+ cos l8 V - sin l8BAD V EB P 6
The third condition can "e satisFed only if D P UE, and the Frst condition only if + P 6.
'sing these results, the second condition simpliFes to
D- sin l WAeUly U ely B P 5D- sin l W sinh ly P 6
A5;=5:B
c+ P 6
c+ P 6
c+ P 6
A5;=57B
2here +, -, D, and E are constants to "e e(aluated from the four "oundary conditions
/either - nor D can "e <ero if a solution other than the tri(ial solution c+ P 6 throughout
the passage is desired. +s this e8pression is true for all y (alues, the condition specified
5;.> T2o= and Three=Dimensional &ystems @99
"y e?uation A5;=5:B can only "e satisfied if sin lW is <eroT that is, l P npDW,
2here n P 3T 5T >T . . . . There e8ists a different solution for each integer n and each
solution has a separate integration constant +n. &umming these solutions, 2e o"tain
c+ P c +n sin
nP3
3
np8npy
sinh
WW
A5;=;6B
The last "oundary condition, at y P $, stipulates
c+ P c+ A8B P c +n sin
nP3
3
np8np$
sinh
WW
A5;=;3B
The constant +n can "e e(aluated from e?uation A5;=;3B, once the profile of c+ A8B is gi(en
at the surface, y P $. +n e?uation descri"ing the (ariation of c+ 2ith 8 and y can "e
o"tained, after su"stituting the (alue of +n into e?uation A5;=5;B.
The separation=of=(aria"les method can "e e8tended to three=dimensional cases "y
assuming that c+ is e?ual to the product MA8BEAyBfA<B, and su"stituting this e8pression for
c+ into the differential e?uation. *f the (aria"les can "e separated, three second=order
ordinary differential e?uations are o"tained 2hich may "e integrated "y using the gi(en
+nother e8ample of a t2o=dimensional steady=state diffusion process is encountered
in the deposition of a silicon dio8ide A&i%5B thin Flm onto a 2afer surface. %ne
manufacturer uses the decomposition of tetraetho8ysliane ATE%&B (apor "y the follo2=
ing reactionC
&iA%5 H5 B@ AgB Q @5 H@ AgB V 5H5 %AgB V &i%5 AsB
*n this process, TE%& is carried to the diffusion furnace in a dilute A3 molb TE%&B helium
carrier gas from 2hich the TE%& diffuses to (ertically stac!ed silicon 2afers, circular in
shape, 2hich are held in place "y a thin support. The region "et2een the t2o nonporous
silicon 2afers is sho2n in the follo2ing Fgure.
Feed gas
TE%&
&ilicon
2afer
dis!
c+%
&tagnant
gas
<
r
R
$
c+%
The concentration of TE%& in the gas space Iust outside of the (ertically stac!ed
2afer, c+o , is assumed to "e constant. The gas space "et2een the 2afers is stagnant. TE%&
(apors diffuse do2n into the gas space and then react on the 2afer surface. +s the
temperature of the diffusion is maintained (ery high, the surface reaction is e8tremely
rapid and the o(erall rate of &i%5 formation is limited "y the diffusion of the TE%& to the
2afer surface.
%ur analysis 2ill focus on this GGinter2aferHH region. The system is descri"ed in
cylindrical coordinates, 2here the r=direction transfer is parallel to the 2afer surface
and the <=direction transfer is normal to the 2afer surface. The general differential e?uation
for the mass transfer of TE%& Aspecies +B is
Q
Yc+3 YAr/+r B 3 Y/+u Y/+<
VVVP R+
r Yrr YuYtY<
Due to the slo2 gro2th of the silicon dio8ide Flm, this is a pseudo=steady=state process,
Yc+ NYt P 6T there is no homogeneous reaction 2ithin the diffusion path, R+ P 6T and the
diffusion occurs only in the r and < directions. The e?uation simpliFes to
3 YAr/+r B Y/+<
VP6
r YrY<
Recogni<ing that the gas space "et2een the 2afers is stagnant and that the gas is (ery
dilute in TE%&, 2e 2ill assume that there is negligi"le contri"ution to either of the t2o
Fic!Hs e?uationsC
dy+dy+
and /+< P UcD+-/+r P UcD+-
drd<
These t2o e?uations can "e further simpliFed upon the assumption that at the furnaceHs
temperature and pressure, "oth c and D+- are constant. -y using these assumptions, the
general differential e?uation for the mass transfer of TE%& can "e simpliFed in terms of
the concentration of TE%&, c+.
Q
Y 5 c+ 3 Yc+ Y 5 c+
V 5 P6
D+-V
r YrYr 5Y<
To sol(e this differential e?uation, 2e need four "oundary conditionsC
Yr P R
Yr P 6
Y< P 6
and
c+ AR, <B P c+o
Yc+ A6T <B
P6
Yr
c+ ArT 6B P 6
due to the rapid reaction on 2afer surface

$
Yc+ r,
$5
Y< PP6
5Yr
midpoint "et2een t2o 2afers
+ sample solution e(aluated on the %&' FEM$+-, using a partial differential e?uation
sol(er, is illustrated in the Fgure "elo2.
rNR
< N $D5
&ource
rNR
<N6
&ample predictions
on FEM$+-
&in!
$inearlines of
concentration, c+
+rro2s, diffusion
flu8, n+
rN6
< N $D5
r N6
<N6
5;.@ &imultaneous Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer @9:
5;.@ &*M'$T+/E%'& M%ME/T'M, HE+T, +/D M+&& TR+/&FER
*n pre(ious sections, 2e ha(e considered steady=state mass transfer independent of the other
transport phenomena. Many physical situations in(ol(e the simultaneous transfer of mass
and either energy or momentum, and in a fe2 cases, the simultaneous transfer of mass,
energy, and momentum. The drying of a 2et surface "y a hot, dry gas is an e8cellent e8ample
in 2hich all three transport phenomena are in(ol(ed. Energy is transferred to the cooler
surface "y con(ection and radiationT mass and its associated enthalpy are transferred "ac!
into the mo(ing gas stream. The simultaneous transport processes are more comple8,
re?uiring the simultaneous treatment of each transport phenomenon in(ol(ed.
*n this section, 2e consider t2o e8amples in(ol(ing the simultaneous transfer of mass
and a second transport phenomenon.
&imultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer
#enerally, a diffusion process is accompanied "y the transport of energy, e(en 2ithin an
isothermal system. +s each diffusing species carries its o2n indi(idual enthalpy, a heat Ju8
at a gi(en plane is descri"ed "y
n
?DP c /i H iA5;=;5B
+iP3
2here ?D D+ is the heat flu8 due to the diffusion of mass past the gi(en plane and H i is the
partial molar enthalpy of species i in the mi8ture. When a temperature difference e8ists,
energy 2ill also "e transported "y one of the three heat=transfer mechanisms. For e8ample,
the e?uation for total energy transport "y conduction and molecular diffusion "ecomes
n
?P U!NT V c /i H i
+iP3
A5;=;>B
*f the heat transfer is "y con(ection, the first energy=transport term in e?uation A5;=;>B
2ould "e replaced "y the product of the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefficient and a DT
dri(ing force.
+ process important in many engineering processes as 2ell as in day=to=day
ondensate
-oundary ofe(ents in(ol(es the condensation of a (apor upon a cold surface. E8amples of this
li?uid film
gas film
process include the GGs2eatingHH on cold 2ater pipes and the condensation of moist
(apor on a cold 2indo2 pane. Figure 5;.35 illustrates the process that in(ol(es a
Flm of condensed li?uid Jo2ing do2n a cold surface and a Flm of gas through
2hich the condensate is transferred "y molecular diffusion. This process in(ol(es
the simultaneous transfer of heat and mass.T N T A<B
T3
The follo2ing conditions 2ill "e stipulated for this particular steady=state
physical situation. ,ure component + 2ill condense from a "inary gas mi8ture. -y
T5
psychrometry, the composition, y+, and the temperature, T3, are !no2n at the plane
y+ N y+A<By+3
<3. The temperature of the condensing surface, T>, is also !no2n. -y heat=transferT>
considerations, the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcients for the condensate li?uid
Flm and the gas Flm can "e calculated from e?uations gi(en in hapter 56. For
y+5
e8ample, in the gas phase, 2hen the carrier gas is air and the (apor content of the
diffusing species is relati(ely lo2, the heat=transfer coefFcient for natural con=
(ection can "e estimated "y e?uation A56=5B
<> <5 <3
36C;96Ra$D@
/u$ P 6C;7 V
\3 V A6C@:5D,rB:D3; ^@D:
Figure 5;.35 1apor condensation
on a cold surface.
A56=5B
'sing the general differential e?uation for mass transfer, e?uation A55=33B, 2e see that
the differential e?uation that descri"es the mass transfer in the gas phase is
d
/+, < P 6A5;=;@B
d<
E?uation A5;=;@B stipulates that the mass flu8 in the < direction is constant o(er the
diffusion path. To complete the description of the process, the proper form of Fic!Hs la2
must "e chosen. *f component + is diffusing through a stagnant gas, the flu8 is defined "y
e?uation A5;=>B
UcD+- dy+
A5;=>B
3 U y+ d<
+s a temperature profile e8ists 2ithin the film, and the diffusion coefficient and total gas
concentration (ary 2ith temperature, this (ariation 2ith < must often "e considered.
/eedless to say, this complicates the pro"lem and re?uires additional information "efore
e?uation A5;=>B can "e integrated.
When the temperature proFle is !no2n or can "e appro8imated, the (ariation in
the diffusion coefFcient can "e treated. For e8ample, if the temperature proFle is of the
form
n
T<
PA5;=;5B
T3<3
/ +, D5 >nD5
T<
P D+- IT3P D+- IT3
T3<3
A5;=;;B
The (ariation in the total concentration due to the temperature (ariation can "e e(aluated
"y
cP
The Ju8 e?uation no2 "ecomes
nD5
U,D+- IT3<dy+
/+, < P
RT3 A3 U y+ B <3d<
A5;=;9B
,,
P
RT RT3 A<D<3 Bn
This is the same approach used in E8ample 35.5, 2hich discussed heat transfer "y con=
duction 2hen the thermal conducti(ity 2as a (aria"le.
%(er a small temperature range, an a(erage diffusion coefFcient and the total molar
concentration may "e used. With this assumption, e?uation A5;=>B simpliFes to
AcD+- Ba(g dy+
A3 U y+ B d<
*ntegrating this e?uation "et2een the "oundary conditions
/+T < P U
at < P <3
and
at < P <5 y+ P y+ 5
y + P y +3
A5;=;7B
5;.@ &imultaneous Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer @73
2e o"tain the relation
/ +, < P
AcD+- Ba(g Ay+3 U y+5 B
A<5 U <3 By-, lm A5;=;:B
The temperature, T5, is needed for e(aluating AcD+- Ba(g , the temperature difference
"et2een the li?uid surface and the adIacent (apor, and the (apor pressure of species + at
the li?uid surface. This temperature may "e e(aluated from heat=transfer considerations.
The total energy flu8 through the li?uid surface also passes through the li?uid film. This
can "e e8pressed "y
? B P hc AT3 U T5 B V /+, < M+ AH3 U H5 BA5;=96B
+
2here hli?uid is the con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefficient in the li?uid film, hc is the natural
con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefficient in the gas film, M+ is the molecular 2eight of +, and
H3 and H5 are the enthalpies of the (apor at plane 3 and the li?uid at plane 5, respecti(ely,
for species + per unit mass. *t is important to reali<e that there are t2o contri"utions to the
energy flu8 entering the li?uid surface from the gas film, con(ecti(e heat transfer and the
energy carried "y the condensing species.
To sol(e e?uation A5;=96B, a trial=and=error solution is re?uired. *f a (alue for the
temperature of the li?uid surface is assumed, T5, hc, and WcD+- Xa(g may "e calculated. The
e?uili"rium composition, y+5 , can "e determined from thermodynamic relations. For
e8ample, if RaoultHs la2 holds
p +5 P 8 + , +
2here 8+ for a pure li?uid is 3.6, and the partial pressure of + a"o(e the li?uid surface is e?ual
to the (apor pressure ,+. -y DaltonHs la2, the mole fraction of + in the gas immediately
a"o(e the li?uid is
p+ 5,+
or
,,
2here , is the total pressure of the system and ,+ is the (apor pressure of + at the assumed
temperature T5. 0no2ing AcD+- Ba(g and y+5 , 2e can e(aluate /+< "y e?uation A5;=;:B.
The li?uid=Flm heat=transfer coefFcients can "e e(aluated, using e?uations presented in
hapter 56. + (alue is no2 !no2n for each term in e?uation A5;=96B. When the left= and
right=hand sides of the e?uation are e?ual, the correct temperature of the li?uid surface has
"een assumed. *f the initially assumed temperature does not yield an e?uality, additional
(alues must "e assumed until e?uation A5;=96B is satisFed.
There are se(eral industrial=unit operations in 2hich heat and mass transfer "et2een gas
and li?uid phases occur simultaneously. Distillation, humidiFcation or dehumidiFcation of
air, and 2ater cooling are such operations. *n early space e8ploration, the cooling of the
reentry (ehicles "y su"limation of a"lati(e material is another e8ample 2here simultaneous
transfer played an important engineering role.
*n the follo2ing e8ample, consideration of the simultaneous transfer of mass and heat is
re?uired to predict the Ju8 relations descri"ed "y Fic!Hs la2.
y +5 P
EM+M,$E 5 +n ethanolD2ater (apor mi8ture is "eing distilled "y contact 2ith an ethanolD2ater li?uid solution.
The ethanol is transferred from the li?uid to the (apor phase and the 2ater is transferred in the
opposite direction. The condensation of 2ater (apor pro(ides the energy for (apori<ation of ethanol.
-oth components are diffusing through a gas Flm 6.3 mm thic!. The temperature is >;7 0 and the
pressure is 3C63> ` 365 ,a. +t these con=
ditions, the pure component enthalpie of
(apori<ation of the ethanol and 2ater are
7@6 and 5>66 !JD!g, respecti(ely. De(elop
the Ju8 e?uation for ethanol (apor. Then
de(elop the Ju8 e?uation assuming that
the components ha(e e?uimolar heats of
(apori<ation.
We 2ill assume a one=dimensional,
adia"atic molecular mass=transfer process
across a gas Flm of thic!ness d, as illustra=
ted in Figure 5;.3>. For one=dimensional,
steady=state mass transfer, the general dif=
ferential e?uation for mass transfer of
ethanol simpliFes to
d/Et%H, <
P6
d<
For a "inary gas=phase mi8ture, Fic!Hs
e?uation is
/Et%H, +dia"atic rectiFcation of an ethanolD
2ater mi8ture.
We perform an energy "alance to relate the Ju8 of ethanol (apor to the Ju8 of 2ater (apor. *f the
distillation operation is adia"atic, then all of the energy released 2hen the 2ater condenses must
e?ual the energy used to produce the alcohol (apor. The energy "alance is
/Et%H, < DHy, Et%H P U/H5 %, < DHy, H5 %
or

!J!g!J!g
U/Et%H, < 7@6@;P /H5 %, < 5>6637
!g!g mol!g!g mol
/Et%H, , the Ju8 of ethanol is
opposite in direction to the Ju8 of 2ater. &u"stituting this relationship into Fic!Hs e?uation, 2e o"tain
/Et%H, < P U
cDEt%HUH5 % dyEt%H
3 V 6C693yEt%H d<
f
d< P UcDEt%HUH5 %
+s the Ju8 is constant along the < direction, this e?uation can "e integrated directly to o"tain
f
/Et%H, <
6
d yEt%HT 5
yEt%HT 3
dyEt%H
3 V 6C693yEt%H
or
cDEt%HUH5 %
ln/ Et%H, < P
6C693d
3 V 6C693yEt%HT3
3 V 6C693yEt%HT5
/o2 consider a simpliFed case 2here the molar heats of (apori<ation are essentially e?ual, i.e.,
DHy, Et%H ^ DHy, H5 % . Then from the adia"atic energy "alance, it is easy to sho2 that
U/Et%H P /H5 % . Then
dyEt%H
V yEt%H A/Et%H, < V /H5 %, 
/Et%H, < P
dyEt%H
d<
cDEt%HUH5 %
AyEt%H, 3 U yEt%H, 5 B
d
&o 2e see that e?uimolar heats of (apori<ation result in an e?uimolar=counterdiffusion Ju8 for an
adia"atic=distillation process.
&imultaneous Momentum and Mass Transfer
*n se(eral mass=transfer operations, mass is e8changed "et2een t2o phases. +n important
e8ample that 2e ha(e pre(iously encountered is a"sorption, the selecti(e dissolution of one
of the components of a gas mi8ture "y a li?uid. + 2etted=2all column, as illustrated in
Figure 5;.3@, is commonly used to study the mechanism of this mass=transfer operation, as it
pro(ides a 2ell=deFned area of contact "et2een the t2o phases. *n this operation, a thin
li?uid Flm Jo2s along the 2all of the column 2hile in contact 2ith a gas mi8ture. The time
of contact "et2een the t2o phases is relati(ely short during normal operation. +s only a
small ?uantity of mass is a"sor"ed, the properties of the li?uid are assumed to "e unaltered.
The (elocity of the falling Flm 2ill thus "e (irtually unaffected "y the diffusion process.
8N6
W
$
R8
R8
W
Ry
Ry
8N$
y
8
Figure 5;. +"sorption into a falling=li?uid Flm.
The process in(ol(es "oth momentum and mass transfer. *n hapter 7, the laminar
Jo2 of a Juid do2n an inclined plane 2as discussed. When the angle of inclination is
:67, the results o"tained in &ection 7.5 can "e used to descri"e the falling=Flm (elo=
city proFle. With this su"stitution, the differential e?uation for momentum transfer
"ecomes
dt y8
V rg P 6
dy
and the "oundary conditions that must "e satisFed are
at y P 6
and
at y P d
Y( 8
P6
Yy
(8 P 6
The Fnal e8pression for the (elocity proFle is gi(en "y
Q
rgd5 y 3 y5
U(8 P
m d 5 d
The ma8imum (elocity 2ill "e at the edge of the Flm 2here y P dT its (alue is
( ma8 P
rgd5
5m
&u"stituting this result into the (elocity proFle, 2e o"tain another form of the e8pression
for ( 8
h y 3 y 5 i
( 8 P 5( ma8 UA5;=93B
d 5 d
The differential e?uation for mass transfer can "e o"tained "y using the general
differential e?uation of mass transfer and eliminating the irrele(ant terms or "y ma!ing a
"alance o(er the control (olume, D8 DyW, as sho2n in Figure 5;.3@. *t is important to note
that the y component of the mass Ju8, /+T y , is associated 2ith the negati(e y direction,
according to the a8es pre(iously esta"lished in our Juid=Jo2 considerations. The mass
"alance o(er the control (olume is
/+, 8 I8VD8 W Dy U /+, 8 I8 W Dy V /+, y IyVDy W D8 U /+, y Iy W D8 P 6
Di(iding "y W D8 Dy and letting D8 and Dy approach <ero, 2e o"tain the differential
e?uation
Y/+, 8 Y/+, y
VP6
Y8Yy
The one=directional molar flu8es are defined "y
/+T 8 P UD+-
and
/+, y P UD+-
Yc+
V 8+ A/+, y V /-T y B
Yy
A5;=9@B
Yc+
V 8+ A/+, 8 V /-T 8 B
Y8
A5;=9>B
A5;=95B
+s pre(iously mentioned, the time of contact "et2een the (apor and li?uid is relati(ely
shortT thus, a negligi"le concentration gradient 2ill de(elop in the 8 direction, and
e?uation A5;=9>B 2ill reduce to
/+, 8 P 8+ A/+, 8 V /-, 8 B P c+ ( 8
A5;=95B
The con(ecti(e transport term in the negati(e y direction, 8+ A/+, y V /-, y B, in(ol(es
multiplying t2o e8tremely small (alues and is negligi"leT thus, e?uation A5;=9@B "ecomes
/+, y P UD+-
Yc+
Yy
A5;=9;B
&u"stituting e?uations A5;=95B and A5;=9;B into e?uation A5;=95B, 2e o"tain
YAc+ ( 8 BY 5 c+
U D+-P6
Y8Yy5
or, as ( 8 is dependent upon y only
(8
Yc+Y 5 c+
U D+-P6
Y8Yy5
A5;=97B
A5;=99B
The (elocity profile, as defined "y e?uation A5;=93B, may "e su"stituted into e?uation
A5;=97B yielding
h y 3 y 5 i YcY 5 c++P D+-A5;=9:B5( ma8 U
d 5 dY8Yy5
The "oundary conditions for mass transfer into the falling film are
at 8 P 6
at y P 6
and
at y P d c + P c +6
c+ P 6
Yc+
P6
Yy
Johnstone and ,igford9 sol(ed e?uation A5;=9:B and o"tained, for the dimensionless
concentration proFle, the e8pression
c+ I8P$ U c+ IyPd
c+ I8P6 U c+ IyPd
P 6C9759eU5C353>n V 6C3663eU>:C>37n
V 6C6>566eU365C;@n
V 6C63733eU56@C95n
V ...
A5;=76B
2here c+ I8P$ is the concentration of solute at the "ottom of the column, c+ IyPd is the
concentration of the solute at the gasOli?uid interface, c+ I8P6 is the concentration of the
solute at the top of the column, n is the ratio D+- $Dd5 ( ma8 , $ is the height of the column,
d is the film thic!ness, ( ma8 is the ma8imum (elocity in the film, located at the film
surface, and D+- is the diffusion coefficient of the solute in the li?uid.
The speciFc case in 2hich solute + penetrates only a short distance into the li?uid Flm
"ecause of a slo2 rate of diffusion or a short time of e8posure can "e treated "y the
9
H. F. Johnstone and R. $. ,igford, Trans. +*hE, >7, 55 A3:@5B.
@7; hapter 5;
,enetration
depth
&teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
penetration theory model de(eloped "y Hig"ie.7 +s solute + is transferred into the Flm at
y P d, the effect of the falling Flm on the diffusing species is such that the Juid may "e
considered to "e Jo2ing at the uniform (elocity, ( ma8 . Figure 5;.35 illustrates the
penetration depth. &olute + 2ill not "e affected "y the presence of the 2allT thus, the Juid
may "e considered to "e of inFnite depth. With these simpliFcations, e?uation A5;=9:B
reduces to
Yc+Y 5 c+
( ma8P D+- 5
Y8Yy
A5;=73B
Figure 5;.35
,enetration depth in
a falling Flm.
2ith the "oundary conditions
at 8 P 6
at y P d
and
at y P U3 c+ P 6
c+ P 6
c+ P c+ 6
E?uation A5;=73B can "e transformed into a form commonly encountered in unsteady=
state mass transfer. *f I is set e?ual to d U y, the transformed e?uation and "oundary
conditions "ecome
Yc+Y 5 c+
P D+- 5( ma8
Y8YI
and
at 8 P 6
at I P 6
and
at I P 3 c+ P 6
c+ P 6
c+ P c+ 6
A5;=75B
This partial differential e?uation can "e sol(ed "y using $aplace transforms. %n applying
the transforms in the 8 direction, 2e o"tain an ordinary differential e?uation in the s
domain
( ma8 sc+ U 6 P D+-
or
d 5 c+ ( ma8 sc+
UP6
D+-dI5
This ordinary e?uation is readily sol(ed to gi(e
r
r
( ma8 s( ma8 s
c+ P +3 e8pI V -3 e8p UI
D+-D+-
A5;=7@B
A5;=7>B
d5 c+ AI, sB
dI5
7
R. Hig"ie, Trans. +*hE, >3, >;7O>7: A3:>5B.
The constants +3 and -3 are e(aluated, using the t2o transformed "oundary conditions
c+6
at I P 6c+ A6, sB P s
at I P 3c+ A3, sB P 6
yielding the solution

r
c+6( ma8 s
e8p Uc+ PI
D+-s
A5;=75B
E?uation A5;=75B can "e transformed "ac! to the 8 domain "y ta!ing the in(erse
$aplacian, yielding
563>
;-9Ic+ A8, IB P c+6 ;3 U erf
-r 9
@Y @D 8+5+-
( ma8
sQ4
I
c+ A8, IB P c+6 3 U erf
p
@D+- te8p
A5;=7;B
2here the time of e8posure is defined "y te8p P 8D( ma8.
The error function, a mathematical form that is commonly encountered in transient
pro"lems, 2as discussed in hapter 37. &imilar to other mathematical functions, ta"les ha(e
"een prepared of the error function and one of these ta"les is presented in +ppendi8 $.
The local mass Ju8 at the surface, 2here I P 6 or y P d, is o"tained "y differ=
entiating e?uation A5;=7;B 2ith respect to I and then inserting the deri(ati(e into e?ua=
tion A5;=9;B.

Yc+

/+, y IIP6 P /+, y IyPd P UD+-
Yy yPd
The unidirectional Ju8 "ecomes
/+, y IyPd
or
/+y IyPd

r
D+- ( ma8
P c +6
p8

s
D+-
P c+o
pte8p
A5;=79B
A5;=77B
+s the concentration dri(ing force in the falling=li?uid film
Dc+ P c+3 U c+5 P c+o U 6
e?uation A5;=77B can "e 2ritten
/+y IyPd
s
D+-
Ac+3 U c+5 BP
pte8p
+ comparison of this e?uation 2ith the con(ecti(e mass=transfer e?uation
/+y P !c Ac+3 U c+5 B
A5;=;7B
re(eals that

s
D+-
!c P
pte8p
A5;=7:B
*n e?uation A5;=7:B, 2e see that the con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefficient, !c, is propor=
tional to the diffusion coefficient raised to the 3 po2er. This dependency 2as also
5
sho2n earlier in &ection 5;.5 for the diffusion of a solute into a li?uid accompanied
"y a rapid chemical reaction. ,enetration theory considers that the solute only
penetrates a short distance into the li?uid phase due to a short residence time of
e8posure of the solute 2ith the li?uid, or "ecause the solute rapidly disappears "y a
chemical reaction 2ithin the li?uid. onse?uently, penetration theory proposes that
li?uid=phase mass=transfer coefficient for transferring species + 2ill assume the form of
e?uation A5;=7:B.
5;.5 $%&'RE
*n this chapter, 2e ha(e considered solutions to steady=state molecular mass=transfer
pro"lems. The deFning differential e?uations 2ere esta"lished "y simplifying the general
differential e?uation for mass transfer or through the use of a control (olume e8pression for
the conser(ation of mass. *t is hoped that this t2o=pronged attac! 2ill pro(ide the student
2ith an insight into the (arious terms contained in the general differential e?uation, and thus
ena"le the reader to decide 2hether the terms are rele(ant or irrele(ant to any speciFc
situation.
%ne=directional systems "oth 2ith and 2ithout chemical production 2ere consid=
ered. T2o models of con(ecti(e mass transfer, Flm theory and penetration theory, 2ere
introduced. These models 2ill "e used in hapter 57 to e(aluate and e8plain con(ecti(e
mass=transfer coefFcients.
,R%-$EM&
5;.3 +n +rnold cell is to "e operated as a pseudo=steady=state
cell to determine the gas diffusi(ity of "en<ene in air at >67 0
and 3.6 atm. The 56=cm=long tu"e, 2ith an inner diameter of
3.6 cm, is initially loaded 2ith li?uid "en<ene to a depth of
3.6 cm from the "ottom of the tu"e. The tu"e and the li?uid are
maintained at a constant temperature of >67 0. +t this tem=
perature, "en<ene e8erts a (apor pressure of 6.3:5 atm. +ir is
continually "lo2n o(er the top of the tu"e, remo(ing any of
the (apori<ed "en<ene (aporT the gas space 2ithin the tu"e
is essentially stagnant. +t >67 0, li?uid "en<eneHs density is
6C75 gDcm> .
a. *t 2as determined that 95.6 h 2ere re?uired to completely
e(aporate the "en<ene initially loaded into the tu"e. Esti=
mate the "inary gas=phase diffusion coefFcient for "en<ene
in air using these data.
". ompare your e(aluated diffusi(ity 2ith the (alue reported
in +ppendi8 J.3. What is a possi"le reason for any differ=
ence in these (aluesa
5;.5 Helium gas is seperated from other components of a gas
mi8ture "y its selecti(e diffusion through the 2all of a ,yre8
glass tu"e. 'nder steady=state conditions, the partial pressures
of helium at the inner and outer surfaces of the ,yre8 tu"e are
3.5 and 3.6 "ar, respecti(ely. *f the 2all thic!ness of the ,yre8
tu"ing is > mm, determine
a. the Ju8 of He through a tu"e ha(ing an inside diameter of
3.6 cmT
". the concentration proFle, c+ ArB, of helium 2ithin the 2all.
5;.> + tan! 2ith its top open to the atmosphere contains li?uid
methanol AMe%H, molecular 2eight >5gDmolB at the "ottom of
the tan!. The tan! is maintained at >67. The diameter of the
cylindrical tan! is 3.6 m, the total height of the tan! is >.6 m, and
the li?uid le(el at the "ottom of the tan! is maintained at 6.5 m.
The gas space inside the tan! is stagnant and the Me%H (apors
are immediately dispersed once they e8it the tan!. +t >67, the
(apor pressure e8erted "y li?uid Me%H is 3;> mmHg and at
@67 the Me%H (apor pressure is 5;5 mmHg. We are concerned
,ro"lems
that this open tan! may "e emitting a considera"le amount of
Me%H (apor.
a. What is the emission rate of Me%H (apor from the tan! in
units of !g Me%HDday 2hen the tan! is at a temperature of
>67a &tate all assumptions and "oundary conditions.
". *f the temperature of the tan! is raised to @67, 2hat is the
ne2 methanol emission ratea
5;.@ Ethanol is diffusing through a @=mm stagnant Flm of
2ater. The ethanol concentrations of the entrance and the
e8isting planes are maintained at 6.3 and 6C65 molDm> , respec=
ti(ely. *f the 2ater Flm temperature is 57> 0, determine the
steady=state molar Ju8 of the ethanol and the concentration
proFle as a function of the position < 2ithin the li?uid Flm.
ompare these results 2ith a @=mm stagnant Flm of air at 57> 0
and 3 atm at the same entrance and e8it ethanol concentrations.
5;.5 onsider the process sho2n in the Fgure "elo2. + sla"
contains parallel linear channels running through a nonporous
sla" of thic!ness 5.6 cm. The gas space o(er the sla" contains a
mi8ture of + and - maintained at a constant composition. #as=
phase species + diffuses do2n a straight, 3.6=mm=diameter
channel. +t the "ase of the sla" is a catalytic surface that
promotes the isomeri<ation reaction +AgB Q -AgB. This reaction
occurs (ery rapidly so that the production of - is diffusion
limited. The ?uiescent gas space in the channel consists of only
species + and -. The process is isothermal at 3667 and iso"aric
at 5.6 atm total system pressure. The "ul! composition o(er
the sla" is maintained at @6 molb + and ;6 molb -. The
molecular 2eight of species + and its isomer - is 57 gDmol.
Monolith catalyst
-ul! gas phase
@6 molb +, ;6 molb -
$ump of
solid species +
@7:
5;.; The follo2ing illustrated spherical capsule is used for
long=term, sustained drug release. + saturated li?uid solution
containing the dissol(ed drug Asolute +B is encapsulated 2ithin a
rigid gel=li!e shell. The saturated solution contains a lump of
solid +, 2hich !eeps the dissol(ed concentration of + saturated
2ithin the li?uid core of the capsule. &olute + then diffuses
through the gel=li!e shell Athe gel phaseB to the surroundings.
E(entually, the source for + is depleted, and the amount of solute
+ 2ithin the li?uid core goes do2n 2ith time. Ho2e(er, as long
as the lump of solid + e8ists 2ithin the core, the source solution
is saturated in + and the concentration c+ is constant. The
diffusion coefFcient of solute + in the gel phase - is D+- P
3C5 ` 36U5 cm5 Ds. The concentrations of solute + in the gel
phase at the "oundaries of the shell are
Y r P R3 P 6C5 cm, c+ P c+s P c+ P 6C63 g molDcm> ,
the solu"ility limit of + in the gel.
Y r P R6 P 6C>5 cmT c+ P c+o C
&ustained drug=release spherical capsule
Drug Asolute +B
dissol(ed in li?uid
Aat saturationB
< N $ N 5.6 cm
#el capsule
shell
3=mm=diameter
channels
Acylindrical poresB
r N Rf
c + N c +s
r N Ro
c+ N c +o
<N6
atalytic surface
-AgB+AgB
a. $isting all of your assumptions, simplify the general mass=
transfer e?uation for species +.
". De(elop a Fnal integrated e?uation for the Ju8 of product -.
-e sure to specify your "oundary conditions.
c. The "inary gas=phase molecular diffusion coefFcient of
species + in species - is 6C3 cm5 Ds at 557 and 3.6 atm.
What is a reasona"le estimate for the molecular Ju8 of
species - in species + under the conditions of the operationa
d. *f the total production rate, W+, is 6.63 mol -Dmin, 2hat is
the re?uired num"er of 3.6=mm=diameter channels neces=
sary to accomplish this production ratea
a. &tate the differential forms of the Ju8 e?uation and the
differential e?uation for mass transfer for this diffusion
process.
". De(elop the Fnal analytical, integrated e?uation to deter=
mine the total rate of drug release, W+, from the capsule
under the condition 2here the concentration of + 2ithin the
li?uid core of the capsule remains constant.
c. What is the ma8imum possi"le rate of drug release from the
capsule, in units of gram moles of + per houra
5;.9 + spherical "all of solid, nonporous naphthalene, a
GGmoth "allHH, is suspended in still air. The naphthalene "all
slo2ly su"limes, releasing the naphthalene into the surrounding
air "y molecular diffusion=limited process. Estimate the time
re?uired to reduce the diameter from 5 to 6.5 cm 2hen the
surrounding air is at >@9 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,a. /aphthalene has
a molecular 2eight of 357 gDmol, a solid density of 3C3@5 gDcm> ,
@:6 hapter 5; &teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
+ mi8ture of arsine and hydrogen gas continuously Jo2s
into the reactor. The mi8ture contains 56 molb arsine. + diffuser
pro(ides a ?uiescent gas space o(er the gro2ing +s Flm. The
distance from the diffuser to the Flm surface is ;.6 cm. The gas
mi8ture may "e assumed to "eha(e as an ideal gas. The
molecular 2eight of arsenic, +s, is 95 gDg mol. The $ennardO
7
Jones parameters for &iH@ are s + P @C67 + and e+D! P 569C;.
a. What is the molecular diffusion coefFcient of arsine (apor
in hydrogen gas at ;667 and >6>.: ,aa
". De(elop a model to predict the diffusion=limited Ju8 of
arsine to the surface of the 2afer. &tate at least three
assumptions rele(ant to this process.
c. The diameter of the 2afer is 35 cm. Estimate the initial
deposition rate of arsenic onto the surface of the 2afer, in
units of grams of +s per minute.
5;.36 onsider a hemispherical droplet of li?uid 2ater resid=
ing on a Jat surface. &till air surrounds the droplet. +t an
inFnitely long distance from the gas Flm, the concentration
of 2ater (apor is effecti(ely <ero. +t a constant temperature of
>67 and 3.6 atm total pressure, the e(aporation rate of the
droplet is controlled "y the rate of the molecular diffusion
through the still air. Determine the time it 2ill ta!e for the
2ater droplet to completely e(aporate at >67 and 3.6 atm total
system pressure if the initial droplet radius is 5 mm. The (apor
pressure of 2ater at >67 can "e found in the steam ta"les.
5;.33 onsider the metallurgical reFning process illustrated in
the follo2ing Fgure.
366b H5 gas
Aonstant concentration along outer surfaceB
a diffusi(ity in air of 7C3: ` 36U; m5 Ds, and e8erts a (apor pres=
sure of 5 Torr A;;; ,aB at >@9 0.
5;.7 onsider the lo2=pressure chemical (apor deposition
A$,1DB diffusion reactor as sho2n "elo2. *t is desired to
lay a thin Flm of the semiconductor gallium, #a, onto a silicon
2afer surface. #allium metal is not (olatile, "ut trimethyl
gallium ATM#T #aWH> X> , 33@.95 gDg molB is (olatile. *n the
presence of an H5 gas, at high temperature, TM# 2ill decom=
pose to solid #a on a surface "y the follo2ing reactionC
#aAH>B> (apor
i H5 gas
966g, 6.5 +TM
Auniform concentrationB
#aAH>B>
Diffuser
H5 H@
.uiescent
gas
#a thin
film
<NS
<N6
Heated plate
#aAH> B> AgB V >H5 AgB Q #aAsB V >H@ AgB5
+t 9667, this surface reaction is diffusion limited. $et gas=
phase species + P TM#T - P H5 and P H@ .
a. De(elop an integral model to predict the Ju8 of TM# to
the 2afer surface. 0eep your Fnal model in alge"raic
form. ,ro(ide appropriate assumptions and "oundary con=
ditions. +t this point, you may not assume that the process
is dilute.
For parts A"B and AcB, consider a process 2here the feed
gas consists of ::.:7 molb H5 and 6.65 molb TM#. The
temperature and total system pressure are 9667 and
6.56 atm, respecti(ely. The "inary diffusion coefFcient of
TM# in H5 at 9567 and 3.6 atm is !no2n to "e 5C6 cm5 Ds.
". What is the simpliFed form of the model pre(iously de(el=
oped in part AaBa
c. What is the (alue of an appropriate diffusion coefFcient for
this processa
5;.: Microelectronic de(ices are fa"ricated "y forming many
layers of thin Flms onto a silicon 2afer. For e8ample, thin Flms
of arsenic as a common dopant for silicon are commonly
deposited onto silicon "y chemical (apor deposition, or 1D,
of arsine A+sH>B (apor onto the surface of the 2afer. The
chemical reaction for this 1D process is
+sH> AgB Q +sAsB V >H5 AgB5
*t is proposed to allo2 this process to ta!e place at a pressure
of >6>.: ,a and a temperature of ;667. *n many 1D reactors,
the gas phase o(er the thin Flm is not mi8ed. Furthermore,
at high temperatures, the surface reaction is (ery rapid. on=
se?uently, the molecular diffusion of +sH> (apor to the
surface often controls the rate of +sAsB formation. onsider
the (ery simpliFed 1D reactor illustrated in hapter 55,
,ro"lem 55.33.
<N6
,orous Fe layer
<Nd
/onporous Fe% layer
5.6 cm
*ron o8ide, Fe%, ore is "eing reduced to iron, Fe, "y hydrogen
gas according to the reaction
Fe%AsB V H5 AgB Q FeAsB V H5 %AgB
The Fe% layer is nonporous, "ut the Fe layer is porous. ,ure
hydrogen gas Jo2s o(er the surface of the sla". +s Fe% is
reduced to Fe, the path length for diffusion of H5 gas through the
porous sla" from the surface to the Fe%DFe "oundary increases
2ith time. *n ma!ing your model, you may assume that A3B the
process operates under constant conditions of @66 0 and 3.6 atmT
A5B the reaction is (ery rapid so that the reduction of Fe% is
limited "y the diffusion of H5 to the Fe%DFe "oundaryT A>B the
diffusion process is pseudo=steady state along the path lengthT
and A@B the effecti(e gas=phase diffusion coefFcient of 2ater in
hydrogen is 3C9 cm5 Ds 2ithin the porous solid under the condi=
tions of the process. The "ul! density of the Fe% solid is
5C5 gDcm> , and the molecular 2eight of Fe% is 93.75 gDg mol.
,ro"lems
a. Reduce the general differential e?uation for mass transfer to
descri"e the diffusion of H5.
". Determine the molar Ju8 of H5 to the Fe%DFe "oundary
2hen d P 3 cm.
c. Determine the minimum time necessary for Fe% to "e
con(erted to Fe from d P 3 to d P 5C6 cm.
5;.35 ondsider the timed drug=release pill illustrated "elo2.
AEssentially 2aterB
c+, 6
*nitially
@:3
Write the integrated form of the Ju8 e?uation, assuming
A3B steady=state one=dimensional Ju8 through a gas Flm of
thic!ness d along the coordinate <T A5B constant gas composition
at the edge of the gas FlmT A>B instantaneous reaction at the
surfaceT and A@B constant temperature and pressure. Which
reactions result in an e?uimolar=diffusion Ju8 of the gas=phase
speciesa HintC arefully consider the stoichiometry associated
2ith each reaction.
5;.3@ +s part of the manufacturing process for the fa"rication
of titanium=o8ide="ased solar panels, a layer of nonporous
titanium o8ide must "e reduced to metallic titanium, Ti, "y
hydrogen gas as sho2n in the follo2ing Fgure.
366b H5 gas at < N 6
yH N3.6, yH
5
5%
c+, 6
6.@ mm
ross=sectional
(ie2 of pill
/+
<
6.>;cm
+t a
later time
&olid
drug +
r
$t N
5.6 mm
$o N
3.5 mm
6
fN6
/anoporous solid Ti layer
fNd
6.3 M
/anoporous Ti%5 layer
The reaction at the TiDTi%5 "oundary is gi(en "y
Ti%5 AsB V 5H5 AgB Q TiAsB V 5H5 %AgB
,ure H5 gas Jo2s rapidly o(er the surface of the nanoporous
Ti%5 sla". +s Ti%5AsB is reduced to Ti Amolecualr 2eight
Ti P @9C: gDg molB, the path length for mass transfer of H5
and H5% gas through the porous sla" from the surface to the
TiDTi%5 "oundary increases 2ith time. Eou may assume that
A3B the process operates at 3.6 atm and :66 0T A5B the reaction is
(ery fast so that the concentration of H5 gas at the TiDTi%5
"oundary is <ero and the reduction of Ti%5AsB is limited "y the
diffusion of Ti%5AgB a2ay from the TiAsBDTi%5 "oundaryT A>B the
diffusion process is pseudo=steady state along the diffusion pathT
and A@B the effecti(e gas=phase diffusion coefFcient of H5 2ithin
the porous TiAsB containing a mi8ture of H5AgB and H5%AgB is
6C6>3 cm5 Ds at the temperature and pressure of the process,
2hereas the effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of H5%AgB 2ithin the
nanoporous TiAsB containing a mi8ture of H5AgB and H5%AgB is
6C63 cm5 Ds at the temperature and pressure of the process. The
density of the nanoporous TiAsB is 5C; gDcm> .
a. Determine the Ju8 of H5 to the TiDTi%5 "oundary 2hen
d P 6C65 cm, assuming y+o P 3C6.
". Determine the num"er of hours necessary for all the Ti%5 to
"e con(erted to TiAsB.
c. +t 5> 0 and 3 atm
total system pressure, are connected "y a 6.3=m=diameter
circular duct 2hich is 5 m in length. Tan! 3 contains a uniform
gas of ;6 molb acetone and @6 molb air, 2hereas tan!
5 contains a uniform gas of 36 molb acetone and :6 molb
air. Determine the initial rate of acetone transfer "et2een the
t2o tan!s. The gas diffusi(ity of acetone in air at 5:7 0 and
3 atm is 6C6:> cm5 Ds.
The pill is ingested into the stomach. The pill is a sla", 6.>; cm per
side, that has an array of 3; cylindrical pores in it. Each pore is 6.@
mm in diameter and 5.6 mm deep. ,ure solid drug + is loaded into
each pore to a depth of 3.5 mm, 2hich pro(ides a total initial drug
loading of 5.;5 mg in all of the pores. The density of the solid drug
+ is 3C36 gDcm> . The drug dissol(es into the Juid inside the
stomach, 2hich appro8imates the properties of 2ater Acomponent
-B. The ma8imum solu"ility of drug + in 2ater is 5C6 `
36U@ g molDcm> Ai.e., not (ery solu"leB and the diffusion coefF=
cient of the drug is 5C6 ` 36U5 cm5 Ds at "ody temperature of
>97. The molecular 2eight of the drug is 356 gDmol.
a. &tarting 2ith the general differential e?uation for mass
transfer and Fic!Hs Ju8 e?uation, de(elop a simple model,
in Fnal integrated form, for predicting the Ju8 of the drug
from one pore. Eou may assume that the diffusion process
is pseudo=steady state, the stomach Juid ser(es as an inFnite
sin! for the drug so that c+ P 6, and the drug does not chemi=
cally degrade inside the pore.
". From your model, determine the total transfer rate of the
drug from the 2hole pill, W+, to the "ody 2hen each 6.5 cm
pore is Flled to a depth of 6.35 cm 2ith solid drug.
c. Ho2 many hours 2ill it ta!e for all of the drug to "e releaseda
5;.3> Hydrogen AH5B gas is commonly used to reduce iron
o8ide ores to metallic ores. onsider the follo2ing heteroge=
neous reduction reactions on a nonporous Jat surface of the
follo2ing oresC
Fe%AsB V H5 AgB Q FeAsB V H5 %AgB
Ti%5 AsB V 5H5 AgB Q TiAsB V 5H5 %AgB
Fe5 %> AsB V >H5 AgB Q 5FeAsB V >H5 %AgB
Mn> %@ AsB V @H5 AgB Q >MnAsB V @H5 %AgB
@:5 hapter 5; &teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
The tungsten metal does not coat the side 2alls of the micro(iaT it
only gro2s up2ard from the "ase of the micro(ia 2here the
tungsten 2as initially seeded. The reactants are signiFcantly
diluted in inert Helium AHeB gas to lo2er the deposition rate.
The temperature is 966 0, the total system pressure is 95 ,a, and
the concentrations of WF; and H5 in the "ul! gas space o(er the
micro(ia are each 6.663 mol. +ssume that the tungsten deposi=
tion is limited "y molecular diffusion. The molecular 2eight of
tungsten, W, is 37@ gDmol, the molecular 2eight of Juorine is
3: gDmol, and the density of solid tungsten is 3:C@ gDcm> .
a. De(elop a pseudo=steady=state model to predict the depth of
tungsten metal 2ithin the micro(ia as a function of time.
". Estimate the time re?uired to completely Fll the micro(ia
assuming 0nudsen diffusion for WF; (apor.
5;.37 *n the distillation of a "en<eneDtoluene mi8ture, a
(apor richer in "en<ene is produced from a "en<eneDtoluene
li?uid solution. -en<ene is transferred from the li?uid to the
(apor phase and the less=(olatile toluene is transferred in the
opposite direction. +t the system temperature and pressure,
the latent heats of (apori<ation of "en<ene and toluene are
>6 and >> !JDmol, respecti(ely. -oth components are diffusing
through a gas Flm of thic!ness d. De(elop an e?uation to
predict the steady=state Ju8 of "en<ene through the gas Flm.
The e?uation must include terms for the "ul! gas=phase
mole fraction of "en<ene, the gas=phase mole fraction of
"en<ene in e?uili"rium 2ith the li?uid solution, the diffusion
coefFcient of "en<eneDtoluene, the diffusion path d, and the
total molar gas concentration. +ssume the distillation is an
adia"atic process.
5;.3: +n important step in the puriFcation of uranium iso=
topes in(ol(es the con(ersion of uranium to uranium he8a=
Juoride, 'F;. *n the present process, 'F; is prepared "y
e8posing uranium pellets, spherical in shape, to Juorine gas
at 3666 0 and 3 atm pressure. The molecular diffusion of the
Juorine gas to the pellet surface is thought to "e the controlling
step. *f the reaction
'AsB V >F5 AgB Q 'F; AgB
occurs irre(ersi"ly and instantaneously on the pellet surface, and
the diffusi(ity of Juorine gas through uranium he8aJuoride gas
is 6C59> cm5 Ds at 3666 0 and 3 atm, determine the production
rate of 'F; 2hen the pellet diameter is 6.@ cm.
5;.56 onsider the GGdrug patchHHsho2n "elo2. The drug patch
loo!s li!e a sand2ich consisting of a pure drug source mounted
on top of a gel diffusion "arrier. The gel diffusion "arrier has a
thic!ness of 5.6 mm. The gel "arrier is in direct contact 2ith the
s!in. The drug release (s. time proFle for a >.6=cm s?uare patch
at 567 is also sho2n "elo2. %ther e8periments sho2ed that the
drug 2as immediately ta!en up into the "ody after e8iting the
patch. The ma8imum solu"ility of the drug in the gel diffusion
"arrier is 6C5 mmolDcm> . The drug is only slightly solu"le in the
gel material. The solu"ility of the drug in the gel diffusion "arrier
is not affected "y the temperature.
5;.3; onsider the no(el GGnanostructuredHH catalyst sho2n in
the follo2ing Fgure.
/onostructured ordered catalyst support
-ul! gas A@9> 0, 3.55 atmB
H5AgB, %5AgB, H5%AgB
Detail for one nano2ell
56m nm
&till
gas
f N $ N 566 nm
<
%rdered catalyst support
H5 %5 H5 %
r
atalytic
surface
<N6
The catalyst support consists of an ordered array of cylindrical
GGnano2ellsHH of 56nm diameter and 566 nm depth A3 nm P
36U: mB. + catalytic surface coats of the "ottom of each 2ell.
+lthough gas Jo2s o(er the catalyst surface, the gas space
2ithin each GG2ellHH is stagnant, that is, not 2ell mi8ed. *n the
present application, the catalyst surface is used to con(ert
unreacted H5 gas Aspecies +B and %5 gas Aspecies -B from a
fuel cell into 2ater (apor Aspecies B according to the reaction
5H5 AgB V %5 AgB Q 5H5 %AgB
For our Frst appro8imation, consider the reaction diffusion
limited 2ithin the catalyst 2ell. The process is isothermal at
@9> 0 and iso"aric at 3.55 atm total system pressure.
a. &tate reasona"le assumptions for this process. What is the
simpliFed form of the general differential e?uation for the
mass transfer of hydrogena What is the simpliFed form of
Fic!Hs e?uation for hydrogena onsider %5 is the dominant
species and "oth H5 and H5% are dilute.
". What is the effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of H5 gas inside
each nano2ell if 2e ha(e a dilute system 2ith "ul! gas
mole fraction compositions for yH5 P 6C63 and yH5 % P
6C63. What is the Ju8 of H5a
5;.39 GGMicro(iaHH are microscopic passages "et2een t2o thin
Flms on a microelectronic de(ice. %ften, micro(ia are Flled
2ith a conducti(e metal to ma!e a microscopic conductor for
the Jo2 of electrons "et2een the t2o thin Flms. *n one particular
process, tungsten is deposited onto the "ase of the micro(ia "y
the follo2ing chemical (apor deposition reactionC
WF; AgB V >H5 AgB Q WAsB V ;HFAgB
+s the tungsten metal forms, it Flls the micro(ia A5C6 mm depth,
6C5 mm diameterB as illustrated in the follo2ing FgureC
#as phase
WF; i H5 i HF i He
6.5 m
micro(ia
$ N 5.6 m
<
<NS
WA&B &i
<N$
&i%5
,ro"lems
Drug patch
*mpermea"le
"arrier
&!in surface
*nfected "ody tissue
Asin! for drugB
Drug reser(oir
$
@:>
#el diffusion "arrier
6.56
2here D+5 is the diffusi(ity of +5 through the mem"rane.
When standard pressures are employed 2ith a mem"rane of
standard thic!ness, J+5 is called the permea"ility of +5.
". + piece of la"oratory e?uipment operating at 9667 con=
tains hydrogen gas at 7 atm that is separated from a continu=
ously e(acuated space "y an 7 cm5 nic!el dis!, 5 mm thic!.
The solu"ility of hydrogen in nic!el at 3 atm pressure
and 9667 is appro8imately 9C6 cm> D366 g of nic!el. The
diffusi(ity of hydrogen through nic!el at 9667 is
; ` 36U5 cm5 Ds, and the density of nic!el at 9667 is
:C6 gDcm> . alculate the num"er of cu"ic centimeters of
hydrogen per hour that diffuses through the nic!el.
5;.55 $i(ing cells homogeneously distri"uted Aimmo"ili<edB
2ith an agarose gel re?uire glucose to sur(i(e. +n important
aspect of the "iochemical system design is the effecti(e diffusion
coefFcient of glucose Aspecies +B into the cell=immo"ili<ed gel.
onsider the e8periment sho2n "elo2 2here a sla" of the
cell=immo"ili<ed gel of 3.6 cm thic!ness is placed 2ithin a
Drug released
Am mol +B
6.35
6.36
6.65
6.66
6 5 36
Time AhB
35 56 55
Well=mi8ed
glucose solution
constant
concentration
A56 mmolD$B
$i(ing cells in
agarose gel
R+N O6.65 mmolDcm> min
A3.6 cm thic!B
Well=mi8ed
glucose solution
constant
concentration
A56 mmolD$B
a. From the data in the drug release (s. time proFle, estimate
the effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of the drug in the diffusion
"arrier.
". When used on the "ody, heat transfer raises the temperature
of the drug patch to a"out >57. What is the ne2 drug
deli(ery rate, W+, at this temperature in units of mmolDdaya
Eou may assume that the gel=li!e diffusion "arrier material
appro8imates the properties of 2ater. The (iscosity of li?uid
2ater is 6.66::> gDcm s at 567 and 6.669@5 gDcm s at >57.
5;.53 The permea"ility of solids "y gases is e8perimentally
determined "y steady=state diffusion measurements. The diffus=
ing solute is introduced at one side of the mem"rane and
remo(ed from the other side as a gas.
For a diatomic gas, +5, 2hich dissociates upon dissol(ing
into a solid, &ie(ertHs la2 relates the concentration of + atoms in
the surface layer of the mem"rane, c+3 , in e?uili"rium 2ith the
applied pressure, p3, of the diatomic gas "y the relation
c+ P !A p3 B3D 5
3
&ampling
syringe
Acenter of gelB
2ell=mi8ed a?ueous solution of glucose maintained at a con=
centration of 56 mmolD$. The glucose consumption 2ithin the
cell=immo"ili<ed gel proceeds "y a <ero=order process gi(en "y
R+ P Um P U6C65 mmolD$ min
A5;=96B
This same e?uation also holds at the other surface of the
mem"rane for the off=gas pressure, p5. &ie(ertHs la2 is a (ariant
of HenryHs la2 for gases that dissociate upon dissol(ing.
a. ,ro(e that the rate of diffusion of a diatomic gas from a
high=pressure reser(oir, p3, through a mem"rane of thic!=
ness <, into a lo2=pressure reser(oir, p5, is
J+5
33D+5 !A p3D5 U p5D5 B
P
<
The solu"ilities of the glucose in "oth 2ater and the gel are the
sameT that is, the concentration of glucose on the 2ater side of
the 2aterOgel interface is e?ual to the concentration of glucose
on the gel side of the 2aterOgel interface. + syringe mounted at
the center of the gel carefully e8cises a tiny sample of the gel for
glucose analysis.
De(elop a model in Fnal integrated form to predict the
concentration proFle of glucose 2ithin the gel. -e careful 2ith
speciFcation of "oundary conditions, so that your model is truly
predicti(e and is "ased only on process input parameters, not
measured parameters.
5;.5> + cylindrical graphite Apure car"onB rod of length 55 cm
and initial diameter of 5 cm is inserted into a Jo2ing air stream at
3366 0 and 5 atm total pressure. The Jo2ing gas creates a
stagnant gas "oundary layer 5 mm thic! around the e8ternal
surface of the rod. +t this high temperature, the solid car"on
@:@ hapter 5; &teady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
Nd
o8idi<es to car"on dio8ide, %5, gas
The o8idation reaction is limited "y the molecular diffusion of
%5 through the stagnant gas Flm surrounding the surface of the
rod. %utside of the gas Flm, the "ul! composition of the air
stream pre(ails.
a. Estimate the initial rate of %5 production from the rod,
assuming that the surface reaction is diffusion limited.
". Ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for the rod to disappeara The density
of solid graphite is 5C55 gDcm> .
5;.5@ +mmonia, /H>, is selecti(ely remo(ed from an
airO/H> mi8ture "y a"sorption into 2ater. *n this steady=
state process, ammonia is transferred "y molecular
diffusion through a stagnant gas layer 5 cm thic!, and then
through a stagnant 2ater layer 3 cm thic! as sho2n in the
Fgure. The concentration of ammonia at the upper "oundary
of the
&ource for /H>
%8ygen % andDor %5
f
f N6
ar"on
Determine the rate of o8ygen diffusion per hour through one
s?uare meter of area if
a. only car"on mono8ide, %, is produced at the car"on
surfaceT
". only car"on dio8ide, %5, is produced at the car"on surfaceT
c. the follo2ing instantaneous reaction occurs at the car"on
surfaceC
@AsB V >%5 AgB Q 5%AgB V 5%5 AgBC
5;.5; The data pro(ided in Figure 5;.5 are "ased on the
diffusion of %5 into &i%5 formed from the o8idation of A366B
crystalline silicon at 36667. Estimate the diffusion coefFcient
of %5 in &i%5 formed from the o8idation of A333B crystalline
silicon at 36667, using the follo2ing data pro(ided "y Hess:C
/+
#as film
< N 6 cm
y+ N 6.6>@5
< N 5 cm
#asOli?uid interface
$i?uid film
&in! for /H>
< N > cm
+ N 6
Measured &i%5
Time AhB
3
5
@
9
3;
A366B &i
6.6@:
6.697
6.35@
6.376
6.5:7
Flm thic!ness AmmB
A333B &i
6.696
6.365
6.35@
6.535
6.>>: gas layer is >.@5 molb, and the concentration at the lo2er
"oundary of the 2ater layer is essentially <ero. The tempera=
ture of the system is 357 and the total pressure on the system
is 3 atm. The concentration of ammonia Aspecies +B at the
interface "et2een the gas and the li?uid phase is gi(en "y the
follo2ing e?uili"rium dataC
The ma8imum solu"ility of %5 in the &i%5 is :C; `
36U7 mol %5 Ncm> solid at 36667 and 3 atm %5 gas partial
pressure.
5;.59 + 56=cm=long, cylindrical graphite Apure car"onB rod is
inserted into an o8idi<ing atmosphere at 33@5 0 and 3C63> `
365 ,a pressure. The o8idi<ing process is limited "y the diffu=
sion of o8ygen counterJo2 to the car"on mono8ide that is
formed on the cylindrical surface. 'nder the conditions of
the com"ustion process, the diffusi(ity of o8ygen in the gas
mi8ture may "e assumed to "e 3C6 ` 36U5 m5 Ds.
a. Determine the moles of % that are produced at the surface
of the rod per second at the time 2hen the diameter of the
rod is 3.6 cm and the o8ygen concentration that is 3.6 cm
radial distance from the rod is @6 molb. +ssume a steady=
state process.
". What 2ould "e the composition of o8ygen 3.6 cm from the
center of the rod.
:
,+AmmHgB
c+AmolDm>B
5.6
;.3
36.6
33.:
35.6
56.6
56.6
>5.3
55.6
5>.;
>6.6
7@.7
Determine the Ju8 of ammonia across "oth the gas and li?uid
Flms. +t 357, the diffusi(ity of ammonia in air is 6C535 cm5 Ds,
and the diffusi(ity of ammonia in li?uid 2ater is 3C99 `
36U5 cm5 Ds.
5;.55 *n a com"ustion cham"er, o8ygen diffuses through air
to the car"on surface 2here it reacts to ma!e % andDor %5.
The mole fraction of o8ygen at < N 6 is 6.53. The reaction at the
surface may "e assumed to "e instantaneous. /o reaction occurs
in the gas Flm.
D. W. Hess, hem. Eng. Educ., 5@, >@ A3::6B.
,ro"lems
5;.57 ,lease refer to E8ample @. onsider no2 that the
"ioFlm is a homogeneous sphere of 5.6 mm diameter. First,
(erify that the concentration proFle of phenol 2ithin the sphere
is
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^
R sinhAr !3 D+- B
p^^^^^^^^^^^^^c+ P c+o
r sinhAR !3 D+- B
for 6 r R. From this e8pression, deri(e an appropriate
e8pression for the Ju8 /+ at the surface of the sphere Ar N
RB. Then calculate /+ using the (alues for c+o T !3, and D+- gi(en
in E8ample @. ompare your results to the Ju8 o"tained in
E8ample @ and discuss any differences.
HintC DeFne a ne2 lumped parameter y P c+ r to reduce the
second=order differential e?uation for c+ ArB from a GG(aria"le
coefFcientsHH form to a GGconstant coefFcientsHH form.
5;.5: The follo2ing pro"lem illustrates the gas=phase diffu=
sion in the neigh"orhood of a Jat catalytic surface. omponent
@:5
+ diffuses through a stagnant Flm containing only + and -.
'pon reaching the catalytic surface, it is instantaneously con=
(erted into species - "y the reaction + Q -. When - diffuses "ac!
into the stagnant Flm, it "egins to decompose "y the Frst=order
reaction - Q +. The rate of formation of component + 2ith the
Flm is e?ual to R+ P !3 y- , moles + producedDAtimeB A(olumeB,
2here y+ is the concentration of - e8pressed in mole fraction.
Determine the rate at 2hich + enters the gas Flm if this is a
steady=state process.
5;.>6 Reconsider ,ro"lem 5;.5: and determine the concen=
tration proFle of compound + in the stagnant Flm if in the Flm -
decomposes to form + and if + reacts to form -, "oth "y Frst=
order reactions
+ Q -T
!3
6
!3
6R+ P !3 y- U !3 y+
&imultaneously, + is instantaneously reacting to form - on the
Jat catalytic surface.
hapter
59
'nsteady=&tate Molecular
Diffusion
*n hapter 5;, 2e restricted our attention to descri"ing the steady=state molecular
diffusion 2here the concentration at a gi(en point 2as constant 2ith time. *n this chapter,
2e shall consider pro"lems and their solutions that in(ol(e the concentration (arying 2ith
time, thus resulting in unsteady=state molecular diffusion or transient diffusion. Many
common e8amples of unsteady=state transfer 2ill "e cited. These generally fall into t2o
categoriesC a process that is in an unsteady state only during its initial startup, and a
process in 2hich the concentration is continually changing throughout its duration.
The time=dependent differential e?uations are simple to deri(e from the general
differential e?uation of mass transfer. The e?uation of continuity for component + in
terms of mass
NC n+ V
or in terms of moles
NC /+ V
Yc+
U R+ P 6
Yt
A55=33B
Yr+
U r+ P 6
Yt
A55=5B
contains the concentration time=dependent of the unsteady=state accumulation term. *t
also contains the net rate of mass efflu8 of species +, 2hich accounts for the (ariation of
the concentration 2ith spatial directions. The solution to the resulting partial differential
e?uations is generally difficult, in(ol(ing relati(ely ad(anced mathematical techni?ues.
We 2ill consider the solutions to some of the less comple8 mass=transfer processes. +
detailed discussion of the mathematics of diffusion is "eyond the scope of this "oo!. +n
e8cellent reference on the su"Iect is a treatise "y ran!.3
59.3 '/&TE+DE=&T+TE D*FF'&*%/ +/D F*0H& &E%/D $+W
+lthough the differential e?uations for unsteady=state diffusion are easy to esta"lish, most
solutions to these e?uations ha(e "een limited to situations in(ol(ing simple geometries and
"oundary conditions, and a constant diffusion coefFcient. Many solutions are for one=
directional mass transfer as deFned "y Fic!Hs second GGla2HH of diffusion
Yc+Y 5 c+
P D+- 5
YtY<
3
A59=3B
J. ran!, The Mathematics of Diffusion, 5nd edition, %8ford 'ni(ersity ,ress, 3:95.
@:;
59.5 Transient Diffusion in a &emi=*nFnite Medium @:9
This partial differential e?uation descri"es a physical situation in 2hich there is no "ul!
motion contri"ution, that is, ( P 6, and no chemical reaction, that is, R+ P 6. This situation is
encountered 2hen the diffusion ta!es place in solids, in stationary li?uids, or in systems
ha(ing e?uimolar counterdiffusion. Due to the e8tremely slo2 rate of diffusion 2ithin li?uids,
,
the "ul! motion contri"ution of Fic!Hs first la2 Ai.e., y+ /i B approaches the (alue of <ero
for dilute solutionsT accordingly, this system also satisfies Fic!Hs second la2 of diffusion.
*t may "e ad(antageous to e8press e?uation A59=3B in terms of other concentration units.
For e8ample, the mass density of species +, r+ , is e?ual to M+ c+ T "y multiplying "oth sides
of e?uation A59=3B "y the constant molecular 2eight of +, 2e o"tain
Yr+Y 5 r+
P D+-
YtY<5
A59=5B
*f the density of the gi(en phase remains essentially constant during the mass=transfer
period, the density of species + can "e di(ided "y the total density, r+ DrT this ratio is the
2eight fraction of +, 2+ , and our e?uation "ecomes
Y2+Y 5 2+
P D+-
YtY<5
A59=>B
Ho2e(er, 2hen the phase loses a considera"le amount of the solute, the total density, r,
2ill not "e constant and e?uation A59=>B cannot "e used to e8plain the transient mass
transfer. 'nder these circumstances, it is prefera"le to di(ide "y the density of the gi(en
phase on a solute=free "asis Aas an e8ample, during the drying of a piece of 2ood, the
density of the moisture=free solid 2ill "e constantB. %n di(iding e?uation A59=5B "y the
constant r+=free , 2e o"tain

r+r+5YY
r+=freer+=free
P D+-
YtY<5
or
Y26Y 5 26++P D+-
YtY<5 A59=@B
2here 26 is the 2eight fraction of + di(ided "y one minus the 2eight fraction of +.
+
E?uations A59=3BOA59=@B are similar in form to FourierHs second GGla2HH of heat conduction
YTY5T
Pa 5
YtY<
A59=5B
there"y esta"lishing an analogy "et2een transient molecular diffusion and heat conduction.
The solution to Fic!Hs second la2 usually has one of t2o standard forms. *t may in(ol(e
error functions or related special integrals that are suita"le for small (alues of time, or it may
appear in the form of trigonometric series that con(erges at large (alues of time. +nalytical
solutions are commonly o"tained "y $aplace transform techni?ues or "y the separation of
(aria"les. The analytical solution to Fic!Hs second la2 is descri"ed for transient diffusion
into a semi=inFnite medium and for transient diffusion into a Fnite=dimensional medium.
59.5 TR+/&*E/T D*FF'&*%/ */ + &EM*=*/F*/*TE MED*'M
+n important case of transient mass diffusion amena"le to analytical solution is the one=
dimensional mass transfer of a solute into a semi=inFnite stationary li?uid or solid medium
@:7 hapter 59 'nsteady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
2here surface concentration of the solute is F8ed. For e8ample, 2e might li!e to descri"e the
a"sorption of o8ygen gas into a deep tan! of still 2ater, the GGdopingHH of phosphorous into a
silicon 2afer, or the solid=phase diffusion process in(ol(ed in the case=hardening of mild
steel 2ithin a car"uri<ing atmosphere. Figure 59.3 depicts the concentration proFles as the
time increases for a semi=inFnite medium that has a uniform initial concentration of c+o and
a constant surface concentration of c+s . The differential e?uation to "e sol(ed is
Yc+Y 5 c+
P D+- 5
YtY<
6.35
6.36
A59=3B
c+ A<,t B Amol
+Dm>B
6.67
6.6;
6.6@
6.65
6.66
6.6
t N 366 s
t N 3666 s
t N 5666 s
c+s N 6.3 molDm>
c+o N 6 molDm>
D+- N 3o36O; cm5Ds
6.3 6.5 6.> 6.@ 6.5
,osition, < AcmB
Figure 59.3 Transient
diffusion in a semi=inFnite
medium.
E?uation AB is su"Iect to the initial condition
t P 6, c+ A<, 6B P c+o for all <
T2o "oundary conditions are re?uired. The Frst "oundary condition at the surface is
at < P 6,c+ A6T tB P c+s for t _ 6
+ second "oundary condition in the < direction must "e speciFed. *t is o"tained "y assuming
that the diffusing solute penetrates only a (ery small distance during the Fnite time of
e8posure in comparison to the depth of the mediumT this assumption pro(ides the "oundary
condition
at < P 3,c+ A3, tB P c+o for all t
The analytical solution of e?uation AB under the stated "oundary and initial conditions
can "e o"tained "y $aplace transform techni?ues. The analytical solution is facilitated "y
ma!ing the "oundary conditions homogeneous using the simple transformation
u P c+ U c+o
The partial differential e?uation and its initial and "oundary conditions "ecome
YuY5u
P D+- 5
YtY<
2ith
uA<, 6B P 6
uA6, tB P c+s U c+o
uA3, tB P 6
A59=;B
59.5 Transient Diffusion in a &emi=*nFnite Medium @::
The $aplace transformation of e?uation A59=;B 2ith respect to time yields
d5 u
su U 6 P D+- 5
d<
2hich readily transforms into the ordinary differential e?uation
d5 us
UuP6
d<5 D+-
2ith the transformed "oundary conditions of
uA< P 6B P
and
uA< P 3B P 6
The general analytical solution of this differential e?uation is

p p
V sDD+- <U sDD+- <V -3 eu P +3 e
The "oundary condition at < P 3 re?uires integration constant +3 to "e <ero. The "oundary
condition at < P 6 re?uires
-3 P
Ac+s U c+o B
s
c+s U c+o
s
A59=9B
Therefore, the general analytical solution reduces to
p
Ac+s U c+o B U sDD+- <
euP
s
A59=7B
The in(erse $aplace transform of e?uation A59=7B can "e found in any appropriate
$aplace transform ta"le. The result is

<
u P Ac+s U c+o Berfc p
5 D+- t
2hich can "e e8pressed as the dimensionless concentration change 2ith respect to the
initial concentration of species +, c+o , as

c+ U c+o<<
P erf c p P 3 U erf p A59=:B
c+s U c+o5 D+- t5 D+- t
or 2ith respect to the surface concentration of species +, c+s , as

c+s U c+<
P erf p P erfAfB
c+s U c+o5 D+- t
A59=36B
E?uation A59=36B is analogous to heat conduction in a semi=inFnite 2all gi(en "y e?uation
A37=56B. The argument of the error function, gi(en "y the dimensionless ?uantity
<
f P
p
5 D+- t
contains the independent (aria"les of position A<B and time AtB.
566 hapter 59 'nsteady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
*n general, the error function is deFned "y
f f
55
erfAfB P p e UI dI
p 6
Where f is the argument of the error function and I is the dummy (aria"le for f. The error
function has the follo2ing propertiesC erfA6B P 6 and erfA3B P 3C6. The error function is
appro8imated "y

5f>
erf AfB P p f Uif f 6C5
>p
and
53
erf AfB P 3 U p e Uf
f p
if f _ 3C6
+ short ta"le of the (alues of erf AfB is presented in +ppendi8 $.
The one=dimensional diffusion Ju8 of species + into the semi=inFnite medium at the
surface of the medium A< P 6B is

dc+
/+ <P6 P UD+-
d< <P6
To o"tain the diffusi(e Ju8 of species + into the semi=inFnite medium, 2e need to o"tain the
deri(ati(e of c+ 2ith respect to <. -y applying the chain rule of differentiation of the error
function to e?uation A59=36B, 2e o"tain

dc+ Ac+s U c+o B

P U p
d< pD
<P6
+-
2hich is inserted into the Ju8 e?uation to o"tain
r
D+-
Ac+s U c+o B/+,< I<P6 P
pt
A59=33B
The total amount of species + transferred 2ith time t can "e determined "y integrating
the Ju8 2ith time.

r f tft r
D+-@D+- t
W+t U W+o P & /+T< I<P6 dt P &Ac+s U c+o B dt P &Ac+s U c+o B
ppt
6 6
59.> TR+/&*E/T D*FF'&*%/ */ + F*/*TE=D*ME/&*%/+$ MED*'M '/DER
%/D*T*%/& %F /E#$*#*-$E &'RF+E RE&*&T+/E
&olutions for time=dependent mass=transfer processes ha(e "een o"tained for simple
geometrical shapes using the separation=of=(aria"les techni?ue. These "odies, initially
possessing a concentration of c+o , are su"Iected to a sudden change in the surrounding
en(ironment that "rings the surface concentration to c+s .
To illustrate the analytical techni?ue of separation of (aria"les, consider the molecular
diffusion of a solute through a solid sla" of uniform thic!ness $. Due to the slo2 rate of mole=
cular diffusion 2ithin solids, the "ul! contri"ution term of Fic!Hs Frst la2 approaches <ero, and
so our solution for the concentration proFle 2ill satisfy the partial differential e?uation
Yc+Y 5 c+
P D+- 5
YtY<
A59=3B
59.> Transient Diffusion in a Finite=Dimensional Medium 563
2ith initial and "oundary conditions
c+ P c+o
c+ P c+s
c+ P c+s
at t P 6 for 6 <
at < P 6 for t _ 6
at t P $ for t _ 6
$
This transport process is analogous to the heating of a "ody under conditions of negligi"le
surface resistance as discussed in hapter 37. The "oundary conditions a"o(e are simpliFed
"y e8pressing the concentrations in terms of the dimensionless concentration change E,
gi(en "y
EP
The partial differential e?uation "ecomes
YEY5E
P D+- 5
YtY<
2ith the initial and "oundary conditions
A59=35B
c+ U c+s
c+o U c+s
E P Eo at t P 6 for 6 < $
E P 6 at < P 6 for t _ 6
E P 6 at t P $ for t _ 6
$et us assume that there is a product solution to the partial differential e?uation of the
form
EA<, tB P TAtBfA<B
2here the function TAtB depends only on the time t and the function fA<B depends only on the
coordinate <. The partial deri(ati(es 2ill "e
YEYT
Pf
YtYt
and
Y5EY5f
PT 5
Y<5Y<
&u"stitution into e?uation A59=35B yields
YTY5f
P D+- T 5
YtY<
2hich may "e di(ided "y D+- C T C f to gi(e
f
YT 3 Y 5 f
PA59=3>B
D+- T Ytf Y<5
The left=hand side of this e?uation depends only on time t and the right=hand side depends
only on position <. *f t (aries, the right=hand side of the e?uation remains constant, and if
< (aries, the left=hand side remains constant. +ccordingly, "oth sides must "e independent
of < and t and are e?ual to an ar"itrary constant, Ul5 . This produces t2o separate ordinary
differential e?uations, one for time t
3
dT
P Ul5
D+- T dt
3
2ith a general solution of
TAtB P 3 eUD+- l
and one for position sinAl<B
&u"stituting these t2o solutions into our product solution, 2e o"tain
66E P TAtBfA<B P \3 cosAl<B V 5 sinAl<BêUD+- l
5
5
t
3 d5 f
P Ul5
5f d<
t
A59=3@B
66
The constants 3 and 5 and the parameter l are o"tained "y applying the "oundary and
initial conditions to the general solution. The first "oundary condition, E P 6 at < P 6,
6re?uires 3 to "e <ero. The second "oundary condition, E P 6 at < P $, stipulates that
66sinAl$B P 6, "ecause 5 cannot "e e?ual to <ero. %ther2ise, if 5 2ere e?ual to <ero, the
entire e?uation 2ould "e <ero, yielding a tri(ial solution. *n this conte8t, sin Al$B 2ill "e
e?ual to <ero only 2hen
lP
np
$
for n P 3, 5, >, C C C
6
To o"tain 5 , the property of orthogonality must "e applied, yielding the complete solution
$
f3np<c+ U c+s5 M np< UAnpD5B5 MD
EPPsinEo sined<
$$
c+o U c+s $ nP3
6
A59=35B
2here $ is the thic!ness of the sheet and MD is the relati(e time ratio, gi(en "y
MD P
D+- t
85
3
2ith 83 "eing the characteristic length of $D5. *f the sheet has a uniform initial concentration
along <, the Fnal solution is
3
c+ U c+s@ M np< UAnpD5B5 MD
Psin,n P 3, >, 5, C C CA59=3;Be
$
c+o U c+s p nP3
2hich is analogous to the heat conduction e?uation A37=3>B o"tained for the heating of a
"ody under conditions of negligi"le surface resistance.
The Ju8 at any position < is
Yc+
/+, 5, C C CA59=39BeUAnpD5B MD ,
$$
nP3
+t the center of the sla" A Transient Diffusion in a Finite=Dimensional Medium 56>
e?ual to <ero "ecause the net flu8 is e?ual to <ero at the centerline. onse?uently, the
follo2ing "oundary condition at that the mathematical "oundary condition also arises 2hen the Ju8 at
a "oundary is e?ual to <ero "ecause of the presence of "arrier that is impermea"le to the
transfer of diffusing species +. onse?uently, e?uation A59=3;B can also "e used for the
physical situation 2here a sla" of corresponding to a thic!ness 83 of has an imperme=
a"le "arrier at the "oundary < P 83.
The follo2ing e8amples illustrate processes that are go(erned "y one=dimensional
unsteady=state diffusion of a dilute solute into semi=inFnite or Fnite=dimensional media.
The phosphorous doping of silicon 2afers illustrates molecular diffusion into a semi=inFnite
medium, 2hereas the timed drug release from a spherical capsule illustrates molecular
diffusion from a Fnite=dimensional medium. We ta!e a little e8tra time at the "eginning of
each e8ample to descri"e the interesting technology "ehind the process.
EM+M,$E 3 *n the fa"rication of solid=state microelectronic de(ices, semiconducting thin Flms can "e made "y
impregnating either phosphorous or "oron into a silicon 2afer. This process is called doping. The doping
of phosphorous atoms into crystalline silicon ma!es an n=type semiconductor, 2hereas the doping of
"oron atoms into crystalline silicon ma!es a p=type semiconductor. The formation of the semiconducting
thin Flm is controlled "y the molecular diffusion of the dopant atoms through crystalline=silicon matri8.
Methods to deli(er phosphorous atoms to the silicon 2afer surface include chemical (apor
deposition and ion implantation. *n one typical process, phosphorous o8ychloride, ,%l> , 2hich
has a normal "oiling point of 365.>7, is (apori<ed. The ,%l> (apors are fed into a chemical (apor
deposition A1DB reactor at ele(ated temperature and reduced system pressure Ae.g., 6.3 atmB, 2here
,%l> decomposes on the silicon surface according to the reaction
&iAsB V 5,%l> AgB Q &i%5 AsB V >l5 V 5,AsB
+ &i%5 coating rich in molecular phosphorous A,B is formed o(er the crystalline=silicon surface. The
molecular phosphorous then diffuses through the crystalline silicon to form the &iO, thin Flm. &o
the coating is the source for mass transfer of phosphorous, and the silicon 2afer is the sin! for mass
transfer of phosphorous.
+s one can see in Figure 59.5, the process for ma!ing &iO, thin Flms can "e ?uite comple8 2ith
many species diffusing and reacting simultaneously. -ut consider a simpliFed case 2here the ,=atom
,%l> l5 ,%l> (apor
&i%5 i ,AsB 1D coating
,
&iAsB i 5 ,%l>AgB
&i 2afer
&i%5AsB i > l5 i 5 ,AsB
,=rich layer AsourceB
<N6
, &i Asin!B
+s
Figure 59.5 ,hosphorous doping of
a silicon 2afer.
56@ hapter 59 'nsteady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
concentration is constant at the interface. +s the diffusion coefFcient of , atoms in crystalline silicon
is (ery lo2, and only a thin Flm of &iO, is desired, phosphorous atoms do not penetrate (ery far into
the silicon. Therefore, the phosphorous atoms cannot GGseeHH through the entire thic!ness of the 2afer,
and the &i solid ser(es as a semi=inFnite sin! for the diffusion process. *t is desira"le to predict
the properties of the &iO, thin Flm as a function of doping conditions. The concentration proFle of the
doped phosphorous atoms is particularly important for controlling the electrical conducti(ity of the
semiconducting thin Flm.
onsider the phosphorous doping of crystalline silicon at 33667, a temperature high enough
to promote phosphorous diffusion. The surface concentration of phosphorous Ac+s B in the silicon
is 5C5 ` 3656 atoms ,Dcm> solid &i, 2hich is relati(ely dilute, as pure solid silicon is 5 `
3655 atoms &iDcm> solid. Furthermore, the phosphorous=rich coating is considered as an inFnite
source relati(e to the amount of , atoms transferred, so that c+s is constant. ,redict the depth of the
&iO, thin Flm after 3 h, if the target concentration is 3b of the surface (alue A5C5 ` 3637 atoms ,Dcm>
solid &iB, and the concentration proFle of , atoms after 3 h.
-ased on the assumptions gi(en in the pro"lem statement, the partial differential e?uation
descri"ing the one=dimensional, unsteady=state concentration proFle c+ A<, tB of phosphorous
Aspecies +B in solid silicon Aspecies -B is
Yc+Y 5 c+
P D+- 5
YtY<
For a semi=inFnite medium, the initial and "oundary conditions are
t P 6T
 solid &iT for t _ 6
c+ A3, tB P c+o P 6 for all t
A59=3B
*f the diffusion coefFcient D+- is a constant, then the analytical solution is

c+s U c+<
P erf p^^^^^^^^^^ P erfAfB
c+s U c+o5 D+- t
/ote that the depth < is im"edded in f, the argument of the error function. The (alue for erfAfB is
calculated from the dimensionless concentration change
c+s U c+5C5 ` 3656 atoms ,Dcm> U 5C5 ` 3637 atoms ,Dcm>
P 6C::6 P erfAfBP
c+s U c+o5C5 ` 3656 atoms ,Dcm> U 6
From the ta"le in +ppendi8 $, the argument of the error function at erfAfB P 6C::6 is f P 3C75. From
Figure 5@.;, the solid=diffusion coefFcient of , atoms Aspecies +B in crystalline silicon Aspecies -B is
;C5 ` 36U3> cm5 Ds at 3366 A3>9> 0B. The depth < can "e "ac!ed out from f "y
s^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

p^^^^^^^^^^cm5 367 mm5>;66 s
U3>
CP 3C9; mm3 hC< P fC 5 D+- t P 3C75C 5 [;C5
` 36

3hs3 cm5
,rediction of the concentration proFle after 3 h re?uires the calculation of f at different (alues of <,
follo2ed "y the calculation of erfAfB and Fnally c+ A<, tB. Repetiti(e calculation of erfAfB is "est
carried out 2ith the help of a mathematics soft2are pac!age such as Mathcad AMath&oft *nc.,
am"ridge, M+.B. The predicted phosphorous concentration proFle is compared 2ith the data of
Errana and 0a!ati5 o"tained under similar process conditions, as sho2n in Figure 59.>. *t is !no2n
that the molecular=diffusion coefFcient of phosphorous in crystalline silicon is a function of
phosphorous concentration. The concentration=dependent diffusion coefFcient creates a GGdipHH in
5
#. Errana and D. 0a!ati, &olid &tate Technol., 59 A35B, 39 A3:7@B.
59.>
3.6Ei53
Transient Diffusion in a Finite=Dimensional Medium 565
Model
,hosphorous
concentration
Aatoms ,Dcm>B
3.6Ei56
3.6Ei3:
3.6Ei37
3.6Ei39
3.6Ei3;
3.6Ei35
6.6
Data
6.5 3.6 3.55.65.5
Depth into silicon AmmB
>.6 >.5
Figure 59.> ,hosphorous doping proFle in silicon 2afer after 3 h at 33667.
the o"ser(ed phosphorous concentration proFle. + detailed model of this phenomenon is pro(ided "y
Middleman and Hoch"erg.>
EM+M,$E 5 %ne 2ay to deli(er a timed dosage of a drug 2ithin the human "ody is to ingest a capsule and allo2 it
to settle in the gastrointestinal system. %nce inside the "ody, the capsule slo2ly releases the drug "y a
diffusion=limited process. + suita"le drug carrier is a spherical "ead of a nonto8ic gelatinous material
that can pass through the gastrointestinal system 2ithout disintegrating. + 2ater=solu"le drug
Asolute +B is uniformly dissol(ed 2ithin the gel and has an initial concentration +o . The drug loaded
2ithin the "ead is the source for mass transfer, 2hereas the Juid surrounding the "ead is the sin! for
mass transfer. This is an unsteady=state process, as the source for mass transfer is contained 2ithin the
diffusion control (olume itself.
onsider a limiting case 2here the resistance to Flm mass transfer of the drug through the li?uid
"oundary layer surrounding the capsule surface to the "ul! surrounding the Juid is negligi"le.
Furthermore, assume that the drug is immediately consumed or s2ept a2ay once it reaches the "ul!
solution so that in essence the surrounding Juid is an inFnite sin!. *n this particular limiting case, c+s
is e?ual to <ero, so at a long time the entire amount of drug initially loaded into the "ead 2ill "e
depleted. *f radial symmetry is assumed, then the concentration proFle is only a function of the r
direction AFigure 59.@B.
*t is desired to design a spherical capsule for the timed release of the drug dimenhydrinate,
commonly called Dramamine, 2hich is used to treat motion sic!ness. + conser(ati(e total dosage for
one capsule is 36 mg, 2here 56b of the drug must "e released to the "ody 2ithin > h. Determine the
si<e of the "ead and the initial concentration of Dramamine in the "ead necessary to achie(e this
dosage. The diffusion coefFcient of Dramamine Aspecies +B in the gel matri8 Aspecies -B is > `
36U9 cm5 Ds at a "ody temperature of >97. The solu"ility limit of Dramamine in the gel is
366 mgDcm> , 2hereas the solu"ility of Dramamine in 2ater is only > mgDcm>.
The model must predict the amount of drug released (s. time, "ead diameter, initial concentra=
tion of the drug 2ithin the "ead, and the diffusion coefFcient of the drug 2ithin the gel matri8. The
physical system possesses spherical geometry. The de(elopment of the differential material "alance
model and the assumptions associated 2ith it follo2 the approach presented in &ection 55.@.
>
&. Middleman and +. 0. Hoch"erg, ,rocess Engineering +nalysis in &emiconductor De(ice Fa"rication,
Mc#ra2=Hill, /e2 Eor!, 3::>.
56; hapter 59 'nsteady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
tN6
Drug in
gel "ead
t_6
/+AR, tB
r
-ul!
fluid
c+ N 6
r
-ul!
fluid
c+ N 6 c+Ar, 6B N c+o
rN6
c+
N6
r
c+Ar, 6B c+o
rNR
c+ N 6
Figure 59.@ Drug release from a spherical gel "ead.
The general differential e?uation for mass transfer reduces to the follo2ing partial differential
e?uation for the one=dimensional unsteady=state concentration proFle c+ ArT tBC
5
Yc+Y c+ 5 Yc+
P D+-A59=37BV
r YrYtYr 5
0ey assumptions include radial symmetry, dilute solution of the drug dissol(ed in the gel matri8, and
no degradation of the drug inside the "ead AR+ P 6B. The "oundary conditions at the center Ar P 6B
and the surface Ar P RB of the "ead are
Yc+
P 6TtQ6r P 6T
Yr
r P RT c+ P c+s P 6T t _ 6
+t the center of the "ead, 2e note the condition of symmetry 2here the Ju8 /+ A6T tB is e?ual to <ero.
The initial condition is
t P 6Tc+ P c+o T6 r R
The analytical solution for the unsteady=state concentration proFle c+ ArT tB is o"tained "y separation=
of=(aria"les techni?ue descri"ed earlier. The details of the analytical solution in spherical coordi=
nates are pro(ided "y ran!. The result is
3c+ U c+o5R M WU3Xn npr UD+- n5 p5 tNR5
sinP3VTEPe
c+s U c+o
pr nP3 nR
r ;P 6T n P 3T 5T >T C C C
A59=3:B
+t the center of the spherical "ead Ar P 6B, the concentration is
EP
3M5 55c+ U c+o
P 3 V 5 AU 3Bn eUD+- n p tNR T
c+s U c+o
nP3
r P 6T n P 3T 5T >T C C C
A59=56B
%nce the analytical solution for the concentration proFle is !no2n, calculations of engineering
interest can "e performed, including the rate of drug release and the cumulati(e amount of drug
release o(er time. The rate of drug release, W+ , is the product of the Ju8 at the surface of the "ead
Ar P RB and the surface area of the spherical "ead

Yc+ AR, tB55
A59=53BW+ AtB P @pR /+r P @pR UD+-
Yr
*t is not so difFcult to differentiate the concentration proFle, c+ ArT tB, 2ith respect to radial coordinate
r, set r P R, and then insert "ac! into the a"o(e e8pression for W+ AtB to ultimately o"tain
W+ AtB P 7pRc+o D+-
3M5 55eUD+- n p tNR
nP3
A59=55B
59.> Transient Diffusion in a Finite=Dimensional Medium 569
The a"o(e e?uation sho2s that the rate of drug release 2ill decrease as time increases until all of the
drug initially loaded into the "ead is depleted, at 2hich point W+ 2ill go to <ero. *nitially, the drug is
uniformly loaded into the "ead. The initial amount of drug loaded in the "ead is the product of the
initial concentration and the (olume of the spherical "ead
@
m+o P c+o 1 P c+o pR>
>
The cumulati(e amount of drug release from the "ead o(er time is the integral of the drug release rate
o(er time
ft
m+o U m+ WtX P W+ AtB dt
+fter some effort, the result is
6
3
m+ AtB; M 3 UD+- n5 p5 tNR5
P 5
e
m+op nP3 n5
A59=5>B
The analytical solution is e8pressed as an inFnite series summation that con(erges as GGnHH goes
to inFnity. *n practice, con(ergence to a single numerical (alue can "e attained "y carrying the series
summation out to only a fe2 terms, especially if the dimensionless parameter D+- tDR5 is relati(ely
large. *t is a straightfor2ard tas! to implement the inFnite series summation on a spreadsheet
program such as E8cel AMicrosoft orporationB.
Ta"le 59.3 E8cel spreadsheet for drugUrelease proFle, E8ample 5
m+o P 36 mg
D+- P >C66E U 69 cm5 Ds
R P 6C>5; cm
+o P ;7C: mgDcm>
Time, t AsB
Time, t AhB
m+ AtBDm+o
3 U m+ AtBDm+o
6.6 37
6.6 6.665
3.6 6.:;@
6.6 6.6>;
376
6.65
6.:55
6.695
3766
6.56
6.99@
6.55;
>;66
3.66
6.;7:
6.>33
9566
5.66
6.597
6.@55
36766
>.66
6.566
6.566
3@@66
@.66
6.@>:
6.5;3
37666
5.66
6.>7:
6.;33
53;66
;.66
6.>@9
6.;5>
&eries term n P
3
5
>
@
5
;
9
7
:
36
33
35
3>
3@
35
3;
39
37
3:
56
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3.53EU65
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+ representati(e spreadsheet solution is pro(ided in Ta"le 59.3. /ote that in Ta"le 59.3 the terms
2ithin the series summation rapidly decay to <ero after a fe2 terms. The cumulati(e drug release (s.
time proFle is sho2n in Figure 59.5. The drug=release proFle is affected "y the dimensionless
parameter D+- tNR5. *f the diffusion coefFcient D+- is F8ed for a gi(en drug and gel matri8, then the
critical engineering=design parameter 2e can manipulate is the "ead radius R. +s R increases, the rate
of drug release decreasesT if it is desired to release 56b of Dramamine from a gel "ead 2ithin > h, a
"ead radius of 6.>5; cm A>.5; mmB is re?uired, as sho2n in Figure 59.5. %nce the "ead radius R is
speciFed, the initial concentration of Dramamine re?uired in the "ead can "e "ac!ed out
m+o >m+o>W36 mgX;7C: mg
PPP
>>cm>1@pR@pA6C>5; cmB
*n summary, a ;.55=mm=diameter "ead 2ith an initial concentration of ;7C: mgNcm> 2ill dose
out the re?uired 5 mg of Dramamine 2ithin > h. The concentration proFle along the r direction
at different points in time is pro(ided in Figure 59.;. The concentration proFle 2as calculated "y
spreadsheet similar to the format gi(en in Ta"le 59.3. The concentration proFle decreases as time
increases and then Jattens out to <ero after the drug is completely released from the "ead.
c+o P
3.6
Fraction of
drug released,
3 O m+At BDm+%
6.>5; cm
6.3;> cm
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6
6 3 5 >
Time, t AhB
@ 5 ;
Figure 59.5 Fractional drug
release (s. time proFles.
366
Drug
concentration,
c+Ar, tB
AmgDcm>B
>h
35 h
5@ h
76
;6
@6
56
6
6.66 6.65 6.36 6.35 6.56 6.55
Radial position, r AcmB
6.>6 6.>5
Figure 59.; oncentration
proFle of a 6.>5;=cm=radius
"ead after >, 35, and 5@ h.
59.@ oncentrationOTime harts for &imple #eometric &hapes 56:
59.@ %/E/TR+T*%/OT*ME H+RT& F%R &*M,$E #E%METR* &H+,E&
*n our analytical solutions, the unaccomplished change, E, 2as found to "e a function of the
relati(e time, MD . The mathematical solutions, for the unsteady=state mass transfer in se(eral
simple shapes 2ith certain restricti(e "oundary conditions, ha(e "een presented in a 2ide
(ariety of charts to facilitate their use. T2o forms of these charts are a(aila"le in the appendi8.
The GG#urneyO$urieHH charts present solutions for the Jat plate, sphere, and long
cylinder. +s the deFning partial differential e?uations for heat conduction and molecular
diffusion are analogous, these charts may "e used to sol(e either transport phenomenon. For
molecular diffusion, the charts are in terms of four dimensionless ratiosC
c+s U c+
E P unaccomplished concentration change P
c+s U c+6
D+- t
MD P relati(e time P 5
83
8
n P relati(e position P
83
D+-
m P relati(e resistance P
!c 83
The characteristic length, 83 , is the distance from the point of symmetry. For shapes
2here the transport ta!es place from t2o opposite faces, 83 is the distance from the midpoint
to the surfaces from 2hich the transfer occurs. For shapes 2here the transport ta!es place
from only one of the faces, the 83 (alue in the dimensionless ratios is calculated as if the
thic!ness 2ere t2ice the true (alueT that is, for a sla" of thic!ness 5a, the relati(e time, MD , is
considered to "e D+- tD@a5 .
The relati(e resistance, m, is the ratio of the con(ecti(e mass=transfer resistance to the
internal molecular mass=transfer resistance. For a process 2ith negati(e con(ecti(e mass=
transfer resistance, the con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcient, !c , 2ill "e (ery large relati(e
to D+- , so m 2ill "e assumed to "e <ero in processes 2here molecular diffusion controls
the Ju8 of the diffusing species. For this case of no con(ection resistance, the concentra=
tion of the diffusing species at the surface, c+s , 2ill "e e?ual to the concentration in the
"ul! Juid, c+3 . *f m is much greater than <ero, then the surface concentration of species +
differs from its concentration in the "ul! Juid phase.
These charts may "e used to e(aluate concentration proFles for cases in(ol(ing
molecular mass transfer into as 2ell as out of "odies of the speciFc shapes if the follo2ing
conditions are satisFedC
AaB Fic!Hs second la2 of diffusion is assumedT that is, there is no Juid motion, ( P 6,
no production term, R+ P 6, and constant mass diffusi(ity.
A"B The "ody has an initial uniform concentration, c+o .
AcB The "oundary is su"Iected to a ne2 condition that remains constant 2ith time t.
+lthough the charts 2ere dra2n for one=dimensional transport, they may "e com"ined
to yield solutions for t2o= and three=dimensional transfer. *n t2o dimensions, Ea e(aluated
2ith the 2idth, 83 P a and E" e(aluated 2ith the depth, 83 P ", are com"ined to gi(e
E P Ea E"
+ summary of these com"ined solutions follo2sC
A3B For transport from a rectangular "ar 2ith sealed ends
E"ar P Ea E"
A59=5@B
A59=55B
2here Ea is e(aluated 2ith 2idth 83 P a and E" is e(aluated 2ith thic!ness 83 P ".
A5B For transport from a rectangular parallelepiped
Eparallelepiped P Ea E" Ec
A59=5;B
2here Ea is e(aluated 2ith 2idth 83 P aT E" is e(aluated 2ith thic!ness 83 P
", and Ec is e(aluated 2ith depth 83 P c.
A>B For transport from a cylinder, including "oth ends
Ecylinder plus ends P Ecylinder Ea
The use of these charts 2ill "e sho2n in the follo2ing e8ample.
A59=59B
EM+M,$E > Recall the drug capsule descri"ed in E8ample 5. The present drug capsule consists of a 6.;55=cm=
diameter spherical "ead Aradius of 6.>5; cmB containing a uniform initial concentration of ;7.: mgD
cm> dramamine. AaB 2hat is the residual concentration of dramamine at the center of the spherical
"ead after @7 ha A"B the capsule is no2 a cu"e 6.;55 cm on a side. Recalculate part AaB a"o(e. AcB the
capsule is no2 a cylindrical ta"let of diameter 6.;55 cm and thic!ness 6.> cm. Recalculate part AaB
a"o(e. The diffusion coefFcient of dramamine Aspecies +B in the gel matri8 Aspecies -B is > `
36U9 cm5 Ds at a "ody temperature of >97. The three capsules are presented in Figure 59.9.
R N 6.>5; cm
R
R
83
R N 6.>5; cm
&phere
83 N 6.>5; cm
u"e
83
83 N 6.35 cm
ylinder
Figure 59.9 Three
capsule conFgurations.
This pro"lem is readily sol(ed using the charts gi(en in +ppendi8 F.
AaB &pherical capsuleC First, calculate the relati(e time WMD X, relati(e position AnB, and
relati(e resistance AmB "ased on the spherical coordinate system
D+- t
P
R5
U[
U9 cm5 @7 h >;66 s> ` 36
3hs
A6C>5; cmB5
MD P P 6C@77
nP
r6 cm
PP 6 Acenter of sphereB
R 6C>5; cm
mP
D+-
b6
!c R
From Figure F.3 or Figure 37.>, the (alue for E, 2hich in this case is the unaccomplished
concentration change at the center of the spherical "ead, is a"out 6.637. We can no2
calculate c+
c+s U c+6 U c+
E P 6C637 PP
c+s U c+o 6 U ;7C: mgDcm>
The residual Dramamine concentration at the center of the "ead after @7 h Ac+ B is
3.5@ mgDcm>.
59.@ oncentrationOTime harts for &imple #eometric &hapes 533
A"B For the cu"e=shaped capsule the distance from the midpoint of the cu"e to any of the si8
faces is 6.;55 cmD5. The relati(e time MD is no2 deFned as

cm5>;66 s
@7 h> ` 36U9
D+- t3hs
P 6C@77MD P 5 P583W6C>5; cmX
1alues for n and m are unchanged, 2ith n P 6 and m P 6. +s all of the faces of the cu"e are
of e?ual dimension, let
>E P Ea E" Ec P Ea
From the appendi8 Figure F.@, gi(en MD P 6C@77, m P 6 and n P 6, Ea is 6.@ for a Jat plate
of semi=thic!ness 83 P a P 6C>5; cm. E8tending this (alue to a three=dimensional cu"e
using the a"o(e relationship, 2e ha(e
>E P Ea P A6C@B> P 6C6;@
Finally,
E P 6C6;@ P
c+s U c+6 U c+
P
2ith c+ P @C@3 mgDcm> after @7 h.
AcB For a cylindrical capsule 2ith e8posed ends, R P 6C;55 cmD5 for the radial coordinate, and
83 P a P 6C> cmD5 for the a8ial coordinate. The relati(e times are

cm5>;66 s
@7 h>C6 ` 36U9
D+- t3hs
P 6C@77MD P 5 P5RA6C>5; cmB
for the cylindrical dimension and

cm5>;66 s
@7 h>C6 ` 36U9
D+- t3hs
MD P 5 PP 5C>6
583W6C35 cmX
for the a8ial dimension. 1alues for n and m are unchanged, 2ith n P 6 and m P 6. From
Figures F.3 and F.5, respecti(ely, Ecylinder P 6C3 for the cylindrical dimension and Ea P
6C66; for the a8ial dimension. Therefore,
E P Ecylinder Ea P A6C3BA6C66;B P 6C666;
and Fnally
E P 6C66; P
c+s U c+6 U c+
P
2ith c+ P 6C@3> mgDcm> after @7 h. +s Ea A Ecylinder , the Ju8 directed out of the e8posed
ends of the cylindrical ta"let along the a8ial dimension dominates.
The a"o(e calculations assume that con(ecti(e mass=transfer resistances associated
2ith e8ternal Juid Jo2 o(er the surface of the capsule are negligi"le. ,ro"lems in hapter
>6 2ill reconsider the drug release for unsteady=state diffusion and con(ection in series.
When a phase loses a considera"le amount of the solute during a transient mass=transfer
process, the total density of the phase 2ill not "e constant. This is the case 2here Fic!Hs
second GGla2HH of diffusion must "e e8pressed in terms of a constant solute=free "asis as
de(eloped in e?uation A59O@B
Y26Y 5 26++P D+-
YtY<5
2here 26 is the 2eight fraction of the solute + di(ided "y 3.6 minus the 2eight fraction of +.
+
%ur ne8t e8ample illustrates the use of the solute=free "asis in e8plaining a transient mass=
transfer drying process.
+n oa! pole ha(ing an initial uniform moisture content of @5 2tb is placed in a drying !iln 2here its
surface moisture is maintained at 35 2tb. 'nder the speciFed drying conditions, the drying 2as
controlled "y the internal diffusion of li?uid 2ater to the surface. *f the ma8imum moisture content of
the pole is set at 55 2tb, ho2 long must the 36=cm=diameter "y @5=cm=length pole "e dried 2hen the
ends of the pole are sealed 2ith a (apor "arriera *n comparison, ho2 long must the same cylinder "e
dried if the cylinder surface is sealed 2ith a (apor "arrier and the ends are e8poseda
The diffusi(ity of moisture through the oa! is 3C6@ ` 36U5 cm5 Ds under the speciFed drying
conditions.
This pro"lem is readly sol(ed using the charts gi(en in +ppendi8 F. The initial uniform moisture
content is @5 2tb, the surface moisture content is 35 2tb, and the ma8imum moisture content is 55 2tb.
6C556C35
U
26 U 26+sEP +P 3C6 U C55 3C6 U 6C35 P 6C5@@
6C@56C352+o U 2+s
U
3C6 U 6C@5 3C6 U 6C35
AaB When the ends of the cylinder are sealed, the moisture Aspecies +B 2ill diffuse to the
cylindrical surface, transferring in the r direction only. +s the drying 2as controlled "y
the internal diffusion of the 2ater, m P 6. The 55 2tb moisture content 2ill "e at the
center of the cylinder.
nP
r 6 cm
PP6
R 5 cm
< EM+M,$E @
For n P 6, m P 6, and E P 6C5@@, M P 6C>5, or
MP
and
tP
D+- t
P 6C>5
R5
6C>5R56C>5A5C6 cmB5
PP 9C73 ` 36@ s W53C9hX
U5 cm5 DsD+-3 ` 36
A"B When the cylinder surface is sealed and the ends are e8posed, the transfer 2ill "e from the
t2o Jat ends. With the speciFed moisture contents, E P 6C5@@, m 2ill still "e 6, and
n P 6T M P 6C;7, or
MP
and
tP
D+- t
P 6C;7
R5
6C;785 6C;7A55C5 cmB53PP >C@@ ` 369 s W>:7 daysX
U5 cm5 DsD+-3 ` 36
59.5 $%&'RE
*n this chapter, 2e ha(e considered unsteady=state molecular diffusion. The partial
differential e?uations that descri"ed the transient processes 2ere o"tained from the
com"ination of Fic!Hs e?uation 2ith the general differential e?uation for mass transfer.
T2o approaches for the analytical solution to Fic!Hs second la2 of diffusion 2ere presented.
harts for sol(ing unsteady=state mass transfer pro"lems 2ere also introduced.
,ro"lems 53>
,R%-$EM&
59.3 + large tan!, Flled 2ith 2ater 2ith an initially uniform
o8ygen concentration of 5 !gDm>, has its surface concentration
suddenly raised and maintained at a : !gDm> concentration le(el.
&!etch a concentration le(el, c+ , as a function of depth <, for a
period of
a. >;66 s,
". >;,666 s,
c. >;6,666 s,
if the 2ater is at a temperature of 57> 0.
59.5 + silicone polymer Flm of @ mm thic!ness coats a Jat,
nonporous, inert surface. The polymer Flm is e8posed to stag=
nant 366b %5 gas maintained at 3.5 atm. %8ygen gas is sparingly
solu"le in the silicone polymer Flm, 2ith the solu"ility relation=
ship gi(en "y
c+ P & [ p+
2ith & P >C3; g mol %5 Dm> silicone atm %5 at 5:7 0. *nitially,
there is 6.>: g mol %5 Dm> uniformly dissol(ed in the Flm. The
diffusion coefFcient of %5 in silicone is 3 ` 36U33 m5 Ds at 5:7 0.
a. +t a (ery short time of 36 s, %5 does not penetrate (ery far
into the silicone polymer Flm. 'nder this physical situation,
2hat is the Ju8 of %5 into the surface of the silicone polymer
Flm at this timea
". +t a much longer time, the dissol(ed %5 concentration in the
silicone polymer Flm at the polymerDinert interface is no2 >.6
g molDm>. Ho2 long 2ill it ta!e to achie(e this concentrationa
59.> We are interested in measuring the effecti(e diffusion
coefFcient of "lue de8tran dye into an agarose gel. +n a?ueous,
2ell=mi8ed solution containing 3.6 gD$ of the dye rests o(er the
rigid gel of 5.6 cm thic!ness, as sho2n "elo2. The solu"ilities
of the dye in "oth 2ater and the gel are the sameT that is, the
concentration of the dye on the 2ater side of the 2aterOgel
interface is e?ual to the concentration of dye on the gel side of
the 2aterOgel interface. There is no dye initially in the gel.
+fter 5@ h, a tiny section of the gel 5 mm from the surface is (ery
carefully e8cised 2ith a syringe needle, and the concentration of
the dye 2ithin the gel, as measured "y a spectrophotometer is
6.56> g dyeD$. +n a?ueous GGgelHH is generally considered a
2ater=hydrated polymer, 2here solute molecules diffuse through
the hydrated regions.
a. What is the effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of "lue de8tran
dye into the gel "ased on the e8perimental measurementsa
". &tate at least three assumptions you had to ma!e to arri(e at
your ans2er in part AaB.
c. *f the system temperature is increased from 56 to @67 and
the e8periment is repeated e8actly as descri"ed a"o(e, 2hat
2ould you e8pect the ne2 measured diffusion coefFcient to
"ea The (iscosity of 2ater is :C:> ` 36U@ !gDm [ s at 567
and ;C57 ` 36U@ !gDm [ s at @67.
59.@ $i?uid "en<ene, ; H; , a common industrial sol(ent 2ith
a density of 6.77 gDcm>, lea!ed from a storage tan! and seeped
into the ground "elo2. +s the density of "en<ene is less than the
density of 2ater, the li?uid "en<ene formed a light nona?ueous=
phase li?uid layer on top of the 2ater=saturated soil, as sho2n
"elo2. +t a depth of 3 m "elo2 the 2ater=saturated soil layer is a
nonporous, impermea"le roc! layer. There is no ground2ater
Jo2 through the 2ater=saturated soil layer, it is completely
stagnant.
$i?uid "en<ene storage tan!
Aslo2 lea!B
3m
Dissol(ed "en<ene
diffusion
$i?uid "en<ene
spill Aon top of soilB
Water
saturated
soil
/onporous roc! layer
Well=mi8ed solution
A3.6 g dyeD$B
&ample point
A5 mm from gel surfaceB
5 cm Rigid gel
A2ateripolymerB
We are interested in the transport of "en<ene into the
2ater=saturated soil layer, so that 2e may identify ho2 much
soil must "e dug up and treated. +lthough the 2ater=saturated
soil is comple8 mi8ture, as a medium for "en<ene diffusion you
may assume that it appro8imates the properties of a homoge=
neous su"stance.
+t relati(ely short times or relati(ely small penetration
depths, a Fnite=dimensional diffusion medium can "e appro8i=
mated "y a semi=inFnite diffusion medium. alculate the con=
centration of the dissol(ed "en<ene at a position of 5 cm into the
2ater=saturated soil layer after 95 h of "en<ene spill. $i?uid
"en<ene is sparingly solu"le in 2ater, and its solu"ility limit is
5@ molDm> at 5:> 0. The effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of
"en<ene in the 2ater=saturated soil is 3 ` 36U: m5Ds at 5:> 0.
*nitially, there is no "en<ene dissol(ed in the 2ater=saturated soil
layer. The pure li?uid "en<ene layer resting on top of the soil is
essentially a constant source due to the lo2 solu"ility of "en<ene
53@ hapter 59 'nsteady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
2afer "y the chemical (apor deposition of arsine, +sH>, as
5+sH> AgB Q 5+sAsB V >H5 AgB
The arsenic atoms then diffuse into the solid silicon to dope the
2afer as sho2n "elo2C
+sH> AgB
+sAsB thin flim
&i 2afer
H5 AgB
in 2ater. Finally, you may assume that "en<ene does not diffuse
into the nonporous roc! layer.
59.5 Hydrogen em"rittlement 2ea!ens the mechanical
strength of cast iron. This phenomenon fre?uently occurs in
cast=iron pressure (essels containing 366b hydrogen gas. The
H5 gas dissol(es into the iron metal and diffuses into the solid
nonporous iron "y an interstitial diffusion mechanism. The H5
gas does not ha(e to penetrate (ery far into the iron to ha(e a
negati(e effect on the mechanical strength of iron. *n the present
situation, 366b H5 gas at 3.6 atm and 3667 is contained 2ithin
a cylindrical iron (essel of 3.6 m inner diameter and 2all
thic!ness of 5.6 cm. The solu"ility of hydrogen in iron at
3667 is 5C5 ` 36U9 mol H atomsDg Fe. The diffusion coefFcient
of hydrogen atoms in solid iron is 35@C6 ` 36U: cm5Ds at 3667.
*nitially, there are no H atoms in the solid iron. Ho2 many hours
2ill it ta!e for the hydrogen le(el 2ithin the iron metal to reach
3C9; ` 36U9 mol H atomsDg Fe at a depth of 6.3 cm from the
surface e8posed to the hydrogen gasa
59.; + large tan!er truc! o(erturns and spills a her"icide o(er a
Feld. *f the mass diffusi(ity of the Juid in the soil is 3 ` 36U> m5Ds
and the Juid remains on the soil for 3766 s "efore e(aporating
into the air, determine the depth at 2hich plant and insect life is
li!ely to "e destroyed if a concentration of 6.3b "y 2eight 2ill
destroy most of the life.
59.9 *n the fa"rication of a p=type semiconductor, elemental
"oron is diffused a small distance into a solid crystalline silicon
2afer. The "oron concentration 2ithin the solid silicon deter=
mines semiconducting properties of the material. + physical
deposition process !eeps the concentration of elemental "oron at
the surface of the 2ater e?ual to 5C6 ` 3656 atoms "oronDcm>
silicon. *n the manufacture of a transistor, it is desired to produce
a thin Flm of silicon doped to a "oron concentration of at least
3C9 ` 363: atoms "oronDcm> silicon at a depth of 6C5 mm from
the surface of the silicon 2afer. *t is desired to achie(e this target
2ithin a >6=min processing time. The density of solid silicon is
5C6 ` 3655 atoms &iDcm> solid. +t 2hat temperature must the
"oron doping process "e operateda *t is !no2n that the tem=
perature dependence of the diffusion coefFcient of "oron A+B in
silicon A-B is gi(en "y
D+- P D6 eU.6 NRT
2here D6 P 6C63: cm5 Ds and .6 P 5C9@ ` 365 JDg mol for ele=
mental "oron in solid silicon. The thermodynamic constant R P
7C>3@ JDg molD0.
59.7 + preheated piece of mild steel, ha(ing an initial con=
centration of 6.56b "y 2eight of car"on, is e8posed to a
car"oni<ing atmosphere for 3 h. 'nder the processing condi=
tions, the surface concentration of car"on is 6.96b "y 2eight. *f
the diffusi(ity of car"on through steel is 3C6 ` 36U33 m5Ds at the
process temperature, determine the car"on composition at 6.63
cm, 6.65 cm, and 6.6@ cm "elo2 the surface.
59.: *n the manufacture of semiconducting thin Flms, a thin
Flm of solid arsenic is laid do2n onto the surface of a silicon
+&
What is the Ju8 of arsenic atoms into the silicon 2afer after 3 h,
in units of atomsDcm5 sa What is arsenic concentration 5 mm into
the silicon 2afer after 3 h, in units of atomsDcm>a The initial
concentration of residual arsenic in the silicon 2afer is 3635
atomsDcm>. The process temperature is 36567. The a(erage
diffusi(ity of arsenic in silicon is 5 ` 36U3> cm5Ds at this
temperature, and the ma8imum solu"ility of arsenic in silicon
is 5 ` 3653 atomsDcm>.
59.36 ,lease refer to ,ro"lem 59.:. The GGIunction depthHH is a
critical parameter for esta"lishing the semiconducting properties
of doped silicon Flms. For a particular semiconductor, the
Iunction depth is esta"lished 2hen the arsenic concentration
in the silicon reaches 5 ` 3639 atomsDcm>.
a. ,lot out the Iunction depth 2ith time t during the Frst ; h of
doping.
". /o2 plot the Iunction depth (s. t3N5 . Why is the plot lineara
59.33 *t is e8tremely difFcult to GGaerateHH stagnant 2ater.
onsider the process sho2n in the Fgure "elo2. + sealed
tan! consists of still, deep li?uid 2ater 2ith pure o8ygen gas
in the headspace. The temperature and pressure of the 366b %5
gas are 5:7 0 and 5.6 atm, respecti(ely. *nitially, the dissol(ed
o8ygen concentration of the 2ater 2ithin the tan! is uniform at
36.6 gDm>, the diffusion coefFcient of dissol(ed %5 in 2ater is
5C3 ` 36U5 cm5 Ds at 5:7 0, and the HenryHs la2 constant for
dissol(ed %5 gas in li?uid 2ater is 6.766 atm [ m> Dg mol at 5:7 0.
Ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for dissol(ed o8ygen concentration to reach
56 gDm> at a depth of 6.> cm from the 2ater surfacea
366b %5 gas
5:7 0 5.6 atm
&ealed tan!
deep li?uid 2ater
intial dissol(ed %5
366 g %5Dm>
59.35 + GGdrug patchHH is designed to slo2ly deli(er a drug
Aspecies +B through the "ody tissue to an infected <one of tissue
"eneath the s!in. The drug patch consists of a sealed reser(oir
,ro"lems
containing the drug encapsulated 2ithin a porous polymer
matri8. The patch is implanted Iust "elo2 the s!in. + diffusion
"arrier attached to the "ottom surface of the patch sets the surface
concentration of the drug in the "ody tissue at 5 molDm>, 2hich is
"elo2 the solu"ility limit. The mean distance from the drug patch
to the infected area of tissue is 5 mm. To "e effecti(e, the drug
concentration must "e at least 6.5 molDm> at the top edge of the
infected <one. Determine the time it 2ill ta!e in hours for the
drug to "egin to "e effecti(e for treatment. The effecti(e mole=
cular diffusion coefFcient of the drug through the "ody tissue is
3 ` 36U; cm5 Ds.
59.3> ,lease refer to ,ro"lem 59.@. Ho2 long 2ill it ta!e
for the concentration of "en<ene at the clay "arrier Adepth of 3 mB
to reach 3 gDm>, the to8icity limita Eou might Fnd that the
concentration charts are difFcult to read accurately at this
concentration. Therefore, consider the analytical solution and
implement the calculations on a computer spreadsheet. -e a2are
that the diffusion process may ta!e a long time.
59.3@ ,lease refer to ,ro"lem 59.@. onsider a 3 m "y 3 m cross
section of the 2ater=saturated soil. Ho2 many grams of dissol(ed
"en<ene remain in this 3 m> 2ater=saturated soil 5 years after the
spilla Eou may need to analytically integrate the Ju8 gi(en "y
e?uation A59O39B at the surface A< P 6B o(er time, and then
implement the series solution on a computer spreadsheet.
59.35 The concentration proFle resulting from transient diffu=
sion in a sla" under conditions of negligi"le surface resistance is
descri"ed "y e?uation A59O3;B. 'se this e?uation to de(elop an
e?uation for predicting the a(erage concentration, c+ . E(aluate
and plot the dimensionless a(erage proFle Ac+ U c+s BDAc+o U
c+s B as a function of the dimensionless relati(e time ratio, MD .
'se a computer spreadsheet to perform the calculations.
59.3; $i(ing cells immo"ili<ed 2ithin an agarose gel re?uires
glucose to sur(i(e. +n important aspect of the "iochemical
system design is the effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of glucose
into the agarose gel itself, 2hich you may consider as a homo=
geneous material that is mostly li?uid 2ater. onsider the
e8periment that is sho2n "elo2, 2here a sla" of the agarose
gel of 3.6 cm thic!ness is placed 2ithin a 2ell=mi8ed a?ueous
Effecti(e diffusion coefficient measurement e8periment
535
solution of glucose maintained at a concentration of 56 mmolD$,
2hich is relati(ely dilute. The solu"ility of the glucose in 2ater is
e?ual to the solu"ility of glucose in the gel.
+ syringe mounted at the center of the gel carefully
e8cises a tiny sample of the gel for glucose analysis. *nitially,
there is no glucose in the gel. Ho2e(er, after @5 h, the measured
concentration of glucose in the gel at the sampling point is
@7.5 mmolD$.
a. What is the general differential e?uation for mass transfer
for this process in terms of concentration c+ a ,ropose
reasona"le "oundaryDinitial conditions for this e?uation.
$ist three assumptions made in o"taining this e?uation.
". -ased on the measurements pro(ided a"o(e, 2hat is the
effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of glucose into the gela
59.39 onsider cylindrical=shaped a"sor"ent material designed
to selecti(ely remo(e solute + from a solution. The upta!e of
solute + through the homogeneous material is limited "y
molecular diffusion. Furthermore, the a"sor"ent has a higher
afFnity for solute + relati(e to the surrounding solution as
descri"ed "y the linear e?uili"rium relationship
c+ P 0c6+
2here c+ is the molar concentration of + in the a"sor"ent, c6 is+
the molar concentration of + in the surrounding Juid, and 0 is a
partition coefFcient for solute + "et2een the Juid and the
a"sor"ent material. +ssume that A3B the surrounding Juid is
(ery 2ell mi8ed and has a constant concentration of c6 P 5C66 g+
molDm>T A5B the diffusion coefFcient of + in the homogeneous
a"sor"ent material is @ ` 36U9 cm5 Ds and 0 P 3C5 cm> JuidDcm>
a"sor"entT A>B the cylindrical a"sor"ent pellet is 3.6 cm in
diameter and 5.6 cm longT and A@B there is no solute + initially
in the a"sor"ent material.
*f the GGedge effectsHH associated 2ith the ends of the cylin=
der can "e neglected, ho2 long 2ill ta!e for the solute +
concentration to reach 5.:@ g molDm> at a depth of 6.@ cm
from the surface of the cylindera
59.37 + small spherical "ead is used as a controlled drug=
release capsule in the gastrointestinal system. *n the particular
case, a 6.3=cm=diameter "ead has a uniform initial concen=
tration of 6.5 mmolD$ of the drug griseoful(in Aspecies +B.
Determine the time it 2ill ta!e for the concentration of the
griseoful(in at the center of the "ead to reach 36b of its initial
(alue. The diffusi(ity of griseoful(in 2ithin the "ead material
is 3C5 ` 36U9 cm5 Ds. 'pon release from the "ead, the drug
is immediately consumed so that the surface concentration is
essentially <ero.
59.3: Determine the time necessary to reduce the center
moisture content to 36 2tb if a 5=cm=thic! sla" of clay is placed
on a "elt passing through a continuous drier, thus restricting the
drying to only one of the Jat surfaces. The initial moisture con=
tent is 35 2tb and the surface moisture content under the
constant drying conditions is to "e maintained at @ 2tb. The
effecti(e diffusi(ity of 2ater through clay is 3C> ` 36U@ cm5 Ds.
Well=mi8ed
glucose solution
constant concentration
A56 mmolD$B
+garose gel
Ano cellsB
A3.6 cm thic!B Well=mi8ed
glucose solution
constant concentration
A56 mmolD$B
&ampling
syringe
Acenter of gelB
53; hapter 59 'nsteady=&tate Molecular Diffusion
gel sets 0 e?ual to 356. Ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for the cadmium
concentration at the center of the gel "ead to reach 35 molDm> if
2aste2ater containing a constant concentration of 6.3 molDm>
cadmium A33.5 ppmB rapidly Jo2s o(er the gel "eada The
diffusion coefFcient of cadmium 2ithin the gel is appro8imately
5 ` 36U; cm5 Ns.
59.55 onsider a rectangular=shaped gel ta"let of thic!ness
6.;55 cm and 2idth 3.6 cm. The edges of the gel ta"let are sealed.
The initial concentration of the drug Dramamine Asolute +B
in the gel A-B is ;@.6 mgDcm>, to pro(ide a total drug dosage of
@3.9 mg. The diffusion coefFcient of the drug in the gel is
>C6 ` 36U9 cm5 Ds. What is the residual concentration of drug at
the center of the ta"let after :; ha The concentration of the drug
at the e8posed surface of the ta"let is maintained at <ero.
59.5> + porous cylinder, 5.5 cm in diameter and 76 cm long, is
saturated 2ith an alcohol. The (oid space in the solid contains
sufFcient pores so that molecular diffusion can ta!e place
through the li?uid in the passage. The cylinder is dropped
into a large, 2ell=agitated reser(oir of pure 2ater. The agitation
maintains a concentration of 3 2tb alcohol at the surface of the
cylinder.
*f the concentration at the center of the cylinder drops from
>6 2tb alcohol to 37 2tb in 36 h, determine the concentration in
2eight percent at the center after 35 h.
59.5@ + common procedure for increasing the moisture con=
tent of air is to "u""le it through a column of 2ater. The air
"u""les are assumed to "e spheres ha(ing radii of 3 mm and are
in thermal e?uili"rium 2ith 2ater at 5:7 0. Determine ho2 long
the "u""le should remain in the 2ater to achie(e a (apor
concentration at the center that is :6b of the ma8imum possi"le
AsaturationB concentration. +ssume that the air is dry 2hen it
enters the column of 2ater and that the air inside the small "u""le
is stagnant. The (apor pressure of 2ater is a(aila"le from many
sources, including the stream ta"les.
59.55 + rectangular oa! pole, 36cm "y 36 cm in 2idth and
@5 cm in length, ha(ing an initial uniform moisture content of
@5 2tb, is placed in a drying !iln 2here its surface moisture is
maintained at 35 2tb. The drying rate is controlled "y the
internal diffusion of the li?uid 2ater to the surface. *f the
ma8imum moisture content of the dried pole is set at 55 2tb,
ho2 long must the pole "e dried 2hen the ends of the pole are
sealed 2ith a (apor "arriera *n comparison, ho2 long must the
same pole "e dried if the side surfaces are sealed 2ith a (apor
"arrier and the ends are e8poseda
Eou may assume for the purposes of this pro"lem that 2ood
is an isotropic material. The diffusi(ity of moisture through the
oa! is 3C6@ ` 36U5 cm5 Ns under the speciFed drying conditions.
59.56 +luminum is the primary conductor material for fa"ri=
cation of microelectronic de(ices. onsider the composite
thin Flm sho2n in the Fgure "elo2. + thin Flm of solid aluminum
is sputter=coated onto a 2afer surface. Then, a 6.5 mm thin Flm of
silicon is added on top of the aluminum Flm "y chemical (apor
deposition of silane. This &i thin Flm ser(es as an electrically
insulating layer. Ho2e(er, if a high temperature is maintained
during processing, the aluminum can diffuse into the &i thin Flm
and change the characteristics of the microelectronic de(ice.
Estimate the concentration of +l half2ay into the &i thin Flm if
the temperature is maintained at 3556 0 for 36 h. arefully
consider 2hether or not the process represents diffusion 2ithin
a semi=inFnite medium or a Fnite=dimensional medium. +t
3556 0, the ma8imum solu"ility of +l in &i is a"out 3 2tb.
Diffusi(ity data are pro(ided in Figure 5@.9.
/+
&ilicon thin flim A6.5 mmB
+luminum thin flim Aspecies +B
Wafer surface
59.53 + no(el material "ased on the "iopolymer polygluco=
samine is cast into a homogeneous gel "ead. The amine group on
the "iopolymer has a high afFnity for transition metal ions at
parts=per=million concentrations. When 2ater containing metal
ions contacts the gel, the metal ions selecti(ely partition into the
gel at the surface, and then diffuse through the gel. *n essence,
the gel acts as a second phase that e8tracts the metal ions from
solution and concentrates them 2ithin the "ead. onse?uently,
this material can "e used to selecti(ely remo(e to8ic transition
metal ions from 2aste2ater. +lthough the real situation is some=
2hat more complicated, assume as a limiting case that the upta!e
rate of the metal ions is limited "y the passi(e molecular
diffusion of the metal ions through the gel. +t relati(ely lo2
metal ion concentrations in 2ater "elo2 3.6 molDm>, the partition
constant is deFned "y the relationship
c6 P 0c+s+
2here c6 is the molar concentration of the metal ion 2ithin the
+
gel phase at the surface, c+s is the molar concentration of the
metal in the a?ueous phase at the surface, and 0 is a dimension=
less partition constant, 2hich is dependent on the concentration
of "iopolymer 2ithin the gel. *n the present process, the "ead
diameter is 6.5 cm, and the "iopolymer concentration 2ithin the
hapter
57
on(ecti(e mass transfer, initially introduced in &ection 5@.>, in(ol(es the transport of
material "et2een a "oundary surface and a mo(ing Juid or "et2een t2o immisci"le
mo(ing Juids separated "y a mo"ile interface. *n this chapter, 2e 2ill discuss the
transfer 2ithin a single phase 2here the mass is e8changed "et2een a "oundary surface
and a mo(ing Juid, and the Ju8 is related to an indi(idual mass=transfer con(ecti(e
coefFcient. *n hapter 5:, 2e 2ill consider the mass transfer "et2een t2o contacting
phases 2here the Ju8 is related to an o(erall mass=transfer con(ecti(e coefFcient.
The rate e?uation for con(ecti(e mass transfer, generali<ed in a manner analogous
to /e2tonHs la2 of cooling, is
/+ P !c Dc+
A5@=59B
2here the mass flu8, /+ , is the molar=mass flu8 of species +, measured relati(e to fi8ed
spatial coordinates, Dc+ is the concentration difference "et2een the "oundary surface
concentration and the a(erage concentration of the diffusing species in the mo(ing fluid
stream, and !c is the con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefficient. Recalling the discussions of the
con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefficient, as defined "y /e2tonHs la2 of cooling, 2e should
reali<e that the determination of the analogous con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefficient is not
a simple underta!ing. -oth the heat= and the mass=transfer coefficients are related to the
properties of the fluid, the dynamic characteristics of the flo2ing fluid, and the geometry
of the specific system of interest.
*n light of the close similarity "et2een the con(ecti(e heat= and mass=transfer
e?uations used to deFne these t2o con(ecti(e coefFcients, 2e may e8pect that the
analytical treatment of the heat=transfer coefFcient in hapter 3: might "e applied to
analy<e the mass=transfer coefFcient. onsidera"le use 2ill also "e made of
de(elopments and concepts of hapters :O3>.
57.3 F'/D+ME/T+$ %/&*DER+T*%/& */ %/1ET*1E M+&& TR+/&FER
When the mass transfer in(ol(es a solute dissol(ing into a mo(ing Juid, the con(ecti(e
mass=transfer coefFcient is deFned "y
/+ P !c Ac+s U c+ B
A57=3B
*n this e?uation, the flu8 /+ represents the moles of solute + lea(ing the interface per unit
time and unit interfacial area. The composition of the solute in the fluid at the interface,
c+& , is the composition of the fluid if it 2ere in e?uili"rium 2ith the solid solute at the
temperature and pressure of the system. The ?uantity c+ represents the composition at
some point 2ithin the fluid phase. For e8ample, if a concentration "oundary layer is
defined, c+ can "e chosen as the concentration of component + at the edge of the
539
537 hapter 57 on(ecti(e Mass Transfer
"oundary layer and "e e8pressed as c+3 . *f the flo2 2ere in a closed conduit, the
composition c 2ould "e the "ul! composition or the mi8ing=cup concentration, that is, an
a(erage composition of the "ul! flo2.
Mass transfer at a steady rate from a solid to a gas stream is descri"ed "y an e?uation
identical to A57=3B, 2ith the compositions of the solute in terms of gas=phase concentrations.
E?uation A57=3B 2ill "e used in the follo2ing e8ample to e(aluate a mass=transfer coefFcient.
EM+M,$E 3 +ir Jo2s o(er a solid sla" of fro<en car"on dio8ide Adry iceB 2ith an e8posed cross=sectional surface
area of 3 ` 36U> m5 . The car"on dio8ide su"limes into the 5 mDs Jo2ing stream at a total release rate
of 5C5: ` 36U@ molDs. The air is at 5:> 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,a pressure. +t that temperature, the
diffusi(ity of car"on dio8ide in air is 3C5 ` 36U5 m5 Ds and the !inematic (iscosity of the air is
3C55 ` 36U5 m5 Ds.
Determine the (alue of the mass=transfer coefFcient of %5 su"liming into the Jo2ing air under
the conditions of the e8periment.
-y e?uation A57=3B, /+ P !c Ac+s U c+ BT accordingly,
!c P
+t 5:> 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,a,
c+s P
,+@C9@ ` 36> ,a
PP 3C:@; molDm>
RT,a [ m>
A5:> 0B7C>3@
mol [ 0
/+W+
P
Ac+s U c+3 B +8 Ac+s U c+3 B
*f 2e assume c+3 P 6,
!c P
5C5: ` 36U@ molDs
P 6C337 mDs
A3 ` 36U> m5 BA3C:@; molDm> B
From our early discussions dealing 2ith a Juid Jo2ing past a surface, 2e may recall
that the Juid particles immediately adIacent to the solid "oundary are stationary, and a thin
layer of Juid close to the surface 2ill "e in laminar Jo2 regardless of the nature of the free
stream. The mass transfer through this Flm 2ill in(ol(e molecular transport and it 2ill play a
role in any con(ection process. *f the Juid Jo2 is laminar, all of the transport "et2een the
surface and the mo(ing Juid 2ill "e "y molecular means. *f the Jo2 is tur"ulent, the mass
2ill "e transported "y the eddies present 2ithin the tur"ulent core of the stream. +s in the
case of heat transfer, higher mass=transfer rates are associated 2ith tur"ulent conditions. The
distinction "et2een laminar and tur"ulent Jo2 2ill "e an important consideration in any
con(ecti(e situation.
The hydrodynamic "oundary layer, analy<ed in hapter 35, plays a maIor role in
con(ecti(e mass transfer. +dditionally, 2e shall deFne and analy<e the concentration
"oundary layer, 2hich 2ill "e (ital to the analysis of the con(ecti(e mass=transfer process.
This layer is similar, "ut not necessary e?ual in thic!ness to the thermal "oundary layer that
2as discussed in hapter 3:.
There are four methods of e(aluating con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcients that 2ill "e
discussed in this chapter. They are
3. dimensional analysis coupled 2ith e8perimentT
5. e8act laminar "oundary=layer analysisT
57.5 &igniFcant ,arameters in on(ecti(e Mass Transfer 53:
>. appro8imate "oundary=layer analysisT
@. analogy "et2een momentum, energy, and mass transfer.
Each of these methods 2ill "e considered in the follo2ing sections.
57.5 &*#/*F*+/T ,+R+METER& */ %/1ET*1E M+&& TR+/&FER
Dimensionless parameters are often used to correlate con(ecti(e transport data. *n
momentum transfer, 2e encountered the Reynolds and the Euler num"ers. *n the correlation
of con(ecti(e heat=transfer data, the ,randtl and the /usselt num"ers 2ere important. &ome
of the same parameters, along 2ith some ne2ly deFned dimensionless ratios, 2ill "e useful
in the correlation of con(ecti(e mass=transfer data. *n this section, 2e shall consider the
physical interpretation of three such ratios.
The molecular diffusi(ities of the three transport phenomena ha(e "een deFned as
momentum diffusi(ity, n P mDr
!
thermal diffusi(ity, a P
rc p
and
mass diffusi(ity, D+-
+s 2e ha(e noted earlier, each of the diffusi(ities has the dimensions $5 DtT thus, a ratio of
any t2o of these must "e dimensionless. The ratio of the molecular diffusi(ity of momentum
to the molecular diffusi(ity of mass is designated the &chmidt num"er
momentum diffusi(itynm
P &c P
mass diffusi(ityD+- rD+-
A57=5B
The &chmidt num"er plays a role in con(ecti(e mass transfer analogous to that of the
,randtl num"er in con(ecti(e heat transfer. The ratio of the thermal diffusi(ity to the
molecular diffusi(ity of mass is designated the $e2is num"er
thermal diffusi(ity!
P $e
mass diffusi(ityrc p D+-
A57=>B
The $e2is num"er is encountered 2hen a process in(ol(es the simultaneous con(ecti(e
transfer of mass and energy. The &chmidt and the $e2is num"ers are o"ser(ed to "e
com"inations of fluid propertiesT thus, each num"er may "e treated as a property of the
diffusing system.
onsider the mass transfer of solute + from a solid to a Juid Jo2ing past the surface of
the solid. The concentration proFle is depicted in Figure 57.3. For such a case, the mass
transfer "et2een the surface and the Juid may "e 2ritten as
/+ P !c Ac+,s U c+,3 B
(
c+& N c+
y
( N (A yB c+& O c+ N wc+& O c+x AyB
A57=@B
8
Figure 57.3 oncentration and (elocity proFles for a Juid Jo2ing past a solid surface.
&ince the mass transfer at the surface is "y molecular diffusion, the mass transfer may
also "e descri"ed "y
dc+

/+ P UD+-
dy yP6
When the "oundary concentration, +,s , is constant, this e?uation simpliFes to

dAc+ U c+,s B

/+ P UD+-
dy
yP6
A57=5B
E?uations A57=@B and A57=5B may "e e?uated, as they define the same flu8 of component +
lea(ing the surface and entering the fluid. This gi(es the relation

d!c Ac+,s U c+,3 B P UD+- Ac+ U c+,s B
dy
yP6
2hich may "e rearranged into the follo2ing formC
UdAc+ U c+,s BDdyIyP6!c
P
D+-Ac+,s U c+,3 B
A57=;B
Multiplying "oth sides of e?uation A57=;B "y a significant length, $, 2e o"tain the
follo2ing dimensionless e8pressionC
!c $ UdAc+ U c+,s BDdyIyP6
A57=9BP
D+-Ac+,s U c+,3 BD$
The right=hand side of e?uation A57=9B is the ratio of the concentration gradient at the
surface to an o(erall= or reference=concentration gradient. +ccordingly, it may "e
considered a ratio of the molecular mass=transport resistance to the con(ecti(e mass=
transfer resistance of the fluid. This ratio is referred to as the &her2ood num"er, &h. &ince
the de(elopment of e?uation A57=9B parallels the de(elopment of e?uation A3:=5B for the
/usselt num"er encountered in con(ecti(e heat transfer, the ratio !c $DD+- has also "een
referred to as the mass=transfer /usselt num"er, /u+- .
These three parametersK&c, &h, and $eK2ill "e encountered in the analyses of
con(ecti(e mass transfer in the follo2ing sections. The &chmidt num"er is e(aluated in the
follo2ing e8ample to re(eal the relati(e magnitude of its (alue in the gas and li?uid phases.
EM+M,$E 5
Determine the &chmidt num"er for methanol in air at 5:7 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,a and in li?uid 2ater
at 5:7 0.
+t 5:7 0, the diffusi(ity of methanol in air can "e e(aluated from the (alue reported in
+ppendi8 J.3
DmethanolUair , P 3C;@3 m5 ,aDs
DmethanolUair P
3C;@3 m5 ,aDs
P 3C;5 ` 36U5 m5 Ds
5 ,a3C63> ` 36
and the !inematic (iscosity of air from +ppendi8 *
( P 3C5;: ` 36U5 m5 DsC
+ccordingly, the &chmidt num"er of methanol in air is
&c P
(3C5;: ` 36U5 m5 Ds
PP 6C:;7
D+-3C;5 ` 36U5 m5 Ds
57.> Dimensional +nalysis of on(ecti(e Mass Transfer 553
The li?uid=phase diffusi(ity of methanol at 577 0 is reported in +ppendi8 J.5 to "e 3C57 `
36U: m5 DsC This (alue can "e used to Fnd the li?uid=phase diffusi(ity at 5:7 0 "y

D+- mH5 %D+- mH5 %
P
TT
5:7577U: m5 DsBA33:> ,a [ sBD+- :6: ,a [ sA3C57 ` 36
P
5:7 0577 05:7577
D+- P 3C9>7 36U: m5 Ds
The (iscosity (alues 2ere o"tained in +ppendi8 *. The !inematic (iscosity (alue of li?uid 2ater at
5:7 0 is also found in +ppendi8 * to "e 6C:35 ` 36U; m5 DsT thus, the &chmidt num"er for methanol in
li?uid 2ater is
&c P
(6C:35 ` 36U; m5 Ds
P 555P
D+- 3C9>7 ` 36U: m5 Ds
57.> D*ME/&*%/+$ +/+$E&*& %F %/1ET*1E M+&& TR+/&FER
Dimensionless analysis predicts the (arious dimensionless parameters that are helpful in
correlating e8perimental data. There are t2o important mass=transfer processes that 2e
shall consider, mass transfer into a stream Jo2ing under forced con(ection and mass
transfer into a phase that is mo(ing under natural=con(ection conditions.
Transfer into a &tream Flo2ing 'nder Forced on(ection
onsider the transfer of mass from the 2alls of a circular conduit to a Juid Jo2ing through
the conduit. The transfer is a result of the concentration dri(ing force, c+,s U c+ C The
important (aria"les, their sym"ols, and their dimensional representations are listed here.
1aria"le
Tu"e diameter
Fluid density
Fluid (iscosity
Fluid (elocity
Fluid diffusi(ity
Mass=transfer coefFcient
&ym"ol
D
r
m
(
D+-
!c
Dimensions
$
MD$>
MD$t
$Dt
$5 Dt
$Dt
The a"o(e (aria"les include terms descripti(e of the system of geometry, the Juid (elocity,
the Juid properties, and the ?uantity that is of primary interest, !c .
-y the -uc!ingham method of grouping the (aria"les as presented in hapter 33, 2e
can determine that there 2ill "e three dimensionless groups. With D+- , r, and D as the core
(aria"les, the three pi groups to "e formed are
p3 P Da r" Dc !c+-
and
p5 P Dd re D f (+-
p> P Dg rh Di m+-
Writing p3 in dimensional form
p3 P Da r" Dc !c+-
5 a "
$Mc $
3PA$X
$>tt
e?uating the e8ponents of the fundamental dimensions on "oth sides of the e?uation, 2e
ha(e for
$C
tC
and
MC 6P"
a P U3
"P6
and
cP3
thus p3 P !c $DD+- , 2hich is the &her2ood num"er, &h, or its e?ui(alent, the mass=transfer
/usselt num"er, /u+- . The t2o other pi groups could "e determined in the same manner,
yielding
p5 P
and
p> P
m
P &c
rD+-
D(
D+-
6 P 5a U >" V c V 3
6 P Ua U 3
The solution of these e?uations for the three un!no2n e8ponents yields
the &chmidt num"er. Di(iding p5 "y p>, 2e o"tain

p5D(D+- rD(r
P RePP
D+-mmp>
the Reynolds num"er. The result of the dimensional analysis of forced=con(ection mass
transfer in a circular conduit indicates that a correlating relation could "e of the form
&h P /u+- P f ARe, &cB
2hich is analogous to the heat=transfer correlation
/u P f ARe, ,r B
A3:=9B
A57=7B
Transfer into a ,hase Whose Motion is Due to /atural on(ection
/atural con(ection currents 2ill de(elop if there e8ists any (ariation in density 2ithin a
li?uid or gas phase. The density (ariation may "e due to temperature differences or relati(ely
large concentration differences.
*n the case of natural con(ection in(ol(ing mass transfer from a (ertical plane 2all
to an adIacent Juid, the (aria"les 2ill differ from those used in the forced=con(ection
57.> Dimensional +nalysis of on(ecti(e Mass Transfer 55>
analysis. The important (aria"les, their sym"ols, and dimensional representations are
listed "elo2.
1aria"le
haracteristic length
Fluid diffusi(ity
Fluid density
Fluid (iscosity
-uoyant force
Mass=transfer coefFcient
&ym"ol
$
D+-
r
m
g Dr+
!c
Dimensions
$
$5 Dt
MD$>
MD$T
MD$5 t5
$Dt
-y the -uc!ingham theorem, there 2ill "e three dimensionless groups. With D+- , $, and m
as the core (aria"les, the three pi groups to "e formed are
p3 P Da $" mc !c+-
p5 P Dd $e mfr+-
p> P Dg $h mi Dr++-
&ol(ing for the three pi groups, 2e o"tain
p3 P
the &her2ood num"er
p5 P
rD+-3
P
&cm
!c $
P &h
D+-
the reciprocal of the &chmidt num"er and
p> P
$> g Dr+
mD+-
Multiplying p5 and p> , 2e o"tain a parameter that is analogous to the #rashof num"er in
natural=con(ection heat transfer
>
rD+-$ gDr+
p5 p> P
mmD+-
P
$> rg Dr+ $> g Dr+
PP #r+-
m5r(5
The result of the dimensional analysis of natural=con(ection mass transfer suggests a
correlating relation of the form
&h P f A#r+- , &cB
A57=:B
For "oth forced and natural con(ection, relations ha(e "een o"tained "y dimensional
analysis that suggest that a correlation of e8perimental data may "e in terms of three
(aria"les instead of the original si8. This reduction in (aria"les has aided in(estigators
2ho ha(e suggested correlations of these forms to pro(ide many of the empirical
e?uations reported in hapter >6.
55@ hapter 57 on(ecti(e Mass Transfer
57.@ EM+T +/+$E&*& %F THE $+M*/+R %/E/TR+T*%/
-%'/D+RE $+EER
-lasius de(eloped an e8act solution for the hydrodynamic "oundary layer for laminar Jo2
parallel to a Jat surface. This solution 2as discussed in &ection 35.5. +n e8tension of the
-lasius solution 2as made in &ection 3:.@ to e8plain con(ecti(e heat transfer. *n an e8actly
analogous manner, 2e shall also e8tend the -lasius solution to include con(ecti(e mass
transfer for the same geometry and laminar Jo2.
The "oundary=layer e?uations considered in the steady=state momentum transfer
included the t2o=dimensional, incompressi"le continuity e?uation
Y( 8 Y( y
VP6
Y8Yy
and the e?uation of motion in the 8 direction, for constant ( and pressure
(8
Y( 8Y( 8Y5(8
V (yPn 5
Y8YyYy
A35=33aB
A35=33"B
For the thermal "oundary layer, the e?uation descri"ing the energy transfer in a steady,
incompressi"le, t2o=dimensional, iso"aric flo2 2ith constant thermal diffusi(ity 2as
YTYTY5T
V (yPa 5(8
Y8YyYy
A3:=35B
+n analogous differential e?uation applies to mass transfer 2ithin a concentration
"oundary layer if no production of the diffusing component occurs and if the second
deri(ati(e c+ of 2ith respect to 8, Y 5 c+ DY85 , is much smaller in magnitude than the second
deri(ati(e of c+ 2ith respect to y. This e?uation 2ritten for steady, incompressi"le t2o=
dimensional flo2 2ith constant mass diffusi(ity is
Yc+Yc+Y 5 c+
V (yP D+-(8
Y8YyYy5
A57=36B
The concentration "oundary layer is sho2n schematically in Figure 57.5. The follo2ing
are the "oundary conditions for the three "oundary layersC
(8(8
P 6 at y P 6 andP 3 at y P 3momentum C
(3(3
or, as the (elocity in the 8 direction at the 2all, ( 8,s , is <ero
( 8 U ( 8 ,s
P6
( 3 U ( 8 ,s
thermal C
T U Ts
P6
T3 U Ts
at y P 6
at y P 6
and
and
( 8 U ( 8 ,s
P 3 at y P 3
( 3 U ( 8 ,s
T U Ts
P3
T3 U Ts
at y P 3
Edge of concentration
"oundary layer
c+
c+ N c+ A yB
y
8
c+&
Figure 57.5 The concentration
"oundary layer for laminar Jo2
past a Jat surface.
57.@ E8act +nalysis of the $aminar oncentration -oundary $ayer 555
and
concentration C
c+ U c+,sc + U c +, s
P 6 at y P 6 andP3
c+,3 U c+,sc+,3 U c+,s
at y P 3
E?uations A57=33B, A57=35B, and AB can "e 2ritten in terms of the follo2ing dimension=
less (elocity, temperature, and concentration ratiosC

( 8 U ( 8 ,s( 8 U ( 8 ,s5 ( 8 U ( 8 ,s
YYY
( 3 U ( 8 ,s( 3 U ( 8 ,s( 3 U ( 8 ,s
V (yP((8
Y8YyYy5
or if
1P
(8
( 8 U ( 8 ,s
( 3 U ( 8 ,s
Y1Y1Y51
V( yP( 5
Y8YyY y
T U Ts
T3 U Ts
2ith the "oundary conditionsC 1 P 6 at y P 6 and 1 P 3 at y P 3 and similarly if
uP
YuYuY5u
( 8 V( yPa 5
Y8YyYy
2ith the "oundary conditionsC u P 6 at y P 6 and u P 3 at y P 3 and if
c+ U c+s
P
c+3 U c+s
YYY5
(8V (yP D+- 5
Y8YyYy
A3:=35cB
A57=36cB
2ith the "oundary conditionsC P 6 at y P 6 and P 3 at y P 3.
The similarity in the three differential e?uations, A35=33cB, A3:=35cB, and A57=36cB, and
the "oundary conditions suggests that similar solutions should "e o"tained for the three
transfer phenomena. *n hapter 3:, the -lasius solution for e?uation A57=33B 2as modiFed
and successfully applied to e8plain con(ecti(e heat transfer 2hen the ratio of the momentum
to thermal diffusi(ity (D a P ,r P 3. The same type of solution should also descri"e
con(ecti(e mass transfer 2hen the ratio of the momentum to mass diffusi(ity
nDD+- P &c P 3. 'sing the nomenclature deFned in hapter 35,
f6 P 5
and
y
hP
5
c + U c + ,s(8( 8 U ( 8 ,s
P5P5
(3( 3 U ( 8 ,sc +, 3 U c +, s
r r
(3y 8( 3y p
PPRe8
n8n5858
A57=33B
A57=35B
the -lasius solution to the momentum "oundary layer

df 6d\5A( 8 D( 3 B^
p P f 66 A6X PP 3C>57
dh
d\AyD58B Re8 ^ yP6
55; hapter 57 on(ecti(e Mass Transfer
suggests an analogous solution for the concentration "oundary layer

d\5Ac+ U c+,s BDAc+,3 U c+,s B^df 6
66 P 3C>57p P f A6X P
dhd\AyD58X Re8 ^yP6
A57=3>B
E?uation A57=3>B may "e rearranged to o"tain an e8pression for the concentration
gradient at the surface
Q
dc+ 6C>>5 3D5A57=3@BP Ac+,3 U c+,s BRe8dy yP6
8
*t is important to recall that the -lasius solution for e?uation A35O33aB did not in(ol(e a
(elocity in the y direction at the surface. +ccordingly, e?uation A57=3@B in(ol(es the
important assumption that the rate at 2hich mass enters or lea(es the "oundary layer at
the surface is so small that it does not alter the (elocity profile predicted "y the -lasius
solution.
When the (elocity in the y direction at the surface, ( y,s, is essentially <ero, the "ul!
contri"ution term in Fic!Hs e?uation for the mass Ju8 in the y direction is also <ero. The mass
transfer from the Jat surface into the laminar "oundary layer is descri"ed "y

Yc+
A57=35B/+,y P UD+-
Yy yP6
'pon su"stituting e?uation A57=3@B into e?uation A57=35B, 2e o"tain
s4
3D 5
6C>>5 Re8
/+,y P UD+-Ac+,3 U c+,s B
8
or
/+,y P D+-
s 4
Ac+,s U c+,3 B
A57=3;B
36C>>5 Re8 D5
8
The mass flu8 of the diffusing component 2as defined in terms of the mass=transfer
coefficient "y
/+,y P !c Ac+,s U c+,3 B
The right=hand sides of e?uations A57=3;B and A57O@B may "e e?uated to gi(e
!c P
or
!c 8
P &h8 P 6C>>5 Re3D58
D+-
A57=39B
D+-
\6C>>5Re3D5 ^8
8
A57=@B
E?uation A57=39B is restricted to systems ha(ing a &chmidt num"er, &c, of 3 and lo2
mass=transfer rates "et2een the flat plate and the "oundary layer.
+ graphical presentation of the solution to the concentration "oundary=layer e?uation
A57=36B "y Hartnett and Ec!ert3 is depicted in Figure 57.>. ur(es representing positi(e
and negati(e (alues of the surface "oundary parameter, W( y,s D( 3 XARe8 B3D5 , are sho2n.
3
J. ,. Hartnett and E. R. #. Ec!ert, Trans. +&ME, 3>, 5@9 A3:59B.
57.@
3.6
O5.5
6.7
c+& O c+ 6.;
c+& O c+
6.@
6.5
6
6 5
E8act +nalysis of the $aminar oncentration -oundary $ayer 559
6 6.55
6.5
6.;
(y&3D5( ARe8B
6
@ ; 7
y
h N ARe8B3D5
8
36 35
Figure 57.> oncentration proFles for mass transfer in a laminar "oundary layer on a Jat plate.
The positi(e (alues apply 2hen the mass transfer from the Jat plate is into the "oundary
layer, and the negati(e (alues descri"e mass transfer from the Juid to the plate. +s this
surface "oundary parameter approaches a <ero (alue, the mass=transfer rate diminishes until
it is considered to ha(e no effect upon the (elocity proFle. The slope of the <ero line,
e(aluated at y P 6, is 6.>>5 as predicted "y e?uation A57=3>B.
*n most physical operations in(ol(ing mass transfer, the surface "oundary parameter is
negligi"le, and the lo2=mass=transfer -lasius type of solution is used to deFne the transfer
into the laminar "oundary layer. The (apori<ation of a (olatile material into a gas stream
Jo2ing at lo2 pressures is a case in 2hich the lo2=mass=transfer assumption cannot "e
made.
For a Juid 2ith a &chmidt num"er other than unity, similar cur(es to those sho2n in
Figure 57.> can "e deFned. The similarity in differential e?uations and "oundary conditions
suggests a treatment for con(ecti(e mass transfer analogous to ,ohlhausenHs solution for
con(ecti(e heat transfer. The concentration "oundary layer is related to the hydrodynamic
"oundary layer "y
d
P &c3D>
dc
A57=37B
2here d is the thic!ness of the hydrodynamic "oundary layer and dc is the thic!ness of
the concentration "oundary layerT thus, the -lasius h term must "e multiplied "y &c3D>.
+ plot of the dimensionless concentration (s. h&c3D> for ( yTs P 6 is sho2n in Figure 57.@.
The concentration (ariation gi(en in this form leads to an e8pression for the con(ecti(e
mass=transfer coefficient similar to e?uation A57=39B. +t y P 6, the concentration
3.6
&lope N 6.>>5
c+& O c+
c+& O c
(y& N 6
6
y 3D5 3D>
8 Re &c
Figure 57.@ oncentration
(ariation for laminar Jo2
o(er a Jat plate.
gradient is
Q
Yc+ 6C>>5 3D5 3D>
Re8 &cP Ac+,3 U c+,s B
8
Yy yP6
A57=3:B
2hich, 2hen used 2ith e?uation A57=35B, yields
!c 83P &h8 P 6C>>5 Re8 D5 &c3D>
D+-
A57=56B
The mean mass=transfer coefFcient, !c , 2hich applies o(er a plate of 2idth Wand length
$, may "e o"tained "y integration. For a plate of these dimensions, the total mass transfer
rate, W+, may "e e(aluated "y
f
W+ P !c +Ac+,s U c+,3 B P!c Ac+,s U c+,3 Bd+
+
P !c W$Ac+,s U c+,3 B
f36C>>5D+- Re8 D5 &c3D> d+
P Ac+,s U c+,3 B
8+
+ccordingly,
3D>
3Re8 D5
d8!c W$ P 6C>>5WD+- &c
86
f
( 3 r 3D5 $ U3D5
!c $ P 6C>>5D+- &c3D>8d8
m6

( 3 r 3D5 3D5
$P 6C;;@D+- &c3D>
m
$
f
and
!c 83P &h$ P 6C;;@ Re$D5 &c3D>
D+-
A57=53B
The local &her2ood num"er at a distance 8 do2nstream is related to the mean &her2ood
num"er for the plate "y the relation
&h$ P 5 &h8I8P$
A57=55B
E?uations A57=56B and A57=53B ha(e "een e8perimentally (erified.5 *t is interesting to note
that this entirely different analysis has produced results of the same form predicted in
&ection 57.> "y dimensional analysis for forced=con(ection mass transfer
&h P f ARe, &cB
A57=7B
Reconsidering the dimensionless concentration profiles of Harnett and Ec!ert as
presented in Figure 57.>, 2e can o"ser(e that the slope of each cur(e, 2hen e(aluated at
y P 6, decreases as the positi(e surface "oundary parameter, A( ys D( 3 BAReB3D5 , increases.
+s the magnitude of the transfer coefficient is directly related to the slope "y the relation

d\Ac+,s U c+ BDAc+,s U c+,3 B^

!c P D+-A57=5>Bdy
yP6
5
W. J. hristian and &. ,. 0e<ios, +*hEJ. 5, ;3 A3:5:B.
57.@ E8act +nalysis of the $aminar oncentration -oundary $ayer 55:
the decrease in slope indicates that the systems ha(ing higher (alues of the surface
"oundary parameter 2ill ha(e lo2er mass=transfer coefficients.
When "oth energy and mass are transferred through the laminar "oundary layer, the
dimensionless proFles in Figure 57.> may also represent the dimensionless temperature
proFles if the ,randtl and &chmidt num"ers for the system are "oth unity. *n the pre(ious
paragraph, it 2as pointed out that the mass=transfer coefFcient diminishes in magnitude as
mass is transferred into the "oundary layer from the surface. +ccordingly, 2e should also
e8pect the heat=transfer coefFcient to diminish as mass is transferred into the "oundary layer.
This may "e accomplished "y forcing a Juid through a porous plate out into the "oundary
layer or "y su"limating the plate material itself. These simultaneous heat and mass transfer
processes, often referred to as transpiration cooling and a"lation, respecti(ely, 2ere used to
help reduce the large heat effects during the reentry of a missile into EarthHs atmosphere.
EM+M,$E > The mass=transfer coefFcient for a tur"ulent "oundary layer formed o(er a Jat plate has "een
correlated in terms of a local &her2ood num"er "y
@&h8 P 6C65:5 Re8 D5 &c3D>
A57=5@B
2here 8 is the distance do2nstream from the leading edge of the Jat plate. The transition from
laminar to tur"ulent Jo2 occurs at Re8 P 5 ` 365 .
AaB De(elop an e8pression for the mean mass=transfer coefFcient for a Jat plate of length $.
-y deFnition
R $tR$R$
!c,lam d8 V $t !c,tur" d8!c d86
A57=55B
!c P 6 $PR
$d8
6
2here $t is the measured distance from leading edge to the transition point. !cTlam is deFned "y
e?uation A57=56B
D+-
!cTlam P 6C>>5ARe8 B3D5 A&cB3D>
8
!cTtur" is deFned "y e?uation A57=5@B
!cTtur" P 6C65:5
D+-
ARe8 B@D5 A&cB3D>
8
'pon su"stitution of these t2o e?uations in our e?uation for the mean mass=transfer coefFcient, 2e
o"tain
f $tf $
6C>>5D+- ARe8 B3D56C65:5D+- ARe8 B@D53D>A&cB d8 VA&cB3D> d8
88$t!c P 6
$
2here $t is the distance from the leading edge of the plane to the transition point 2here the
Re8 P 5 ` 365 .
f $tf $
( 3D5( @D53D>U3D53D>
6C>>5D+-A&cB8d8 V 6C65:5D+-A&cB8U3D5 d8
nn$t6!c P
$
( 3D5( @D5
3D> $3D5 V 6C6>;5DA57=5;B6C;;@D+-A&cBA&cB3D> \A$B@D5 U A$t B@D5 ^+-t
nn!c P
$
3D5 A&cB3D> V 6C6>;5D A&cB3D> \ARe B@D5 U ARe B@D5 ^6C;;@D+- ARet B$t+-!c P
$
5>6 hapter 57 on(ecti(e Mass Transfer
The solution to ,ro"lem 57=:, at the end of this chapter, points out the dominating contri=
"ution that the tur"ulent <one has in e(aluating the mean mass=transfer coefFcient for Jo2 o(er a
Jat plate. This is more o"(ious as the Reynolds num"er for the plate e8ceeds its (alue at the transition
point.
A"B *n a manufacturing process, an organic sol(ent Amethyl ethyl !etone, ME0B is used to
dissol(e a thin coating of a polymer a2ay from a nonporous Jat surface of length 5.6 m and 2idth
36 cm. The thic!ness of the polymer Flm is initially uniform at 6.5 mm. *n the process, at the ME0
sol(ent Jo2s a Jo2 rate of 35 cmDs o(er the open Jat plate. Eou may assume that the concentration
of the dissol(ed polymer in the "ul! sol(ent is essentially <ero, c+3 P 6, e(en though in reality the
concentration of dissol(ed polymer in the sol(ent increases (ery slightly as it Jo2s o(er the pan.
+t the temperature and pressure of the process, the follo2ing data area a(aila"leC
Diffusion coefFcient of dissol(ed polymer AsoluteB in the ME0 sol(ent D+- P
> ` 36U; cm5 Ds.
0inematic (iscosity of li?uid ME0 n- P ;C6 ` 36U> cm5 Ds.
Density of solid polymer Flm material r+ P 3C65 gDcm> .
Density of li?uid ME0 r- P 6C76 gDcm> .
Ma8imum solu"ility of dissol(ed polymer in ME0 sol(ent r} P 6C6@ gDcm> .+
3. Determine the a(erage Ju8, W+ , from the surface.
5. Determine the mass=transfer coefFcient 56 cm do2nstream from the leading edge.
The Reynolds num"er for the ME0 Jo2 for the pan is e(aluated "y
Re$ P
(3 $A35 cmBA566 cmB
PP 5 ` 365
U> cm5 Dsn;C6 ` 36
+s this is greater than 5 ` 365 , 2e recogni<e that there is a transition point 2here the "oundary layer
changes from laminar to tur"ulent. This transition point can "e e(aluated from the transition
Reynolds num"er, Ret P 5 ` 365 .
$P
Ret ( A5 ` 365 BA;C6 ` 36U> cm5 DsB
P 76 cmP
(335 cmDs
We can e(aluate the mean mass=transfer coefFcient "y using e?uation A57=5;B deri(ed in part AaBC
!c P
3@6C;;@D+- Ret D5 &c3D> V 6C6>;5D+- &c3D> \Re@D5 U Ret D5 ^$
$
The &chmidt num"er is e(aluated "y
&c P
n;C6 ` 36U> cm5 Ds
PP 5 ` 36>
D+-> ` 36U; cm5 Ds
and
&c3D> P 35C5;9
The Reynolds num"er at transition, Ret P 5C6 ` 365 , and the Reynolds num"er at the end of the pan,
Re$ P 5C6 ` 365 , permit e(aluating
3Ret D5 P A5C6 ` 365 B3D5 P @@9C5
@Ret D5 P A5C6 ` 365 B@D5 P 39,@33
@Re$D5 P A5C6 ` 365 B@D5 P >;,5>:
@@Then \Re$D5 U Ret D5 ^ P 37,757, and 2e ha(e
!c P
6C;;@A>C6 ` 36U; cm5 DsB A@@9C5B A35.5;9B V 6C6>;5A>C6 ` 36U; cm5 DsBA35C5;9BA37,757B
566 cm
U@P 3C75@ ` 36 cmDs
57.5 +ppro8imate +nalysis of the oncentration -oundary $ayer 5>3
The a(erage Ju8 of species + lea(ing the surface 2ill "e
2+ P !c Ar} U r+3 B P W3C755 ` 36U@ cmDsX A6C6@ gDcm> U 6B P 9C@5 ` 36U; gDcm5 s+
5. +t 8 P 56 cm the Jo2 2ill "e laminar and
Re8 P
!c8
!c8
( 3 8 A35 cmDsBA56 cmB
P 3C55 ` 365P
n;C6 ` 36U> cm5 Ds
6C>>5D+- ARe8 B3D5 A&cB3D> 6C>>5A>C6 ` 36U; cm5 DsBA3C55 ` 365 B3D5 A35C5;9X
PP
56 cm8
U5P 7C75 ` 36 cmDs
57.5 +,,R%M*M+TE +/+$E&*& %F THE %/E/TR+T*%/
-%'/D+RE $+EER
When the Jo2 is other than laminar or the conFguration is other than a Jat plate, fe2 e8act
solutions presently e8ist for mass transport in a "oundary layer. The appro8imate method
L Lde(eloped "y (on 0arman to descri"e the hydrodynamic "oundary layer can "e used for
analy<ing the concentration "oundary layer. The use of this approach 2as discussed in
hapters 35 and 3:.
W+>onsider a control (olume that is located
in the concentration "oundary layer as illu=
strated in Figure 57.5. This (olume, desig=
Sc
nated "y the dashed line, has a 2idth of D8 , a
W+5W+3height e?ual to the thic!ness of the concen=
R8
tration "oundary layer, dc , and a unit depth. +
steady=state molar mass "alance o(er the
W+@8
control (olume produces the relation
W+3 V W+> V W+@ P W+5
A57=59B Figure 57.5 The concentration "oundary=layer
control (olume.
2here W+ is the molar rate of mass
transfer of component +. +t each surface,
the molar rate is e8pressed as
f dc

W+3 Pc+ ( 8 dy

68f dc

W+5 Pc+ ( 8 dy

6f 8VD8 Q
Y dc
W+> P c+ T 3( 8 dy D8
Y8 6
and
W+@ P !c Ac+,s U c+ ,3BD8
*n terms of these molar rates, e?uation A57=59B may "e re2ritten as
Qff dc
Y dc
c+ ( 8 dyI8 V c+ ,3( 8 dy D8 P !c Ac+,s U c+ ,3BD8
Y8 66
f dc

c+ ( 8 dyP

6
8VD8
A57=57B
Rearranging, di(iding each term "y D8, and e(aluating the results in the limit as D8
approaches <ero, 2e o"tain
d
d8
or
f
6
dc
Qf
d dc
c+ ( 8 dy P c+ T 3( 8 dy V !c Ac+,s U c+ T 3B
d8 6
f
d dc
Ac+ U c+ T 3B( 8 dy P !c Ac+,s U c+ T 3B
d8 6
A57=5:B
E?uation A57=5:B is analogous to e?uations A35=>7B and A3:=>6B. *n order to sol(e
e?uation A57=5:B, the (elocity and the concentration profiles must "e !no2nT normally
these profiles are un!no2n and must "e assumed. &ome of the "oundary conditions that
must "e satisfied "y the assumed "oundary conditions are
A3B
A5B
A>B
(8 P 6
(8 P (3
Y( 8
P6
Yy
Y5(8
P6
Yy5
at y P 6
at y P d
at y P d
and, according to e?uation A35=>>B
A@B
at y P 6
The assumed concentration proFle must satisfy the corresponding "oundary conditions in
terms of concentrations
A3B
A5B
A>B
and
A@B
Y5
Ac+ U c+,s B P 6
Yy5
at y P 6
A57=>>B
c + U c +, s P 6
c+ U c+,s P c+,
Y
Ac+ U c+,s B P 6
Yy
3
at y P 6
U c+,s at y P dc
at y P dc
A57=>6B
A57=>3B
A57=>5B
L L*f 2e reconsider the laminar Jo2 parallel to a Jat
surface, 2e can use the (on 0arman
integral e?uation A57=5:B to o"tain an appro8imate solution. The results can "e compared to
the e8act solution, e?uation A57=56B, and thus indicate ho2 2ell 2e ha(e appro8imated the
(elocity and the concentration proFles. +s our Frst appro8imation, let us consider a po2er=
series e8pression for the concentration (ariation 2ith y
c+ U c+,s P a V "y V cy5 V dy>
+pplication of the "oundary conditions 2ill result in the follo2ing e8pressionC

c + U c +, s> y3 y >
PA57=>@BU
5 dcc + , 3 U c +, s 5 d c
*f the (elocity profile is assumed in the same po2er=series form, then the resulting
e8pression, as o"tained in hapter 35, is
(8> y 3 y >
PA35=@6BU
5 d(3 5 d
57.; Mass, Energy, and Momentum=Transfer +nalogies 5>>
'pon su"stituting e?uations A57=>@B and A35=@6B into the integral e8pression A57=5:B and
sol(ing, 2e o"tain
3&h8 P 6C>;Re8 D5 &c3D>
A57=>5B
2hich is close to the e8act solution e8pressed in e?uation A57=56B.
+lthough this result is not e8act, it is sufFciently close to the e8act solution
to indicate that the integral method may "e used 2ith some degree of con=
Fdence in other situations in 2hich an e8act solution is un!no2n. The accuracy of
the method depends entirely on the a"ility to assume good (elocity and concentration
proFles.
L LThe (on 0arman integral e?uation A57=5:B has "een used to o"tain an appro8imate
solution for the tur"ulent "oundary layer o(er a Jat plate. With the (elocity proFle
appro8imated "y
( 8 P a V "y3D9
and the concentration proFle appro8imated "y
c+ U c+,3 P h V Iy3D9
the local /usselt num"er in the tur"ulent layer is found to "e
@&h8 P 6C65:5 Re8 D5
A57=5@B
57.; M+&&, E/ER#E, +/D M%ME/T'M=TR+/&FER +/+$%#*E&
*n the pre(ious analyses of con(ecti(e mass transfer, 2e ha(e recogni<ed the similari=
ties in the differential e?uations for momentum, energy, and mass transfer and in the
"oundary conditions 2hen the transport gradients 2ere e8pressed in terms of dimension=
less (aria"les. These similarities ha(e permitted us to predict solutions for the similar
transfer processes. *n this section, 2e shall consider se(eral analogies among transfer
phenomena that ha(e "een proposed "ecause of the similarity in their mechanisms.
The analogies are useful in understanding the transfer phenomena and as a satis=
factory means for predicting "eha(ior of systems for 2hich limited ?uantitati(e data
are a(aila"le.
The similarity among the transfer phenomena and, accordingly, the e8istence of the
analogies re?uire that the follo2ing F(e conditions e8ist 2ithin the systemC
3. There is no energy or mass produced 2ithin the system. This, of course, infers that
no homogeneous reaction occurs.
5. There is no emission or a"sorption of radiant energy.
>. There is no (iscous dissipation.
@. The (elocity proFle is not affected "y the mass transferT thus, there is only a lo2
rate of mass transfer.
5. The physical properties are constant. +s there may "e slight changes in the
physical properties due to (ariations in temperature or concentration, this con=
dition can "e appro8imated "y using a(erage concentration and Flm temperature
properties.
5>@ hapter 57 on(ecti(e Mass Transfer
Reynolds +nalogy
The Frst recognition of the analogous "eha(ior of momentum and energy transfer 2as
reported "y Reynolds.> +lthough this analogy is limited in application, it has ser(ed as the
catalyst for see!ing "etter analogies, and it has "een useful in analy<ing comple8 "oundary=
layer phenomena of aerodynamics.
Reynolds postulated that the mechanisms for transfer of momentum and energy 2ere
identical. We ha(e o"ser(ed in our earlier discussions on laminar "oundary layers that this is
true if the ,randtl num"er, ,r, is unity. From our pre(ious consideration in &ection 57.@, 2e
can e8tend the Reynolds postulation to include the mechanism for the transfer of mass if the
&chmidt num"er, &c, is also unity. For e8ample, if 2e consider the laminar Jo2 o(er a Jat
plate 2here &c P 3, the concentration and (elocity proFles 2ithin the "oundary layers are
related "y

c+ U c+,s YY (8
PA57=>;BYy c+,3 U c+,s yP6 Yy ( 3 yP6
Recalling that at the "oundary ne8t to the plate, 2here y P 6, 2e may e8press the mass
flu8 in terms of either the mass=diffusi(ity or the mass=transfer coefficient "y

Y
Ac+ U c+,s B/+,y P UD+-P !c Ac+,s U c+,3 BA57=>9B
YyyP6
We can com"ine e?uations A57=>;B and A57=>9B and as D+- P mDr 2hen &c P 3, achie(e
an e8pression that relates the mass=transfer coefficient to the (elocity gradient at the
surface

m Y( 8
!c PA57=>7Br( 3 Yy yP6
The coefFcient of s!in friction 2as related in hapter 53 to this same (elocity gradient
"y
f P
5mAY( 8 DYyBIyP6t6
P
r( 5 D5r( 5
33
A35=5B
'sing this definition, 2e can rearrange e?uation A57=>7B to o"tain the mass=transfer
Reynolds analogy for systems 2ith a &chmidt num"er of 3
f!c
P
(35
A57=>:B
E?uation A57=>:B is analogous to the energy=transfer ReynoldsHs analogy for systems 2ith
a ,randtl num"er of 3. This analogy 2as discussed in hapter 3: and may "e e8pressed "y
h
r( 3 c p
P
f
5
A3:=>;B
The Reynolds analogy, e?uation A57=>:B, 2as o"tained "y using the GGe8act solutionHH
for the laminar Jo2 o(er a Jat plate e?uation A57=>;B, the mass Ju8 e?uation 2ritten at the
"oundary ne8t to the plate resulting in e?uation A57=>7B, and the deFning e?uation for the
coefFcient of s!in friction A35=5B. Thus, the Reynolds analogy satisFes the GGe8act solutionHH
>
%. Reynolds, ,roc. Manchester $it. ,hil. &oc., 7 A379@B.
57.; Mass, Energy, and Momentum=Transfer +nalogies 5>5
if and only if the &chmidt num"er e?uals 3 and the resistance to Jo2 is that due to s!in
L Lfriction Ai.e., no form drag is in(ol(edB. This 2as
e8perimentally (eriFed "y (on 0arman for
a fully tur"ulent Jo2 2ith &c P ,r P 3.
Tur"ulent=Flo2 onsiderations
*n a maIority of practical applications, the Jo2 in the main stream is tur"ulent rather than
laminar. +lthough many in(estigators ha(e contri"uted considera"ly to the understanding
of tur"ulent Jo2, so far no one has succeeded in predicting con(ecti(e transfer coefFcients
or friction factors "y direct analysis. This is not too surprising 2hen 2e recall from our
earlier discussions on tur"ulent Jo2, in &ection 3>.3, that the Jo2 at any point is su"Iect to
irregular Juctuations in direction and (elocity. +ccordingly, any particle of the Juid
undergoes a series of random mo(ements, superimposed on the main Jo2. These eddy
mo(ements "ring a"out mi8ing throughout the tur"ulent core. This process is often referred
to as GGeddy diffusion.HH The (alue of the eddy=mass diffusi(ity 2ill "e (ery much larger than
the molecular diffusi(ity in the tur"ulent core.
*n an effort to characteri<e this type of motion, ,randtl proposed the mi8ing=length
hypothesis as discussed in hapter 35. *n this hypothesis, any (elocity Juctuation ( 6 is due8
to the y=directional motion of an eddy through a distance e?ual to the mi8ing length $. The
Juid eddy, possessing a mean (elocity, (8 Iy , is displaced into a stream 2here the adIacent
Juid has a mean (elocity, (8 IyV$ . The (elocity Juctuation is related to the mean=(elocity
gradient "y
( 6 P ( 8 IyV$ U ( 8 Iy P $8
d (8
dy
A35=55B
The total shear stress in a fluid 2as defined "y the e8pression
tPm
d (8
U r( 6 ( 68 y
dy
A35=53B
The su"stitution of e?uation A3>=36B into A35=53B gi(es
t P r\n V $( 6 ^y
or
t P r\n V e M ^
2here eM P $( 6 is designated at the eddyy
momentum diffusi(ity. *t is analogous to the
molecular momentum diffusi(ity, (.
We may no2 similarly analy<e mass
transfer in tur"ulent Jo2, as this transport
mechanism is also due to the presence of
the Juctuations or eddies. *n Figure 57.;,
the cur(e represents a portion of the tur"ulent
concentration proFle 2ith mean Jo2 in the 8
direction. The instantaneous rate of transfer
of component + in the y direction is
/+Ty P c6 ( 6+ y
A57=@5B
y
c+
yi$
d (8
dy
d (8
dy
A57=@6B
A57=@3B
$
c+
y
$
d c+
dy
+
2here c+ P c+ V c6 , the temporal a(erage+
Figure 57.; ,ortion of tur"ulent
concentration proFle cur(e, sho2ing the
,randtl mi8ing length.
5>; hapter 57 on(ecti(e Mass Transfer
plus the instantaneous fluctuation in the concentration of component +. We can again use
the concept of the mi8ing length to define the concentration fluctuation "y the follo2ing
relationC
c6 P c+ IyV$ U c+ Iy P $+
d c+
dy
A57=@>B
*nserting e?uation A57=@>B into e?uation A57=@5B, 2e o"tain an e8pression for the
tur"ulent transfer of mass "y eddy transport. The total mass transfer normal to the
direction of flo2 is
/+,y P UD+-
or
/+Ty P UAD+- V eD B
d c+d c+
U (6 $y
dydy
d c+
dy
A57=@@B
2here eD P $( 6 is designated as the eddy mass diffusi(ity.y
-y similar reasoning, an e8pression 2as deri(ed in hapter 3: for con(ecti(e heat
transfer
?ydT
A3:=@:BP Urcp Aa V eH B
dy+
2here a is the molecular thermal diffusi(ity and eH is the eddy thermal diffusi(ity.
Eddy diffusion plays an important role in a num"er of mass=transfer processes. For
instance, there is mass transfer "et2een a Juid Jo2ing past solids in heterogeneous catalytic
reactors, "last furnaces, driers, and so on. +s a result of eddy diffusion, transport in the
tur"ulent region is rapid, reducing any gradient in composition. +s the 2all is approached,
the tur"ulence is progressi(ely damped until it essentially disappears in the immediate
neigh"orhood of the solid surface, and the transport is almost entirely "y molecular
diffusion. The maIority of the resistance to transfer occurs in the "oundary layer near
the surface 2here the gradient of the composition is greatest.
L LThe ,randtl and (on 0arman +nalogies
*n hapter 3:, the ,randtl analogy for heat and momentum transfer 2as de(eloped 2hen
consideration 2as gi(en to the effect of "oth the tur"ulent core and the laminar su"layer. The
same reasoning 2ith regard to mass and momentum transfer can "e used to de(elop a similar
analogy. For the laminar su"layer, the eddy diffusi(ities of momentum and mass are
negligi"le, and at the surface the shear stress, ts , and the mass Ju8, /+TyTs , are constant.
E?uation A57=@3B may "e integrated o(er the thic!ness of the su"layer, gi(ing
f (8 If
I
ts I
d( 8 Pdy
rn 66
or
( 8 II P
ts I
rn
f
6
A57=@5B
E?uation A57=@@B may also "e integrated o(er the thic!ness of the su"layer, yielding
f
/+TyTs
d c+ P U
D+-
c + ,s
c+ I I
I
dy
57.; Mass, Energy, and Momentum=Transfer +nalogies 5>9
or
Ac+,s U c+II B P
/+TyTs
I
D+-
A57=@;B
Eliminating I from these t2o e?uations, 2e o"tain
rn( 8IID+-
PAc+,s U c+II B
ts/+TyTs
A57=@9B
The Reynolds analogy, !c D( 3 P f D5 P ts Dr( 5 , may "e used in the tur"ulent region,3
from y P I to y under "ul! conditions. The mass flu8 in the tur"ulent region "ecomes
/+,y P !c Ac+II U c+,3 B P
ts
Ac U c+,3 B
rA( 3 U ( 8II B +II
A57=@7B
Eliminating c+II "et2een e?uations A57=@9B and A57=@7B, 2e o"tain
Q
c +, s U c +, 3rn
P( 3 V ( 8IIU3
tsD+-/+,y
&u"stituting the defining e?uations
f
ts
rA( 5 D5B
3
/+
!c
Ac+,s U c+ T 3B
&c
n
D+-
A57=@:B
and
into e?uation A57=@:B, 2e may simplify the relation to
35
P\( 3 V ( 8II A&c U 3B^
!c f ( 53
or in slightly different form
f D5!c
P
( 3 3 V A( 8II D( 3 BA&c U 3B
A57=56B
/ote that e?uation A57=56B simplifies to the Reynolds analogy 2ith the restriction &c P 3.
*n hapter p
35, the laminar su"layer 2as defined "y ( V P yV P 5, 2here
( V P ( 8II DA( 3 cf D5BT thus,
( 8II
p P 5( V P
( 3 f D5
or
( 8II
P5
(3
r
f
5
A57=53B
&u"stituting for ( 8II N( 3 in e?uation A57=56B, 2e o"tain an analogy for con(ecti(e mass
transfer similar to the ,randtl analogy for con(ecti(e heat transfer
f D5!c
p P
( 3 3 V 5 f D5A&c U 3B
A57=55B
Rearranging and multiplying "oth sides of e?uation A57=55B ( 3 $DD+- , 2here $ is a
characteristic length, 2e o"tain
!c ( 3 $ Af D5BA( 3 $DD+- BArmDrmB
p P
( 3 D+-3 V 5 f D5A&c U 3B
or
&h P
Af D5BRe&c
p
3 V 5 f D5A&c U 3B
A57=5>B
*f the e?ui(alent mass=transfer /usselt num"er, /u+- , 2ere used in place of the
&her2ood num"er, e?uation A57=5>B 2ould "e analogous to the ,randtl momentumO
energy=transfer analogy, e?uation A3:=59B.
L L(on 0arman e8tended the ,randtl analogy "y considering the so=called GG"uffer layerHH
in addition to the laminar su"layer and the tur"ulent core. This led to the de(elopment of the
L L(on 0arman analogy
/u P
Af D5BRe,r
p
3 V 5 f D5f,r U 3 V ln\A3 V 5,rBD;^g
Wf D5XRe&c
p
3 V 5 f D5f&c U 3 V ln\A3 V 5&cBD;^g
A3:=57B
L Lfor momentum and energy transfer. The (on 0arman analysis for mass
transfer yields
&h P
or
&h!c
PP
Re&c ( 3
Qd
p 5
3 V 5 f D5 &c U 3 V ln 3 V A&c U 3B
;
)
f D5
A57=55B
A57=5@B
E?uation A57=55B is analogous to e?uation A3:=57B.
The results of most analogies can "e put in a general form, as illustrated in e?uations
A57O55B and A57=55B in 2hich the denominator of the right=hand side is a comple8 group of
terms that ser(e as a correction to the simple Reynolds analogy.
hiltonOol"urn +nalogy
hilton and ol"urn,@ using e8perimental data, sought modiFcations to ReynoldsHs analogy
that 2ould not ha(e the restrictions that ,r and &c num"ers must "e e?ual to 3. They deFned
the I factor for mass transfer,
ID
!c
A&cB5D>
(3
This factor is analogous to the I factor for heat transfer that is deFned "y e?uation A3:=>:B.
-ased on the data collected in "oth laminar and tur"ulent Jo2 regimes, they found
ID
f!c
A&cB5D> P
(35
A57=5;B
+. ,. ol"urn, Trans. +*hE, 5:, 39@O536 A3:>>BT T. H. hilton and +. ,. ol"urn, *nd. Eng. hem., 5;,
337> A3:>@B.
@
57.; Mass, Energy, and Momentum=Transfer +nalogies 5>:
The analogy is (alid for gases and li?uids 2ithin the range 6C; ] &c ] 5566.
E?uation A57=5;B can "e sho2n to satisfy the GGe8act solutionHH for laminar flo2 o(er
the flat plate
3&h8 P 6C>>5 Re8 D5 &c3D>
A57=56B
*f "oth sides of this e?uation are di(ided "y Re8 &c3D>, 2e o"tain
&h8
Re8 &c3D>
P
6C>>5
Re3D5
8
A57=59B
This e?uation reduces to the hiltonOol"urn analogy 2hen 2e su"stitute into the a"o(e
e8pression the -lasius solution for the laminar "oundary layer
&h8
Re8 &c3D>
or
!c 8
D+-
m
8( 3 r
rD+-!c &c5D> f5D >PA&cB P
m(35
A57=57B
P
f&h8!c
&c5D> PP
Re8 &c(35
The complete hiltonOol"urn analogy is
IH P ID P
f
5
A57=5:B
2hich relates all three types of transport in one e8pression. E?uation A57=5:B is e8act for
flat plates and is satisfactory for systems of other geometry pro(ided no form drag is
present. For systems 2here form drag is present, it has "een found that neither IH or ID is
e?ual to f D5T ho2e(er, 2hen form drag is present
IH P ID
or
h
r( 3 c p
A ,r B5D> P
!c
A&cB5D>
(3
A57=;3B
A57=;6B
E?uation A57=;3B relates con(ecti(e heat and mass transfer. *t permits the e(aluation of
one un!no2n transfer coefficient through information o"tained for another transfer
phenomenon. *t is (alid for gases and li?uids 2ithin the ranges 6C; ] &c ] 5566 and
6C; ] ,r ] 366.
+s pre(iously stated, one of the F(e conditions that should e8ist if the analogies are to
"e used re?uires the physical properties of the Juid stream to "e constant. *f there are only
slight (ariations in the properties due to the (ariations in the o(erall Flm temperature, one
may minimi<e this restricti(e condition "y e(aluating the physical properties at the mean
Flm temperature.
The hiltonOol"urn analogy for heat and mass transfer has "een o"ser(ed to hold for
many different geometriesT for e8ample, Jo2 o(er Jat plate, Jo2 in circular pipe and
annulus, and Jo2 around cylinders. *n the follo2ing three e8amples, 2e 2ill apply the
hiltonOol"urn analogy A3B to determine an un!no2n con(ecti(e=transfer coefFcient,
A5B to predict a correlating e?uation for mass transfer, and A>B to deri(e and use the important
psychrometry 2et="ul" e?uation.
5@6 hapter 57 on(ecti(e Mass Transfer
EM+M,$E @ 'sing the statement presented in E8ample 3 and the mass=transfer coefFcient determined in
e8ample 3, determine the (alue of the heat=transfer coefFcient, h, for the stated air stream.
*n the solution to E8ample 3, the mass=transfer coefFcient 2as found to "e !c P 6C337 mDs and
the mass diffusi(ity of car"on dio8ide in air is 3C5 ` 36U5 m5 Ds and the !inematic (iscosity of the air
is 3C55 ` 36U5 m5 Ds. From e?uation A57=5:B, 2e !no2
ID P IH
!c 5D>h
&c P,r5D>
(3r( 3 c p
5D>
&c
h P rc p !c
,r
The follo2ing properties of air at 5:> 0 can "e found in +ppendi8 *C
rair P 3C56; !gDm>
c p air P 3C66;3 JD!g [ 0
,r P 6C936
The &chmidt num"er is
&c P
n3C55 ` 36U5 m5 Ds
PP 3C6>>
D+-3C5 ` 36U5 m5 Ds
&u"stituting into our e?uation, 2e o"tain
hP
!g
3C56; >
m
3C66;3

Jm3C6>> 5D>J
P 6C37@ 5
6C337
!g 0s6C936m 0s
EM+M,$E 5 Dittus and -oelter proposed the follo2ing e?uation for correlating the heat=transfer coefFcient for
tur"ulent Jo2 in a pipe
/u P
hD
P 6C65> Re6C7 ,r3D>
!
What should "e the corresponding e?uation for the mass=transfer coefFcient 2hen the transfer is to a
tur"ulent Juid Jo2ing in a pipea
+ccording to the hiltonOol"urn relationship A57=;3B
h
r( 3 c p
or
5D>
&c
h P !c rcp
,r
'pon su"stituting this into the DittusO-oelter e?uation, 2e o"tain
5D>
&cD
P 6C65> Re6C7 ,r3D>!c rcp
,r!
A,rB5D> P
!c
A&cB5D>
(3
57.;
or
Mass, Energy, and Momentum=Transfer +nalogies 5@3

!c D D+-r mc p &c 5D>
P 6C65> Re6C7 ,r3D>
D+- m,r!
5D>
!c D 3&c
[ [,rP 6C65> Re6C7 ,r3D>
D+- &c,r
This simpliFes to
&h P
!c D
P 6C65> Re6C7 &c3D>
D+-
$inton and &her2ood,5 considering mass transfer into tur"ulent streams Jo2ing through pipes,
correlated their data "y
!c D
P 6C65> Re6C7 &c3D>
D+-
for
5666 ] Re ] 96T 666
3666 ] &c ] 55;6
EM+M,$E ;
Dry air at 3C63> ` 365 ,a pressure "lo2s across a thermometer 2hose "ul" has "een co(ered 2ith a
dampened 2ic!. The classical GG2et "ul"HH thermometer indicates that a steady=state temperature
is reached "y a small amount of li?uid 2ater e(aporating into a large reser(oir of unsaturated (aporO
gas mi8ture. The thermometer reads 5:6 0. +t this temperature, the follo2ing properties 2ere
e(aluatedC
,+ , (apor pressure of 2ater
r, density of air
lTs , latent heat of (apori<ation of 2ater
,r, ,randtl num"er
&c, &chmidt num"er
c p , specific heat of air
3C:@ ` 36> ,a
3C53: !gDm>
5@;3 !JD!g
6C93
6C;3
3C66; JD!g 0
What is the temperature of the dry aira
E?uation A57=3B deFnes the molar Ju8 of 2ater e(aporating
/H5 % P !c AcH5 %Ts U cH5 %3 B
The energy re?uired to e(aporate this 2ater is supplied "y con(ecti(e heat transferT thus,
?
P hAT3 U Ts B P lTs MH5 % /H5 %
+
2here lTs is the latent heat of (apori<ation of 2ater at the surface temperature. This e?uation may "e
sol(ed for the "ul! temperature
T3 P
lTs MH5 % /H5 %
V Ts
h
5
W. H. $inton and T. 0. &her2ood, hem. Eng. ,rog., @;, 557 A3:56B.
*f 2e su"stitute e?uation A57=3B into this e?uation, 2e o"tain
T3 P lTs MH5 %
!c
AcH5 %Ts U cH5 %T3 B V Ts
h
hiltonOol"urn I factors gi(e us a relationship for the !c Dh ratio
h
r( 3 c p
,r5D> P
!c 5D>
&c
(3

!c3 ,r 5D>
P
h rc p &c
When this e8pression is su"stituted into our e?uation for the "ul! temperature, 2e o"tain an e?uation
for the psychromatic 2et="ul" line
T3 P
lTs MH5 %
5D>
rc p ,rAcH5 %Ts U cH5 %3 B V Ts&c
The concentrations are
cH5 %,s P
,+3C:@ ` 36> ,amol
P 6C76@ >P>
RTm,a m
A5:6 0B7C>3@
mol 0
mol
P6 >
m
cH5 %,3
'pon su"stitution of !no2n (alues, 2e o"tain

!J37 !g
5@;3
!g ! mol6C93 5D>mol
6C76@ > V 5:6 0T3 P 6C;3m
!gJ
3C66;3C53: >
m!g 0
P >55C3 0
57.9 M%DE$& F%R %/1ET*1E M+&&=TR+/&FER %EFF**E/T&
on(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcients ha(e "een used in the design of mass=transfer
e?uipment for many years. Ho2e(er, in most cases, they ha(e "een empirical coefFcients
that 2ere determined from e8perimental in(estigations. + theoretical e8planation of the
coefFcients 2ill re?uire a "etter understanding of the mechanism of tur"ulence, as they are
directly related to the dynamic characteristics of the Jo2. *n hapter 5;, t2o possi"le
models for e8plaining con(ecti(e mass transfer 2ere introduced. -oth the Flm theory and
the penetration theory ha(e "een 2idely applied.
The Flm theory is "ased upon the presence of a Fctitious Flm of Juid in laminar Jo2
ne8t to the "oundary that offers the same resistance to mass transfer as actually e8ists in the
entire Jo2ing Juid. *n other 2ords, all resistance to transfer is assumed to e8ist in a Fctitious
Flm in 2hich the transport is entirely "y molecular diffusion. The Flm thic!ness, d, must
e8tend "eyond the laminar su"layer to include an e?ui(alent resistance encountered as the
concentration changes 2ithin the "uffer layer and the tur"ulent core. For diffusion through a
nondiffusing layer or stagnant Juid, this theory predicts the mass=transfer coefFcient to "e
D+- ,
!c PA5;=:B
d p-T 3m
57.9 Models for on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer oefFcients 5@>
as de(eloped in hapter 5;. For e?uimolar counterdiffusion, the mass=transfer coefficient
2as e8pressed as
6!c P
D+-
d
A5;=5@B
*n "oth cases, the con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefficient is directly related to the molecular
mass diffusi(ity. %"(iously, the fictitious film thic!ness, d, can ne(er "e measured, as it
does not e8ist. -ecause of this and "ecause of its apparent inade?uacy in physically
e8plaining con(ecti(e mass transfer, other theories and models ha(e "een postulated to
descri"e this phenomenon.
The penetration theory 2as originally proposed "y Hig"ie; to e8plain the mass transfer
in the li?uid phase during gas a"sorption. *t has "een applied to tur"ulent Jo2 "y
Danc!2erts9 and many other in(estigators 2hen the diffusing component penetrates
only a short distance into the phase of interest "ecause of its rapid disappearance through
chemical reaction or its relati(ely short time of contact.
Hig"ie considered mass to "e transferred into the li?uid phase "y unsteady=state
molecular transport. With this concept, the mass Ju8 at the interface "et2een the li?uid and
the gas phases 2as e8pressed as
s
D+-
Ac+,s U c+,3 B/+ PA5;=77B
pte8p
Danc!2erts applied this unsteady=state concept to the a"sorption of component + in a
tur"ulent li?uid stream. His model assumes that the motion of the li?uid is constantly
"ringing fresh li?uid eddies from the interior up to the surface, 2here they displace the
li?uid elements pre(iously on the surface. While on the surface, each element of the
li?uid "ecomes e8posed to the second phase and mass is transferred into the li?uid as
though it 2ere stagnant and infinitely deepT the rate of transfer is dependent upon the
e8posure time. Many different assumptions can "e made relati(e to the surface rene2al.
For instance, each element of the surface may ha(e the same e8posure time "efore "eing
replacedT this infers that the instantaneous mass transfer 2ill occur according to e?uation
A5;=77B. The total solute penetrating the eddy in an e8posure time, te8p , is
r ff te8p
D+- te8p U3D5
/+ dt P Ac+,s U c+,3 Btdt
p 66

D+- te8p 3D5
P 5Ac+,s U c+,3 B
p
and the a(erage rate of transfer during the e8posure is o"tained "y di(iding this e?uation "y
the time of e8posure

D+- 3D5
/+ P 5Ac+,s U c+,3 BA57=;5B
pte8p
Danc!2erts modified the assumption of constant e8posure period "y proposing an
GGinfiniteHH range of ages for the elements at the surface. &urface age distri"ution functions
2ere introduced to predict the pro"a"ility of an element of surface "eing replaced "y a
fresh eddy. The rate of surface rene2al 2as "elie(ed to "e constant for a gi(en degree of
;
9
R. Hig"ie, Trans. +*hE, >3, >;7O>7: A3:>5B.
,. 1. Danc!2erts, *nd. Eng. hem., @>, 3@;6O3@;9 A3:53B.
5@@ hapter 57 on(ecti(e Mass Transfer
tur"ulence and e?ual to a surface=rene2al factor s. The rate of mass transfer 2ith random
surface rene2al is
p
/+ P D+- sAc+,s U c+,3 BA57=;>B
The (alues of s are currently o"tained "y e8perimental in(estigations. The surface=
rene2al concept has "een (ery successful in the e8planation and analysis of con(ecti(e
mass transfer, particularly 2hen the mass transport is accompanied "y chemical reactions
in the li?uid phase.7,: onsidera"le de(elopment and e8perimental (erification are
needed to define this model clearly.
+ detailed discussion of mass=transfer coefFcients for chemically reacting systems is
not treated in this te8t. *n our earlier discussions of molecular mass transfer associated 2ith a
chemical reaction, in &ection 5;.5, mass transfer 2as sho2n to depend upon the rate
constant of the chemical reaction. We should e8pect a similar dependency for the con(ecti(e
mass=transfer coefFcient. E8cellent discussions on this su"Iect are a(aila"le.7,:
Toor and Marchello36 ha(e pointed out that the penetration concept of Danc!2erts is
(alid only 2hen the surface rene2al is relati(ely rapid, thus pro(iding young elements at the
surface on a continuous "asis. For older elements at the surface, a steady=state concentration
gradient is esta"lished as predicted "y the Flm theoryT accordingly, the rate of mass transfer
should "e directly proportional to the molecular mass diffusi(ity. +t lo2 &chmidt num"ers, a
steady concentration gradient is set up (ery rapidly in any ne2 surface element so that unless
the rate of surface rene2al is high enough to remo(e a maIor fraction of the surface elements
"efore they are penetrated, most of the surface "eha(es as older elements. +s the &chmidt
num"er increases, the time necessary to set up the steady gradient increases rapidly, and
accordingly, relati(ely lo2 surface rene2al rates are sufFcient to !eep most of the elements
from "eing penetrated. When conditions are such that the surface contains "oth young and
older elements, the transfer characteristics are intermediate "et2een the Flm and penetra=
tion models. The con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcients 2ill "e proportional to a po2er of the
molecular mass diffusi(ity "et2een 6.5 and 3.6. These conclusions ha(e "een supported "y
e8perimental data.
*n "oth the Flm and penetration models, the mass transfer in(ol(es an interface "et2een
t2o mo(ing Juids. When one of the phases is a solid, the Juid (elocity parallel to the surface
at the interface must "e <eroT accordingly, 2e should e8pect the need of a third model, the
"oundary=layer model, for correlating the data in(ol(ing a solid su"liming into a gas or a
solid dissol(ing into a li?uid. For diffusion through a laminar "oundary layer, the a(erage
mass=transfer coefFcient 2as found to "e
D+- 3D5 3D>
Re$ &cA57=53B
$
5D>
This sho2s the mass=transfer coefficient (aries as D+- , 2hich is typical of "oundary=
layer calculations.
Ta"le 57.3 pro(ides a "rief summary of the three models proposed for mass=transfer
coefFcients. Each model has its o2n speciFc diffusion coefFcient dependencyT this
dependency is sometimes used to scale mass=transfer coefFcients from one solute to
another that are e8posed to the same hydrodynamic Jo2s.
!c P 6C;;@
7
:
36
,. 1. Danc!2erts, #asO$i?uid Reactions, Mc#ra2=Hill, /e2 Eor!, 3:96.
#. +starita, Mass Transfer 2ith hemical Reaction, Else(ier, +msterdam, 3:;9.
H. $. Toor and J. M. Marchello, +*hE J., 3, :9 A3:57B.
,ro"lems
Ta"le 57.3 Models for con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcients Adilute systemsB
Model
Film theory
,enetration
theory
-asic form
D+-
d
r^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
D+- (3
!c P
pd
!c P
D+-
AReB3D5 A&cB3D>
$
fAD+-B
!c D D+-
3D5!c D D+-
5@5
-oundary=
layer theory
!c P 6C;;@
5D>!c D D+-
/otes
d un!no2n, may "e found
2hen solute has high &c
d un!no2n, good model
2hen homogeneous reaction
2ithin "oundary layer or 2hen
solute has lo2 &c
-est 2ay to scale !c from one
solute to another e8posed to
same hydrodynamic Jo2
57.7 $%&'RE
*n this chapter, 2e ha(e discussed the principles of mass transfer "y forced con(ection, the
signiFcant parameters that help descri"e con(ecti(e mass transfer, and the models proposed
to e8plain the mechanism of con(ecti(e transport. We ha(e seen that the transfer of mass "y
con(ection is intimately related to the dynamic characteristics of the Jo2ing Juid,
particularly to the Juid in the (icinity of the "oundary. -ecause of the close similarities
in the mechanisms of momentum, energy, and mass transfer, 2e 2ere a"le to use the same
four methods for e(aluating con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcients that 2ere originally
de(eloped to analy<e con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcients. *n all four analyses, the mass=
transfer coefFcient 2as correlated "y the general e?uation
/u+- P f ARe, &cB
Mass transfer into tur"ulent streams 2as discussed, and the eddy mass diffusi(ity 2as
deFned. +nalogies 2ere presented for con(ecti(e mass transfer into tur"ulent streams.
,R%-$EM&
57.3 Determine the &chmidt num"er for
AaB o8ygen in air at >66 0 and 3.6 atmT and
A"B o8ygen in li?uid 2ater at >66 0.
+t >66 0, the diffusion coefFcient of o8ygen in li?uid 2ater is
3C5 ` 36U: m5 Ds.
57.5 %ne step in the manufacture of optical F"ers is the
chemical (apor deposition of silane, &iH@, on the inside surface
of a hollo2 glass F"er to form a (ery thin cladding of solid silicon
"y the reaction
&iH@ AgB Q &iAsB V 5H5 AgB
The process is carried out at temperature of :66 0 and a system
pressure of 366 ,a. &ilane A+B is diluted to 3.6 molb in the inert
helium A-B carrier gas. The "inary gas diffusi(ity of silane
in helium at 5:7 0 and 363.> !,a is 6.537 cm5Ds and the
!inematic (iscosity of the helium gas at :66 0 is 5.; cm5Ds.
Determine the &chmidt num"er of silane AgB in the helium AgB
carrier gas.
57.> &ilicon tetrachloride, &il@, is a !ey chemical in the silicon
chemical (apor deposition. *t is used in the production of silane,
&iH@, 2hich is used as descri"ed in ,ro"lem 57.5. The purity of
&il@ is essential to the production of high=?uality silicon Flms.
To eliminate trichlorosilane, &iHl>, 2ithin the high=purity sili=
con tetrachloride, chlorine gas is "u""led through the li?uid &il@
at 5:7 0 to promote the follo2ing reactionC
&iHl> V l5 Q &il@ V Hl
The Hl is then easily remo(ed in a stripper, using nitrogen as
the stripping gas.
To determine the mass=transfer coefFcient of chlorine in
li?uid &il@, a &chmidt num"er is needed. E(aluate the &chmidt
num"er for chlorine in li?uid silicon tetrachloride at 5:7 0. The
5@; hapter 57 on(ecti(e Mass Transfer
Determine 2hat percentage of the mass transfer occurs in the
laminar <one of the Jo2 o(er the Jat plate if the Reynolds
num"er at the end of the plate is Re$ P > ` 36; .
57.36 onsider the chemical (apor deposition A1DB process
for the manufacture of solid silicon thin Flms as illustrated
Feed gas
Hori<ontal 1D reactor
Across sectionB
#as distri"utor
follo2ing information is a(aila"le for &il@ at 5:7 0C
r$ P 3C@9 gDcm>
and
m$ P 5C5 ` 36U@ !gDm [ s
The diffusi(ity for chlorine in silicon tetrachloride can "e
e(aluated using the Wil!eOhang e?uation.
57.@ What are the &tanton and ,eclet num"ers and ho2 are
they related to other con(ecti(e mass=transfer dimensionless
num"ersa
57.5 *n applying dimensional analysis to e8plain mass=transfer
coefFcient, one must consider the geometry in(ol(ed, a (aria"le
to e8plain the Jo2 characteristics of the mo(ing stream, and the
properties of the mo(ing stream. ,redict the (aria"les that are
necessary to e8plain the mass=transfer coefFcient for a gas
stream Jo2ing o(er a Jat plate and arrange these (aria"les
into dimensionless groups.
57.; *n a mass=transfer spray column, a li?uid is sprayed into a
gas stream, and mass is transferred "et2een the li?uid and gas
phases. The mass of the drops that are formed from a spray
no<<le is considered a function of the no<<le diameter, accel=
eration of gra(ity, surface tension of the li?uid against the gas,
Juid density, Juid (iscosity, Juid (elocity, and the (iscosity and
density of the gas medium. +rrange these (aria"les in dimen=
sionless groups. &hould any other (aria"les ha(e "een includeda
57.9 Mass=transfer data 2ere o"tained for the (apori<ation of
naphthalene into a tur"ulent gas stream Jo2ing in an annulus.
-oth the inside rod and the outer pipe of the annular conduit 2ere
made of naphthalene. To correlate the data, the in(estigator
predicted that the mass=transfer coefFcient 2ould depend on the
(elocity of the Jo2ing stream, ( 3 , the diameter of the rod, D6 ,
the inside diameter of the outer pipe, D6 the density and (iscosity
of the gas medium, and the diffusi(ity of naphthalene in the gas
medium. +rrange these (aria"les into dimensionless groups that
the in(estigators might elect to use to correlate their data.
57.7 + long cylinder of porous clay, initially ha(ing a uniform
concentration of c+o , is suddenly inserted into an air stream that
has a 2ater content of c+3 . *f the radius of the cylinder is ro and
the a(erage mass=transfer coefFcient from the cylinder into the
air stream is !c, sho2 "y means of dimensional analysis that the
concentration proFle 2ithin the cylinder can "e e8pressed in
terms of the parameters.
c+ ArB U c+3
c+o U c+3
r
ro
D+-
! c ro
and
D+- t
5ro
Feed gas
H5 i &iH@ A6.3 molebB
:66 0, 366 ,a
1 N 56 cmDs
35=cm s?uare silicon 2afer
8 N 6 cm 8 N $ N 35 cm
a"o(e. + dilute mi8ture of 6.3 molb silane, &iH@ Aspecies +B, in
H5 gas Aspecies -B enters the cham"er and Jo2s o(er a s?uare &i
2afer of 35 cm per side at a "ul! (elocity of 56 cmDs. +t the
surface of the &i 2afer, the follo2ing reaction ta!es placeC
&iH@ AgB Q &i AsB V 5H5 AgB
This reaction is (ery rapidT accordingly, mass transfer controls
the &i Flm formation. Furthermore, the consumption of &iH@
"y the reaction is (ery small relati(e to the rate of &iH@ deli(ered
"y the feed gas, so that the "ul! gas composition is constant at 6.3
molb &iH@ in H5. The process temperature is maintained at :66
0, and the total system pressure is maintained at 366 ,a. 'nder
these conditions, the mass diffusi(ity, D+- , e?uals @6>5.5 cm5Ds
Adue to the lo2 system pressureB, the (iscosity of the hydrogen
gas is 3C7 ` 36U@ gDcm [ s, and the density of the hydrogen gas is
5C;9 ` 36U7 gDcm> .
AaB What are the &chmidt and &her2ood num"ers for this processa
A"B What is the total rate of &i formation on the 2hole 2afer in
g molDmina
AcB Where Aat 2hat position 8B on the surface 2ould you e8pect
the &i Flm to "e thic!esta
57.33 + thin Flm, 3.6 mm thic!, coat of fresh paint has Iust
"een sprayed o(er a 3.5 m "y 3.5 m s?uare steel "ody part, 2hich
Drying cham"er
;6 m>Dmin air
59g, 3.6 atm
#as distri"utor 57.: The "oundary layer solution for a Jat plate predicts the
follo2ing e?uationsC
for laminar flo2 C
for tur"ulent flo2 C
!c 83P 6C>>5 Re8 D5 &c3D>
D+-
!c 8@P 6C65:5 Re8 D5 &c3D>
D+-
H N 3.6 m
AW N 3.5 mB
2ith the transition occurring at Re8 P 5 ` 365 .
,ainted
steel plate
$ N 3.5 m
,ro"lems
appro8imates a Jat surface. The paint contains "en<ene as the
sol(ent. The paint surface e8erts a partial pressure of 6.3>9 atm at
the process temperature of 597. &i8ty cu"ic meters per minute
of air are "lo2n into the rectangular drying cham"er as sho2n
a"o(eT the cham"er measures 3.5 m in length, 3.6 m in height,
and 3.5 m in 2idth. The temperature of the air is 597 and the
total system pressure is 3.6 atm.
Determine the a(erage mass=transfer con(ecti(e coefFcient
and the sol(ent e(aporation rate from the surface in gDmin,
assuming that the concentration of the sol(ent (apor in the
"ul! gas is (ery small.
57.35 + thin polymer Flm contains some residual li?uid
sol(ent. *t is desired to e(aporate the sol(ent An=he8ane, solute
+B from the polymer using the process sho2n "elo2. -oth sides
of the polymer Flm
Wet polymer film Asol(ent i polymerB
A2idth N 6.5 m, length N 5.5 mB
5@9
57.3> + container of acetone 2as accidently spilled, co(ering
the top, smooth surface of a la"oratory "ench located in a
semiconductor=fa"rication "uilding. The e8haust fan for the
fa"rication "uilding produced a ; mDs air Jo2 parallel to the
3=m=2ide "ench surface. The air 2as maintained at 5:7 and
3C63> ` 365 ,a. The (apor pressure of acetone at 5:7 0 >C6;; `
36@ ,a and the diffusi(ity of acetone in air at 5:7 0 and 3C63> `
365 ,a is 6C:> ` 36U5 m5 Ds.
AaB Determine the mass=transfer coefFcient at 6.@ m do2n=
stream from the leading edge of the la"oratory "ench.
A"B Determine the amount of acetone e(aporating per 3 m5 of
surface area each second.
57.3@ + "ul! gas stream containing 6.: molb of % gas, 6.3
molb of %5 gas, and ::.6 molb of %5 gas Jo2s o(er a Jat
catalytic surface of length >.6 m at a "ul! (elocity of 35.6 mDs.
The catalytic surface promotes the reaction.
3
%AgB V %5 AgB Q %5 AgB
5
/+
M+o
Entrance
drying
process
6.3 g sol(ent
N
3.6 g dry polymer
ross flo2 of air
( N 3.56 mDs
Dried polymer film
2rapped into "undle
Ae8its drying processB
e8it
drying
process
aag sol(ent
N
3.6 g dry polymer
The surface reaction is e8tremely fast so that the production %5
of is limited "y the mass transfer of the gaseous reactants % and
%5 to the catalytic surface. $et + P o, - P %5 , and P %5 .
+t 597 and 3.6 atm total system pressure, the follo2ing data are
a(aila"leC
M+f
m& N
56.6 g polymer Adry "asisB
s
are e8posed to the cross Jo2 of air. The e(aporation rate of the
sol(ent from the polymer Flm is limited "y e8ternal con(ection.
The dried polymer Flm is then rolled up into a "undle. During the
drying process, the 2idth of the thin polymer Flm is 6.5 m and the
length of the polymer Flm is 5.5 m. The Jo2ing air has a "ul!
(elocity of 3.5 mDs, a temperature of 567, and the total system
pressure of 3.6 atm. The 2et polymer Flm is also maintained at
567. The (apor pressure of the sol(ent at 567 is 6.3; atm, the
diffusion coefFcient of the sol(ent in air is 6.676 cm5Ds at 567
and 3.6 atm, and the molecular 2eight of the sol(ent is 7; gDg
mol. The partial pressure of the sol(ent in the "ul! air Jo2 can "e
assumed to "e near <ero. The !inematic (iscosity of air is 3C5 `
36U5 m5 Ds at 567.
AaB E(aluate the &c num"er and the a(erage &h num"er for the
sol(ent e(aporation process.
A"B What is the total e(aportion rate of the sol(ent from the 6.5
m "y 5.5 m polymer Flm, recogni<ing that "oth sides of the
Flm are e8posed to the follo2ing aira
AcB The sol(ent loading in the polymer Flm at the entrance of
the drying process is 6.3 g sol(ent per gram of dry polymer
AM+o P 6.3 g sol(entDg dry polymerB. The total mass Jo2
rate of the polymer Flm on a sol(ent=free dry polymer "asis
is mo P 56C6 g dry polymerDs. What is the sol(ent loading in
the polymer Flm e8iting the drying process AM+f in g
sol(entDg dry polymerBa
Diffusion coefFcientsC D+- P 6C53> cm5 DsT D+ P 6C355 cm5 Ds
D- P 6C3;; cm5 Ds.
0inematic (iscositiesC ( + P 6C357 cm5 Ds, ( - P 6C35: cm5 Ds,
( P 6C67>5 cm5 Ds.
AaB What is the &chmidt num"er associated 2ith %5 mass transfera
A"B The mass=transfer process is dominated "y 2hich of the
follo2ingC A3B molecular diffusionT A5B con(ecti(e mass
transfer in the laminar regionT or A>B con(ecti(e mass
transfer in the tur"ulent regiona
AcB What is the a(erage mass=transfer coefFcient, !c , for the Jat
surfacea
57.35 *n a manufacturing process, an organic sol(ent Amethyl
ethyl !etone, ME0B is used to dissol(e a thin coating of a polymer
Flm a2ay from a nonporous Jat surface of length 56 cm and
2idth 36 cm as sho2n in the Fgure "elo2. The thic!ness of the
polymer Flm is initially uniform at 6.5 mm. *n the process, ME0
sol(ent is added at a Jo2 rate of >6 cm> Ds to an open Jat pan of
length >6 cm and 2idth 36 cm. The depth of the li?uid ME0
sol(ent in the pan is maintained at 5.6 cm. Eou may assume
>6 cm>Ds li?uid ME0
,olymer film
Ainitially 6.5 mm thic!B
5 cm
E8iting ME0
8N68 N 56 cm 8 N >6 cm
$ength of pan N >6 cm, 2idth of pan N 36 cm
thic!ness of the li?uid lu"ricating oil coating the surface is
36C6 mm A3 ` 36U5 mB. +T >7; 0, the (iscosity of air is 5C5> `
36U5 !gDm [ s, and the mass density of air is 6.:39 !gDm>. +t
>7; 0, the lu"ricating oil is slightly (olatile 2ith a (apor pres=
sure of 6.56 ,a, and the li?uid density of the lu"ricating oil is
3:66 !gDm>. +t >7; 0 and 3.6 atm, the molecular diffusion
coefFcient of the lu"ricating oil (apor in air, D+- , is 6.6@6 cm5Ds.
AaB What is the &chmidt num"er for the mass transfer of lu"ricat=
ing oil (apor in aira
A"B What is the a(erage mass=transfer coefFcient o(er the entire
length of the platea
AcB Determine the mass=transfer coefFcient at 3.5 m do2n=
stream from the leading edge of the plate.
57.37 *f the local &her2ood num"er for the laminar layer that
is formed o(er a Jat plate is
&h8 P 6C>>5 Re3D5 &c3D>8
and for the tur"ulent layer is
@&h8 P 6C65:5 Re8 D5 &c3D>
that the concentration of the dissol(ed polymer in the "ul!
sol(ent is essentially <ero, c+3 P 6, e(en though in reality the
concentration of dissol(ed polymer in the sol(ent increases
(ery slightly as it Jo2s from the entrance to the e8it of the pan.
+t the temperature and pressure of the process, the follo2ing
data area a(aila"leC
Diffusion coefFcient of dissol(ed polymer Asolute +B in the
ME0 sol(ent A-B D+- P > ` 36U; cm5 Ds.
0inematic (iscosity of li?uid ME0 n- P ;C6 ` 36U> cm5 Ds.
Density of solid polymer Flm material r+ P 3C65 gDcm> .
Density of li?uid ME0 r- P 6C76 gDcm> .
Ma8imum solu"ility of dissol(ed polymer in the ME0
sol(ent r} P 6C6@ gDcm> .+
AaB Determine the a(erage Ju8, g +Dcm5[ s, from the surface.
A"B Ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for the polymer Flm to completely
disappeara
57.3; + 2ell=mi8ed open pond contains 2aste2ater that is
contaminated 2ith a dilute concentration of dissol(ed methylene
+ir flo2
( N 9.5 mDs
,ond
surface
$5
$3 N 566 m
66
N3
m
e(aluate
AaB The (alue of the mass=transfer coefFcient at a point 2here
the Reynolds num"er is 96,666.
A"B The a(erage Flm=transfer coefFcient, !c , for the Jat plate
from the leading edge to the point 2here the Reynolds
num"er is 96,666.
AcB The (alue of the mass=transfer coefFcient at a point 2here
the Reynolds num"er is 966,666.
L L57.3: *n using the (on 0arman appro8imate method for
analy<ing the tur"ulent "oundary layer o(er a Jat plate, the
follo2ing (elocity and concentration proFle 2ere assumedC
and
n8 P a V "y3D9
c+ U c+s P h V Iy3D9
2here the four constants a, ", h, and I 2ere determined "y the
appropriate "oundary conditions at the surface and at the outer
edge of the t2o "oundary layers.
AaB Find the four constants and the resulting (elocity and con=
centration proFles.
L LA"B 'pon the application of the (on 0arman
momentum inte=
gral e?uation, the follo2ing e?uation for the thic!ness of the
tur"ulent "oundary layer has "een determinedC
dP
6C>938
Re3D>
8
chloride. The pool is rectangular 2ith dimensions of 566 m "y
366 m. +ir 597 at and 3.6 atm "lo2s parallel to the surface of the
pond as sho2n in the Fgure 2ith a (elocity of 9.5 mDs. +t 567
and 3.6 atm, the diffusion coefFcient of methylene chloride
in air D+- P 6C675 cm5 Ds and the !inematic (iscosity of the air
n- P 6C35 cm5 Ds.
AaB +t 2hat position across the pond is the air no longer
laminara
A"B Determine the mean gas=Flm mass=transfer coefFcient
associated 2ith the transfer of methylene chloride.
AcB What is the &chmidt num"er for methylene cholride in the
li?uid phase if at 567 the diffusion coefFcient of methy=
lene chloride in 2ater is 3C69 ` 36U5 cm5 Ds and the !ine=
matic (iscosity of 2ater is 6.636 cm5Dsa
57.39 + Jat steel plate is 5.6 m length and 5.6 m 2idth initially
contains a (ery thin coating of lu"ricating oil used in a manu=
facturing process. +n engineer is considering the feasi"ility
of using hot forced air con(ection to remo(e the lu"ricating
oil from the surface as an alternati(e to using harmful sol(ents to
rinse the lu"ricating oil off the surface. *n the present process, air
at >7; 0 and 3.6 atm is "lo2n parallel to the surface at a (elocity
of 56 mDs. +t this (elocity, the location on the plate 2here
laminar Jo2 ends is 6.6:9 m from the leading edge. The initial
L L'se this relationship and the solution to (on
0arman concentra=
tion integral e?uation 2hen the &chmidt num"er e?uals 3 to
o"tain the follo2ing e?uation for the local mass=transfer coefF=
cientC
!c P 6C657:( 3 ARe8 BU3D5
,ro"lems
57.56 +ssume a linear (elocity distri"ution and a linear con=
centration proFle in the laminar "oundary layer o(er a Jat plate.
+pply the "oundary conditions for a laminar "oundary layer and
e(aluate the (elocity and concentration proFles. +re these linear
proFles accepta"le proFlesa #i(e reasons for your decision.
57.53 + 3 ` 36U5 m spherical pellet is sprayed 2ith a (ery thin
coat of paint. The paint contains a (olatile sol(ent. To dry the pellet,
a >66 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,a air stream Jo2s around it 2ith a "ul!
(elocity of 3 mDs. The estimated loading of the sol(ent in the 2et
paint is 6.35 g sol(entDcm>. ,hysical properties are
(apor pressure of the sol(ent
mass diffusi(ity of sol(ent in air
!inematic (iscosity of air
density of air
thermal conducti(ity of air
thermal diffusi(ity of air
heat capacity of air
molecular 2eight of the sol(ent
'se the Mc+damHs33 e?uation
/u P 6C>9ARedp B6C; A,rB3D> , 2here
to e(aluate
AaB the heat=transfer coefFcient, hT
A"B the mass=transfer coefFcient, !c T
AcB the molar Ju8 of the sol(ent into the air stream.
57.55 Da(is35 in(estigated heat transfer to Juids Jo2ing in the
annular section "et2een concentric tu"es. He proposed the
follo2ing correlation for the heat=transfer coefFcient 2hen
considering the Flm on the inner tu"eC
6C3@ 6C35
hd pd56C73D> m
P 6C6>3ARed3 B A,rB
!d3ms
2here d3 and d5 are the outer diameter of the inner tu"e and the
inner diameter of the outer tu"e, respecti(ely, m is the (iscosity of
the Juid at the "ul! temperature of the Juid, and m& is the (iscosity
of the Juid at the heating surface temperature. 'se this e?uation to
predict the mass=transfer coefFcient from a naphthalene rod used
to form the inner tu"e of an annular duct.
57.5> Mc+dams presented the heat=transfer e?uation for the
tur"ulent Jo2 of gases past a single sphere as used in ,ro"lem 57.53
hd pdp ( 3
P 6C>9ARedp B6C; A,rB3D> , 2here Redp P
!n
2here d p is the diameter of the sphere.
,redict the e?uation you might use to correlate the mass=transfer
coefFcient from a single sphere into a tur"ulent gas stream. Ho2
2ould you modify your e?uation to co(er the (ery lo2 Reynolds
num"er rangea
/u P
33
5@:
57.5@ &e(eral thin sheets of naphthalene, 6.55 cm thic! and 36
cm s?uare, are arranged parallel to each other 2ith their centers
at 3=cm inter(als. +ir at 59> 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,a enters this
sand2ich arrangement 2ith a "ul! (elocity of 35 mDs. +t 59> 0,
the mass diffusi(ity for naphthalene in air is 5C3@ ` 36U; m5 Ds,
the &chmidt num"er is 5.59, and the (apor pressure of naphtha=
lene is 3.6 ,a. Determine the concentration of naphthalene in the
air as it lea(es the arrangement, e(aluating the mass=transfer
coefFcient using the
AaB Reynolds analogyT
L LA"B (on 0arman analogyT
AcB hiltonOol"urn analogy.
P 3C59 ` 36@ ,a
P :C;5 ` 36U; m5 Ds
P 3C5;: ` 36U5 m5 Ds
P 3C399 !gDm>
P 5C;5@ ` 36U5 JDm [ s [ 0
P 5C53; ` 36U5 m5 Ds
P 3C66; JDg [ 0
P 97 gDg mole
Determine the length of time the sheets must "e e8pos=
ed until half of their mass 2ill "e su"limed under these
conditions.
57.55 + small droplet of li?uid detergent, falling through air in a
spray drying to2er, has its diameter reduced as 2ater e(aporates
from the surface. *f 2e assume that the temperature of the li?uid
2ithin the drop remains at 5:6 0 and the dry air is at >36 0,
determine the moisture composition of the drying medium.
The follo2ing properties are a(aila"le at the a(erage temperature
of the air, >66 0C
!inematic (iscosity of air
thermal diffusi(ity of air
mass diffusi(ity of 2ater in air
density of air
surface temperature of dropT Ts
latent heat of (apori<ation at Ts
(apor pressure of 2ater at Ts
P 3C5;7: ` 36U5 m5 Ds
P 5C535; ` 36U5 m5 Ds
P 5C;> ` 36U5 m5 Ds
P 3C399 !gDm>
P 5C;5@ ` 36U5 JDm [ s [ 0
P 366; JDg [ 0
P 5:6 0
P 5@;3 JDg
P 3C:@ ` 36> ,a
Redp P
dp ( 3
n
57.5; + GGcooling "ag,HH commonly used for storing 2ater in hot,
arid en(ironments is made of a thin porous fa"ric. + small amount
of 2ater diffuses through the fa"ric and e(aporates from the surface
of the "ag. The rate of e(aporation is controlled "y con(ecti(e mass
transfer from the outer surface of the fa"ric to the surrounding dry
air. The energy for e(aporation is supplied "y the surrounding hot
air. The e(aporation of the 2ater cools the remaining li?uid 2ater
2ithin the "ag and a temperature dri(ing force is esta"lished.
Determine the temperature of the am"ient air using mass=transfer
considerations, if the follo2ing (alues holdC
surface temperature of the "ag
(iscosity of air
density of air
mass diffusi(ity of 2ater in air
latent heat of (apori<ation of
2ater at 5:> 0
(apor pressure of 2ater at 5:> 0
"ul! (elocity of air stream
P 5:7 0
P 3 JDg 0
P 3C7@ ` 36U@ gDcm [ s
P 3C39 ` 36U> gDcm>
P 5C;5 ` 36U@ JDcm [ s [ 0
P > ` 36U5 m5 Ds
P 5C@5 !JDg
P 3C> ` 36> ,a
P 5C5 ` 36U3 mDs
W. H. Mc+dams, Heat Transmission, >rd edition, Mc#ra2=Hill,
/e2 Eor!, 3:@:.
35E. &. Da(is, Trans. +m. &oc. Mech. Eng., ;5, 955 A3:@>B.
57.57 +ir passes through a naphthalene tu"e, that has an
inside diameter of 5.5 cm, Jo2ing at a "ul! (elocity of 35 mDs.
The air is at 57> 0 and an a(erage pressure of 3C63> ` 365 ,a.
+ssuming that the change in pressure along the tu"e is neg=
ligi"le and that the naphthalene surface is at 57> 0, determine
the length of tu"e that is necessary to produce a naphthalene
concentration in the e8iting gas stream of @C95 ` 36U@ molDm>.
+t 57> 0, naphthalene has a (apor pressure of > ,a and a
diffusi(ity in air of 5C@ ` 36U; m5 Ds.
57.59 Dry air, Jo2ing at a (elocity of 3.5 mDs, enters a ;=m=
long, 6.35=m=diameter tu"e at >36 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,a. The
inner surface of the tu"e is lined 2ith a felt material Adiameter=to=
roughness ratio, DDe, of 36,666B that is continuously saturated
2ith 2ater at 5:6 0. +ssuming constant temperature of the air
and the pipe 2all, determine the rate at 2hich 2ater must "e
added to !eep the felt continuously saturated. *t is important to
reali<e that the "ul! composition of the gas stream 2ill "e
continuously increasing 2ith the length.
hapter
5:
-et2een ,hases
*n hapter 57, con(ecti(e mass transfer 2ithin a single phase 2as consideredT in this
case, mass is e8changed "et2een a "oundary surface and a mo(ing Juid and the Ju8 is
related to an indi(idual mass=transfer con(ecti(e coefFcient. Many mass=transfer
operations, ho2e(er, in(ol(e the transfer of material "et2een t2o contacting phases
2here the Ju8 may "e related to an o(erall mass=transfer con(ecti(e coefFcient. These
phases may "e a gas stream contacting a li?uid stream or t2o li?uid streams if they are
immisci"le. *n this chapter, 2e shall consider the mechanism of steady=state mass
transfer "et2een the phases and the interrelations "et2een the indi(idual con(ecti(e
coefFcients for each phase and the o(erall con(ecti(e coefFcient.
hapter >6 presents empirical e?uations for the indi(idual mass=transfer con(ecti(e
coefFcients in(ol(ed in the interphase transfer. These e?uations ha(e "een esta"lished
from e8perimental in(estigations. hapter >3 presents methods of applying interphase
concepts to the design of mass=transfer e?uipment.
5:.3 E.'*$*-R*'M
The transport of mass 2ithin a phase, "y either molecular or con(ecti(e transport
mechanisms, has "een sho2n to "e directly dependent upon the concentration gradient
responsi"le for the mass transfer. When e?uili"rium 2ithin the system is esta"lished, the
concentration gradient and, in turn, the net diffusion rate of the diffusing species
"ecomes <ero. Transfer "et2een t2o phases also re?uires a departure from e?uili"rium
that might e8ist "et2een the a(erage or "ul! concentrations 2ithin each phase. +s the
de(iations from e?uili"rium pro(ides the concentration dri(ing force 2ithin a phase, it is
necessary to consider interphase e?uili"rium in order to descri"e mass transfer "et2een
the phases.
*nitially, let us consider the e?uili"rium characteristics of a particular system and then
2e 2ill generali<e the results for other systems. onsider a t2o=phase system in(ol(ing a
gas contacting a li?uidT for e8ample, let the initial system composition include air and
ammonia in the gas phase and only 2ater in the li?uid phase. When Frst "rought into contact,
some of the ammonia 2ill "e transferred into the 2ater phase in 2hich it is solu"le and some
of the 2ater 2ill "e (apori<ed into the gas phase. *f the gasOli?uid mi8ture is contained
2ithin an isothermal, iso"aric container, a dynamic e?uili"rium "et2een the t2o phases 2ill
e(entually "e esta"lished. + portion of the molecules entering the li?uid phase returns to the
gas phase at a rate dependent upon the concentration of the ammonia in the li?uid phase and
the (apor pressure e8erted "y the ammonia in the a?ueous solution. &imilarly, a portion of
the 2ater (apori<ing into the gas phase condenses into the solution. Dynamic e?uili"rium is
553
555 hapter 5: on(ecti(e Mass Transfer -et2een ,hases
6.556
6.566
,+Aatm /H>B
6.356
6.366
6.656
6.666
6.66
,+Aatm /H>B
6.656
6.6@6
6.6>6
6.656
6.636
6.666
6.66
6.65 6.36 6.35 6.56 3.66 3.56
>
M+Amole fraction dissol(ed /H> in 2aterB
oncentration of dissol(ed /H>, +$A!g.molDm B
AaB A"B
Figure 5:.3 +mmonia solu"ility in 2ater (s. partial pressure of ammonia at >67.
indicated "y a constant concentration of ammonia in the li?uid phase and a constant
concentration or partial pressure of ammonia in the gas phase.
This e?uili"rium condition can "e altered "y adding more ammonia to the isothermal,
iso"aric container. +fter a period of time, a ne2 dynamic e?uili"rium 2ill "e esta"lished
2ith a different concentration of ammonia in the li?uid and a different partial pressure of
ammonia in the gas. %"(iously, one could continue to add more ammonia to the systemT
each time a ne2 e?uili"rium 2ill "e reached. Figure 5:.3 AaB and A"B illustrates the e?u=
ili"rium distri"ution of ammonia in the gas and li?uid phases at >67.
Figure 5:.3AaB presents the concentrations in terms of the partial pressure of the solute
in the gas phase and the mole fraction of the dissol(ed solute in the li?uid phase. Figure
5:.3A"B presents the e?uili"rium distri"ution as the concentration of ammonia approaches
<ero, in terms of the partial pressure in the gas phase and the molar concentration in the
li?uid phaseT in this dilute concentration range, the e?uili"rium distri"ution is linear and the
t2o concentrations are related "y HenryHs la2, e?uation A5:=@B. There are many graphical
forms of e?uili"rium data due to the many 2ays of e8pressing concentrations in each of the
phases. We 2ill Fnd use for many types of e?uili"rium plots in hapter >3.
E?uations relating the e?uili"rium concentrations in the t2o phases ha(e "een
de(eloped and are presented in physical chemistry and thermodynamic te8t"oo!s. For
the case of nonideal gas and li?uid phases, the relations are generally comple8. Ho2e(er, in
cases in(ol(ing ideal gas and li?uid phases, some fairly simple yet useful relations are
!no2n. For e8ample, 2hen the li?uid phase is ideal, RaoultHs la2 applies
p+ P 8 + ,+
A5:=3B
2here p+ is the e?uili"rium partial pressure of component + in the (apor phase a"o(e the
li?uid phase, 8+ is the mole fraction of + in the li?uid phase, and ,+ is the (apor pressure of
pure + at the e?uili"rium temperature. When the gas phase is ideal, DaltonHs la2 is o"eyed
p+ P y + ,
A5:=5B
2here y+ is the mole fraction of + in the gas phase and , is the total pressure of the
system. When "oth phases are ideal, the t2o e?uations may "e com"ined to o"tain a
relation "et2een the concentration terms, 8+ and y+, at constant pressure and temperature,
the com"ined RaoultODalton e?uili"rium la2 stipulates
y+ , P 8+ ,+
A5:=>B
+nother e?uili"rium relation for gas and li?uid phases 2here dilute solutions are in(ol(ed
is HenryHs la2. This la2 is e8pressed "y
p+ P Hc+
A5:=@B
2here H is the HenryHs la2 constant and c+ is the e?uili"rium composition of + in the
dilute li?uid phase. Ta"le 55.3 lists HenryHs constant for selected a?ueous solutions.
5:.3 E?uili"rium 55>
+n e?uation similar to HenryHs la2 relation descri"es the partition of a solute "et2een
t2o immisci"le li?uids. This e?uation, the GGdistri"ution=la2HH e?uation is
c+T li?uid 3 P 0c+T li?uid 5A5:=5B
2here c+ is the concentration of solute + in the specified li?uid phase and 0 is the
partition or distri"ution coefficient.
+ complete discussion of e?uili"rium relations must "e left to physical chemistry and
thermodynamic te8t"oo!s. Ho2e(er, the follo2ing "asic concepts common to all systems
in(ol(ing the distri"ution of a component "et2een t2o phases are descripti(e of interphase
mass transferC
3. +t a F8ed set of conditions, such as temperature and pressure, #i""sHs phase rule
stipulates that a set of e?uili"rium relations e8ists, 2hich may "e sho2n in the
form of an e?uili"rium distri"ution cur(e.
5. When the system is in e?uili"rium, there is no net mass transfer "et2een the
phases.
>. When a system is not in e?uili"rium, components or a component of the system
2ill "e transported in such a manner as to cause the system composition to shift
to2ard e?uili"rium. *f sufFcient time is permitted, the system 2ill e(entually
reach e?uili"rium.
The follo2ing e8amples illustrate the application of e?uili"rium relations for determin=
ing e?uili"rium compositions.
EM+M,$E 3 +n e8haust stream from a semiconductor fa"rication unit contains > mol b acetone and :9 mol b air.
*n order to eliminate any possi"le en(ironmental pollution, this acetone=air stream is to "e fed to a
mass=transfer column in 2hich the acetone 2ill "e stripped "y a countercurrent, falling 5:> 0 2ater
stream. The to2er is to "e operated at a total pressure of 3C63> ` 365 ,a. *f the com"ined RaoultO
Dalton e?uili"rium relation may "e used to determine the distri"ution of acetone "et2een the air and
the a?ueous phases, determine
AaB the mole fraction of acetone 2ithin the a?ueous phase, 2hich 2ould "e in e?uili"rium 2ith
the > mol b acetone gas mi8ture.
A"B the mole fraction of acetone in the gas phase, 2hich 2ould "e in e?uili"rium 2ith 56 ppm
acetone in the a?ueous phase.
+t 5:> 0, the (apor pressure of acetone is 5C;@ ` 36@ ,a.
AaB -y RaoultODalton la2 2hen y+ P 6C6>
E+ , P 8+ ,+
A6C6>BA3C63> ` 365 ,aB P 8+ A5C;@ ` 36@ ,aB
or 8+ P 6C65>: mole fraction acetone
A"B 56 ppm acetone in solution
P
P
56 g acetone
:::T :76 g 2ater
56 gDA57 gDmolB
:::T :76 gA37 gDmolB
mol acetone
mol 2ater
P ;C569 ` 36U;
55@ hapter 5: on(ecti(e Mass Transfer -et2een ,hases
For the dilute solution, th mole fraction of acetone 2ill "e
7;C659 ` 36U; mol acetone
P ;C569 ` 36U;8+ P
U; mol acetone3C6 mol 2ater V ;C659 ` 36
-y Raoult=Dalton la2
y+ , P 8+ ,+
y+ A3C63> ` 365 ,aB P A;C569 ` 36U; BA5C;@ ` 36@ ,aB
or y+ P >C@5 ` 36U; mole fraction acetone
EM+M,$E 5
The HenryHs la2 constant for o8ygen dissol(ed in 2ater is @C6; ` 36: ,aDAmol of %5 per total mol of
solutionB at 5:> 0. Determine the solution concentration of o8ygen in 2ater that is e8posed to dry air
at 3C63> ` 365 ,a and 5:> 0.
HenryHs la2 can "e e8pressed in terms of the mole fraction units "y
p+ P H 6 8+
2here H6 is @C6; ` 36: ,aDAmol of %5Dtotal mol of solutionB.
From e8ample 5@.3, 2e recogni<e that dry air contains 53 molb o8ygen. -y DaltonHs la2
p+ P y+ , P A6C53BA3C63> ` 365 ,aB P 5C3> ` 36@ ,aC
The e?uili"rium mole fraction of the li?uid at the interface is computed "y HenryHs la2
8+ P
,+5C3> ` 36@ ,a
P
@C6; ` 36: ,aDAmol %5 Dmol solnBH
P 5C55 ` 36U; Amol %5 Dmol solnB
For one cu"ic meter of (ery dilute solution, the moles of 2ater in the solution 2ill "e appro8imately

3
n2ater P A3 m> BA3 ` 36> !gDm> B
6C637 !gNmol
P 5C5; ` 36@ mol
The total moles in the solution is essentially the moles of 2ater "ecause the concentration of o8ygen
is ?uite lo2. +ccordingly, the moles of o8ygen in one cu"ic meter of solution is
no8ygen P A5C55 ` 36U; mol %5 Dmol solnBA5C5; ` 36@ mol solnB
P 6C5:5 mol of %5
The saturation concentration is
A6C5:5 molDm> BA6C6>5 !gDmolB P :C>@ ` 36U> !g %5 Dm5 A:C>@ mgD$B
5:.5 TW%=RE&*&T+/E THE%RE
Many mass=transfer operations in(ol(e the transfer of material "et2een t2o contacting
phases. For e8ample, in gas a"sorption, as illustrated in Figure 5:.5, a solute is transferred
from the gas phase into a li?uid phase. The interphase transfer in(ol(es three transfer stepsC
A3B the transfer of mass from the "ul! conditions of one phase to the interfacial surface,
A5B the transfer across the interface into the second phase, and A>B the transfer to the "ul!
conditions of the second phase.
5:.5 T2o=Resistance Theory 555
#as film$i?uid film+ t2o=resistance theory, initially suggested
3
"y Whitman, is often used to e8plain this process.
The theory has t2o principal assumptionsC A3B the
rate of mass transfer "et2een the t2o phases is
controlled "y the rates of diffusion through the
phases on each side of the interface and A5B no
resistance is offered to the transfer of the diffusing
component across the interface. The concentra=
/+
tion gradient dri(ing force re?uired to produce the
mass transfer of component + from the gas phase
to the li?uid phase, as illustrated in Figure 5:.5, is
graphically presented in Figure 5:.> 2ith a partial
pressure gradient from the "ul! gas composition,
p+T # , to the interfacial gas composition, p+T i , and
a concentration gradient in the li?uid from, c+T i , at
the interface to the "ul! li?uid concentration, c+T $ .
#asOli?uid
%n the "asis of WhitmanHs second assumption of
interface
no resistance to mass transfer at the interfacial
Figure 5:.5 #as a"sorption 2ith
surface, p+T i and c+T i , are e?uili"rium concentra=
solute + transferred from gas phase to
tions and are related "y thermodynamic relations
li?uid phase.
as discussed in &ection 5:.3. The interfacial par=
tial pressure, p+T i , can "e less than, e?ual to or greater than the (alue of c+T i , according to the
e?uili"rium conditions of the temperature and pressure of the system.
-ul! gas
A2ell mi8edB
&%'RE
p+#
#as flim
AstagnantB
$i?uid flim
AstagnantB
-ul! li?uid
A2ell mi8edB
&*/0
/+
p+i
c+i
c+i
p+i N H c+i
#asDli?uid
interface
Figure 5:.> oncentration
gradients "et2een t2o contacting
phases 2here solute is transferred
from gas to li?uid.
When the transfer is from the li?uid phase, as in li?uid stripping as sho2n in
Figure 5:.@, c+$, 2ill "e greater than c+i and p+i 2ill "e greater than p+#. The concentration
gradients for this case are graphically presented in Figure 5:.5.
*ndi(idual Mass=Transfer oefFcients
Restricting our discussion to the steady=state transfer of component + from the gas phase to
the li?uid phase Afor the transfer in the opposite direction, the concentration dri(ing forces
3
W. #. Whitman, hem. Met. Engr., 5: A@B, 3:9 A3:5>B.
55; hapter 5: on(ecti(e Mass Transfer -et2een ,hases
2ould "e re(ersedT i.e., p+T i U
p+T # instead of p+T # U p+T i B, 2e
can descri"e the rates of diffusion
in the < direction "y the e?uationsC
/+T < P !# A p+T # U p+T i BC A5:=;B
and
/+T < P !$ Ac+T i U c+T $ B
A5:=9B
#as film $i?uid film
/+
2here !# is the con(ecti(e mass=
transfer coefficient in the gas
phase, in wmoles of + transferredD
AtimeBAinterfacial areaB AD p+ units
#asOli?uidof concentrationBxT and !$ is the
interface
con(ecti(e mass=transfer coeffi=
Figure 5:.@ $i?uid stripping 2ith solute +cient in the li?uid phase, in wmoles
transferred from li?uid to gas.of + transferredDAtimeBAinterfacial
areaB ADc+ units of concentrationBx.
The partial pressure difference, p+T # U p+T i , is the dri(ing force necessary to transfer
component + from the "ul! gas conditions to the interface separating the t2o phases. The
concentration difference, c+T i U c+T $ , is the dri(ing force necessary to continue the
transfer of + into the li?uid phase.
'nder steady=state conditions, the Ju8 of mass in one phase must e?ual the Ju8 of mass
in the second phase. om"ining e?uations A5:=;B and A5:=9B, 2e o"tain
/+T < P !# A p+T # U p+T i B P U!$ Ac+T $ U c+T i B
A5:=7B
The ratio of the t2o con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefficients may "e o"tained from e?uation
A5:=7B "y rearrangement, gi(ing
U
p+T # U p+T i!$
P
!#c+T $ U c+T i
A5:=:B
*n Figure 5:.;, the application of e?uation A5:=:B for the e(aluation of the interfacial
compositions for a speciFc set of "ul! compositions as represented "y point % is illustrated.
The point %, located a"o(e the e?uili"rium line, represents conditions found at one plane in a
gas a"sor"er 2here the transfer is from the gas phase to the li?uid phase. The "ul! conditions
-ul! gas
A2ell=mi8edB
&*/0
#as film
AstagnantB
$i?uid film
AstagnantB
-ul! li?uid
A2ell=mi8edB
&%'RE
c+$
p+i
c+i
/+
p+#
p+i N H c+i
#asDli?uid
interface
Figure 5:.5 oncentration
gradients "et2een t2o contacting
phases 2here solute is transferred
from li?uid to gas.
5:.5
y
,artial
pressure of +
in gas phase
p+, #
%
&lope N O
!$
!#
E?uili"rum
cur(e
T2o=Resistance Theory 559
p+, i
c+, $ c+, i
8
omposition of + in the li?uid phase
Figure 5:.; *nterfacial compositions
as predicted "y the t2o=resistance
theory.
at another plane in the gas a"sor"er could "e ?uite different. + similar point representing the
"ul! conditions found in a li?uid stripping to2er A2here transfer of the solute 2ould "e from
the li?uid phase to the gas phaseB 2ould "e located "elo2 the e?uli"rium line.
*n Ta"le 5:.3, the most often encountered indi(idual=phase mass=transfer coefFcients
are listed and the interrelations "et2een them are noted. + <ero superscript on the mass=
transfer coefFcient for e?uimolar counterdiffusion is used to designate no net mass transfer
into the phase, according to e?uation A5;=5@B. *t is important to reali<e that there are many
other different mass=transfer coefFcients for other speciFc mass=transfer situationsT for
e8ample, 2hen /+ P U5/- , etc. This ta"le may "e helpful in e8plaining 2hy there are so
many different units gi(en for indi(idual coefFcients.
%(erall Mass=Transfer oefFcients
*t is ?uite difFcult to physically measure the partial pressure and the concentration at the
interface. *t is therefore con(enient to employ o(erall coefFcients "ased on an o(erall
dri(ing force "et2een the "ul! compositions, p+T # and c+T $ . This treatment is similar to the
one used in hapter 35 2hen the o(erall heat=transfer coefFcient, ', 2as deFned.
%"(iously, one cannot e8press the o(erall dri(ing force as p+T # U c+T $ due to the difference
in concentration units. *n Figure 5:.9, one o"ser(es the "ul! li?uid composition c+T $ is in
E?uili"rium cur(e
,artial
pressure of +
in gas phase
p+#
Rp+#
Rp+ total
p
!$
!#
&lope N O
p+i
Rp+$
Rc+$
p+
Rc+#
Rc+ total
c+$c+i
omposition of + in li?uid phase
p+
Figure 5:.9 oncentration
dri(ing forces for the t2o=
resistance theory.
557 hapter 5: on(ecti(e Mass Transfer -et2een ,hases
Ta"le 5:.3 *ndi(idual mass=transfer coefFcients
#as phase
Rate e?uation
Diffusion of +
through nondiffusing -
/+ P !# D p+
/+ P !c Dc+
/+ P !y Dy+
/+ P !E DE+
n+ P !H DH +
#as phase
!y!c
P
, RT
6!y!6
6 PP c!#
, RT
H P the specific humidity
!# P
$i?uid phase
Rate e?uation
Diffusion of +
through nondiffusing -
/+ P !$ Dc+
/+ P !8 D8+
!8
c
6!8
c
'nits of coefFcient
E?uimolar
counterdiffusion
6/+ P !# D p+ moles of + transferred
AtimeBAareaBApressureB
moles of + transferred
AtimeBAareaBAmolD(olumeB
AtimeBAareaBAmole fractionB
AtimeBAareaBAmole +Dmol -B
mass of + transferred
AtimeBAareaBAmass +Dmass -B
6/+ P !c Dc+
6/+ P !y Dy+
!# p-T lm
,
6 P ! p-T lm!yy
,
p-T lmc-T lm6P !cC!c P !c
,c
6!# P
'nits of coefFcient
E?uimolar
counterdiffusion
6/+ P !$ Dc+ moles of + transferred
AtimeBAareaBAmoleD(olumeB
AtimeBAareaBAmole fractionB
6!$ P !$
6/+ P !8 D8+
!$ P
6!$ P
c-T lm
P !$ 8-T lm
c
6!8 P !8 8-T lm
e?uili"rium 2ith the partial pressure p} . This is an uni?ue partial pressure at the pressure
+
and temperature of the systemT p} is as good a measure of c+T $ as c+T $ itself, and it has units+
consistent 2ith p+T # . +ccordingly, an o(erall mass=transfer coefFcient, 0# 2hich includes
the resistance to diffusion in "oth phases in terms of partial pressure dri(ing force, is
deFned "y
/+ P 0# A p+T # U p} B+
A5:=36B
5:.5 T2o=Resistance Theory 55:
2here p+T # is the "ul! composition in the gas phase, p} is the partial pressure of + in+
e?uili"rium 2ith the "ul! composition in the li?uid phase, c+T $ , and 0# is the o(erall
mass=transfer coefficient "ased on the partial pressure dri(ing force, in mole of +
transferred per AtimeBAinterfacial areaBApressureB.
&imilarly, the o(erall "ul! gas composition, p+T # , is in e?uili"rium 2ith the con=
centration c} . This is also an uni?ue concentration at the pressure and temperature of the
+
system and c} is as good a measure of p+T # as p+T # itself. +n o(erall mass transfer+
coefFcient, 0$ 2hich in(ol(es the resistance to diffusion in "oth phases and is in terms of the
li?uid phase concentration dri(ing force, is deFned "y
/+ P 0$ Ac} U c+T $ B+
A5:=33B
2here c} is the concentration of + in e?uili"rium 2ith p+T # , c+T $ is the "ul! composition+
in the li?uid phase, and 0$ is the o(erall mass=transfer coefficient "ased on a li?uid
dri(ing force, in moles of + transferred per AtimeBAinterfacial areaBAmole +D(olumeB.
Figure 5:.9 illustrates the dri(ing forces associated 2ith each phase and the o(erall
dri(ing forces. The ratio of the resistances in an indi(idual phase to the total resistance may
"e determined "y
D p+T gas film 3D!#resistance in the gas phase
PP
total resistance in "oth phasesD p+T total3D0#
and
Dc+T li?uid film 3D!$resistance in the li?uid phase
PP
total resistance in "oth phasesDc+T total3D0$
A5:=3>B
A5:=35B
+ relation "et2een these o(erall coefFcients and the indi(idual phase coefFcients can
"e o"tained 2hen the e?uili"rium relation is linear as e8pressed "y
p+T i P mc+T i
A5:=3@B
This condition is al2ays encountered at lo2 concentrations, 2here HenryHs la2 is o"eyedT
the proportionality constant is then the HenryHs la2 constant, H. 'tili<ing e?uation
A5:=3@B, 2e may relate the gas= and li?uid=phase concentrations "y
p+T #
p}
+
and
p+T i P mc+T i
Rearranging e?uation A5:=36B, 2e o"tain
p+T # U p}p+T # U p+T i p+T i U p}3
++PPV
0#/+T </+T </+T <
or in terms of m
A p+T # U p+T i B mAc+T i U c+T $ B3
PV
0#/+T </+T <
A5:=35B
P mc}+
P mc+T $
The su"stitution of e?uations A5:=;B and A5:=9B into the a"o(e relation relates 0# to the
indi(idual phase coefficients "y
33m
PV
0# !# !$
A5:=3;B
5;6 hapter 5: on(ecti(e Mass Transfer -et2een ,hases
+ similar e8pression for 0$ may "e deri(ed as follo2sC
c} U c+T $ A p+T # U p+T i B Ac+T i U c+T $ B3
P +PV
0$m/+T </+T </+T <
or
333
PV
0$ m!# !$
A5:=39B
E?uations A5:=3;B and A5:=39B stipulate that the relati(e magnitudes of the indi(idual
phase resistances depend on the solu"ility of the gas, as indicated "y the magnitude of the
proportionality constant. For a system in(ol(ing a solu"le gas, such as ammonia in 2ater, m
is (ery small. From e?uation A5:=3;B, 2e may conclude that the gas=phase resistance is
essentially e?ual to the o(erall resistance in such a system. When this is true, the maIor
resistance to mass transfer lies in the gas phase, and such a system is said to "e gas=phase
controlled. &ystems in(ol(ing gases of lo2 solu"ility, such as car"on dio8ide in 2ater,
ha(e such a large (alue of m that e?uation A5:=39B stipulates that the gas=phase resistance
may "e neglected, and the o(erall coefFcient, 0$ is essentially e?ual to the indi(idual li?uid=
phase coefFcient, !$. This type of system is designated li?uid=phase controlled. *n many
systems, "oth phase resistances are important and must "e considered 2hen e(aluating the
total resistance.
*n hapter 57, the indi(idual phase con(ecti(e coefFcients, !$ and !# 2ere sho2n to "e
dependent on the nature of the diffusing component, on the nature of the phase through
2hich the component is diffusing, and also on the Jo2 conditions of the phase. E(en 2hen
the indi(idual coefFcient, !# is essentially independent of the concentration, the o(erall
coefFcient, 0#, may (ary 2ith the concentration unless the e?uili"rium line is straight. This
is also true for the o(erall coefFcient, 0$ +ccordingly, the o(erall coefFcients should "e
employed only at conditions similar to those under 2hich they 2ere measured and should
not "e employed for other concentration ranges unless the e?uili"rium cur(e for the system
is straight o(er the entire range of interest.
The t2o=resistance theory, including the addition of resistances, 2as proposed "y
$e2is and Whitman5 in 3:5@ as the t2o=Flm theory. +lthough originally proposed in terms
of the Flm model for con(ecti(e mass transfer, it is e?ually applica"le to the indi(idual phase
coefFcients e(aluated "y either the Flm or the penetration theory. The assumption of
negligi"le interfacial resistance has not "een ade?uately (eriFedT in fact, many in(estigators
ha(e sho2n that a resistance does e8ist if dust particles or other foreign particles are carried
"y the li?uid. /e(ertheless, most industrial data ha(e "een interpreted in terms of the t2o=
resistance theory.
The application of the t2o=resistance theory for "oth a"sorption and stripping of a
component 2ill "e illustrated in the follo2ing t2o e8amples.
EM+M,$E > *n an e8perimental study of the a"sorption of ammonia "y 2ater in a 2etted=2all column, the o(erall
mass=transfer coefFcient, 0# 2as found to "e 5C9@ ` 36U: !g molDm5 [ s [ ,a. +t one point in the
column, the gas phase contained 7 mol ammonia and the li?uid=phase concentration 2as 6.6;@ !g
mol ammoniaDm> of solution. The to2er operated at 5:> 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,a. +t that temperature,
the HenryHs la2 constant is 3C>57 ` 36> ,aDW!g molDm> X. *f 75b of the total resistance to mass
transfer is encountered in the gas phase, determine the indi(idual Flm mass=transfer coefFcients and
the interfacial compositions.
5
W. 0. $e2is and W. #. Whitman, *nd. Eng. hem., 3;, 3535 A3:5@B.
5:.5 T2o=Resistance Theory 5;3
The total resistance in "oth phases, according to e?uation A5:=35B, is
!g mol
m5 [ s [ ,a
+s the resistance in the gas phase, 3N!# , is 75b of the total resistance, 2e may e(aluate the indi(idual
gas=phase coefFcient "y
53m5 [ s [ ,a7 m [ s [ ,a
P >C36 ` 367P 6C75 >C;5 ` 36
!#!g mol!g mol
5C9@ ` 36U:
and
!# P
3!g mol
CP >C55; ` 36U: 57>C36 ` 36m
[ s [ ,a
3
P
0#
3
P >C;5 ` 367
m5 [ s [ ,a
!g mol
The li?uid=phase coefFcient, !$ is e(aluated using e?uation A5:=3;B
33 H
P V
0# !# !$
3C>57 ` 36> ,aDA!g molDm> B
!$
!$ P 5C@9 ` 36U5 !g molDm5 [ s [ A!g molDm> B
+t the stated point in the column
>C;5 ` 367 P >C36 ` 367 V
p+T # P y+ , P A6C67BA3C63> ` 365 ,aB P 7C36@ ` 36> ,a
c+T $ P 6C6;@ !g molNm>
'pon introducing HenryHs la2 constant, 2e Fnd the partial pressure, p} , in e?uili"rium 2ith the "ul!
+
li?uid concentration

,a!g mol}>
6C6;@P 79C3 ,ap+ P Hc+T $ P 3C>57 ` 36
!g molDm>m>
The mass Ju8, as e8pressed "y e?uation A5:=36B, "ecomes
/+ P 0# A p+T # U p} B+

U: !g mol
P 5C9@ ` 36A7C36@ ` 36> ,a U 79C3 ,aB
m5 [ s [ ,a
P 5C56 ` 36U5
!g mol
m5 [ s
The interfacial composition can "e determined using e?uation A5:=;B
/+ P !# A p+T # U p+T i B

!g mol!g mol5C56 ` 36U5 5P >C55; ` 36U: 5A7C36@ ` 36> ,a U p+T i B
m [sm [ s [ ,a
p+T i P 357@ ,a
and using HenryHs la2
p+T i P Hc+T i

A357@ ,aB P 3C>57 ` 36>

,a
c+T i
!g molDm>
c+T i P 6C:@; !g molDm>
+2aste2ater stream is introduced to the top of a mass=transfer to2er 2here it Jo2s countercurrent to
an air stream. +t one point in the to2er, the 2aste2ater stream contains 3 ` 36U> g mol +Dm> and the
air is essentially free of any +. +t the operating conditions 2ithin the to2er, the Flm mass=transfer
coefFcients are !$ P 5 ` 36U@ !gDmolDm5 [ s [ A!g molDm> B and !# P 6C63 !g molDm5 [ s [ atm. The
concentrations are in the HenryHs la2 region 2here p+T i P Hc+T i 2ith H P 36 atmDA!g molDm> B.
Determine
AaB the o(erall mass Ju8 of +.
A"B the o(erall mass=transfer coefFcients,
0$ and 0#.
+t the speciFed plane,
c+T $ P 3C6 ` 36U;
and
p+T # P 6
!g mol +
m>
p+# N 6
c+$
3 o 36O;
c+
p+
p+
EM+M,$E @
+ s!etch of the partial pressure of + (s. concentration of + re(eals this is a stripping operation.
-y e?uation A5:=39B
333
PV
0$ H!# !$
P
36
33
V
!g molatm!g mol
5 ` 36U@ 56C63 5
m [ s [ !g molDm>!g molDm>m [ s [ atm
m5
!g mol
[ s [ !g molDm>
0$ P @C:9 ` 36U@
The e?uili"rium concentrations are
p+T #6 atm!g mol
PP6
atmm>H
36
!g molDm>

atm}U; !g mol
3 ` 36p+ P Hc+T $ P 36
!g molDm>m>
c} P+
P 3 ` 36U5 atm
The Ju8 of + for this stripping operation is
/+ P
0$ Ac+T $ U c} B+
P @C:9 ` 36
U@ m
s
!g mol3C6 ` 36U;
m>
P @C:9 ` 36U36
!g mol
m5 [ s
The o(erall mass=transfer coefFcient, 0# can "e determined in t2o 2ays.
/+
U p+T #
!g mol
m5 [ s
P
U5 atm U 63 ` 36
!g molP @C:9 ` 36U5 5
m [ s [ atm
@C:9 ` 36U36
0# P
p}
+
,ro"lems 5;>
*f 2e multiply "oth sides of e?uation A5:=39B "y HenryHs la2 constant, H, and relate the results to
e?uation A5:=3;B, 2e o"tain
H3H3
PVP
0$!#!$0#
then
0$
P
H
@C:9 ` 36U@
!g mol
[ s [ A!g molDm> B
36 atmDA!g molDm> B
m5
!g mol
C
m5 [ s [ atm
0# P
P @C:9 ` 36U5
5:.> $%&'RE
*n this chapter, 2e ha(e considered the mechanism of steady=state mass transfer "et2een
phases. The t2o=resistance theory 2as presented. This theory deFnes the mass transfer in
each phase as a function of the concentration dri(ing force and the indi(idual mass=transfer
coefFcient according to the e?uations
/+T < P !# A p+T # U p+T i B
and
/+T < P !$ Ac+T i U c+T $ B
The o(erall mass=transfer coefFcients 2ere deFned "y
/+T < P 0# A p+T # U p} B+
}/+T B of chlorine for the chlorineO2ater system. The
follo2ing e?uili"rium data at 5:> 0 2ere reported in the
hemical Engineering Hand"oo!.>
partial pressure
of l5, in ,a
solu"ility,
!g l5Dm>
;;;
6.@>7
3>>6
6.595
@666
6.:>9
;;;6
3.536
3>,566
3.99>
5:.5 ,lot the follo2ing e8perimental e?uili"rium (alues for
trichloroethylene, TE, in 2ater at 567. Determine the HenryHs
la2 constant for this TEO2ater system, 2ith H in atmDWg molDm> X.
partial pressure of TE, atm 6.666 6.656 6.356 6.566
6.66 5.66 35.66 56.66solu"ility, g molDm>
5:.> + li?uid solution containing @: moles of "en<ene and 53
moles of toluene is slo2ly heated to >;> 0 and a pressure of
3C63> ` 365 ,a in a closed container.
a. What 2ould "e the composition of the li?uid phase and the
gas phase in e?uili"rium at >;> 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,aa +t
>;> 0, the (apor pressure of "en<ene is 3C>@@ ` 365 ,a and
the (apor pressure of toluene is 5C>7 ` 365 ,a.
J. H. ,erry, hemical Engineering Hand"oo!as, Fifth Edition,
Mc#ra2=Hil -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:9>.
>
5;@ hapter 5: on(ecti(e Mass Transfer -et2een ,hases
a.
".
c.
d.
the
the
the
the
li?uid=Flm coefFcient, !$T
gas=Flm coefFcient, !#T
concentration on the li?uid side of the interface, c+T $ T
mass Ju8 of +.
". Determine the amount of li?uid that 2ould "e present after
this mi8ture is heated to >;> 0.
5:.@ *n the aeration of 2aste2ater, li?uid=gas contact systems
are designed to raise the concentration to2ard e?uili"rium
le(els. This goal is accomplished "y dispersing air "u""les
into the 2ater. +n a?ueous solution, initially containing 5 `
36U> !g %5 D366 !g H5 % is "rought into contact 2ith a large
(olume of ordinary air at 5:> 0 and a total pressure of 3C63> `
365 ,a. +t 5:> 0, the HenryHs la2 constant for the o8ygenO2ater
system e?uals @C6; ` 36: ,aDmol fraction of o8ygen in the
li?uid.
a. Will the solution gain or lose o8ygena
". What 2ill "e the concentration of o8ygen in the Fnal
e?uili"rium solution in !g %5 per 366 !g H5%a
5:.5 To raise the o8ygen concentration le(el in 2aste2ater, air
is inIected through spargers located near the "ottom of a 2ater=
holding, aeration tan!. %8ygen is transferred from the released
air "u""les into the surrounding a?ueous phase. Determine the
o(erall li?uid mass=transfer coefFcient, 0$, and the percent
resistance encountered in the li?uid phase if the indi(idual
mass=transfer coefFcients of o8ygen transferring from air into
5:> 0 2ater are !$ P 5C35 ` 36U5 !g molNm5 [ s [ W!g molDm> X
and !# P :C57 ` 36U7 !g molDm5 [ s [ ,a. The HenryHs la2
coefFcient for o8ygen in 2ater at 5:> 0 is @C6; ` 36: ,aDAmoles
of o8ygenDtotal moles of solutionB.
5:.; onsider the interphase mass=transfer process for the chlor=
ine dio8ide, l%5OairO2ater system. l%5 gas Asolute +B is spar=
ingly solu"le in 2ater. The HenryHs la2 constant for the dilute
solution of l%5 in 2ater is 9C9 ` 36U@ atmDAg molDm>B. +t the cur=
rent conditions of operation, the mole fraction of l%5 in the "ul!
gas phase is y+ P 6C6@6 and the mole fraction of l%5 in the
"ul! li?uid phase is 8+ P 6C666@6. The mass density of the li?uid
phase is ::5.> !gDm> and is not dependent on the (ery small amount
of l%5, dissol(ed in it. The total system pressure is 3.5 atm.
a. *s the process gas a"sorption or li?uid strippinga
". *f the l%5 partial pressure in the "ul! gas phase is main=
tained at 6.6; atm, 2hat is the ma8imum possi"le dissol(ed
l%5 concentration, g molDm>, in the li?uid phase that could
possi"ly e8it the processa
c. *f !8 P 3C6 g molDm5 [ s and !# P 6C636 g molDm5 [ s [ atm,
2hat is 0y, the o(erall mass=transfer coefFcient "ased upon
the o(erall gas phase dri(ing forcea
d. -ased upon the "ul! gas and li?uid phase compositions,
2hat is the mass transfer Ju8 for l%5 in units g molDm5 [ sa
5:.9 *n the a"sorption of component + from an air stream
into an a?ueous stream, the composition of the t2o adIacent
streams 2ere analy<ed to "e c+T $ P @C6 !g molDm> and p+T # P
3C63> ` 36@ ,a. The HenryHs la2 constant for this system is
3C;9@ ` 36> ,aDA!g molDm> B. The o(erall li?uid coefFcient, 0$,
2as e?ual to 3C5; ` 36U; !g molDm5 [ s [ A!g molDm> B. *f 5>b of
the total resistance of mass transfer is encountered in the li?uid
Flm, determine
5:.7 *n a stripping process for the remo(al of T+ from
2aste2ater A(ery dilute, 56 mg T+D$B, air is "u""led into
the 2ater to transfer the T+ from the li?uid phase to the gas
phase. This process is carried out at 567 and 3.55 atm. +t 567,
H 6 P @66 atm 2hen HenryHs la2 is deFned "y p+ P H 6 8+ for
the T+O2ater system.
a. What 2ould "e the HenryHs constant "ased on the mole
fractions of T+ in gas and li?uida
". What is the HenryHs constant "ased on the partial pressure of
T+ in the gas phase and the molar concentration of T+
A! molDm>B in the li?uid phasea
c. *f !$ in the gas Flm is 6.63 mDs, 2hat is !#a What is !ya
d. *f !$ in the li?uid Flm is 6.63 mDs, 2hat is !8a
5:.: +t a particular location in a countercurrent stripper for the
remo(al of solute + from a li?uid stream, the mole fraction of the
transferring species + in the "ul! gas phase is 6.63, and the mole
fraction of solute + in the "ul! li?uid phase is 6.6>5. The total
system pressure is 5.6 atm, and the temperature is >66 0. Eighty
percent of the resistance to mass transfer is in the li?uid phase.
The e?uili"rium concentrations are gi(en in the follo2ing 8Oy
diagramC
a. Determine the interfacial compositions, 8+T i and y+T i .
". *f !y P 3C55 g molDm5 [ s [ Amole fractionB, calculate the
o(erall coefFcient, 0y, for the gas phase at the operating
point of the process.
c. alculate the o(erall gas phase coefFcient 0# and 0c.
6.65
#as mode
fraction of +, y+
6.6@
6.6>
6.65
6.63
6.66
6.66
6.63 6.65 6.6> 6.6@ 6.65
$i?uid mode fraction of +, 8+
5:.36 +t a particular location in a countercurrent a"sor"er
used to remo(e solute + from a gas stream, the mole fraction of
the transferring species + in the "ul! gas stream is 6.6>5 and the
,ro"lems
mole fraction of solute + in the "ul! li?uid phase is 6.63. The
total system pressure is 5.6 atm and the temperature is >66 0. *f
;6b of the resistance is in the gas phase
a. Determine the interfacial compositions, 8+T i and y+T i . The
gasOli?uid e?uili"rium relationship is linear, as gi(en "y
y+ P 6C> 8+ .
". *f !y P 3C55 g moleDm5 [ s [ Amole fractionB, calculate the
o(erall coefFcient, 0y for the gas phase at the operating
point of the process.
c. alculate the o(erall coefFcient 08 for the li?uid phase at
the operating point of the process.
5:.33 + 2etted=2all to2er is used to GGaerateHH 2ater using
air at 5.6 atm total system pressure and 567. The molar
composition of air is 53b %5, 97b /5, and 3b other gases. +t
567, the HenryHs la2 constant for dissolution of o8ygen in
2ater is @6,366 atm, and the mass density of li?uid 2ater is
3666 !gNm>
a. What is the ma8imum mole fraction of o8ygen that could "e
dissol(ed in the 2atera
". What is the ma8imum molar concentration of o8ygen that
could "e dissol(ed in the 2atera
c. *f the total system pressure increases, 2ill the dissol(ed
o8ygen concentration in the 2ater A3B increaseT A5B
decreaseT or A>B stay the samea
5:.35 +n interphase con(ecti(e mass=transfer process
in(ol(es the transfer of the industrial contaminant, methylene
chloride Aspecies +B, "et2een air and 2ater at 567 and 5.56 atm
total system pressure. +ir is the inert carrier gas, and 2ater is the
inert sol(ent. The e?uili"rium mole fraction of methylene
chloride dissol(ed in 2ater (s. the mole fraction of methylene
chloride in air at 567 and 5.5 atm total pressure is sho2n
"elo2.
6.>6
6.55
6.56
5;5
coefFcient, !8, to "e 6C355 g molDm5 [ s. +t 567, the density of
li?uid 2ater is ::5C> !gDm> .
a. *s the process A3B a li?uid stripping process or A5B a gas
a"sorption processa
". Determine the HenryHs la2 constant for methylene chloride
dissol(ed in 2ater, according to the deFnition p+ P H c+ .
c. Determine the o(erall coefFcient 0$.
d. What is the Ju8 of species + across the gas and li?uid
phasesa
e. Determine the interface mole fractions 8+T i and y+T i .
5:.3> *t is desired to reco(er he8ane (apor from air using an
a"sorption process. The a"sorption sol(ent is a non(olatile
mineral oil, 2hich has a mass density of 6C76 gDcm> and a
molecular 2eight of 376 gDg mole. *n the dilute concentration
range, the e?uili"rium relationship for the dissolution of he8ane
(apor in the mineral oil is descri"ed "y
p+ P 6C35 8+
2here p+ has the units of atmC
+t the present conditions of operation, the he8ane partial pressure
in the "ul! gas stream is 6.635 atm, and the dissol(ed he8ane in
the "ul! a"sorption sol(ent is 5.6 molb. The total system
pressure is 3.5 atm and the temperature is 567. The li?uid
Flm mass transfer coefFcient, !8, is 6C63 !g molDm5 [ s, and the
gas Flm mass transfer coefFcient, !y, is 6C65 !g molDm5 [ s.
a. What is the o(erall mass=transfer coefFcient "ased on the
li?uid phase, 0$a
". What is the composition of he8ane at the gasOli?uid inter=
face, in terms of p+T i and 8+T i a
5:.3@ +n a"sorption to2er, operating at 567 and 3.6 atm, is
used to a"sor" sulfur dio8ide from an air mi8ture into 2ater. +t
one point in the a"sor"er, the partial pressure of the &%5 in the gas
stream is @ ` 36> ,a and the concentration of the contacting
li?uid stream is 6C55 !g molDm> . The indi(idual gas Flm mass=
transfer coefFcient is !# P >C:5 ` 36U: !g molDm5 [ s [ ,a and
the indi(idual li?uid Flm mass=transfer coefFcient is
!$ P 3C3 ` 36U@ !g molDm5 [ s [ W!g molDm> X. E?uili"rium data
at 567 are follo2sC
partial pressure &%5, ,a ;9@5; 33>5 >@;; 97;@
concentration, &%56.>6; 3.@57 5.976 ;.567 36.7:;
>!g molDm
a. E(aluate the interfacial concentrations, c+T i and p+T i .
". Determine the (alues for the follo2ing ?uantities
y+
6.35
6.36
6.65
6.66
6.666 6.663 6.665 6.66> 6.66@ 6.665 6.66;
Mole fraction of methylene chloride dissol(ed in 2ater, 8+
+t the present operating conditions, the "ul! phase mole
fraction of methylene chloride is 6.36 in the gas phase and
6.66@6 in the li?uid phase. The Juid Jo2 rate associated 2ith
each case predicts a gas Flm mass transfer coefFcient, !y, to "e
6C636 g molDm5 [ s and a li?uid Flm con(ecti(e mass transfer
!#
!$
0#
0$
oefFcient
P hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh
P hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh
P hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh
P hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh
Dri(ing Force
p+# U p+i Phhhhhhhhhhh
c+i U c+$ P hhhhhhhhhhh
p+# U p} Phhhhhhhhhhh+
c} U c+$ Phhhhhhhhhhh+
c. Determine the percentage of the o(erall mass=transfer
resistance in the gas Flm.
5;; hapter 5: on(ecti(e Mass Transfer -et2een ,hases
36 atmD A!g molDm> B. What is the percent resistance to mass
transfer in the li?uid Flma
%pen tan!
p+ 6 atm, , N 3.6 atm
Waste 2ater
(o N 6.5 m>Dmin
+$,o N 6.663 g molDm>
+$ 2ell
mi8ed
5:.35 +n engineer at a pulp plant is considering the feasi=
"ility of sparging a 2aste gas stream containing a small
concentration of chlorine gas into a chlorine="leaching unit
in order to augment the chlorine re?uirements for the unit. *n
this processing unit, the 2aste gas stream at 3C63> ` 365 ,a
containing 6.5 molb chlorines at the Jo2 rate of the streams
is "u""led countercurrent to the a"sor"ing 2ater stream. The
gas Flm coefFcient, !y, is 3 !g molDm5 [ h [ WDy mole fractionX
and the li?uid=Flm coefFcient, !8, is 36 !g molDm5 [ h[ AD8 mole
fractionB. The HenryHs la2 constant, H, is ;C3> ` 36@ ,aD
A!g molDm> B. The gas stream, containing 6.5 molb chlorine
gas, is in contact 2ith the a?ueous stream containing 5C;`
36U> !g mol l5 Dm> . Determine
a.
".
c.
d.
the
the
the
the
o(erall coefFcient, 08T
chlorine molar Ju8T
interfacial compositionsT
percent resistance to mass transfer in the li?uid phase.
Treated 2aste 2ater
(o N 6.5 m>Dmin
+$ N a
5:.3: Jasmone, 33 H3; %, a (alua"le intermediate in the
Fne chemical industry, is o"tained from the Iasmine plant. +
common method of manufacture is to e8tract the plant
material in 2ater, and then use "en<ene to concentrate the
Iasmone in a simple li?uidOli?uid e8traction process. Jas=
mone Aspecies +B is 396 times more solu"le in "en<ene than
in 2aterT thus,
c6 A"en<ene phaseB P 396 c66 Aa?ueous phaseB++
*n a proposed e8traction unit, the "en<ene phase is 2ell
6mi8ed, 2ith the Flm mass=transfer coefFcient,
!$ P >C5 `
36U; !g molD m5 [ s [ A!g molDm> B and the a?ueous phase is
66also 2ell mi8ed 2ith its Flm mass=
transfer coefFcient, !$ P
U5 !g molDm5 [ s [ A!g molDm> B. Determine5C5 ` 36
6
a. the o(erall li?uid coefFcient, 0$ , "ased on the "en<ene
sideT
66
". the o(erall li?uid coefFcient, 0$ , "ased on the a?ueous
sideT
c. the percent resistance to mass transfer encountered in the
a?ueous li?uid Flm.
5:.3; + pac!ed to2er has "een designed to strip component
+ from an a?ueous stream into a counter=Jo2ing air stream. +t
a gi(en plane in the to2er, the concentrations of the t2o
adIacent streams are p+, # P @ ` 36> ,a and c+, $ P
@ !g molDm> of solution. 'nder the gi(en Jo2 conditions,
the o(erall gas mass=transfer coefFcient, 0# is e?ual to 5C@; `
36U7 !g molDm5 [ s [ ,a and ;6b of the resistance to mass
transfer is encountered in the gas phase. +t the to2erHs
operating condition of 5:6 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,a, the system
satisFes HenryHs la2 2ith a HenryHs la2 constant of
3@66 ,aDA!g molDm> B. Determine
a.
".
c.
d.
the
the
the
the
indi(idual gas=Flm coefFcient, !#T
indi(idual li?uid=Flm coefFcient, !$T
interfacial gas concentration, p+$T
o(erall li?uid mass=transfer coefFcient, 0$.
5:.39 hlorinated 2ater for pulp "leaching is "eing prepared
"y a"sor"ing chlorine gas into 2ater 2ithin a pac!ed to2er
operating at 5:> 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,a pressure. +t one point in
the to2er, the partial pressure of chlorine in the gas is @C6 `
36@ ,a and the concentration of chlorine in the a?ueous stream is
3 !gDm> . Data on the solu"ility of chlorine in 2ater at 5:> 0 are
gi(en in ,ro"lem 5:.3. *f 95b of the resistance to mass transfer
lies in the li?uid phase, determine the interfacial concentrations.
5:.37 Waste2ater containing solute + at a concentration of
3C6 ` 36U> g molNm> enters an open tan! at a (olumetric Jo2
rate of 6C5 m> Nmin, and e8its at the same rate. &olute +
transfers from the 2aste2ater in the open tan! to the sur=
rounding air 2hich is essentially free of the solute. The total
system pressure is 3.6 atm. The diameter of the cylindrical
tan! is @ m, and the depth of the li?uid in the tan! is 3.6 m. +t
these conditions the indi(idual li?uid=Flm mass=transfer
coefFcient, !$, is 5 ` 36U@ !g molDm5 [ s [ A!g molDm> B and
the indi(idual gas=Flm mass=transfer coefFcient, !# is
6C63 !g molDm5 [ s [ atm. The concentrations are in the
HenryHs la2 region 2here p+i P Hc+i 2ith H e?ual to
5:.56 onsider the 2aste treatment operation proposed in the
Fgure "elo2. *n this process, 2aste2ater conraining a TE
concentration of 56 g molDm> enters a clariFer, 2hich is essen=
tially a shallo2, 2ell=mi8ed tan! 2ith an e8posed li?uid surface.
The o(erall diameter is 56.6 m and the ma8imum depth of the
li?uid in the tan! is @.6 m. The clariFer is enclosed to contain the
gases Aoften ?uite odorousB that are emitted from the 2aste2ater.
Fresh air is "lo2n into this enclosure to s2eep a2ay the gases
emitted from the clariFer and is then sent to an incinerator. The
TE content in the efJuent gas is @.6 molb, 2hereas the TE
content in the efJuent li?uid phase is 36 g mol TENm> li?uid.
The clariFer operates at 3.6 atm and a constant temperature of
567. *n independent pilot
D N 56 m
Fresh air
+$,o N 56 g mole TEDm
(o N a m>Dhr
>
@.6 molb TE
+$,o N 36 gmol TEDm
>
Effluent air i
@.6 molb TE
Effluent li?uid
>+$,o N 36 g mol TEDm
plant studies for TE, the li?uid Flm mass=transfer coefFcient
for the clariFer 2as, !8 P 566 g molDm5 [ s, 2hereas the gas Flm
,ro"lems
mass=transfer coefFcient for the clariFer 2as !y P 6C3 g molD
m5 [ s. E?uili"rium data for the airOTEO2ater system at 567
are represented "y HenryHs la2 in the form p+ P H 6 8+ 2ith
H 6 P 556 atm. The molar density of the efJuent li?uid is
;; g molDm> .
a. What is the o(erall mass=transfer coefFcient "ased on the
li?uid phase, 0$a
". What is the Ju8 of TE from the clariFer li?uid surfacea
c. What is the inlet (olumetric Jo2 rate of 2aste2ater, in units
of m> Dh, needed to ensure that the li?uid efJuent TE
concentration is 36 g mol TEDm> a
5:.53 +mmonia, /H>, and hydrogen sulFde, H5&, must "oth
"e stripped from 2aste2ater "efore it can "e treated for reuse.
*ndi(idual mass=transfer coefFcients for ammonia transfer
2ithin a pac!ed to2er are
!# P >C56 ` 36U: !g molDm5 [ s [ ,a
and
!$ P 3C9> ` 36U5 !g molDm5 [ s [ A!g molDm> BC
+s the molecular 2eight of ammonia and hydrogen sulFde are
appro8imately the same, the (alue of the indi(idual mass=
transfer coefFcients for hydrogen sulFde 2ill "e similar. With
this assumption, e(aluate and compare the o(erall mass=transfer
coefFcient for each gas, recogni<ing that HenryHs la2 constant
for ammonia is 3C>; ` 36> ,aDA!g molDm> B and for hydrogen
sulFde is 7C73 ` 365 ,aDA!g molDm> BC
5:.55 *n a 2etted=2all to2er 2here ammonia, /H>, is stripped
from an ammonia=2ater solution into an air stream, the o(erall
gas coefFcient, 0$ is >C35 ` 36U: !g molDm5 [ s [ ,a. +t a plane
in the to2er, the "ul! concentration of the falling a?ueous stream
is @ !g molDm> of solution and the partial pressure of ammonia in
the rising gas stream is >C6@ ` 36> ,a. For dilute solutions of
ammonia in 2ater the e?uili"rium partial pressure may "e
e(aluated "y HenryHs la2C
p+ i P 3>;6 ,aDA!g molDm> Bc+ i
*f the gas phase comprises 95b of the total resistance to mass
transfer, calculate
a.
".
c.
d.
the
the
the
the
indi(idual gas=Flm coefFcient, !#T
indi(idual li?uid=Flm coefFcient, !$T
o(erall li?uid=Flm coefFcient, 0$T
interfacial concentrations, p+i and c+i.
p+
Aatm /H>B
.366
6.556
5;9
6.566
6.356
6.656
6.666
6.66 6.65 6.36 6.35
8+Amode fraction dissol(ed /H> in 2aterB
+t >67, the molar solution density is 55C; !g molDm> . The Flm
mass=transfer coefFcient are !# P 3C6 !g molDm5 [ s [ atm and
!$ P 6C6@5 mDs.
a. E(aluate !8.
". Determine the interfacial concentrations, c+i and p+i, What
are 8+i and y+ia
c. E(aluate the o(erall mass=transfer coefFcient, 0#
d. What is the Ju8, /+, for this processa
5:.5@ + pac!ed a"sorption to2er 2as used to a"sor" com=
pound + from a gas mi8ture into sol(ent -. +t one point in the
to2er, the partial pressure of + in the gas stream 2as 3C53: `
36@ ,a and the concentration of + in the contacting li?uid stream
2as 3C6 ` 36U> !g molDm> . The mass transfer "et2een the gas
stream and the li?uid stream at that point in the to2er 2as
@ ` 36U5 !g molDm5 [ s.
The indi(idual gas=Flm transfer coefFcient, !# 2as found to
"e >C:5 ` 36U: !g molDm5 [ s [ ,a. + la"oratory e8periment
(eriFed that the system satisFed HenryHs la2 and that the li?uid
composition, 3 ` 36U> !g molNm> 2as in e?uili"rium 2ith a
partial pressure of >C6@ ` 36> ,a.
a. Determine (alues for the follo2ing ta"leC
oefFcient
P hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh
P hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh
P hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh
P hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh
Dri(ing Force
p+# U p+i Phhhhhhhhhhh
c+i U c+$ P hhhhhhhhhhh
p+# U p} Phhhhhhhhhhh+
c} U c+$ Phhhhhhhhhhh+
!#
!$
0#
0$
5:.5> + mass=transfer process is used to remo(e ammonia,
/H>, solute +, from a mi8ture of /H> and air, using 2ater as the
sol(ent. The partial pressure of ammonia in the "ul! gas phase is
6.5 atm, and the mole fraction of dissol(ed ammonia in the 2ater
is 6.6@. The total system pressure is 5.6 atm, and the temperature
is >67. The e?uili"rium distri"ution at >67 is sho2n in the
FgureC
". Determine the percentage of the o(erall mass=transfer
resistance in the gas Flm.
5:.55 +mmonia, /H>, in air is "eing a"sor"ed into 2ater
2ithin the enclosed tan! sho2n in the Fgure "elo2. The li?uid
and gas phases are "oth 2ell mi8ed, and mass transfer occurs
only at the e8posed gasOli?uid interface. The diameter of the
cylindrical tan! is @ m, total li?uid (olume inside the tan! is
HenryHs la2, p+i P Hc+i descri"es the e?uili"rium distri"ution
of /H> "et2een the gas and the li?uid phases 2here
H P 6C65 atmDA!g molDm> B. The Flm mass=transfer coefFcients
are !# P 3C55 !g molDm5 [ h [ atm and !$ P 6C65 !g molDm5 [ h[
A!g molDm> B.
a. Determine the o(erall mass transfer coefFcient, 0#.
". Determine the partial pressure of /H> at the gasOli?uid
interface, p+i.
c. Determine W+ the total molar rate of ammonia transfer.
d. De(elop a material "alance for /H>T then determine c+i the
concentration of /H> in the outlet li?uid stream.
+ir i /H> AgB
Water
% N 566 $Dh
+$,% N 6
+ir i /H> AgB
p+N 6.65 atm,
+$
p N 3.6 atm
Well
mi8ed
,+N 6.65 atm
Water i /H> Ali?B
N 566 $Dh
+$ N a
if dilute, % N
constant. The "ul! gas pressure of ammonia is maintained at
6.65 atm, and the total gas pressure is constant at 3.6 atm. The
system is isothermal at 567. The inlet (olumetric Jo2 rate of
2ater is 566 $Dh and enters /H> free. Eou may assume that
hapter
>6
on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer
orrelations
Thus far, 2e ha(e considered con(ecti(e mass transfer from an analytical (ie2point,
and from relations de(eloped for the analogous transport of momentum or con(ecti(e
heat. +lthough these considerations ha(e gi(en an insight into the mechanisms of
con(ecti(e mass transport, the (alidity of the analysis must "e pro(en "y comparison
2ith e8perimental data. *n this chapter, 2e 2ill present dimensionless correlations for
mass=transfer coefFcients "ased upon e8perimental results. There 2ill "e no attempt to
re(ie2 all of the mass=transfer in(estigations, as re(ie2s are a(aila"le in se(eral
e8cellent references.3 Ho2e(er, correlations 2ill "e presented to sho2 that the forms of
many of these e?uations are indeed predicted "y the analytical e8pressions deri(ed in
hapter 57. +dditional correlations 2ill "e gi(en for those situations that ha(e not "een
successfully treated analytically.
*n hapter 57, se(eral dimensionless num"ers are introduced as important
parameters used in correlating con(ecti(e=transport data. -efore presenting the
con(ecti(e mass=transfer correlations, let us summari<e in Ta"le >6.3 the dimensionless
(aria"les that ha(e "een used fre?uently in reported correlations. The &her2ood and
&tanton num"ers are dimensionless parameters in(ol(ing the mass=transfer coefFcient.
The &chmidt, $e2is, and ,randtl num"ers are re?uired 2hen t2o separate con(ecti(e=
transport processes are simultaneously in(ol(ed, and the Reynolds, ,eclet, and #rashof
num"ers are used to descri"e Jo2. The t2o I=factors are included in Ta"le >6.3 "ecause
they are often used to de(elop a ne2 correlation for mass transfer "ased on a pre(iously
esta"lished heat=transfer coefFcient as discussed in hapter 57.
>6.3 M+&& TR+/&FER T% ,$+TE&, &,HERE&, +/D E$*/DER&
E8tensi(e data ha(e "een o"tained for the transfer of mass "et2een a mo(ing Juid and
certain shapes, such as Jat plates, spheres, and cylinders. The techni?ues employed include
su"limation of a solid, (apori<ation of a li?uid into air, and the dissolution of a solid into
W. &. /orman, +"sorption, Distillation and ooling To2ers, John Wiley ) &ons, /e2 Eor!, 3:;3T . J.
#ean!oplis, Mass Transfer ,henomena, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, /e2 Eor!, 3:95T +. H. ,. &!elland,
Diffusional Mass Transfer, John Wiley ) &ons, /e2 Eor!, 3:9@T T. 0. &her2ood, R. $. ,igford, and . R.
Wil!e, Mass Transfer, Mc#ra2=Hill *nc., /e2 Eor!, 3:95T $. J. Thi"odeau8, hemodynamicsKEn(ironmental
Mo(ement of hemicals in +ir, Water and &oil, John Wiley ) &ons, /e2 Eor!, 3:9:T R. E. Trey"al, Mass
Transfer %perations, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:76T E. $. ussler, Diffusion=Mass Transfer
in Fluid &ystems, &econd Edition, am"ridge 'ni(ersity ,ress, 3::9T &. Middleman, +n *ntroduction to Heat
and Mass Transfer, John Wiley ) &ons, /e2 Eor!, 3::7.
3
5;:
596 hapter >6 on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer orrelations
Ta"le >6.3 Dimensionless num"ers used in correlating mass=transfer data
A$ P haracteristic $engthB
/ame
Reynolds num"er
&her2ood num"er
&chmidt num"er
$e2is num"er
,randtl num"er
,eclet num"er
&tanton num"er
#rashof num"er
Mass transfer I=factor
Heat transfer I=factor
&ym"ol
Re
&h
&c
$e
,r
,e+-
&t+-
#r
ID
IH
Dimensionless #roup
( 3 r$ ( 3 $
P
mn
!c $
D+-
mn
P
rD+- D+-
a!
P
D+- rcp D+-
n mcp
P
a!
(3 $
P Re &c
D+-
!c
(3
> rg Dr$
m5
!c
A&cB5D>
(3
h
A,rB5D>
rcp ( 3
2ater. -y correlating the data in terms of dimensionless parameters, these empirical
e?uations can "e e8tended to other mo(ing Juids and geometrically similar surfaces.
Flat ,late
&e(eral in(estigators ha(e measured the e(aporation from a free li?uid surface or su"=
limation from a Jat, (olatile solid surface into a controlled air stream. Mass=transfer
coefFcients o"tained from these e8periments compare fa(ora"ly 2ith the mass=transfer
coefFcients theoretically predicted for laminar and tur"ulent "oundary layers. The appro=
priate correlations are
&h$ P
!c $
P 6C;;@ Re3D5 &c3D>$
D+-
!c $
&h$ PP 6C6>;5 Re6C7 &c3D>$
D+-
AlaminarB Re$ ] 5 ` 365
Atur"ulentB Re$ _ 5 ` 365
A57=53B
A57=5;B
2ith Re$ defind as
Re$ P
r( 3 $
m
2here $ is the characteristic length of the Jat plate in the direction of Jo2. +t a distance 8
from the leading edge of the Jat plate, the e8act solution to the laminar "oundary layer
pro"lem resulting in the theoretical prediction for the local &her2ood num"er, gi(en "y
&h8 P
!c 83P 6C>>5 Re8 D5 &c3D>
D+-
A57=56B
>6.3 Mass Transfer to ,lates, &pheres, and ylinders 593
also agrees 2ith e8perimental data, 2here the local Reynolds num"er, Re8 , is defined
as
r( 3 8
Re8 P
m
The a"o(e e?uations may also "e e8pressed in terms of the I=factor "y recalling
5D>
! c 5D >!c $mD+- rm&h$
[[ID P&c P[PA>6=3B
(3D+- $( 3 rmrD+-Re$ &c3D>
'pon rearranging e?uations A57=53B and A57=5;B into the form of e?uation A>6=3B, 2e
o"tain
ID P 6C;;@ ReU3D5$
and
ID P 6C6>;5 ReU6C5$
Atur"ulentB Re$ _ 5 ` 365
A>6=>B
AlaminarB Re$ ] 5 ` 365
A>6=5B
These e?uations may "e used if the &chmidt num"er is in the range 6C; ] &c ] 5566. The
I=factor for mass transfer is also e?ual to the I=factor for heat transfer in the ,randtl
num"er range of 6C; ] ,r ] 366 and is e?ual to f D5.
E8ample 57.> illustrates the use of the "oundary=layer e?uations for e(aluating the
point (alue and the a(erage (alue mass=transfer con(ecti(e coefFcients for a Jo2 o(er a Jat
plate. *n most situations, the hydrodynamic and concentration "oundary layers "oth start at
the same position along 8, the direction of Juid Jo2. Ho2e(er, there are some situations
2here the hydrodynamic and the concentration "oundary layers ha(e different starting
points, as illustrated in Figure >6.3. The Juid Jo2s o(er a portion of an inert surface "efore
Jo2ing o(er a surface that can also ser(e as a source or sin! for mass transfer. onse=
?uently, the hydrodynamic "oundary layer "egins to de(elop "efore the concentration
"oundary layer, so that the "oundary condition for the concentration of transferring species
+ "ecomes
6
M
8 ] M,
8 ] 3,
c+ P c+3
c+ P c+s
+lso, consider a situation for Jo2 o(er a Jat plate 2here there is an unheated starting length
prior to the heated <one. *n this case, the temperatures at the 2all surface are
6
M
8 ] M,
8 ] 3,
T2all P T3
T2all P Ts
(
c+
y
c+ N 6 at 2all
8
Wall AinertB
8N6 8NM
Wall Asource for +B
8N8
/+
c+s
dc
d
Figure >6.3 $aminar Jo2
o(er a Jat plate 2ith the
initiation of the
hydrodynamic "oundary layer
"efore the concentration
"oundary layer.
and the hydrodynamic and thermal "oundary layers ha(e different starting points. The local
/usselt num"er for heat transfer is
633D >
-
,r3D 5 -
/u8 P 6C>>5 Re8 -
A>6=@B >D@
Y+
M
3U
8
using the analytical approach outlined in ,ro"lem 3:.9. From this result, the local
&her2ood num"er for the analogous mass=transfer phenomenon is
633D>
-
3 -
&h8 P 6C>>5 Re8 D5 -
Y

&c
>D@
+
M
3U
8
A>6=5B
The follo2ing e8ample illustrates the application of "oundary=layer analysis to e(aluate
the mass=transfer coefficient for laminar flo2 o(er a flat plate, 2here the transport <one
occurs at a short distance do2nstream from the leading edge of the flat plate.
EM+M,$E 3 + hori<ontal chemical (apor deposition A1DB reactor for gro2th of gallium arsenide A#a+sB thin
Flms is sho2n in Figure >6.5. *n this process, arsine A+sH> B, trimethyl gallium A#aAH> B> B, and H5
gases are fed into the reactor. *nside the reactor, the silicon 2afer rests on a heated plate called a
susceptor. The reactant gases Jo2 parallel to the surface of the 2afer and deposit a #a+s thin Flm
according to the simpliFed 1D reactions
5+sH> AgB Q 5+sAsB V >H5 AgB and 5#aAH> B> AgB V >H5 AgB Q 5#aAsB V ;H@ AgB
*f the process is considera"ly diluted in H5 gas, then the mass transfer of each species in the H5 carrier
gas can "e treated separately. The surface reaction is (ery rapid, and so the mass transfer of the
gaseous reactants to the surface of the 2afer limits the rate of #a+s thin Flm formation.
*n the present process, the edge of a 36=cm silicon 2afer is positioned @ cm do2nstream of the
leading edge of the susceptor plate. The 2afer is inset 2ithin this plate so that a contiguous Jat
surface is maintained. The process temperature is 766 0, and the total system pressure 363.> !,a
A3 atmB. onsider a limiting case 2here the Jo2 rate of the H5 =rich feed gas to the reactor results in a
"ul! linear (elocity of 366 cmDs, 2here trimethylgallium is present in dilute concentration.
Determine the local mass=transfer coefFcient A!c B for trimethylgallium in H5 gas at the center of
the 2afer using AaB "oundary=layer theory and A"B Flm theory. The "inary gas phase diffusion
coefFcient of trimethylgallium in H5 is 3C55 cm5 Ds at 766 0 and 3 atm.
+t sufFciently high Jo2rate 2ithin the reactor, the physical system represents con(ecti(e mass
transfer o(er a Jat plate, 2here the hydrodynamic "oundary layer de(elops "efore the concentration
Feed gas
Hori<ontal 1D reactor
Across sectionB
#as distri"utor
Feed gas
H5 i #aAH>B> i +sH>
36 cm silicon 2afer
Heated plate AsusceptorB
8 N 6 cm 8 N @ cm 8 N : cm
Figure >6.5 Hori<ontal 1D
reactor.
>6.3 Mass Transfer to ,lates, &pheres, and ylinders 59>
"oundary layer. Trimethylgallium diluted in H5 gas ser(es as the source for mass transfer, and the
reaction at the "oundary surface is the sin! for trimethylgallium gas.
AaB First, the local Reynolds num"er is e(aluated at 8 P : cm, the distance from the edge of the
susceptor A@ cmB to the middle of the 2afer A5 cmB. The !inematic (iscosity of the feed gas is
appro8imated "y the properties of the H5 gas, as trimethylgallium is present in only dilute
concentrationT from +ppendi8 *, n P 5C;7; cm5 Ds at 766 0 and 3 atm for H5 gas. Therefore
Re8 P
( 3 8 A366 cmDsBA: cmB
PP 357C>
n5C;7; cm5 Ds
and so the Jo2 is laminar. The &chmidt num"er is
n5C;7; cm5 Ds
P >C;9P&c P
D+-3C55 cm5 Ds
For the present system 2here the hydrodynamic "oundary layer starts to de(elop "efore the
concentration "oundary layer, the local &her2ood num"er for laminar Jo2 is
6633D>33D>
&h8 P
3 -
6C>>5 Re8 D5 -
Y
-
&c
>D@ +M
3U
8
P 6C>>5A357C>B
3D5 -
-
-
Y

>C;9
>D@ +@ cm
3U
: cm
P 7C>95
Finally, the local mass=transfer coefFcient predicted "y "oundary=layer theory is

&h87C>95cm5cm
3C55!c PD+- PP 3C@@
: cms8s
A"B For Flm theory, recall that the local mass=transfer coefFcient is deFned as
!c P
D+-
dc
For laminar Jo2, the hydrodynamic "oundary=layer thic!ness is
585A: cmB
d P p^^^^^^^^ P p^^^^^^^^^^^ P >C57 cm
Re8357C>
/o2 recall that the relationship "et2een the hydrodynamic "oundary=layer thic!ness and the
concentration "oundary=layer thic!ness is
d
P &c3D>A57=37B
dc
for laminar Jo2 o(er a Jat plate 2here the hydrodynamic and concentration "oundary layers ha(e the
same starting point. For laminar Jo2 o(er a Jat plate 2here the hydrodynamic "oundary layer is initiated
"efore the concentration "oundary layer, the com"ination of e?uations A57=53B, A57=5;B, and A>6=5B yields
633D>
-
d&c-
P-A>6=;B >D@ +dc YM
3U
8
&u"stituting in the appropriate (alues, 2e o"tain
6 33D> 6 33D>
P 5C66@
-
d&c-
P- >D@ +dc YM
3U
8
-
>C;9-
P->D@ Y+@ cm
3U
: cm
59@ hapter >6 on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer orrelations
and so
dc P
Finally
!c P
D+- 3C55 cm5 Dscm
PP 6C7;7
dc3C9: cms
>C57 cm
P 3C9: cm
5C66@
We note that !c predicted "y Flm theory is >9b lo2er than !c predicted "y "oundary=layer theory.
The preceding analysis is (alid only in the limiting case 2here the thic!ness of the hydro=
dynamic "oundary layer is signiFcantly less than the height of the enclosure housing the susceptor
plate. Ho2e(er, if the Reynolds num"er is sufFciently lo2, then the hydrodynamic "oundary=layer
thic!ness approaches the height of the enclosure. *n this situation, the 1D reactor housing itself
"ecomes the conduit for Jo2, and the analyses pro(ided "y Middleman and Hoch"erg5 and
Middleman> are recommended.
&ingle &phere
The &her2ood num"er A&hB and Reynolds num"er AReB for a sphere are deFned as
&h P
and
Re P
r( 3 D
m
!c D
D+-
2here D is the diameter of the sphere, D+- is the diffusion coefFcient of the transferring
species + in gaseous or li?uid species -, ( 3 is the "ul! Juid (elocity Jo2ing o(er the sphere,
and r and m are the density and (iscosity of the Juid mi8ture, respecti(ely, usually
appro8imated as species - at dilute concentration of +. Mass=transfer correlations for single
spheres consider the sum of the molecular diffusion and forced con(ection contri"utions
&h P &ho V Rem &c3D>
2here and m are correlating constants. *f there is no forced con(ection, then the &her2ood
num"er is 5. This (alue can "e deri(ed theoretically "y considering the molecular diffusion
Ju8 of species + from a sphere into an inFnite sin! of stagnant Juid -. +ccordingly, the
generali<ed e?uation "ecomes
&h P 5 V Rem &c3D>
For mass transfer into li?uid streams, the e?uation of -rian and Hales@
&h P
[!$ D U5D> 3D5
P @ V 3C53 ,e+-
D+-
A>6=9B
&. Middleman and +. 0. Hoch"erg, ,rocess Engineering +nalysis in &emiconductor De(ice Fa"rication,
Mc#ra2=Hill *nc., /e2 Eor!, 3::>.
>&. Middleman, +n *ntroduction to Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley ) &ons, /e2 Eor!, 3::7.
@,. $. T. -rian and H. -. Hales, +.*.h.E. J., 35, @3: A3:;:B.
5
>6.3 Mass Transfer to ,lates, &pheres, and ylinders 595
correlates data 2here the mass=transfer ,eclet num"er, ,e+- , is less than 36,666.
From Ta"le >6.3, recall ,e+- is the product of the Reynolds and &chmidt num"ers, Re C &c.
For ,eclet num"ers greater than 36,666, $e(ich5 recommends the simpler relationship
!$ D3D>&h PP 3C63 ,e+-A>6=7B
D+-
For mass transfer into gas streams, the Froessling
e?uation;
&h P
!c D
P 5 V 6C555 Re3D5 &c3D>
D+-
A>6=:B
correlates the data at Reynolds num"ers ranging from 5 to 766 and &chmidt num"ers
ranging from 6.; to 5.9. Data of E(nochides and
Thodos9 ha(e e8tended the Froessling
e?uation to a Reynolds num"er range of 3566 to 35 666 under a &chmidt num"er range of
6.; to 3.75.
E?uations A>6=9BOA>6=:B can "e used to descri"e forced con(ection mass=transfer
coefFcients only 2hen the effects of free or natural con(ection are negligi"leT that is
Re Q 6C@ #r3D5 &cU3D;A>6=36B
The follo2ing correlation of &tein"erger and Trey"al7 is recommended 2hen the transfer
occurs in the presence of natural con(ection
&h P &ho V 6C>@9ARe &c3D5 B6C;5
2here &ho is dependent on #r &c
&ho P 5 V 6C5;:A#r&cB6C55
#r &c
367
#r &c Q 367
A>6=35B
A>6=3>B
A>6=33B
&ho P 5 V 6C655@A#r&cB3D> A&cB6C5@@
From Ta"le >6.3, the #rashof num"er is defined as
#r P
D> rg Dr
m5
2here density, r, and (iscosity, m, are ta!en at the "ul! conditions of the Jo2ing Juid, and
Dr is the positi(e density difference "et2een the t2o phases in contact. The prediction for
&h is (alid 2hen 5 Re > ` 36@ and 6C; &c >566.
EM+M,$E 5 Estimate the distance a spherical drop of li?uid 2ater, originally 3 mm in diameter, must fall in ?uiet,
dry air at >5> 0 in order to reduce its (olume "y 56b. +ssume that the (elocity of the drop is its
terminal (elocity e(aluated at its mean diameter and that the 2ater temperature remains at 5:> 0.
E(aluate all gas properties at the a(erage gas Flm temperature of >67 0.
The physical system re?uires a com"ined analysis of momentum and mass transport. The li?uid
2ater droplet is the source for mass transfer, the surrounding air ser(es as an inFnite sin!, and 2ater
(apor Aspecies +B is the transferring species. The rate of e(aporation is sufFciently small so that the
2ater droplet is considered isothermal at 5:> 0T other2ise, a com"ined analysis of momentum, mass,
5
;
9
7
1. #. $e(ich, ,hysicochemical Hydrodynamics, ,rentice=Hall, Engle2ood liffs, /J, 3:;5.
/. Froessling, #erlands -eitr. #eophys., 55, 396 A3:>:B.
&. E(nochides and #. Thodos, +.*.h.E. J., 5, 397 A3:;6B.
R. $. &tein"erger and R. E. Trey"al, +.*.h.E. J., ;, 559 A3:;6B.
59; hapter >6 on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer orrelations
and heat transport 2ould "e re?uiredQ -y considering a force "alance on a spherical particle falling in
a Juid medium, 2e can sho2 that the terminal (elocity of the particle is
s^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
@dp Ar2 U pair Bg
(o P
>D rair
2here dp is the diameter of the particle, r2 is the density of the 2ater droplet, rair is the density of the
surrounding Juid AairB, g is the acceleration due to gra(ity, and D is the drag coefFcient, 2hich is a
function of the Reynolds num"er of the spherical particle as illustrated in Figure 35.@. The arithmetic
mean droplet diameter is e(aluated "y
3D>
3C dpIt3dpIt3 V
dpIt3 V dpIt55
PP
55
P 6C7:9dpIt3 P A6C7:9BA3 ` 36U> mB P 7C:9 ` 36U@ m
dp
Hence, the arithmetic mean radius is e?ual to @C@7 ` 36U@ m. +t 5:> 0, the density of the 2ater
droplet Wr2 X is :C:5 ` 365 !gNm> . +t >67 0, the density of the air is 3.3@ !gDm> and the (iscosity of
air is 3C:3 ` 36U5 ,a C s. &u"stitution of these (alues into the terminal (elocity e?uation yields

s^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
^^^^ s^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
A@BA7C:9 ` 36U@ mBA:C:5 ` 365 !gDm> U 3C3@ !gDm> BA:C7 mDs5 B36C55 m5 Ds5
(o PP
A>BA3C3@ !gDm> BDD
-y trial and error, guess a (alue for no, calculate a Reynolds num"er, and read D from Figure 35.@.
Then, chec! the guessed (alue of no "y the a"o(e e?uation. #uess no P >C;5 mDs. The Reynolds
num"er is
dp ( o rair A7C:9 ` 36U@ mBA>C;5 mDsBA3C3@ !gDm> B
Re PP 3:@P!gDm C snair
U5 ,a C s3C3: ` 36,a C s
and Figure 35.@, D P 6C97. /o2 recalculate no
s^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ r^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
36C55 m5 Ds536C55 m5 Ds5

P >C;5 mDs(o PP
D6C97
Therefore, the guessed (alue for no is correct. The &chmidt num"er must no2 "e calculated. From
+ppendi8 J.3, the gas diffusi(ity AD+- B for 2ater (apor in air at 5:7 0 is 5C;6 ` 36U5 m5 Ds, 2hich is
corrected to the desired temperature "y
D+- P A5C;6 ` 36
!gDm C s
C sB
,a C s
P 6C;3P
A3C3@ !gDm> BA6C59> ` 36U@ m5 DsB
A3C:3 ` 36U5 ,a
U5

>67 0 >D5
m DsBP 5C9> ` 36U5 m5 Ds
5:7 0
5
&c P
mair
rair D+-
The Froessling e?uation A>6=:B can no2 "e used to e(aluate the mass=transfer coefFcient for transfer
of 2ater (apor from the surface of the droplet to the surrounding air
!c dp
P 5 V 6C555 Re3D5 &c3D>
D+-
>6.3
or
!c P
P
Mass Transfer to ,lates, &pheres, and ylinders 599
D+-
A5 V 6C555 Re3D5 &c3D> B
dp
A6C59> ` 36U@ m5 DsB
A5C6 V 6C555A3:@B3D5 A6C;3B3D> B P 6C59; mDs
7C:9 ` 36U@ m
The a(erage rate of 2ater e(aporation from the droplet is
W+ P @p r5 /+ P @p r 5 !c Ac+s U c+3 Bpp
The dry=air concentration, c+3 , is <ero, and the surrounding is assumed to "e an inFnite sin! for mass
transfer. The surface concentration is e(aluated from the (apor pressure of 2ater at 5:> 0
c+s P
,+5C>> ` 36> ,amol
PP 6C:5; >>
mRT
,a C m
A5:> 0B7C>3@mol C 0
When 2e su"stitute the !no2n (alues into the rate of e(aporation e?uation, 2e o"tain
W+ P @pA@C@7 ` 36U@ mB5 A6C59; mDsBA6C:5; molDm> U 6B P ;C;5 ` 36U9 molDs
or 3C5 ` 36U7 !gDs on a mass "asis. The amount of 2ater e(aporated is
m+ P r2 D1 P r2 A1t,3 U 1tT5 B P r2 A1t,3 U 6C51t,3 B P
P
r2 1t,3
5
r2 @p U> @p
r PA:C:5 ` 365 !gDm> BA@C@7 ` 36U@ mB> P 3C79 ` 36U9 !g
;5 > p
m+3C79 ` 36U9 !g
P 35C; sP
W+ 3C56 ` 36U7 !gDs
The time necessary to reduce the (olume "y 56b is
tP
and the distance of the fall is e?ual to ( o t or 5;.5 m.
&pherical -u""le &2arms
onsider a process 2here a gas is "u""led
into a column of li?uid. 'sually the sphe=
rical gas "u""les are produced in s2arms
or clusters "y the oriFce that introduces the
gas into the li?uid.
'nli!e the single, rigid sphere pre=
(iously descri"ed, (iscous circulation
also occurs 2ithin the deforma"le "u"=
"le as it rises through the li?uid. onse=
?uently, a single=sphere correlation fails
to descri"e the mass transport accurately
in the (icinity of the gasOli?uid interface
of a rising "u""le. alder"an! and Moo=
Eoung: recommend the follo2ing t2o=
:
#as out
#as
$i?uid
$i?uid in
#as in
Acarrier i +B
&parger
$i?uid out
&ingle
"u""le
Figure >6.> #as dispersed in li?uid column.
,. H. alder"an! and M. Moo=Eoung, hem. Eng. &ci., 3;, >: A3:;3B.
point correlation for the mass=transfer coefFcient associated 2ith the transfer of a
sparingly solu"le gaseous solute + into sol(ent - "y a s2arm of gas "u""les in a natural
con(ection process.
For gas "u""le diameters Wd" X less than 5.5 mm, use
&h P
! $ d"
P 6C>3 #r3D> &c3D>
D+-
! $ d"
P 6C@5 #r3D> &c3D5
D+-
>d" r$ g Dr
#r P
m5
$
A>6=3@aB
For "u""le diameters greater or e?ual to 5.5 mm, use
&h P
A>6=3@"B
*n the a"o(e correlations, the #rashof num"er is defined as
2here Dr is the difference of the density of the li?uid and the density of the gas inside the
"u""le, 2ith density Ar$ B and (iscosity Am$ B determined at the "ul! a(erage properties of the
li?uid mi8ture. For dilute solutions, the Juid properties of the sol(ent appro8imate the Juid
properties of the li?uid mi8ture. The diffusion coefFcient D+- is 2ith respect to dissol(ed
gaseous solute + in sol(ent -.
*n order to relate Ju8 /+ to transfer rate W+ using the a"o(e correlations, the gas holdup
ratio must "e !no2n. The gas holdup ratio, fg , is deFned as the (olume of gas "u""les W1g X
per unit (olume of li?uid. onse?uently, the interphase mass=transfer area per unit (olume
for "u""les of a(erage diameter d" is
;fg+i 1g"u""le area
P[P
11 "u""le (olumed"
A>6=35B
For gas=sparged (essels 2ith no mechanical agitation, the gas holdup is proportional to
the ratio of the superficial gas (elocity and the terminal (elocity of the rising "u""le in
the li?uid, 2here the superficial gas (elocity is (olumetric gas flo2 rate per cross=
sectional area of the empty (essel. The gas holdup is typically less than 6.5 for most
sparging operations. orrelations for gas holdup are "eyond the scope of this te8t, and the
reader is encouraged to consult Trey"al36 for further information.
&ingle ylinder
&e(eral in(estigators ha(e studied the su"limation from a solid cylinder into air Jo2ing
normal to its a8is. +dditional results on the dissolution of solid cylinders into a tur"ulent
2ater stream ha(e "een reported. -edingFeld and Dre233 correlated the a(aila"le data to
o"tain
!# ,A&cB6C5; !c A&cB6C5;
PP 6C573AReD BU6C@
#M(3
A>6=3;B
2hich is (alid for @66 ] ReD ] 55,666 and 6C; ] &c ] 5C;. *n this correlation, , is the
system total pressure and #M is the superficial molar (elocity of the gas flo2ing normal
to the cylinder in units of !g molDm5 [ s. The Reynolds num"er for flo2 normal to a solid
36
33
R. E. Trey"al, Mass Transfer %perations, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:76.
. H. -edingFeld and T. -. Dre2, *nd. Eng. hem., @5, 33;@ A3:56B.
>6.3 Mass Transfer to ,lates, &pheres, and ylinders 59:
cylinder, ReD , is defined as
r( 3 D
m
2here D is cylinder diameter, ( 3 is the Juid (elocity normal to the solid cylinder, and r and
m for the gas stream e(aluated at the Flm a(erage temperature.
The full analogy among momentum, heat, and mass transfer "rea!s do2n 2hen the Jo2
is around "luff "odies, such as spheres and cylinders. The total drag force includes the form
drag in addition to the s!in friction and so the I=factor 2ill not e?ual cf D5. Ho2e(er, the
analogy "et2een heat and mass transfer, IH P ID , still holds. +ccordingly, the mass=
transfer coefFcient for a single cylinder that does not satisfy the speciFed ranges for
e?uation A>6=3;B can "e e(aluated "y using the hiltonOol"urn analogy and the appro=
priate heat=transfer relations descri"ed in &ection 56.>.
ReD P
EM+M,$E > *n a humidiFcation apparatus, li?uid 2ater Jo2s in a thin Flm do2n the outside of a (ertical, circular
cylinder. Dry air at >36 0 and 3C63> ` 365 ,a A3 atmB Jo2s at right angles to the 6.69;=m diameter,
3.55=m=long (ertically aligned cylinder at a (elocity of @.; mDs. The li?uid Flm temperature is 5:6 0.
alculate the rate at 2hich li?uid must "e supplied to the top of the cylinder if the entire surface of the
cylinder is to "e used for the e(aporating process and no 2ater may drip off from the "ottom of the
cylinder.
The li?uid Flm on the outside of the cylinder represents the source for mass transfer, and the air
stream Jo2ing normal to the cylinder represents an inFnite sin!. The properties of the air stream are
e(aluated at the Flm=a(erage temperature of >66 0. The properties of air may "e o"tained from
+ppendi8 *, 2ith r P 3C39;: !gDm> and n P 3C5;7: ` 36U5 m5 Ds at >66 0 and 3 atm. The Reynolds
num"er is
D( 3A6C69; mBA@C; mDsB
ReD PPP 5557>
nair3C5;7: ` 36U5 m5 Ds
From +ppendi8 Ta"le J.3, the diffusi(ity of 2ater in air at 5:7 0 and 3 atm is 5C;6 ` 36U5 m5 Ds,
2hich corrected for temperature "ecomes
D+- P A5C;6 ` 36
nair3C5;7: ` 36U5 m5 Ds
&c PPP 6C;
D+-5C;> ` 36U5 m5 Ds
The superFcial molar (elocity of the air normal to the cylinder is
#M P
( 3 rair A@C; mDsBA3C39;: !gDm> B!g mol
P 6C379 5P
5: !gD!g molm CsMair
U5

>66 0 >D5
m DsBP 5C;> ` 36U5 m5 Ds
5:7 0
5
'pon su"stitution of the !no2n (alues into e?uation A>6=3;B, 2e can sol(e for the gas=phase Flm
mass=transfer coefFcient
!# , &c6C5;
P 6C573AReD BU6C@
#M
or
!# A3C63> ` 365 ,aBA6C;6B6C5;6C573
P
!g molA5557>B6C@
6C379 5m Cs
Finally
!# P 3C5; ` 36U7
The Ju8 of 2ater can "e e(aluated "y
/+ P !# A p+, i U p+3 B
The (apor pressure of 2ater at 5:6 0 is 3C9> ` 36> ,a, and the partial pressure of the dry air A p+3 B is
<ero, as the surrounding air stream is assumed to "e an inFnite sin! for mass transfer. onse?uently,

!g molU7 !g mol
/+ P 3C5; ` 36A3C9> ` 36> ,a U 6B P 5C37 ` 36U5 5
5 C s C ,amm Cs
Finally, the mass=feed rate of 2ater for a single cylinder is the product of the Ju8 and the e8ternal
surface area of the cylinder is

!gU5 !g molApB A6C69; m C 3C55 mB37W+ P /+ M+ ApD$B P 5C37 ` 36m5 C
s!g mol
P 3C3@ ` 36U@ !gDs
!g mol
m5 C s C ,a
>6.5 M+&& TR+/&FER */1%$1*/# F$%W THR%'#H ,*,E&
Mass transfer from the inner 2alls of a tu"e to a mo(ing Juid has "een studied e8tensi(ely.
Most of the data ha(e "een o"tained for (apori<ation of li?uids into air, although some data
ha(e also "een o"tained for mass transfer of a solu"le solid into a mo(ing li?uid, 2here the
solid coats the inner surface of the tu"e. #illiland and &her2ood35 studied the (apori<ation of
nine different li?uids into air Jo2ing through the inside of a tu"e and o"tained the correlation
!c D p-,lm
P 6C65> Re6C7> &c6C@@
D+- ,
2here
Re P
r( 3 D
m
A>6=39B
and D is no2 the inner diameter of the pipe, p-Tlm is the log mean composition of the carrier
gas -, , is the total system pressure, D+- is the mass diffusi(ity of the diffusing component +
in the Jo2ing carrier gas -. The Reynolds and &chmidt num"ers are e(aluated at the "ul!
conditions of the gas inside the pipeT for dilute solutions, the density and (iscosity of the
carrier gas can "e assumed. The correlation is (alid for gases 2here 5666 ] Re ] >5,666
and 6C; ] &c ] 5C5.
*n a su"se?uent study, $inton and &her2ood3> e8tended the range of the &chmidt
num"er 2hen they in(estigated the dissolution of "en<oic acid, cinnamic acid, and
"=naphthol in (arious sol(ents Jo2ing through a tu"e. The com"ined e8perimental results
of #illiland and &her2ood and $inton and &her2ood 2ere correlated "y the relation
&h P
!$ D
P 6C65> Re6C7> &c3D>
D+-
A>6=37B
2hich is (alid for li?uids 2here 5666 ] Re ] >5666 and 3666 ] &c ] 55;6. The Reynolds
and &chmidt num"ers are e(aluated at the "ul! conditions of the li?uid inside the pipe.
35
3>
E. R. #illiland and T. 0. &her2ood, *nd. Eng. hem., 5;, 53; A3:>@B.
W. H. $inton and T. 0. &her2ood, hem. Eng. ,rog., @;, 557 A3:56B.
>6.> Mass Transfer in Wetted=Wall olumns 573
+gain, for dilute solutions, the density and (iscosity of the fluid appro8imates those
properties of the sol(ent carrier -.
We note here that the &her2ood num"er for mass transfer A&hB is analogous to the
/usselt num"er for heat transfer A/uB. The similarity "et2een e?uation A>6=37B and the
DittusO-oelter e?uation for energy transfer A56=5;B illustrates the analogous "eha(ior of
these t2o transport phenomena.
For laminar Jo2 of a Juid through a tu"e, 2ith a Reynolds num"er range of
36 ] Re ] 5666, the appropriate mass=transfer correlation is
3N>3D>
( 3 D5D (3Dn 3D >D
P 3C7;P 3C7;[Re &c&h P 3C7;
$D+-$ nD+-$
A>6=3:B
2here $ the length of the pipe and ( 3 is the "ul! a(erage (elocity. E?uation A>6=3:B is
analogous to the &iederOTate e?uation A56=55B for laminar flo2 heat transfer inside a
tu"e. Furthermore, the #raet< solution for mass transfer inside a tu"e 2ith laminar fluid
flo2 is analogous to the #raet< solution for heat transfer pro(ided in &ection 56.5.
>6.> M+&& TR+/&FER */ WETTED=W+$$ %$'M/&
Much of the data for interphase mass transfer of a solute
"et2een gas and li?uid carrier streams ha(e "een o"tained
using 2etted=2all columns. *n a 2etted=2all column, gas
Jo2s into the "ottom of the tu"e and mo(es up2ard, as sho2n
in Figure >6.@. $i?uid is loaded into the top of the column, and
a 2eir e(enly distri"utes the Jo2 of li?uid around the inner
perimeter of the tu"e, forming a falling li?uid Flm that e(enly
2ets the inner surface of the tu"e do2n its length. The li?uid
Flm is often some2hat thin, often less than a fe2 millimeters,
and the li?uid (elocity is relati(ely high due to gra(itational
acceleration. There are t2o principal reasons for using
2etted=2all columns in interphase mass=transfer in(estiga=
tions. First, the contacting area "et2een the t2o phases can "e
accurately measured. &econd, the e8periments can "e readily
set up for steady=state operation.
5 > 3D;
!$ <3D5 r$ g>A&cBARe$ B6C@A>6=56B
5D+-m$
$i?uid
flo2 in
/+
$i?uid film
f
olumn 2all
$i?uid
flo2 out #as
flo2 in
Figure >6.@ Wetted=2all
The con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefficient for the gas film column for interphase mass
"ased on either tur"ulent or laminar flo2 is defined "y the transfer of gas and li?uid.
correlating e?uaions A>6=37B and A>6=3:B, respecti(ely, 2ith
the Reynolds num"er of the gas flo2ing through the tu"e is
Ret P
r( 3 D
m
2here ( 3 and mDr refer to the gas stream. Ho2e(er, for interphase mass=transfer analysis,
the li?uid Flm mass=transfer coefFcient is also needed. + suita"le correlation proposed "y
1i(ian and ,eaceman3@ for con(ecti(e mass transfer of a gaseous solute into a falling li?uid
3@
$. E. &cri(en and R. $. ,igford, +.*.h.E. J.,@, @>: A3:57B.
Flm e(enly 2etting the inner surface of a tu"e is 2here < is the length of contact do2n the
falling Flm, D+- is the mass diffusi(ity of the diffusing component + into li?uid sol(ent -,
r$ is the density of the li?uid, m$ is the (iscosity of li?uid, g is the acceleration due to gra(ity,
and &c is the &chmidt num"er for the solute dissol(ed in the li?uid e(aluated at the li?uid
Flm temperature. The Reynolds num"er of the li?uid Jo2ing do2n the tu"e is deFned as
Re$ P
@#@2
P
m$ pDm$
2here 2 is the mass Jo2 rate of li?uid, D is the inner diameter of the cylindrical column, and
# is the mass Jo2 rate of li?uid per unit 2etted perimeter of the column.
The li?uid=Flm mass=transfer coefFcients predicted "y e?uation A>6=56B 2ere found to
"e 36O56b lo2er than the theoretical e?uation for a"sorption of a gaseous solute into a
laminar falling li?uid Flm, as discussed in &ection 5;.@. This may ha(e "een due to ripples
along the li?uid surface or to distur"ances in the li?uid Jo2 at the t2o ends of the 2etted=2all
column. These discrepancies "et2een the theoretical and measured rates of mass transfer
ha(e often led to the suggestion that a resistance to the mass transfer e8ists at the gasOli?uid
interface. Ho2e(er, in(estigations "y &cri(en and ,igford and others ha(e su"stantiated that
the interfacial resistance is negligi"le in normal interphase mass=transfer operations.
EM+M,$E @ Trichloroethylene ATEB, a common industrial sol(ent, is often found at lo2 concentrations in
industrial 2aste 2aters. &tripping is a common process for remo(ing sparingly solu"le, (olatile
organic solutes such as TE from a?ueous solution. + 2etted=2all column is used to study the
stripping of TE from 2ater to air at a constant temperature of 5:> 0 and total system pressure of 3
atm. The column inner diameter is @ cm and the height is 5 m. *n the present process, the (olumetric
air Jo2 rate into the column is 5666 cm> Ds A5C6 ` 36U> m> DsB and the (olumetric Jo2 rate of 2ater is
56 cm> DsA5 ` 36U5 m> DsB. Estimate 0$ , the o(erall li?uid phase mass transfer coefFcient for TE
across the li?uid and gas Flm. +ssume that 2ater loss "y e(aporation is negligi"le.
Rele(ant physical property data are pro(ided "elo2. The process is (ery dilute so that the "ul!
gas has the properties of air and the "ul! li?uid has the properties of 2ater. The e?uili"rium solu"ility
of TE in 2ater is descri"ed "y HenryHs la2 of the form
p+ P H C 8+
2here H is 556 atm at 5:> 0. The "inary gas phase diffusi(ity of TE in air is 7C67 ` 36U; m5 Ds at 3 atm
and 5:> 0, as determined "y the FullerO&hettlerO#iddings correlation. The "inary li?uid=phase diffusi(ity
of TE in 2ater at 5:> 0 is 7C: ` 36U36 m5 Ds, as determined "y the Haydu!O$audie correlation.
With this physical property information in hand, our strategy is to estimate the gas Flm
coefFcient !# , the li?uid Flm coefFcient !$ , and then the o(erall mass=transfer coefFcient 0$ . First,
the "ul! (elocity of the gas is

m>@ C 5C6 ` 36U>
@.gms
(3 PPP 3C5:
55pDspA6C6@ mB
The Reynolds num"er for air Jo2 through the inside of the 2etted 2all column is

!g m
3C3: > 3C5:A6C6@ mB
rair ( 3 Dms
Re PP @33>P
!gmairU53C7@ ` 36mCs
and the &chmidt num"er for TE in air is
!g
3C7@ ` 36U5
mair
mCs
&c PP P 3C:3
rair DTEUair!gm5
U;
3C3: >
7C67 ` 36
sm
>6.> Mass Transfer in Wetted=Wall olumns 57>
2here the properties of air are found from +ppendi8 *. +s the gas Jo2 is not laminar WRe _ 5666X,
e?uation A>6=39B is appropriate for estimation of !c . Therefore
D+-
6C65> Re6C7> &c6C@@ P!c P
D
7C67 ` 36U; m5 Ds
6C6@ m
A6C65>BA@33>B6C7> A3C:3B6C@@ P ;C39 ` 36U> mNs
for a dilute solution 2here p-,lm D, is essentially 3. The con(ersion to !# is
m
;C39 ` 36U>
!c!g mol
sPP 5C59 ` 36U@ 5!# P> C atm
RTm C s C atmm
A5:> 0B6C6756;!g mol C 0
The li?uid=Flm coefFcient is no2 estimated. The Reynolds num"er for the falling li?uid Flm is
>
!gU5 m
5 ` 36
@ C ::7C5 >h
@r$ 1 $sm
P 3;66Re$ PP
!gpDm$
p C A6C6@ mB :C:> ` 36@
mCs
and the &chmidt num"er is
&c P
m$
r$ DTEUH5 %
:C:> ` 36U@
!g
mCs
P P 3337
!gm5
::7C5 >
7C:6 ` 36U36
ms 2here the properties of li?uid 2ater at 5:> 0 are found in +ppendi8 *. E?uation A>6=56B is appropriate
for estimation of !$ C
D+-r5 g<>
6C@>>A&cB3D5 $ 5!$ P
<m$
P
6
-
-
-
Y
7C: ` 36U36
5m
Q3D;
ARe$ B6C@
m5
s 6C@>> C A3337B3D5
3D; 3!g 5 :C7 m>A5 mB ::7C5 >
ms56C@U5
5 A3;66B P 5C55 ` 36 mNs
+!g
:C:> ` 36U@mCs
&ince the process is dilute, HenryHs la2 constant in units consistent 2ith !$ and !# is

MH5 %37 !g3atm C m>
P :C:;7P A556 atmBH P 556 atm
!g mol ::>C5 !gDm>r$TH5 %!g mol
The o(erall li?uid mass=transfer coefFcient, !$ , is
33333
P VPmV>
0$ !$ H!# 5C55 ` 36U5atm C m!g mol
U@5C59 ` 36:C:;
s
m5 C s C atm!g mol
or !$ P 5C55 ` 36U5 mDs. +s 0$ ^ !$ , the process is li?uid Flm mass=transfer controlling, 2hich is
characteristic of interphase mass=transfer processes in(ol(ing a large (alue for HenryHs la2 constant.
57@ hapter >6 on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer orrelations
>6.@ M+&& TR+/&FER */ ,+0ED +/D F$'*D*fED -ED&
,ac!ed and Juidi<ed "eds are commonly used in industrial mass=transfer operations,
including adsorption, ion e8change, chromatography, and gaseous reactions that are
cataly<ed "y solid surfaces. /umerous in(estigations ha(e "een conducted for measur=
ing mass=transfer coefFcients in pac!ed "eds and correlating the results. *n general, the
agreement among the in(estigators is poor, 2hich is to "e e8pected 2hen one reali<es
the e8perimental difFculties. &her2ood, ,igford, and Wil!e 35 presented a graphical
representation of most of the data for mass transfer in pac!ed "eds 2ith single=phase
Juid and gas Jo2s. They found that a single straight line through the e8perimental
points did a fair Io" of representing all the dataT this line is represented "y a fairly simple
e?uation
ID P 3C39 ReU6C@35
2here
dp ua(e r
m
ua(e P superficial fluid (elocity
dp P diameter of sphere ha(ing the same surface or (olume as the particle
Re P
This e?uation may "e employed for engineering estimates.
Most of the earlier correlations for pac!ed "eds failed to account for (ariations in the
(oid fraction of the "eds, e, 2hich in "eds of spheres and pellets can range from 6.> to 6.5.
Mass transfer "et2een li?uids and "eds of spheres 2as in(estigated "y Wilson and
#ean!oplis3; 2ho correlated their data "y
e ID P
3C6:
Re666
A>6=55B
36 ] Re ] 5566
A>6=53B
for 6C663; ] Re666 ] 55, 3;5 ] &c ] 96 ;66 and 6C>5 ] e ] 6C95, and "y
e ID P
6C55
ARe666 B6C>3
A>6=5>B
for 55 ] Re666 ] 3566 and 3;5 ] &c ] 36 ;:6. The Reynolds num"er, Re666 , is defined in
terms of the diameter of the spheres, dp , and the superficial mass (elocity of the fluid,
#, in mass per unit time per unit cross section of the to2er 2ithout pac!ing. The (oid
fraction in the pac!ed "ed is designated as e, the (olume (oid space "et2een the solid
particles di(ided "y the total (olume of (oid space plus the solid particles. These
(alues range from a"out 6.> to 6.5 in most pac!ed "eds. The correlation of #upta and
Thodos39
e ID P
5C6;
ARe666 B6C595
A>6=5@B
35
T. 0. &her2ood, R. $. ,igford, and . R. Wil!e, Mass Transfer, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!,
3:95.
3;E. J. Wilson and . J. #ean!oplis, *nd. Eng. hem. Fund., 5, : A3:;;B.
39+. &. #upta and #. Thodos, +.*.h.E. J., :, 953 A3:;>B.
>6.5 #asO$i?uid Mass Transfer in &tirred Tan!s 575
is recommended for mass transfer "et2een gases and "eds of spheres in the Reynolds
num"er range :6 ] Re666 ]@666. Data a"o(e this range indicate a transitional "eha(ior
and are reported in a graphical form "y #upta and Thodos.37
Mass transfer in "oth gas and li?uid Juidi<ed "eds of spheres has "een correlated "y
#upta and Thodos3: 2ith the e?uation
6C7;>
A>6=55Be ID P 6C636 V
ARe666 B6C57 U 6C@7>
+ detailed discussion of heat and mass transfer in fluidi<ed "eds is pro(ided in the "oo!
"y 0unii and $e(enspiel.56
>6.5 #+&O$*.'*D M+&& TR+/&FER */ &T*RRED T+/0&
+n important industrial process is the aeration of 2ater, 2hich is used in 2aste2ater
treatment and aero"ic fermentation operations. +ir is "u""led into the "ottom of a (essel
containing li?uid 2ater. %8ygen gas inside the air "u""le a"sor"s into the 2ater, 2here it is
sparingly solu"le. 'sually, the air "u""les are produced in s2arms or clusters "y the gas
sparger. *n many gasOli?uid mass=transfer operations of this type, a gas is sparged into a tan!
Flled 2ith li?uid that is mi8ed 2ith a rotating impeller. The stirred tan! promotes gasOli?uid
contact "y "rea!ing up the rising gas "u""les released at the "ottom of the tan! and dispersing
them throughout the li?uid (olume. Due to the continual collision of the gas "u""les resulting
from gas sparging and mechanical agitation of the su"merged impeller, the interfacial area
for mass transfer is impossi"le to measure. onse?uently, measured mass=transfer coefF=
cients for aerated stirred tan!s are reported as capacity coefFcients, for e8ample, !$ a, 2here
the mass=transfer coefFcient is lumped together 2ith the parameter a, 2hich is deFned as
+i area a(aila"le for interphase mass transfer Am5 B
aP P
1li?uid (olume Am> B
A>6=5;B
apacity coefficients "ased on a GGconcentration dri(ing forceHH mass=transfer coefficient
Ae.g., !$ B ha(e units of reciprocal time, 2ith a typical units con(ersion of the follo2ingC

+i m m 5
P sU3!$ a P !$ P
>1ms
onse?uently, capacity coefFcients cannot "e used to calculate Ju8 /+ directly. *nstead,
they are used to compute the total rate of interphase transfer W+ "y
W+ P / + C +iC 1 P !$ a [ 1Ac} U c+ B+
1
A>6=59B
1anHt Riet53 re(ie2ed many studies of gasOli?uid mass=transfer processes associated
2ith o8ygen transfer to lo2=(iscosity li?uids in agitated (essels. The follo2ing correlations
for the li?uid=film capacity coefficients are (alid for the interphase mass transfer of o8ygen
into li?uid 2ater. For a stirred (essel of coalescing air "u""les, a suita"le correlation is
6C@
,g
Au gs B6C5A>6=57BA!$ aB%5 P 5C; ` 36U5
1
37
3:
56
53
+. &. #upta and #. Thodos, *nd. Eng. hem. Fund., >, 537 A3:;@B.
+. &. #upta and #. Thodos, +.*.h.E. J., 7, ;67 A3:;5B.
D. 0unii and %. $e(enspiel, Fluidi<ation Engineering, Wiley, /e2 Eor! A3:;:B.
0. 1anHt Riet, *nd. Eng. hem. ,roc. Des. De(., 37, >59 A3:9:B.
57; hapter >6 on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer orrelations
(alid for 1 ] 5C; m> of li?uid and 566 ] ,g D1 ] 36,666 WDm> . For a stirred (essel of
noncoalescing air "u""les, a suita"le correlation is
6C9
,g
Au gs B6C5A>6=5:BA!$ aB%5 P 5 ` 36U>
1
(alid for 1 ] @C@ m> of li?uid and 566 ],g D1 ]36,666 WDm> . *n "oth correlations, the
follo2ing units must "e strictly follo2edC A!$ aB%5 is the li?uid=phase film=capacity
coefficient for %5 in 2ater in units of sU3 , ,g D1 is the po2er consumption of the aerated
(essel per unit li?uid (olume in units of WDm>, and ugs is the superficial (elocity of the
gas flo2ing through the empty (essel in units of mDs, 2hich can "e o"tained "y di(iding
the (olumetric flo2 rate of the gas "y the cross=sectional area of the (essel. These
correlations agree 2ith e8perimental data at 56 to @6b accuracy for e?uations A>6=57B
and A>6=5:B, respecti(ely, regardless of the type of impeller used Ae.g., paddle, marine, or
flat="lade dis! tur"ine impellerB.
The po2er input per unit li?uid (olume A,D1B is a comple8 function of impeller
diameter Adi B, impeller rotation rate A/, re(olutions per timeB, impeller geometry, li?uid
(iscosity, li?uid density, and aeration rate. + correlation sho2n in Figure >6.5 for the
nonaerated, non(orte8ing agitation of a /e2tonian Juid pro(ides a reasona"le appro8ima=
tion for estimating the nonaerated po2er input ,. *n Figure >6.5, the impeller Reynolds
num"er is deFned as
Rei P
and the ,o2er num"er ,o is defined as
,o P
,gc
r/ > di5
A>6=>3B
di5 /r$
m$
A>6=>6B
365
$aminar
36
m$/ >di5
,gc
Transient
Flat="lade tur"ine
Tur"ulent
,addle
,o N
3
Marine propeller
6.3
6 36 365 36>
di5/m$
Rei N m$
36@ 365 36;
Figure >6.5 ,o2er num"er (s. Reynolds num"er for impellers immersed in single=phase
li?uids.55
55
J. H. Ruston, E. W. ostich, and H. J. E(erett, hem. Eng. ,rog.,@;, @;9 A3:56B.
>6.; apacity oefFcients for ,ac!ed To2ers 579
+erating a stirred tan! of li?uid lo2ers the impeller po2er input. /agata5> suggests the
follo2ing correlation for estimation of gased po2er input A,g B as a function of gas
(olumetric Jo2 rate A.g B for a Jat="lade dis! tur"ine impellerC
Q
@C>7 56C335 5 3C:;Wddi X
T,g.gdidi /r$di /
log36P U3:5
,dTm$gdi> /
A>6=>5B
2here dT is the diameter of the (essel. +n alternati(e means to o"tain ,g D1 is to measure
the po2er input into the stirred tan!, "ut this is often not practical for e?uipment=design
purposes.
>6.; +,+*TE %EFF**E/T& F%R ,+0ED T%WER&
+lthough the 2etted=2all column has a deFnite interfacial surface area, the corresponding
area in other types of e?uipment, 2hich is descri"ed in hapter >3, is (irtually impossi"le to
measure. For this reason, an engineering factor a must "e introduced to represent the
interfacial surface area per unit (olume of the mass=transfer e?uipment. -oth a and the
mass=transfer coefFcient depend on the physical geometry of the e?uipment and on the Jo2
rates of the t2o contacting, immisci"le streamsT accordingly, they are normally correlated
together as the capacity coefFcient, !c a. The units of !c a are moles of + transferredD
AhBA(olumeBAmoles of +D(olumeB. The capacity coefFcient is encountered in the "asic
design e?uations of hapter >3.
Empirical e?uations for capacity coefFcients must "e e8perimentally o"tained for each
type of mass=transfer operation. &uch a correlation 2as o"tained "y &her2ood and
Hollo2ay5@ in the Frst comprehensi(e in(estigation of li?uid=Flm mass=transfer coefFcients
in pac!ed a"sorption to2ers. The e8perimental results for a (ariety of pac!ings 2ere
represented "y
3Un 6C5
!$ a$m
Pa
D+-mrD+-
A>6=>>B
2here !$ a is the mass=transfer capacity coefFcient, in l" molDh ft> Al" molDft> BT $ is the
li?uid rate, in l"Dh ft> T m is the (iscosity of the li?uid, in l"Dh ftT r is the density of the
li?uid, in l"Dft>T and D+- is the li?uid mass diffusi(ity of component + in li?uid -, in
ft5 Dh. The (alues of the constant a and the e8ponent n for (arious pac!ing are gi(en in
Ta"le >6.5.
Further correlations for capacity coefFcients can "e found in treatises on mass=
transfer operations in the discussion of each speciFc operation and each speciFc type of
to2er.55
5>
5@
&. /agata, Mi8ingC ,rinciples and +pplication, John Wiley ) &ons, 3:95.
T. 0. &her2ood and F. +. Hollo2ay, Trans. +.*.h.E., >;, 53, >: A3:@6B.
55T. 0. &her2ood, R. $. ,igford and . R. Wil!e, Mass Transfer, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!,
3:95T R. E. Trey"al, Mass Transfer %perations, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:76T . J. 0ing,
&eparation ,rocesses, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:93T W. &. /orman, +"sorption, Distillation
and ooling To2ers, Wiley, 3:;3T +. H. ,. &!elland, Diffusional Mass Transfer, Wiley, /e2 Eor!, 3:9@.
Ta"le >6.5 ,ac!ing coefFcients for e?uation A>6=>>B
,ac!ing
5=in. rings
3 3=in. rings
5
3=in. rings
35=in. rings
>=in. rings
7
3 3=in. saddles
5
a
76
:6
366
576
556
3;6
396
356
336
n
6.55
6.55
6.55
6.>5
6.@;
6.57
6.57
6.57
6.57
3=in. saddles
>=in. saddles
7
>=in. spiral tiles
>6.9 &TE,& F%R M%DE$*/# M+&&=TR+/&FER ,R%E&&E&
*/1%$1*/# %/1ET*%/
*n many real processes, the Ju8 is coupled to a material "alance on the control (olume of the
physical system. ,rocesses of this type are modeled similarly to the F(e=step procedure
descri"ed earlier in &ection 55.@.
&tep 3C Dra2 a picture of the physical system. $a"el the important features, including
the "oundary surface 2here con(ecti(e mass transfer occurs. Decide 2here the
source and the sin! for mass transfer are located.
Ma!e a GGlist of assumptionsHH "ased on your consideration of the physical
system. +ssumptions can "e added as the model de(elops.
Formulate material "alances on the species undergoing mass transfer, and then
incorporate the appropriate mass=transfer correlationAsB into the material "al=
ance. ,rocesses dominated "y con(ecti(e mass transfer generally fall into t2o
typesC A3B the 2ell=mi8ed control (olume of uniform concentration of the
transferring species, i.e., a stirred tan! or A5B the differential control (olume
2ith a one=dimensional (ariation in concentration of the transferring species,
i.e., Jo2 through a conduit.
%nce the material "alance is set up, su"stitute the con(ecti(e mass=transfer
relationship, /+ P !c Dc+ , into the material="alance model, and carefully deFne
Dc+ , ta!ing into consideration the concentrations of the transferring species in
the Juid at the "oundary surface and in the "ul! phase. Finally, specify the
appropriate correlation for !c, !eeping in mind restrictions on Re, &c, geometry,
and the phase of the transferring species.
Recogni<e and specify the process "oundary and initial conditions. These are
distinct from the concentration (alues at the "oundary surface for con(ecti(e
mass transfer, 2hich should "e speciFed in &tep >.
&ol(e the alge"raic or differential e?uationAsB resulting from the material
"alanceAsB to o"tain the concentration proFle, Ju8, or other parameters of
engineering interest. *n many cases, !c can "e estimated "eforehand.
&tep 5C
&tep >C
&tep @C
&tep 5C
The follo2ing e8amples illustrate ho2 con(ecti(e mass=transfer relationships are
integrated into process=material "alances.
>6.9
EM+M,$E 5
&teps for Modeling Mass=Transfer ,rocesses *n(ol(ing on(ection 57:
%ne step in the manufacture of microelectronic de(ices is microlithography, 2hich traces a
microscopic=circuit pattern on the silicon 2afer. *n one typical process, a thin polymer Flm,
typically less than a thic!ness 5 mm, is coated o(er the surface of the silicon 2afer. + microscopic
template, called a mas!, is placed o(er the surface, and irradiated. Radiation that passes through
the (ery tiny holes in the mas! hits the photoresist. For a negati(e photoresist, the radiation
initiates reactions that greatly increase the molecular 2eight of polymer, rendering the photoresist
insolu"le in an organic sol(ent. The unreacted photoresist is then dissol(ed a2ay from the silicon
2afer 2ith an organic sol(ent, and the circuit pattern is re(ealed "y the reacted, insolu"le
photoresist.
We are interested in using a GGspinning dis!HH mass=transfer de(ice sho2n in Figure >6.; to
study the photoresist=dissolution process 2ithin a closed tan! of organic sol(ent. onsider a
limiting case 2here all of the photoresist on surface of the 2afer is solu"le in the organic
sol(ent. The negati(e photoresist is polystyrene Aspecies +B, and the organic sol(ent is methyl
ethyl !etone AME0, species -B. The initial thic!ness of the photoresist coating Alo B is 5 mm,
the diameter of the 2afer AdB is 36 cm, and the (olume of the sol(ent in the tan! A1B is
566 cm> . *f the dissolution process is controlled "y the con(ecti(e mass=transfer rate at the
polymer=sol(ent interface, determine the time re?uired to completely dissol(e the photoresist
if the dis! rotates at 6.5 re(Ds A>6 rpmB. The solu"ility limit of the de(eloped photoresist in the
sol(ent Ac} B is 6C6@ gDcm> , and diffusi(ity of the photoresist in the sol(ent at inFnite dilution
+
AD+- B is 5C:> ` 36U9 cm5 Ds at a molecular 2eight of 9 ` 365 gDmol, as reported "y Tu and
%uano.5; The (iscosity of the sol(ent AmB is 5 ` 36U> gDcm C s, the density of the sol(ent ArB is
6C765 gDcm> , and the density of the solid polymer Wr+,solid X is 3C65 gDcm> . +ll physical
properties are (alid at the process temperature of 5:7 0. The mass=transfer correlation
for a spinning dis! is gi(en "y
!c d
P 6C;5 Re3D5 &c3D>
D+-
2ith
Re P
d5 (
n
A>6=>@B
2here ( is the angular rotation rate AradiansDtimeB of the dis!.
The strategy for sol(ing this pro"lem is to de(elop a material="alance model for the process,
and then incorporate the appropriate mass=transfer correlationAsB into the material="alance
calculations.
lose=up "oundary surface
566
cm>
ME0 Ali?uidB
&i 2afer
d N 36 cm
,hotoresist A5 mmB
-oundary layer
2 N 6.5 re(Ds
-ul! sol(ent
/+
c+
c+s N c+
Figure >6.; Dissolution of photoresist coating on spinning silicon 2afer dis! into methyl ethyl !etone AME0B sol(ent.
5;
E. %. Tu and +. . %uano, *-M J. Res. De(.,53, 3>3 A3:99B.
5:6 hapter >6 on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer orrelations
The physical system represents a closed process 2here the polymer coating on the surface of the dis!
is the source for mass transfer, and the surrounding 2ell=mi8ed organic sol(ent of constant (olume is
the sin! for mass transfer. 'nder these assumptions, the unsteady=state material "alance on the
dissol(ed photoresist in the sol(ent phase of the 2ell=mi8ed tan! is
rate of photoresist
added to sol(ent
V
rate of photoresist
e8iting sol(ent tan!
P
rate of accumulation of
photoresist 2ithin sol(ent
or
p d5dAc+ 1B
/+U6P
dt@
2here c+ represents the concentration of dissol(ed photoresist in the sol(ent at time t. The only
input term is con(ecti(e mass=transfer Ju8 from the surface of the spinning dis! Ac+s B to the sol(ent
Ac+ B
/+ P !c Ac+s U c+ B
+t the polymer=sol(ent interface, the dissol(ed concentration of the photoresist is at its solu"ility
limit. Furthermore, as the source is a pure component, c} P c+s remains constant. The material+
"alance reduces to
p d5dc+
!c Ac+s U c+ BP1
@dt
&eparation of the dependent (aria"le c+ from the independent (aria"le t, follo2ed "y integration
from the initial condition, t P to , c+ P c+o , to the Fnal condition 2here all the photoresist is
dissol(ed, t P tf , c+ P c+f , yields
cf+f
U
c+o
Udc+!c
P
c+s U c+@1
tf5f
pd
to
dt
and Fnally

@1c+s U c+o
tf U to Pln
p d 5 !cc+s U c+f
The Fnal concentration c+f and con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcient, !c , must no2 "e determined.
First, c+f is estimated "y an o(erall material "alance for the photoresist on the solid 2afer and
dissol(ed in the solution, i.e.,
c+f 1 U c+o 1 P m+o U m+f
2here m+ is the remaining mass of solid photoresist on the 2afer, and m+o is the initial mass,
gi(en "y
m+o P r+,solid
p d5
lo
@
When all the photoresist is dissol(ed, m+f P 6. *f there is initially no photoresist dissol(ed in the
sol(ent, then c+o P 6 and c+f is

g
5 5C6 mm 3 cm
3C65 5 pAcmB
m+o r+,solid p d 5 logcm36@ mm
PPP >C> ` 36U5 >PC A566 cm> Bcm@1@1
c+f
>6.9 &teps for Modeling Mass=Transfer ,rocesses *n(ol(ing on(ection 5:3
The Fnal concentration is 2ell "elo2 the solu"ility limit of 6C6@ gDcm> , and so all of the photoresist
2ill dissol(e. *n order to calculate !c , &c, and Re are needed. For a dilute system, the Juid properties
are essentially the properties of the sol(ent, and so &c and Re are
g
5 ` 36U5
cm [ s
P 53 3::
gcm5
6C765 > 5C:> ` 36U9
scm

g
5 6C5 re( 5p rad
A36 cmB6C765
d 5 (rsre(cm>
Re PP 56,576P
g
mU>5 ` 36
cm [ s
m
&c PP
rD+-
onse?uently
!c d
P 6C;5 Re3D5 &c3D> P 6C;5A56 576B3D5 A53 3::B3D> P >75:
D+-
or
5
U9 cm
>75: [ 5C:> ` 36
s
!c PP 3C3> ` 36U@ cmNs
36 cm
Finally, the time re?uired to completely dissol(e the photoresist is

A@BA566 cm> B6C6@ U 6
lntf PP @; s
5 3C3> ` 36U@ cm6C6@ U >C> ` 36U5
pA36 cmB
s
/otice that the concentration difference c+s U c+ is relati(ely constant "ecause c+ is (ery small.
*t is left to the reader to sho2 that
W+ P !c c+s
and
tf P
@m+o
!c c+s pd 5
pd 5
@
for the limiting case 2here c+s _ c+ , i.e., the surrounding sol(ent represents an inFnite sin! for mass_
transfer.
EM+M,$E ; onsider the remediation trench sho2n in Figure >6.9, a (ery simple process to treat contaminated
2aste2ater "efore discharge to a la!e or ri(er. The remediation trench consists of a narro2 outdoor
open channel 2ith an air sparger aligned along the "ottom of the trench. Waste2ater containing a
(olatile contaminant dissol(ed in the 2ater enters one end of the trench. +s the 2aste2ater Jo2s
do2n the trench, the aeration gas strips out the dissol(ed (olatile solute and transfers it to the
surrounding atmosphere "y an interphase mass=transfer process. onse?uently, the concentration of
the solute in the 2aste2ater decreases do2n the length of the trench. Remediation trenches can "e
long, and may e8tend from a holding pond to the discharge point.
We 2ish to design an aerated remediation trench to treat 2aste2ater contaminated 2ith trichloro=
ethylene ATEB at a concentration of 56 mgD$ A56 g TEDm> 2aste2aterB. The trench is open
duct of 2idth AWB 3 m and depth AHB 5 m, and the (olumetric Jo2 rate of 2aste2ater added to the
/+ +i
+tmosphere
Waste 2ater
i TE
(
c+
+ir
$iner
&oil
<
6.9 +erated remediation trench for stripping TE from
2aste2ater.
trench is 6C3 m> Ds. +ir is sparged into the "ottom of the duct at a rate that pro(ides a gas holdup of
6C65 m> of gas per 3 m> of 2ater, and the a(erage "u""le diameter is 3 cm A6.63 mB. Determine the
length of the trench necessary to reduce the efJuent TE concentration to 6.65 mgD$. The process
temperature is 5:> 0 and the total system pressure is 3 atm.
+gain, the strategy is to de(elop a material="alance model for the process, and then incorporate
the appropriate mass=transfer correlationAsB into the material="alance calculations. The physical
system represents a steady=state, continuous Jo2 process 2here TE is transferred from the
2aste2ater to the aeration gas. +s the aeration gas locally mi8es the li?uid, assume that the
concentration proFle is one=dimensional along a8ial coordinate <. Referring to Figure >6.9, a steady=
state material "alance for TE Aspecies +B in the li?uid phase of the trench 2ithin the differential
(olume element W C H D< for R+ P 6 is
33 663 6
rate of TE transferredrate of TE e8itingrate of TE into
+P6+ U Y from 2ater to air "yY (olume element + U Y
(olume element
interphase mass transfercarried "y 2atercarried "y 2ater
or
W[ HA( 3 c+ BI< U W [ HA( 3 c+ BI<VD< U /+ [
+i
W [ H D< P 6
1
2here n3 is the "ul! a(erage (elocity of the 2aste2ater and W C H is the cross=sectional area of the
trench for Juid Jo2. Di(iding "y W C H D< and ta!ing the limit as D< goes to <ero yields
(3
dc++i
V /+ P 6
d<1
For interphase mass transfer of TE from 2ater to the gas "u""le, /+ must "e
/+ P 0$ Ac+ U c} B+
2here 0$ is the o(erall interphase mass=transfer coefFcient "ased on the o(erall li?uid phase dri(ing
force and c} is the concentration of TE in the li?uid that is in e?uili"rium 2ith the partial pressure of
+
TE (apor in the air "u""le. This e?uili"rium relationship is descri"ed "y HenryHs la2
p+c} P+H
2here H is HenryHs la2 constant for TE in 2ater, 2hich is e?ual to :C:9 atm C m> D!g mol at 5:> 0.
+s the rate of TE transfer 2ill "e (ery small relati(e to the air Jo2 rate "u""led into the trench, p+
for TE inside the air "u""le is essentially <ero, and so c} 2ill "e essentially <ero. Furthermore, as
+
the (alue of H for TE in 2ater is (ery high, TE is only sparingly solu"le in 2ater, and so the
>6.9 &teps for Modeling Mass=Transfer ,rocesses *n(ol(ing on(ection 5:>
interphase mass=transfer process 2ill "e li?uid=phase controlling. onse?uently, the li?uid=Flm
mass=transfer coefFcient, !$ , 2ill sufFce for the o(erall mass=transfer coefFcient !$ . Therefore, the
Ju8 e?uation reduces to
/+ P !$ c+
The material "alance is no2
(3
dc++i
V !$ c+ P 6
d<1
&eparation of dependent (aria"le c+ from independent (aria"le < follo2ed "y integration from the
entrance of the trench, < P 6, c+ P c+o , to the e8it of the trench, c+ P c+$ , m>
6C3
s Ps P 6C65 mP
sW CH3mC5m
6C3
(3
+s the "ul! (elocity is relati(ely slo2, 2e assume that the natural con(ection of the rapidly rising
"u""les 2ill dominate the con(ecti(e mass=transfer process. The term !$ +i D1 must no2 "e
e(aluated. For a nonagitated "u""le s2arm of a(erage "u""le diameter d", the interphase mass=
transfer area per unit li?uid (olume is

+i 1g ;6C65 m> air;m5C PP 35 >P
3 m> 2ater 6C63 m11 d"m
2here 1g D1 is the aeration gas (olume per unit (olume of li?uid, commonly called the gas holdup
ratio. This (alue for +i D1 is much higher than the open surface area per unit (olume, 2hich is
6C5 m5 Dm> of li?uid. E?uation A>6=3@aB for mass transfer of gas "u""le s2arms into a nonagitated
li?uid is appropriate
!$ d"
&h PP 6C@5 #r3D> &c3D5 for d" _ 5C5 mmA>6=35B
D+-
2ith

!g m!g
A6C63 mB> ::7C5 > :C7 5 A::7C5 U 3C3:B >
> r g Drdmsm
PP :C7: ` 36;#r P " $ 55
m$!g
:C:> ` 36U@mCs
and
!g
:C:> ` 36U@
m$
mCs
&c PP P 3337
r$ D+-!gm5
::7C5 >
7C: ` 36U36
ms
5:@ hapter >6 on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer orrelations
2here (alues for r$ and m$ for 2ater and r for air at 3 atm and 5:> 0 2ere o"tained from +ppendi8 *.
The molecular diffusion coefFcient of TE in 2ater AD+- B at 5:> 0 2as determined "y the Haydu!O
$audie correlation. Finally
m5
7C: ` 36U36
D+-
s 6C@5A:C7: ` 36; B3D> A3337B3D56C@5 #r3D> &c3D5 P!$ P
6C63 md"
mP 5C;7> ` 36U@
s
The channel length necessary to reduce the dissol(ed TE concentration from c+o P 56 mgD$
to c+$ P 6C65 mgD$ is

c+o56 mgD$
lnln
c+$6C65 mgD$
$PP P 369C> m
!$ +imm5C
35 >
5C;7> ` 36U@
n3 1ms
m
6C65
s
EM+M,$E 9 The dissolution of lead from lead=soldered Ioints in household piping is a possi"le health pro"lem. *f
the 2ater Jo2ing through the pipe is mildly acidic, then some of the lead 2ill dissol(e from the inner
surface of the lead=soldered pipe section into the 2ater. /e2 drin!ing 2ater re?uirements stipulate
that solu"le lead A,"B concentration le(els should not e8ceed 6C635 gDm> . +t present, 2ater Jo2s
through a 6.655=m *.D. pipe at a "ul! (elocity of 6.5 mDs. The 2ater chemistry results in a solu"le lead
concentration of 36 gNm> at the surface of the soldered pipe section. Determine the solu"le lead
concentration in the 2ater after it passes across three lead=soldered Ioints that are each 6.65 m in
length. The diffusi(ity of solu"le lead in 2ater is 3 ` 36U: m5 Ds, and the !inematic (iscosity of 2ater
is 3 ` 36U; m5 Ds.
*t is important to reali<e that the concentration of solu"le lead 2ill "e continuously increasing as
2ater Jo2s past the lead=soldered sections of pipe. + steady=state mass "alance for solu"le lead
Aspecies +B on a differential (olume element of pipe along a8ial coordinate < is
*nput Amoles ,"DtimeB P %utputAmoles ,"DtimeB
5pD5
V !$ Ac+s U c+ BpD D< P c+ ( 3 pD c+ ( 3@ @
<
<VD<
2here c+ represents the "ul! concentration of solu"le lead in the 2ater stream. 'pon rearrangement,
2e o"tain

( 3 D c+ I<VD6.7
+s c+s is constant, the integral is
losure 5:5
c+s U c+o
ln
c+s U c+$
P
@$ !$
D (3
The mass=transfer coefFcient A!$ B 2ill "e determined "y "oth correlation and "y analogy. -oth
approaches re?uire the Reynolds and &chmidt num"ers. For Jo2 through a pipe, the Reynolds
num"er is
Re P
&c P
n3 ` 36U; m5 Ds
P 3666P
D+- 3 ` 36U: m5 Ds
( 3 D A6C5 mDsBA6C655 mB
P 5666P
n3 ` 36U; m5 Ds
*f Re _ 5666, for li?uids, the $intonO&her2ood correlation is appropriate for estimation of !$
&h P
or
!$ P &h
D+-3 ` 36U: mDsm
P 596P 3C67 ` 36U5
D6C655 ms
!$ D
P 6C65> Re6C7> &c3D> P 6C65>A5666B6C7> A3666B3D> P 596
D+-
The hiltonOol"urn analogy can also "e used to o"tain !$ . From Figure 3@.3, the friction factor is
6.66:5 for Jo2 through a smooth pipe at Re e?ual to 5666. From the hiltonOol"urn analogy, 2e
o"tain
f 3!$6C66:53
PPP @C95 ` 36U5
5 A3666B5D>(35 &c5D>
From this result, !$ P :C5 ` 36U; mDs at ( 3 e?ual to 6.5 mDs, 2hich agrees 2ith the $intonO
&her2ood correlation to 2ithin 35b.
+s there is no transfer of solu"le lead into the Jo2ing 2ater stream "et2een the lead=soldered
pipe sections, the total transfer length A$B for the three 6.65=m sections A$B is 6.35 m. The outlet
concentration of solu"le lead, c+$ , is

@$ !$
c+$ P c+s U Ac+s U c+o Be8p U
D (3
63
U5 m
3C67 ` 36
gg
- @ C 6C35 ms
P 36 > UA36 U 6B > e8pYU+m
mm6C655 m
6C5
s
or c+$ P 6C63> gDm>, using !$ o"tained "y the $intonO&her2ood correlation. -ased on this
calculation, the solu"le=lead concentration is Iust "elo2 drin!ing 2ater standards.
>6.7 $%&'RE
*n this chapter, 2e ha(e presented correlating e?uations for con(ecti(e mass=transfer co=
efFcients o"tained from e8perimental in(estigations. The correlations ha(e (eriFed the
(alidity of the analysis of con(ecti(e transport as presented in hapter 5>. *n hapter >3,
methods ha(e "een de(eloped for applying the capacity coefFcient correlations to the design
of mass=transfer e?uipment.
5:; hapter >6 on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer orrelations
,R%-$EM&
>6.3 + (ery thin polymeric coating of thic!ness 6.3 mm
uniformly coats a rectangular surface. The rectangular surface
has a length of 56 cm and a 2idth of 36 cm. the coating contains a
sol(ent that must "e e(aporated a2ay from the coating in order to
cure the coating. *nitially, there is 6.663 mole of sol(ent per cm>
of coating loaded in the coating. + heated plate Iust "eneath the
surface maintains the coating at a uniform temperature of @67,
and the (apor pressure e8erted "y the sol(ent is 6.65 atm at @67.
+ir gently Jo2s parallel to the surface at a (elocity of 5.6 cmDs.
The surrounding air at 3.6 atm total system pressure and 567
represents an GGinFnite sin!HH for mass transfer. Eou may neglect
any molecular diffusion of the sol(ent through the (ery thin
polymeric Flm and focus only on the con(ection aspects of the
pro"lem. The diffusion coefFcient of species in air at 567 is
6C3 cm5 Ns.
a. Determine the Reynolds, &chmidt, and &her2ood num"ers
associated 2ith this process.
". What is the Flm mass=transfer coefFcient, !y, Amole fraction
"ased dri(ing forceB associated 2ith this processa
c. Ho2 long 2ill it ta!e for the sol(ent to completely e(aporate
from the coatinga
>6.5 + 3=m s?uare thin plate of solid naphthalene is oriented
parallel to a stream of air Jo2ing at 56 mDs. The air is at >36 0
and 3C63> ` 365 ,a. The naphthalene remains at 5:6 0T at this
temperature, the diffusi(ity of naphthalene in air is 5C;3 `
36U; m5 Ds and its (apor pressure is 5; ,a. Determine
a. the (alue of the mass=transfer coefFcient at a point 6.> m
do2nstream from the leading edge.
". the moles of naphthalene per hour lost from the section of
the plate 6.5O6.95 m do2nstream from the leading edge.
>6.> Ethanol, 5 H5 %H, Jo2s in a thin Flm do2n the outside
surface of an inclined plane, 5 m 2ide and @ m long. The li?uid
temperature is 57: 0. Ethanol=free air at >6> 0 and 3 atm Jo2s
across the 2idth of the plate parallel to the surface. +t the a(erage
temperature of the gas Flm, the diffusi(ity of ethanol (apor in air
is 3C>5 ` 36U5 m5 Ds, The (apor pressure of ethanol is ;C@5 `
36U5 atm at 57: 0. *f the air (elocity is > mDs, determine the rate
at 2hich the ethanol should "e supplied to the top of the plate so
that e(aporation 2ill pre(ent it from reaching the (ery "ottom of
the plate.
>6.@ A,lease refer to ,ro"lem 59.3B #asoline from an under=
storage storage tan! lea!ed do2n onto an impermea"le clay
"arrier and collected into a li?uid pool 5 cm deep. Directly o(er
this underground pool of li?uid gasoline An=octaneB is a layer of
gra(el 3 m thic!ness A$B and 2idth AWB of 36 m. The (olatile n=
octane (apors diffuse through the highly porous gra(el layer of
(oid fraction 6.@, through a gas Flm formed "y Jo2 of air o(er
the Jat surface, and then out to the "ul! atmosphere 2here the n=
octane is instantaneously diluted to "elo2 detecta"le le(els. +
simpliFed picture of the situation 2as pro(ided in ,ro"lem 59.3.
There is no adsorption of n=octane (apor onto the porous gra(el
layer, and n=octane (apor concentration inside the porous gra(el
layer is dilute. +ssume that the mass=transfer process is allo2ed
to achie(e a steady state. The temperature is constant at 357. +t
this temperature, li?uid n=octane e8erts a (apor pressure of 36>:
,a. The (oid spaces "et2een the roc!s are large enough so that
the molecular=diffusion coefFcient can "e used for the gas phase.
The system is at atmospheric pressure.
a. What is the a(erage mole fraction of n=octane (apor at the
surface A< P $B of the roc! layer if the air (elocity is only 5
cmDsa What is the Ju8 of n=octane (apor across "oth the
porous gra(el layer and the concentration "oundary layer at
the surfacea
". What 2ould "e the a(erage mole fraction of n=octane (apor
at the surface of the roc! layer if the air (elocity is 56 cmDsa
What 2ould the ne2 Ju8 "ea
c. The -iot num"er associated 2ith a mass=transfer process
in(ol(ing diffusion and con(ection in series is deFned as
-i+- P
!c $
D+-
2here $ refers to the path length for molecular diffusion 2ithin
the porous gra(el layer and D+- refers to the diffusion coefFcient
of species + 2ithin medium - for molecular diffusion. Deter=
mine the -iot num"er for parts AaB and A"B and then assess the
relati(e importance of con(ecti(e mass transfer in determining
the n=octane (apor emissions rate.
>6.5 A,lease refer to e8ample 3, this chapterB *n the presence
process, arsine and trimethylgallium (apors are diluted in
hydrogen gas and fed to the hori<ontal 1D reactor sho2n
in Figure >6.5. The composition of arsine and trimethylgallium
in the feed gas are "oth 6.3 mol b, 2hich is (ery dilute. Eou may
assume that the amount of arsine and trimethylgallium deli(ered
2ith the feed gas is much higher than the amount of arsine and
trimethylgallium consumed "y the reaction, so that the concen=
tration of these reactants in the "ul! gas phase is essentially
constant do2n the length of the reactor. Eou may also assume
that the surface=reaction rates are instantaneous relati(e to the
rates of mass transfer, so that the gas=phase concentrations of
"oth arsine (apor and trimethylgallium (apor at the surface of the
2afer are e?ual to <ero.
a. What are the local molar Ju8es of arsine and trimethylgal=
lium along the surface of the 36=cm &i 2afer at 8 P @ cm
Aleft edgeB, 8 P : cm AcenterB, and 8 P 3@ cm Aright edgeB,
assuming that the surface reactions are controlled "y the rate
of con(ecti(e mass transfera From this result, 2hat is the
composition of the #a+s composite thin FlmT e.g., the molar
composition of gallium A#aB and arsenic A+sB in the solida
". Ho2 could the feed=gas composition "e adIusted so that the
molar ratio of #a to +s 2ithin the solid thin Flm is 3C3a
,ro"lems
c. -ased on your results in part AaB, calculate the thic!ness of
the #a+s thin Flm Ain units of mmB after 5 min at each
position 8, assuming that the density of the #a+s composite
thin Flm is 5C7 gDcm> .
>6.; &pherical pellets of 3.6 cm diameter are spray painted
2ith a (ery thin coat of paint. The paint contains a (olatile
sol(ent. The (apor pressure of the sol(ent at 5:7 0 is 3C39 `
36@ ,a, and the diffusi(ity of the sol(ent (apor in air at 5:; 0 is
6.6:;5 cm5 Ds. The amount of sol(ent in the 2et paint on the
pellet is 6.35 g sol(ent per cm5 of pellet surface area. The
molecular 2eight of the sol(ent is 97 !gD!g mol.
a. Determine the minimum time to dry the painted pellet if still
air at 5:7 0 and 3.6 atm surrounds the pellet.
". Determine the minimum time to dry the painted pellet if air
at 5:7 0 and 3.6 atm pressure Jo2s around the pellet at a
"ul! (elocity of 3.6 mDs.
>6.9 *n(estigators studying the mass transfer from single
spheres recommended the generali<ed e?uation
&h P 5C6 V Rem &c3D>
+s discussed in section >6.3, the (alue of 5 can "e deri(ed
theoretically "y considering the molecular diffusion from a
sphere into a large (olume of stagnant Juid. ,ro(e this is the
correct (alue and state 2hat assumptions must "e made to
o"tain it.
>6.7 + spherical pellet containing pure solid + is suspended in
a Jo2ing li?uid stream at 567. The initial diameter of the pellet
is 3.6 cm, and the "ul! li?uid (elocity is 5 cmDs. omponent + is
solu"le in the li?uid, and as time progresses, the diameter of the
pellet decreases. The Jo2ing li?uid effecti(ely ser(es as an
GGinFnite sin!HH for the solute, so that the dissol(ed solute
concentration in the "ul! li?uid is essentially <ero. This process
represents a GGpseudo steady stateHH con(ecti(e mass transfer
system. +ll rele(ant physical properties of the system are
pro(ided "elo2
r+ , the density of solid +, P 5C6 gDcm> T
M+ , the molecular 2eight of solute +T P 336 gDg molT
c} , the e?uili"rium solu"ility of solute +, at li?uid=solid
+
interface, P 9 ` 36U@ g moleDcm> T
n, the !inematic (iscosity of the "ul! Juid at 56 P
:C:5 ` 36U> cm5 DsT
D+- , the diffusion coefFcient of solute + in the li?uid at
56 P 3C5 ` 36U5 cm5 Ds.
a. Estimate the Flm transfer coefFcient at the initial pellet 3.6
cm diameter.
". Estimate the rate of pellet shrin!age, dRDdt, in cmDh, 2hen
the pellet diameter is 3.6 cm.
c. *f the pellet diameter decreases from 3.6 to 6.5 cm, the total
mass transfer rate, W+ , 2ill change "y 2hat factora
>6.: Determine the mass transfer coefFcient, !c , for the trans=
fer from a glucose sphere, 6.> cm in diameter, 2hich is su"=
5:9
merged in a 557 a?ueous stream Jo2ing at a "ul! (elocity of
6.35 mDs. The mass diffusi(ity of glucose in 2ater at 557 e?uals
;C: ` 36U36 m5 Ds.
a. Estimate the mass transfer coefFcient, !$ .
". Determine 2hether increasing the diameter of the glucose
sphere or increasing the (elocity of the 2ater stream effects
the magnitude of the mass transfer coefFcient, !c . Which of
these (aria"les has the larger effect on the coefFcienta
>6.36 &ilicon tetrachloride, &il@ , is an important chemical used
in the manufacture of microelectronic de(ices. + common impur=
ity in silicon tetrachloride is trichlorosilane, &iHl> . High purity
&il@ is manufactured "y "u""ling chlorine l5 , gas into unpur=
iFed li?uid &il@ . *n the presence of ultra(iolet light, the dissol(ed
l5 reacts 2ith residual trichlorosilane in the unpuriFed li?uid to
form silicon tetrachloride according to the homogeneous reactionT
&iHl> V l5 Q &il@ V Hl
Estimate the li?uid=Flm mass=transfer coefFcient for the transfer of
l5 Aspecies +B into li?uid &il@ , assuming pure l5 gas at 5:7 0
and 3.6 atm is "u""led into the li?uid &il@ 2ith a mean "u""le
diameter of 5 mm. +t 5:7 0, the density of li?uid &il@ is
3C@9 gDcm> , the (iscosity of li?uid &il@ is 6.55 cp, and the li?uid
diffusi(ity of l5 in &il@ is 5C; ` 36U5 cm5 Ds. The dissolution of
l5 gas in &il@ li?uid is deFned "y p+ P H 8} 2here H is ;.9;+
atm at 5:7 0.
What is the Ju8 of l5 , assuming that the l5 is instanta=
neously consumed once it reaches the "ul! li?uid phasea Eou may
assume that the total molar concentration of the mi8ture appro8=
imates the molar concentration of pure li?uid &il@ .
>6.33 +n open trench containing 566 m> of 2aste2ater is
contaminated 2ith a small concentration of trichloroethylene,
TE, a common industrial sol(ent. The trench is 5.6 m deep and
3.6 m in 2idth. The Fgure "elo2 illustrates the open trench.
+ir
+tmosphere
2aste 2ater
i TE
HN5m
$iner
WN3m
&oil
There is no inJo2 or out of Jo2 of 2ater to or from the
trench. +ir is sparged into the "ottom of the trench to strip out the
dissol(ed TE. The inlet air Jo2 rate is 6C35 m> per 3C6 m> of
2ater per minute. +t this air Jo2 rate, the gas holdup is
calculated to "e 6.635 m> air per 3C6 m> aerated 2ater. The
air sparger pro(ides an a(erage "u""le diameter of 5.6 mm.
The temperatures of the air and 2ater are 5:> 0, 2ith a
li?uid (iscosity, m$ P :C:> ` 36U@ !gDm [ s and a li?uid den=
sity, r$ P ::7C5 !gDm> and a gas density. r# P 3C3: !gDm> .
&tent
TE is only sparingly solu"le in 2ater, and the HenryHs la2
constant for TE in li?uid 2ater is :C:9 atmDW!g molDm> X. The
molecular 2eight for TE is 3>3.@ gDg mol. +ssume that the air
stream ser(es as an inFnite sin! for TE transfer, so that the
partial pressure of TE in the gas "u""le is essentially <ero.
Furthermore, assume that the interphase mass transfer process is
li?uid Flm controlling. The mass diffusi(ity of TE in 2ater at
5:> 0 is D+- P 7C: ` 36U36 m5 Ds.
a. De(elop a 2ell=mi8ed, unsteady state material "alance
model for dissol(ed TE in the li?uid phase of the trench.
". Determine the re?uired time to reduce the dissol(ed TE
concentration from 56 to 6C665 g TEDm> .
>6.35 onsider no2 the open trench illustrated "elo2 2here
2aste2ater containing a (olatile contaminate dissol(ed in the 2ater
enters one end of the trench. +s the 2aste2ater Jo2s do2n the
/++ i
+tmosphere
Waste 2ater
i TE
(q
c+
+ir
$iner
&oil
<iD<
WN3m
HN5m
1o N 36 cm>Ds
3.6 cm
-lood fluid
-lood (essel
&tent detail
&upport ring
Drug Ata8olB
$oaded on &urface
of &tent
3.6 cm
D N 6.5 cm
a. What is the con(ecti(e mass transfer coefFcient, !c around
the outer surface of the cylindrical portion of the stent, for
the solute Ta8ola
". What is the minimum time it 2ill ta!e for all the Ta8ol to "e
completely discharged from the stenta
>6.3@ The air freshener sho2n in the Fgure "elo2 is used to
deli(er a pleasant (anilla fragrance in a room. The de(ice
consists of a rod 3 cm in diameter and 5 cm in length. The
rod is composed of a solid mi8ture containing a (olatile aromatic
su"stance that smells li!e (anilla. + heating element in the center
of the rod, 6.5 cm in diameter, maintains a constant surface
temperature of @67 to e(aporate the aromatic su"stance. +ir at
557 Jo2s perpendicular to the rod at a (elocity of 6.5 mDs, and
the aroma (apors are immediately diluted to a (ery lo2 con=
centration. The density of the gel is 3C3 gDcm> , and the initial
loading of the aromatic compound in the solid is @6 molb. The
diffusion coefFcient of the (olatile su"stance generating the
aroma, 2hich appro8imates the properties of "en<aldehyde, is
6C67 cm5 Ds in air at @67. The (apor pressure of this su"stance is
+ir flo2 A55gB
6.5 mDs
trench, the aeration gas strips out the dissol(ed (olatile solute, TE,
and transfers it to the surrounding atmosphere "y an interphase
mass=transfer process. onse?uently, the concentration of the solute
in the 2aste2ater changes do2n the length of the trench. Remedia=
tion trenches can "e long, and may e8tend from a holding pond to
the discharge point.
a. De(elop a material "alance model for the dissol(ed TE
proFle in the li?uid phase of the trench.
". Determine the length re?uired to reduce the dissol(ed TE
concentration from 56 to 6C665 g TEDm> if the (olumetric
Jo2 rate of li?uid into the trench is 6C3 m> Ds.
>6.3> + stent is used to GGprop upHH a clogged artery to allo2
"lood to pass through it. -ut stents can also "e loaded 2ith drugs
to facilitate the timed release of the drug into the "ody, especially
if the drug is not (ery solu"le in "ody Juids. onsider the (ery
simple stent design as illustrated "elo2. The pole of the stent,
2hich is 6.5 cm in diameter and 3.6 cm in length, is coated 2ith
the anticancer drug Ta8ol. The thic!ness of the coating is 6.63 cm
and 5.6 mg total Ta8ol is loaded. -lood Jo2s through the 3.6 cm
diameter cylindrical "lood (essel at a (olumetric Jo2 rate of
36C6 cm> Ds. Ta8ol is not (ery solu"le in a?ueous en(ironmentsT
the ma8imum solu"ility of Ta8ol in "lood is 5C5 ` 36U@ mgDcm> .
The (iscosity of "lood is 6C6@6 gDcm [ s and its density is
3C65 gDcm> . -lood is a comple8 Juid "ut you may assume
that its a(erage molecular 2eight is close to that of li?uid 2ater.
The molecular diffusion coefFcient of Ta8ol in Juid "lood is
D+- P 3C6 ` 36U; cm5 Ds.
Heated rod A@6gB
Wall
soc!et
5 cm
&olid fragrance
3 cm
+ir duct
,ro"lems
@57 ,a at @67, and its molecular 2eight is 36; gDgmol. +ssume
that the release of the aromatic compound is controlled "y the
con(ecti(e transport across the gas Flm surrounding the rod, and
that the diameter of the rod remains constant. /eglect internal
diffusion of the aroma su"stance 2ithin the rod itself.
a. What is the initial rate of aroma deli(ery to the surrounding
in gramsDhoura
". Ho2 long can the air freshener pro(ide fragrancea
>6.35 +n entrance section of process piping is fouled 2ith
calcium car"onate scale. &peciFcally, the inner surface of the
pipe is coated 2ith 6.3 cm Flm of solid calcium car"onate
Aspecies +B that is sparingly solu"le in 2ater. The length of
the pipe containing the calcium car"onate is 3 m, and the inner
diameter of the pipe is 5 cm. *n an attempt to dissol(e the scale
from the pipe surface, GGcleanHH 2ater containing no solu"le
calcium car"onate Jo2s through the pipe at a (olumetric Jo2
rate of >3@ cm> Ds and a temperature of 5:> 0. Determine the time
in hours that it 2ill ta!e for the calcium car"onate coating to
completely dissol(e from the inner surface of the tu"e, assuming
that "ul! concentration of solute + in the li?uid stream is
essentially <ero throughout the 3 m length of the scaled section.
The follo2ing potentially useful data are a(aila"leC
M+ ,
r+ ,
D+- ,
c} ,+
the molecular 2eight of solute + P 366 !gD!g molC
the density of solid + P 5C9 ` 36> !gDm> C
the diffusi(ity of solute + in 2ater P 3C5 ` 36U: m5 DsC
the solu"ility of solute + in 2ater P 6C3@ molDm> C
5::
a. What are the &her2ood and &chmidt num"ers inside the
tu"ea
". What is the predicted e8it concentration of dissol(ed o8y=
gena *t 2ill "e 2ise to de(elop a material "alance model on
%5 for the shell=and=tu"e mass e8changer.
c. What 2ould "e the re?uired length of tu"ing to achie(e ;6b
of dissol(ed %5 saturationa
>6.39 The e8periment sho2n "elo2 is used to estimate mass
transfer coefFcients. *n the present e8periment, t2o portions of
the inside of the tu"e are coated 2ith naphthalene, a (olatile
solid. The tu"e is maintained at 3667 and 3.6 atm total system
pressure. +t 3667, the su"limation (apor pressure of solid
naphthalene is 3.6 mmHg. The inner diameter of the tu"e is
5.6 cm. The total length of the tu"e is 366 cm, and each section of
the tu"e "earing the naphthalene is 5.6 cm. +ir enters the tu"e at a
+ir i naphthalene (apor
d N 5 cm
56 cm
366 cm
56 cm
&olid
naphthalene
>6.3; The GG"u""lelessHH shell=and=tu"e mem"rane aeration sys=
tem sho2n "elo2 is used to transfer o8ygen gas to li?uid 2ater.
Water completely free of dissol(ed o8ygen is added to the tu"e side
at the entrance. ,ure o8ygen gas, maintained at a constant pressure
of 3.6 atm, Jo2s through the annular space. The inner diameter of
the tu"e is 3.6 cm. The tu"e 2all is made of silicone, a polymer that
is highly permea"le to %5 gas "ut not to 2ater (apor. The %5
transfer properties associated 2ith the thin tu"e 2all are neglected,
so that the concentration of dissol(ed %5 in the 2ater at the inner
surface of the 2all is esta"lished "y the %5 partial pressure on the
inside of the tu"e. The tu"e length is 566 cm, and the "ul! (elocity
of li?uid through the tu"e is 56 cmDs. The process is maintained at
557, 2here the HenryHs la2 constant for %5 gas dissol(ed in 2ater
is 6.97 atm AmolDm> B and the diffusion coefFcient for dissol(ed %5
in 2ater is 5C3 ` 36U5 cm5 Ds, and the !inematic (iscosity of 2ater
is :C35 ` 36U> cm5 Ds.
+ir flo2
@.5 gDmin
mass Jo2 rate of @.5 gDmin. The measured outlet mole fraction
of naphthalene (apor in the e8it of the tu"e is 6.66;;, as
determined "y gas chromatography. The diffusion coefFcient
of naphthalene in air is 6C67; cm5 Dsat 3667 and 3.6 atm total
system pressure. +t this temperature and pressure, the !inematic
(iscosity of air is 6C55 cm5 Ds and the density of air is
:C5 ` 36U@ gDcm> .
a. De(elop a material "alance model to predict the mole
fraction of naphthalene (apor e8iting the tu"e.
". -ased on your model and the data gi(en in the pro"lem
statement, estimate !c .
c. /o2, e(aluate the mass=transfer coefFcient using the appro=
priate esta"lished correlation and compare your results to
part A"B
>6.37 Fatty deposits in "lood (essels pose a health ris!.
hemical agents added to the "lood can increase the solu"ility
of the fatty deposits in "lood, there"y pro(iding a means to
dissol(e the fatty deposits in situ. To e8plore the mass=transfer
characteristics of this phenomenon, a "iological engineer set up
the e8periment sho2n in the Fgure. The inner 2alls of a smooth,
6.7 cm inner diameter tu"e are uniformly coated 2ith a thin layer,
6.63 cm, of lipophilic material called fatty compound + AF+ for
366 b %5gas, 3.6 atm
2ater
c+0,o N 6
( N 56 cmDsec
/+
D N 3.6 cm %8ygenated 2ater
%5AgB
<N6
<N$
;66 hapter >6 on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer orrelations
"alance to estimate the net o(erall rate of 2ater (apor
transferred.
>6.56 Fatty deposits in "lood (essels pose a health ris!.
hemical agents added to the "lood can increase the solu"ility
of the fatty deposits in "lood, there"y pro(iding a means to
dissol(e the fatty deposits in situ. To e8plore the mass=transfer
characteristics of this phenomenon, a "iological engineer set up
the e8periment sho2n "elo2. The inner 2alls of a smooth, 6.7 cm
inner diameter tu"e are uniformly coated 2ith a thin layer, 6.63
cm, of lipophilic material called fatty compound + AF+ for
shortB. + synthetic solution A-B is pumped through the tu"e at a
>.6 cm>Ds
solution
Ano +,
+$,o N 6B
shortB. The length of the tu"ing containing the F+ layer is 56 cm.
+ synthetic solution is pumped through the tu"e at a (olumetric
Jo2 rate of >5C6 cm> Ds. The ma8imum solu"ility of F+ in this
synthetic solution is 56 mg F+Dcm> solution. +t the conditions of
the e8periment, the !inematic (iscosity of the synthetic solution
is 6C65 cm> Ds and the density of the synthetic solution is
3C6@ gDcm> . The density of the solid F+ is 3C36 gDcm> .
96 cm
>5 cm>Ds
solution
Ano F+B
6.7 cm
+$ N 6.3 mg F+Dcm>
56 cm
6.63 cm thic! coating
of solid F+
D N 6.7 cm
+$ N 6.63 mg +Dcm>
a. De(elop a material "alance to predict the concentration of
F+ in the solution e8iting the tu"e.
". E8periments 2ere conducted 2ith the test unit sho2n a"o(e,
2ith a measured dissol(ed concentration of F+ in the
synthetic solution e8iting the tu"e of 6.3 mg F+Dcm> . This
concentration 2as constant o(er time. From this data, using
your model, "ac! out the molecular diffusion coefFcient of
F+ in the solution.
>6.3: onsider the de(ice sho2n "elo2 that 2ill "e used to
humidity an air stream. *n the current process, air containing 3.6
molb 2ater (apor Aspecies +B at @67 and 3.6 atm enters the tu"e
of >.6 cm inner diameter at a (elocity of >66 cmDs. + 2ater=
adsor"ent material saturated 2ith li?uid 2ater lines the inner
surface of the tu"e. Water e(aporates from this liner material as
air passes o(er it. There is no diffusion resistance of 2ater (apor
Water adsor"ent liner
A3.6 mm thic!, 6.; g H5%Dcm> liner initiallyB
#as stream
(N>66 cmDsec
+,3
$
6.63 cm thic! coating
of solid +
(olumetric Jo2 rate of >C6 cm> Ds. The ma8imum solu"ility of F+
in this synthetic solution is 56 mg F+Dcm> solution Wc} X. +t the+
conditions of the e8periment, the !inematic (iscosity of the
synthetic solution is 6C65 cm5 Ds, the density of the synthetic
solution is 3C6@ gDcm> and the diffusion coefFcient is
@C6 ` 36U5 cm5 Ds. The density of the solid F+ is 3C36 gDcm> .
+s the solution Jo2s do2n the length of the tu"e, the concen=
tration of F+ changes 2ith a8ial position, <, according to the
material "alance modelC
}
c+ U c+$,o@!$ <
Pln
c+ U c+$,<(3 D
Ho2 long should the tu"ing "e if the desired outlet concentration
of F+ is 6C636 mgDcm> a
>6.53 The 2etted=2ell column sho2n in Figure >6.@ is used to
humidify a pressuri<ed air stream. -one=dry air Acontaining no
2ater (aporB at 5.6 atm and 597 is introduced to the "ottom of
the column at a (olumetric Jo2 rate of @666 cm> Ds. $i?uid 2ater
is added to the top of the column. The li?uid 2ater uniformly
coats the inner surface of the tu"e as a thin li?uid Flm Jo2ing
do2n2ard. The falling li?uid Flm of 2ater e(aporates into the air
Jo2ing up2ard. The 2etted=2all column has an inner diameter
of 5.6 cm and a length of ;.6 m. The column temperature is
maintained at 597, and the total system pressure is maintained
at 5.6 atm. +t 597, the !inematic (iscosity of air is 6C359 cm5 Ds
and the (apor pressure of li?uid 2ater is 6.6>5 atm. The gas is
ideal 2ith R P 75C6; cm> C atmDg mol C 0.
a. What is the diffusion coefFcient of 2ater (apor in air at 5.6
atm and 597a
". Determine the &her2ood num"er for the gas phase.
c. E(aluate the gas Flm coefFcient, !c# , "ased on the partial
pressure dri(ing force.
d. What is the ma8imum possi"le concentration of 2ater (apor
in the aira
e. E(aluate the concentration of 2ater (apor in the air stream
e8iting the 2etted=2all column. Eou 2ill need to do a
D N >.6 cm Atu"eB 3.6 atm, @6g +,5
$ N 7.6 m
through the liner material itself. The process is maintained at
@67. The saturation (apor pressure of 2ater is 55.@ mmHg
at @67, +t this temperature and 3.6 atm, the (iscosity of
air is 3C:3 ` 36U@ gDcm [ s and the density of air is 3C3>`
36U> gDcm> .
a. What is the &chmidt num"er for this processa
". De(elop a model, in Fnal integrated form, to predict the
concentration of 2ater (apor e8iting the tu"e.
c. The thic!ness of the adsor"ent material lining the inner
surface of the tu"e is 3.6 mm and it initially contains 6.; g of
2ater per cm>. *f the tu"e is 7.6 m long and the humidiFca=
tion occurs at @67 and 3.6 atm system pressure, determine
ho2 long this process can operate "efore the li?uid 2ater is
depleted. Eou 2ill need to determine the outlet concentra=
tion of 2ater (apor and then perform an o(erall material
,ro"lems
material "alance on 2ater (apor 2ithin a differential (olume
element of the column.
>6.55 + process is "eing de(eloped to produce car"onated
"e(erages. +s part of this process, a 2etted=2all a"sorption
column of 5.6 m length 2ill "e used to dissol(e car"on dio8ide,
%5 , gas into 2ater. ,ure mountain spring 2ater, containing no
dissol(ed %5 enters the top of the column at a Jo2 rate of 5.6 g
molDs. ,ure 366b %5 gas at 5.5@ atm is fed to the "ottom of the
column at a Jo2 rate of 6.5 g molDs. +s the li?uid Jo2s do2n the
2etted=2all column, %5 gas dissol(es into the 2ater. The
car"onated 2ater e8its the "ottom of the column, and the unused
%5 gas lea(es the top of the column. The inner column diameter
is ;.6 cm. The temperature is maintained at 567. +t this
temperature, the HenryHs la2 constant for the dissolution of
%5 gas in 2ater is 55C@ atmDW!g molDm> X. +t 56 , the molar
density of li?uid 2ater is 55C5 !g molDm> , the mass density of
li?uid 2ater is ::7C5 !gNm> , and the (iscosity of li?uid 2ater is
::> ` 36U; !gDm [ s.
Water has a Fnite (apor pressure at 567. Ho2e(er, for this
pro"lem you may assume that the 2ater sol(ent is essentially
non(olatile, so that 366b %5 gas composition is al2ays
maintained do2n the length of the column.
a. What is the ma8imum possi"le concentration of dissol(ed
%5 in 2ater at 5.5@ atm %5 partial pressurea
". What is the li?uid=phase mass=transfer coefFcient for this
processa
c. What is the e8it concentration of dissol(ed %5 in the
car"onated 2ater if the 2etted=2all column is 5.6 m in
lengtha
>6.5> Tetraetho8ysilane, also called TE%& or &iW%5 H5 X@, is
a li?uid chemical used in the semiconductor industry to produce
thin Flms of silicon dio8ide "y chemical (apor deposition
A1DB. *n order to deli(er the TE%& (apor to the 1D reactor,
li?uid TE%& is fed to a 2etted=2all column. The TE%& li?uid
uniformly coats the inner surface of the tu"e as a thin li?uid Flm
as it Jo2s do2n2ard. The falling li?uid Flm of TE%& e(aporates
into an inert helium carrier gas Jo2ing up2ards at a (olumetric
Jo2 rate of 5666 cm> Ds. The 2etted=2all column has an inner
diameter of 5 cm and a length of 5 m. The column temperature is
maintained at >>> 0, and the total system pressure is 3 atm. +t
>>> 0, the !inematic (iscosity of helium gas is 3C@9 cm5 Ds, the
diffusion coefFcient of TE%& (apor in helium gas is
3C>35 cm5 Ds, and the (apor pressure of li?uid TE%& is 5,3>> ,a.
a. What is the gas mass=transfer coefFcient, !# a
". What is the mole fraction of TE%& (apor e8iting the
columna
c. What is the re?uired mass Jo2 rate of li?uid TE%& Jo2ing
into the column if all of the li?uid TE%& e(aporates "y the
time it reaches the "ottom of the columna
>6.5@ + 2etted=2all column, as illustrated in Figure >6.@, is
used as a mass=transfer de(ice for transferring ethyl acetate
li?uid to an air stream "y a mass=transfer limited e(aporation
;63
process. +t the current conditions of operation, the inlet air
stream "ul! (elocity is 6.5 mDs, the temperatures of the gas and
the li?uid are maintained at 597, the total system pressure is 3.6
atm, the column diameter is 6.65 m, the column length is 36 m,
and the (apor pressure of ethyl acetate is 6.676 atm.
a. Determine the mass=transfer coefFcient for the process at
the current conditions of operation. Eou may assume that the
gas phase represents a dilute system.
". +s the gas mo(es up the tu"e, it pic!s up ethyl acetate (apor.
De(elop a mathematical e8pression to predict the ethyl
acetate (apor concentration in the gas stream e8iting the
top of the tu"e. Then, calculate the ethyl acetate concentra=
tion in the gas stream e8iting the tu"e. +t the speciFed
conditions of operation, 2hat is the o(erall e(aporation rate
of ethyl acetate (apor in g molDh if the inlet air stream
contains no ethyl acetate (apora
>6.55 %<one, %> , dissol(ed in 2ater is used in many 2aste2ater
treatment applications. ,ure 366b o<one gas at 3.6 atm and 567 is
continuously "u""led into a tan! of li?uid 2ater. The rising "u""les
!eeps the li?uid 2ell mi8ed. There is no inJo2 or outJo2 of 2ater.
*nitially, there is no dissol(ed %> in the 2ater, "ut as time goes on,
the dissol(ed %> concentration increases. The total (olume of
li?uid in the tan! is 5C6 m> . The HenryHs la2 constant, H, for %> O
2ater system is ;C;9 ` 36U5 atmD Wg molDm> X.
*t is desired to achie(e a dissol(ed %> concentration of
@C6 g molDm> 2ithin 36.6 min. What is the re?uired capacity
coefFcient, !$ a for %> needed to meet this constrainta
>6.5; Wil!e and Hougan59 studied the mass=transfer charac=
teristics of pac!ed "eds containing granular solids. *n their
e8perimental in(estigations, hot air 2as "lo2n through a pac!ed
"ed of porous celite pellets saturated 2ith li?uid 2ater. The 2ater
e(aporated under adia"atic conditions, and the rate of 2ater
transfer 2as determined "y material "alance using humidity
measurements. From this data, they calculated the gas=Flm
mass=transfer coefFcient at a gi(en Jo2 rate. *n one run, the
follo2ing data 2ere reportedC
#as film coefficient, !#
Effecti(e particle diameter
,ac!ed "ed (oid fraction
#as stream mass (elocity
Temperature at particle surface
Total system pressure
@C@5 ` 36U> !g molDm5 C sC atm
6C593 cm
6C95
6C73; !gDm5 C s
>33 0
:C99 ` 36@ ,a
Estimate the gas=Flm mass=transfer coefFcient "y t2o appro=
priate correlations, one that includes the pac!ed "ed (oid frac=
tion, and a simpler correlation that does not account for the (oid
fraction. ompare these estimates to the measured gas=Flm
coefFcient a"o(e.
>6.59 %ften aero"atic fermentations gi(e off %5 gas "ecause
the respiring cells produce %5 as glucose nutrient is con(erted
59
.R. Wil!e and %.+. Hougan. Trans., +.*.h.E., @3, @@5 A3:@5B.
;65 hapter >6 on(ecti(e Mass=Transfer orrelations
(oid fraction 6.5. +ir is introduced at the "ottom of the trough
through a distri"utor and Jo2s up2ard around the soil particles.
$i?uid TE satiating the pores of the soil particle e(aporate into
the air stream. onse?uently, the TE concentration in the air
stream increases from the "ottom to the top of the trough.
'sually, the rate of TE e(aporation is slo2 enough so that
the li?uid TE 2ithin the soil particle is a constant source for
mass transfer, at least until 76b of the (olatile TE soa!ed
2ithin the soil is remo(ed. 'nder these conditions, the transfer of
TE from the soil particle to the air stream is limited "y
con(ecti(e mass transfer across the gas Flm surrounding the
soil particles. The mass Jo2 rate of air per unit cross section of
the empty "ed is 6C3 !gNm> C s. The process is carried out at 5:> 0.
+t this temperature, the (apor pressure of TE is 57 mmHg. The
molecular diffusion coefFcient of TE (apor in air is gi(en in
e8ample @ of this chapter.
to chemical energy. The conditions used to set !$ a for %5 transfer
in the fermenter also esta"lish the same hydrodynamic condi=
tions for %5 transfer. onse?uently, the transfer rate of %5
from the li?uid to the aeration gas is also descri"ed "y this
(olumetric mass=transfer coefFcient, !$ a. onsider that the !$ a
for %5 in the fermenter is >66 hU3 . &cale the !$ a for %5 to !$ a for
%5 transfer using Flm theory, "oundary layer theory, and
penetration theory.
>6.57 + process is "eing de(eloped to produce car"onated
"e(erages. +s part of this process, a pac!ed="ed a"sorption
to2er 2ill "e used to dissol(e car"on dio8ide, %5 , gas into
2ater. ,ure mountain spring 2ater, containing no dissol(ed %5
enters the top of the column at a Jo2 rate of 5 !g molDmin. ,ure
%5 gas at 5 atm is also fed to the top of the to2er at a Jo2 rate of
3 !g molDmin. +s the li?uid Jo2s do2n the to2er, %5 gas
a"sor"s into the 2ater, and the dissol(ed %5 concentration
increases do2n the length of the "ed. The car"onated 2ater and
the unused %5 gas e8it the "ottom of the to2er. The a"sorption
process is li?uid=Flm controlling "ecause only pure %5 is
present in the gas phase. The to2er is pac!ed 2ith 3 in. ceramic
rings and the inner to2er diameter is 6.55 m. The temperature is
maintained at 567. +t this temperature, the HenryHs la2
constant for the dissolution of %5 gas in 2ater is 55C@ atmD
W!g molDm> X. +t 567, the molar density of li?uid 2ater is
55C5 !g molDm> , the mass density of li?uid 2ater is ::7C5
!gDm> , and the (iscosity of li?uid 2ater is ::>` 36U; !gDm C s.
a. What is the li?uid phase mass transfer coefFcient, !$ a, for
%5 in 2ater Jo2ing through the pac!ed "eda
". Estimate the depth of pac!ing if the desired concentration of
dissol(ed %5 in the outlet li?uid is :5b of the saturation
(alue for dissol(ed %5 in 2ater under %5 partial pressure
of 5 atm and 567.
>6.5: The GGsoil (entingHH sho2n in the Fgure "elo2 is used to
treat soil contaminated 2ith (olatile, to8ic li?uids. *n the present
situation, the porous soil particles are saturated 2ith li?uid TE,
a common industrial sol(ent. The contaminated soil is dug up at
the 2aste site and loaded into a rectangular trough. The soil
consists of coarse, porous mineral particles 2ith an a(erage
diameter of > mm, loosely compacted into a pac!ed "ed 2ith a
+ir i TE (apors
diluited to atmosphere
<N$
+ir
"lo2er
TE
contaiminated
pac!ed soil "ed
Raised trough
for soil (enting
<N6
+ir flo2 distri"utor
A6.3 !g airDm5 sB
a. What is the gas=Flm mass=transfer coefFcient for TE (apor
in aira
". +t 2hat position in the "ed 2ill the TE (apor in the air
stream reach :6b of its saturated (apor pressurea *n your
solution, you may 2ant to consider a material "alance on
TE in the gas phase 2ithin a differential (olume element of
the "ed. +ssume the con(ecti(e mass=transfer resistances
associated 2ith air Jo2ing o(er the top surface of the "ed
are negligi"le and that there is no pressure drop of the gas
stream through the "ed so that the total system pressure
remains constant at 3 atm.
hapter
>3
Mass=Transfer E?uipment
*n earlier chapters, the theory currently used to e8plain the mechanism of con(ecti(e
mass transfer "et2een phases 2as introduced, and correlations for the interphase
con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcients 2ere listed. *n this chapter, 2e 2ill de(elop
methods for applying the transport e?uations to the design of commercial mass=transfer
e?uipment. *t is important to reali<e that design procedures are not restricted to the
design of ne2 e?uipment, for they may also "e applied in analy<ing e8isting e?uipment
for possi"le impro(ement in performance.
The presentation or de(elopment of mass transfer from the deFning e?uations to
the Fnal design e?uations, 2hich is presented in this chapter, is completely analogous
to our earlier treatment of energy transfer. on(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcients are
deFned in hapter 57. These deFnitions and the methods of analysis are similar to
those presented in hapter 3: for con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcients. +n o(erall
dri(ing force and an o(erall transfer coefFcient e8pressed in terms of the indi(idual
coefFcients 2ere de(eloped to e8plain the transfer mechanisms of "oth mass= and
energy=transport processes. -y integrating the appropriate energy=transfer relation in
hapter 5>, 2e 2ere a"le to e(aluate the area of a heat e8changer. +ccordingly, 2e
should e8pect to Fnd similar mass=transfer relations that can "e integrated to yield the
total transfer contact area 2ithin a mass e8changer.
>3.3 TE,E& %F M+&&=TR+/&FER E.'*,ME/T
+ su"stantial num"er of industrial operations in 2hich the compositions of solutions andD
or mi8tures are changed in(ol(e interphase mass transfer. Typical e8amples of such
operations could include A3B the transfer of a solute from the gas phase into a li?uid phase,
as encountered in a"sorption, dehumidiFcation, and distillationT A5B the transfer of a solute
from the li?uid phase into a gas phase, as encountered in desorption or stripping and
humidiFcationT A>B the transfer of a solute from one li?uid phase into a second immisci"le
li?uid phase Asuch as the transfer from an a?ueous phase to a hydrocar"on phaseB, as
encountered in li?uidOli?uid e8tractionT A@B the transfer of a solute from a solid into a Juid
phase as encountered in drying and leachingT and A5B the transfer of a solute from a Juid onto
the surface of a solid as encountered in adsorption and ion e8change.
Mass=transfer operations are commonly encountered in to2ers or tan!s that are design=
ed to pro(ide intimate contact of the t2o phases. This e?uipment may "e classiFed into one
of the four general types according to the method used to produce the interphase contact.
Many (arieties and com"inations of these types e8ist or are possi"leT 2e 2ill restrict our
discussion to the maIor classiFcations.
-u""le to2ers consist of large open cham"ers through 2hich the li?uid phase Jo2s and
into 2hich the gas is dispersed into the li?uid phase in the form of Fne "u""les. The small gas
;6>
;6@ hapter >3 Mass=Transfer E?uipment
$i?uid in
#as out
f
$i?uid out
#as in
Figure >3.3 -u""le to2er.
"u""les pro(ide the desired contact area. Mass transfer ta!es place "oth during the "u""le
formation and as the "u""les rise up through the li?uid. The rising "u""les create mi8ing
action 2ithin the li?uid phase, thus reducing the li?uid=phase resistance to mass transfer.
-u""le to2ers are used 2ith systems in 2hich the li?uid phase normally controls the rate of
mass transferT for e8ample, it is used for the a"sorption of relati(ely insolu"le gases, as in the
air o8idation of 2ater. Figure >3.3 illustrates the contact time and the direction of phase Jo2
in a "u""le to2er. +s one 2ould e8pect, the contact time, as 2ell as the contact area, plays an
important role in determining the amount of mass transferred "et2een the t2o phases. The
"asic mass=transfer mechanism in(ol(ed in "u""le to2ers is also encountered in "atch
"u""le tan!s or ponds 2here the gas is dispersed at the "ottom of the tan!s. &uch e?uipment
is commonly encountered in "iological o8idation and in 2aste2ater=treatment operations.
E8actly opposite in principle to the "u""le to2er is the spray to2er. *n the spray to2er,
the gas phase Jo2s up through a large open cham"er and the li?uid phase is introduced "y
spray no<<les or other atomi<ing de(ices. The li?uid, introduced as Fne droplets, falls
countercurrent to the rising gas stream. The spray no<<le is designed to su"di(ide the li?uid
into a large num"er of small dropsT for a gi(en li?uid Jo2 rate, smaller drops pro(ide a
greater interphase contact area across 2hich mass is transferred. Ho2e(er, as also
encountered in "u""le to2ers, care in design must "e e8ercised to a(oid producing drops
so Fne that they "ecome entrained in the e8iting, countercurrent stream. Figure >3.5
illustrates the contact time and the direction of phase Jo2 in the spray to2er. Resistance to
transfer 2ithin the gas phase is reduced "y the s2irling motion of the falling li?uid droplets.
$i?uid in
$i?uid in
#as in
#as out
f
f
#as in
$i?uid out
#as in
$i?uid out
Figure >3.5 &pray to2er. Figure >3.> ountercurrent pac!ed to2er.
>3.5 #asO$i?uid Mass=Transfer %perations *n Well=Mi8ed Tan!s ;65
&pray to2ers are used for the mass transfer of highly solu"le gases 2here the gas=phase
resistance normally controls the rate of mass transfer.
,ac!ed to2ers are the third general type of mass=transfer e?uipment, 2hich in(ol(es a
continuous countercurrent contact of t2o immisci"le phases. These to2ers are (ertical
columns that ha(e "een Flled 2ith pac!ing as illustrated in Figure >3.>. + (ariety of pac!ing
materials is used, ranging from specially designed ceramic and plastic pac!ing,as illustrated
in Figure >3.@, to crushed roc!. The chief purpose of the pac!ing is to pro(ide a large contact
area "et2een the t2o immisci"le phases. The li?uid is distri"uted o(er the pac!ing and Jo2s
do2n the pac!ing surface as thin Flms or su"di(ided streams. The gas generally Jo2s
up2ard, countercurrent to the falling li?uid. -oth phases are 2ell agitated. Thus, this type of
e?uipment may "e used for gasOli?uid systems in 2hich either of the phase resistances
controls or in 2hich "oth resistances are important.
Raschig ring -erl saddle $essing ring ,all ring
Figure >3.@ ommon industrial
to2er pac!ing.
&pecial types of pac!ed to2ers are used to cool 2ater so that it can "e recirculated as a
heat=transfer medium. These structures are made of 2ood=slat dec!s, ha(ing lou(er
construction so that air can Jo2 across each dec!. The 2ater is sprayed a"o(e the top
dec! and then tric!les do2n through the (arious dec!s to a "ottom collection "asin. ooling
to2ers may "e classiFed as natural draft 2hen sufFcient natural 2ind is a(aila"le to carry
a2ay the humid air or as forced or induced draft 2hen a fan is used. *n the forced=draft
to2ers, air is pulled into lou(ers at the "ottom of the structure and then Jo2s up through the
dec!s countercurrent to the 2ater Jo2.
-u""le=plate and sie(e=plate to2ers are commonly used in industry. They represent the
com"ined transfer mechanisms o"ser(ed in the spray and the "u""le to2ers. +t each plate,
"u""les of gas are formed at the "ottom of a li?uid pool "y forcing the gas through small
holes drilled in the plate or under slotted caps immersed in the li?uid. *nterphase mass
transfer occurs during the "u""le formation, and as the "u""les rise up through the agitated
li?uid pool. +dditional masstransfer ta!es place a"o(e the li?uid pool "ecause of spray
carryo(er produced "y the acti(e mi8ing of the li?uid and gas on the plate. &uch plates are
arranged one a"o(e the other in a cylindrical shell as schematically illustrated in Figure >3.5.
The li?uid Jo2s do2n2ard, crossing Frst the upper plate and then the plate "elo2. The (apor
rises through each plate. +s Figure >3.5 illustrates, the contact of the t2o phases is step2ise.
&uch to2ers cannot "e designed "y e?uations that are o"tained "y integrating o(er a
continuous area of interphase contact. *nstead, they are designed "y stage2ise calculations
that are de(eloped and used in design courses of stage2ise operations. We shall not consider
the design of plate to2ers in this "oo!T our discussions 2ill "e limited to continuous=contact
e?uipment.
>3.5 #+&O$*.'*D M+&&=TR+/&FER %,ER+T*%/& */ WE$$=M*MED T+/0&
+eration is a common gasOli?uid contacting operation 2here compressed air is intro=
duced to the "ottom of a tan! of li?uid 2ater through small=oriFce dispersers, such as
;6; hapter >3 Mass=Transfer E?uipment
#as out
$i?uid in
#as
&ie(e plate
#as in
$i?uid out
-u""le plate
Figure >3.5 ,late to2ers.
perforated pipes, porous sparger tu"es, or porous plates. These dispersers produce small
"u""les of gas that rise through the li?uid. %ften, rotating impellers "rea! up the "u""le
s2arms and disperse the "u""les throughout the li?uid (olume. #asOli?uid mass=transfer
processes induced "y aeration include a"sorption and stripping. *n gas a"sorption, a
solute in the aeration gas is transferred from the gas to the li?uid. %ften, the solute is the
o8ygen gas in air, 2hich is sparingly solu"le in 2ater. The a"sorption of o8ygen into
2ater underlies many processes important to "iochemical engineering. *n li?uid strip=
ping, the (olatile dissol(ed solute is transferred from the li?uid to the aeration gas.
&tripping underlies many 2aste2ater=treatment processes important to en(ironmental
engineering.
The gasOli?uid contacting pattern in aeration processes is gas dispersed, meaning that
the gas is dispersed 2ithin a continuous li?uid phase. onse?uently, the material "alances
for solute mass transfer are "ased on the li?uid phase. Recall from &ection 5:.5 that the
interphase mass=transfer Ju8 for solute + across the gas= and li?uid=phase Flms, "ased on the
o(erall li?uid phase dri(ing force, is
/+ P 0$ Ac} U c+ B+
and the transfer rate for solute + is
W+ P 0$
2ith
c} P+
p+
H
+i1Ac} U c+ B P 0$ a C 1Ac} U c+ B++
1
A>6=59B
A5:=33B
2here ,+ is the partial pressure of solute + in the "ul! gas phase. Recall from &ection >6.5
that the interphase mass=transfer area per unit (olume is hard to measure, and so capacity
coefFcients, e.g., 0$a, are used.
Well=mi8ed gasOli?uid contacting processes can "e either continuous or "atch 2ith
respect to the li?uid phase. + continuous process is sho2n in Figure >3.;. For a "atch
>3.5
*mpeller
dri(e
$i?uid
in o , c+o
#as in
.g , p+
#asO$i?uid Mass=Transfer %perations *n Well=Mi8ed Tan!s ;69
#as out
$i?uid, 1
$i?uid
out , c+
#as sparger
Figure >3.; +erated stirred tan!.
process, the li?uid Jo2 is turned off, "ut the gas Jo2 remains on. *n this case, the unsteady=
state material "alance on solute + in the li?uid phase is
6 U 6 V / + C +i V R+ C 1 P
dAc+ 1B
dt
dc+
dt
2hich is su"Iect to the initial condition t P 6, c+ P c+a. *f the li?uid (olume 1is constant, then
0$ a C 1Wc} U c+ X V R+ C 1 P 1+
}
Furthermore, if A3B the partial pressure of solute + is constant so that + is constant and A5B there
is no homogeneous reaction of dissol(ed solute + in the li?uid phase so that R+ P 6, then
cf+
c+6
Udc+
} U c P U0$ a
c++
ft
dt
6
}
c+ U c+aP 0$ a C tln }
c+ U ci+
c+ P c} U Ac} U c+o BeU!$ a++
or
Ct
A>3=3B
*n e?uation A>3=3B, the concentration of + in the li?uid Ac+B e8ponentially approaches c}+
as time t goes to inFnity.
For a continuous process 2ith one li?uid inJo2 stream and one li?uid outJo2 stream,
the steady=state material "alance is
hh
c+o 1o V /+ +i U c+ 1 V R+ C 1 P 6
;67 hapter >3 Mass=Transfer E?uipment
2here c+o is no2 the inlet concentration of solute +. For a dilute process, the inlet li?uid
(olumetric Jo2 rate (6 approaches outlet (olumetric Jo2 rate (. onse?uently
h
1o Wc+o U c+ X V 0$ a C 1Wc} U c+ X V R+ C 1 P 6A>3=5B
+
*f R+ P 6, then the predicted outlet concentration is
h1oc+o V 0$ a C c}+
1c+ PA>3=>B
h1o
V 0$ a
1
+n application of 2ell=mi8ed gasOli?uid contacting operations to the design of an aero"ic
fermenter is pro(ided in e8ample 3.
EM+M,$E 3 The design of aeration systems for aero"ic=fermentation processes is "ased on gasOli?uid mass
transfer. Microorganisms gro2 in a li?uid suspension and feed on dissol(ed nutrients such as glucose
and mineral salts. +ero"ic microorganisms in li?uid suspension also re?uire dissol(ed o8ygen for
gro2th. *f o8ygen is not supplied at a rate sufFcient to support cell gro2th, the cells 2ill die.
*n the present process, +ero"acter aerogenes is "eing culti(ated 2ithin a continuous Jo2
fermenter of > m> li?uid (olume A1B and tan! diameter AdT B of 3.5 m. Fresh nutrient medium
containing a trace amount of dissol(ed %5 at concentration 6.63 mole %5Dm> enters the fermenter at a
Jo2 rate of 3.7 m>Dh. +t steady=state conditions, the aero"ic fermenter operates at a cell
concentration AcMB of 5 !g dry mass m> of li?uid culture. The cell concentration is determined
"y the speciFc gro2th rate of the organism and the nutrient composition of the li?uid medium, details
of 2hich 2ill not "e presented here. The li?uid cell suspension consumes o8ygen proportional to the
cell concentration according to the rate e?uation
R+ P U?o C cM
2here ?o is the speciFc o8ygen consumption rate of the cells, e?ual to 56 mole %5D!g cells C h, 2hich
is assumed to "e constant. Determine the 0$a (alue necessary to ensure that the dissol(ed o8ygen
concentration in the li?uid culture Ac+B is at least 6.65 molDm>. +lso, determine the po2er input
into a > m> fermenter if the gas Jo2 rate into the fermenter is 3 m> of air per minute at the process
conditions of 5:7 0 and 3 atm. +ssume that the "u""les are noncoalescing. +t 5:7 0, HenryHs la2
constant for dissolution of %5 in the li?uid nutrient medium is 6.75; atmC m>Dmol.
The re?uired 0$a is "ac!ed out from a material "alance on dissol(ed o8ygen Aspecies +B 2ithin
the 2ell=mi8ed li?uid phase of the fermenter. Recall e?uation A>3=5B
h
1o Ac+o U c+ B V 0$ a C 1Ac} U c+ B V R+ C 1 P 6+
*nserting R+ P U?o cM and sol(ing for the re?uired 0$a yields
h1o
Wc+o U c+ X
10$ a P
c} U c++
The saturation concentration of dissol(ed o8ygen is determined "y HenryHs la2
? o C cM U
c} P+
p+
P
H
A>3=@B
6C53 atmmol %5
P 6C55@
>m>atm C m
6C75;
mol
The partial pressure of o8ygen Ap+B is presumed constant, as the rate of %5 transferred to the sparingly
solu"le li?uid is (ery small in comparison to the molar Jo2 rate of %5 in the aeration gas. Finally

mol %5!g cells 3C7 m> Nhmol %5C5 > UC 3h56A6C63 U 6C65B
>>
!g cells C hmm>C6 m>;66 s
0$ a PP 6C3>; sU3
mol %5
A6C55@ U 6C65B
m>
>3.5 #asO$i?uid Mass=Transfer %perations *n Well=Mi8ed Tan!s ;6:
*n the limiting case of c+ P 6 and c+o P 6, the minimum 0$a for %5 transfer is deFned as

mol %5C 5 !g cells 3 h
m>!g cells C h?o C cM>;66 s
PP 6C36: sU3A0$ aBmin P}
mol %5c+
6C55@
m>
From the a"o(e e?uation, it is e(ident that the "iological o8ygen consumption most strongly
determines the re?uired 0$a.
The po2er input to the aerated tan! is "ac!ed out from the correlation
6C9
U> ,g
A!$ aB%5 P 5 ` 36Augs B6C5A>6=5:B
1
2here 0$a has units of sU3, ,gD1 has units of WDm>, and ugs has units of mDs. The superFcial (elocity
of the gas through the empty tan! is

m> 3minCA@B 3
@.gmmin ;6 s
ugs P 5 PP 6C66:@
5spdTpA3C5 mB
*f the gas is sparingly solu"le in the li?uid, the interphase mass=transfer process is li?uid=phase
controlling so that 0$ a ^ !$ a. Therefore
6C9
U> ,g
6C3>; P 5 ` 36A6C66:@B6C5
1
or
,gW
P 3595 >
m1
The total re?uired po2er input A,gB for the > m> aerated fermenter is @93; W.
Ec!enfelder3 de(eloped a general correlation for the transfer of o8ygen from air
"u""les rising in a column of still 2ater
3Vn 6C97+ u g .g h
0$ PA>3=5B
11
2here ug is a correlating constant dependent on the type of disperser, .g is the gas flo2 rate in
standard cu"ic feet per minute, n is a correlating constant that is dependent on the si<e of the
small orificesin the disperser, and h is the depth "elo2 the li?uid surface at 2hich the air is
introduced to the aeration tan!. Typical data for a sparger=aeration unit, correlated according to
e?uation A>3=5B, are presented in Figure >3.9.
5666
0$
+
1 ft >Dh
1
3666
+
1
1N ?g.3.>>g
h6.97
0$
566
35
36.5
7
Depth=ft
36.5
@ ; 7 36 35 56
.g=&FM
>6
556
Figure >3.9 %8ygen transfer factor of a single
sparger unit in an aeration tan!.
3
W. W. Ec!enfelder, Jr., J. &anit. Engr. Di(., +mer. &oc. i(. Engr., 75, &+@, 7: A3:5:B.
+ 56,666=ft>A5;; m>B aeration pond is aerated 2ith 35 spargers, each using compressed air at a rate of
35 standard cu"ic feet per minute A9C67 ` 36U> m> DsB. The spargers 2ill "e located 35 ft A@.59 mB
"elo2the surface of the pond. Find the time re?uired to raise the dissol(ed o8ygen from 5 to 5 mgD$ if
the 2ater temperature is 5:> 0.
From Figure >.3;, the transfer factor, 0$ W+D1 X1, for a single sparger is 3566 ft> Dh W:C@@ `
36U> m> DsX and for the system
0$
+
1
P
A:C@@ ` 36U> m> DsBA35 spargersB
P 5C56 ` 36U@ sU3 C>5;; m
EM+M,$E 5
The a(erage hydrostatic pressure of the rising air "u""le is e?ual to the arithmetic mean of the
pressure at the top and the "ottom of the pond.
,"ottom P 3 atm V A35 ft H5 %BA6C65:5 atmDft H5 %B
P 3C@@ atm A3C@5: ` 365 ,aB
3 atm V 3C@@ atm
P 3C55 atmA3C5>; ` 365 ,aBP
5
,mean
+s the mole fraction of o8ygen in air is 6.53, the partial pressure of o8ygen 2ithin the "u""le
2ill e?ual yo5 , P A6C53BA3C5>; ` 365 ,aB P 5C;6 ` 36@ ,a. The e?uili"rium concentration of a
slightly solu"le gas is related to its partial pressure "y HenryHs la2. +t 5:> 0, this la2 stipulates for
o8ygen
p%5 P A@C6; ` 36: ,aDmole fractionB C 8%5
+ccordingly
8%5 P
5C;6 ` 36@ ,a
P ;C@6 ` 36U;
@C6; ` 36: ,aDmol fraction
For 3 $ of solution, 2hich is essentially pure 2ater, the e?uili"rium concentration in milligrams
per liter can "e calculated
moles of 2ater P
A3666 cm> of 2aterBA3 gDcm> 2aterB
37 g 2aterDmol
P 55C; molC
*n the liter of 2ater, the moles of o8ygen e?ual
8%5 C Amoles of solutionB P A;C@ ` 36U; BA55C; molB P >C5; ` 36U@ mol
The grams of o8ygen per liter e?ual
A>C5; ` 36U@ molBA>5gDmolB P 3C3>: ` 36U5 gD$ P 33C>: mgD$C
'sing e?uation A>3=3B, 2e can sol(e for the re?uired time
63
}3
c+ U c+o - 33C>: U 53
t P ln }Y+ + P ln
c+ U c+t33C>: U 55C56 ` 36U@ Ds0$
1
t P 35@6 sC
>3.> Mass -alances For ontinuous ontact To2ersC %perating=$ine E?uations ;33
>3.> M+&& -+$+/E& F%R %/T*/'%'& %/T+T T%WER&C
%,ER+T*/#=$*/E E.'+T*%/&
There are four important fundamentals that constitute the "asis for continuous=contact
e?uipment designC
3. Material and enthalpy "alances, in(ol(ing the e?uations of conser(ation of mass
and energyT
5. *nterphase e?uili"riumT
>. Mass=transfer e?uationsT
@. Momentum=transfer e?uations.
*nterphase=e?uili"rium relations are deFned "y la2s of thermodynamics as discussed in
&ection 95:.3. Momentum=transfer e?uations, as presented in &ection :.>, are used to deFne
the pressure drop 2ithin the e?uipment. We shall not treat this su"Iect in this chapter, as it
2as pre(iously discussed. The material and enthalpy "alances are important, as they
pro(ide e8pressions for e(aluating the "ul! compositions of the t2o contacting phases at any
plane in the to2er as 2ell as the change in "ul! compositions "et2een t2o planes in the
to2er. The mass=transfer e?uations 2ill "e de(eloped in differential form, com"ined 2ith a
differential material "alance, and then integrated o(er the area of interfacial contact to
pro(ide the length of contact re?uired in the mass e8changer.
ountercurrent Flo2
onsider any steady=state mass=transfer operation that in(ol(es the countercurrent contact
of t2o insolu"le phases as schematically sho2n in Figure >3.7. The t2o insolu"le phases
2ill "e identiFed as phase # and phase $.
$5, 8+5, M+5 #5, y+5, E+5
< N <5
$<, 8+<, M+< < #<, y+<, E+<
< N <3
$3, 8+3, M+3 #3, y+3, E+3
Figure >3.7 &teady=state countercurrent process.
+t the "ottom of the mass=transfer to2er, the Jo2 rates and concentrations are deFned
as follo2sC
#3 is the total moles of phase # entering the to2er per hour per cross=sectional area of
the to2erT
$3 is the total moles of phase $ lea(ing the to2er per hour per cross=sectional area of
the to2erT
y+3 is the mole fraction of component + in #3, e8pressed as moles of + per total moles
in phase #T
8+3 is the mole fraction of component + in $3 , e8pressed as moles of + per total moles
in phase $.
&imilarly at the top of the to2er, or plane <5, the total moles of each phase 2ill "e #5 and $5,
and the compositions of each stream 2ill "e y+5 and 8+5 . +n o(erall, macroscopic mass
"alance for component + around the steady=state mass e8changer, in 2hich there is no
chemical production or disappearance of +, re?uires
QQ
moles of + enteringmoles of + lea(ing
P
the to2erthe to2er
or
#3 y+3 V $5 8+5 P #5 y+5 V $3 8+3
#3 y+3 V $< 8+3=;B
+ mass "alance for component + around plane 3=9B
&impler relations, and certainly easier e?uations to use, may "e e8pressed in terms of
solute=free concentration units. The concentration of each phase 2ill "e deFned as follo2sC
E+ is the moles of + in # per mole of +=free #T that is,
y+
E+ P
3 U y+
and M+ is the moles of + in $ per mole of +=free $T that is
8+
M+ P
3 U 8+
A>3=7B
A>3=:B
The Jo2 rates to "e used 2ith the solute=free concentration units are $& and #&, 2here
$& is the moles of phase $ on a solute=free "asis, that is, the moles of carrier sol(ent in
phase $ per hour per cross=sectional area of the to2er, and is e?ual to $A3 U 8+B 2here "oth
$ and 8+ are e(aluated at the same plane in the to2er, that is, $3A3 U 8+3B or $5A3 U 8+5B. #&
is the moles of phase # on a solute=free "asisT that is, the moles of carrier sol(ent
in phase # per hour per cross=sectional area of the to2er and is e?ual to #W3 U 8+ X
2here "oth # and y+ are e(aluated at the same plane in the to2er. The o(erall "alance
on component + may "e 2ritten using the solute=free terms as
#& E+3 V $& M+5 P #& E+5 V $& M+3
or
#& AE+3 U E+5 B P $& AM+3 U M+5 B
Rearranging 2e o"tain
$&E + U E+ 5
P 3
#& M+3 U M+5
E?uation A>3=36B is an e?uation of a straight line that passes through points A8+3, y+3B and
A8+5 ,y+5 B 2ith a slope of $&D#&. + mass "alance of component + around plane <3 and an
ar"itrary plane 3=33B
A>3=36B
>3.> Mass -alances For ontinuous ontact To2ersC %perating=$ine E?uations ;3>
Rearranging, 2e o"tain
$&E+ U E+3=33B is an e?uation of a straight line, one 2hich passes through the points
AM+3,E+3B and AM+5,E+5B 2ith a slope of $&D#&. T2o straight lines ha(ing the same slope and a
point in common lie on the same straight line. E?uation >3.@6, is therefore, a general
e8pression relating the "ul! compositions of the t2o phases at any plane in the mass
e8changer. +s it deFnes operating conditions 2ithin the e?uipment, it is designated
the operating line for countercurrent operations. *n our earlier discussions on interphase
transfer in &ection 5:.5, point % of Figure 5:.; is one of many points that lie on the operating
line.
*t is important that the student recogni<es the difference "et2een e?uations A>3=9B and
A>3=33B. +lthough "oth e?uations descri"e the mass "alance for component +, only e?uation
A>3=33B is an e?uation of a straight line. When 2ritten in the solute=free units, M and E,
the operating line is straight "ecause the mole=ratio concentrations are "ased on "oth the
constant ?uantities, $s and #s. When 2ritten in mole=fraction units, 8 and y, the total moles in
a phase, $ or #, change as the solute is transferred into or out of the phaseT this produces a
cur(ed operating line on the 8Oy coordinates.
Figure >3.: illustrates the location of the operating line relati(e to the e?uili"rium line
2hen the transfer of the solute is from phase # to phase $ as in the case of a"sorption.
The "ul! e?uili"rium, located on the operating line, must "e greater than the e?uili"rium
concentration in order to pro(ide the dri(ing forces, E+# U E+i or its e?ui(alentor p+# U p+i
}or E+# U E+ or the e?ui(alent p+# U p} , needed for transfer from # phase to $ phase.+
E+
E+3
%perating
line
$s
&lope N
#s
E+5
E?uili"rium cur(e
E+, i (s. M+, i
M+5 M+3
M+
Figure >3.: &teady=state countercurrent
process, transfer from phase # to $.
Figure >3.36 illustrates the location of the operating line relati(e to the e?uili"rium
line 2hen the transfer of the solute is from phase $ to phase # as in desorption or stripping.
The location of theoperating line "elo2 the e?uili"rium line assures correct dri(ing forces,
8+i U 8+$ or its e?ui(alent c+i U c+$ or 8} U 8+$ or its e?ui(alent c} U c+$ .++
+ mass "alance for component + o(er the differential length, d<, is easily o"tained "y
differentiating e?uation A>3=33B. This differential e?uation
$& dM+ P #& dE+
relates the moles transferred in countercurrent operations per time per cross=sectional area
a(aila"le in the length d<.
E+
E?uili"rium cur(e
E+, i (s. M+, i
E+5
%perating
line
&lope N
E+3
M+3
$s
#s
M+5
M+
Figure >3.36 &teady=state
countercurrent process,
transfer from phase $ to
phase #.
*n the design of mass=transfer e?uipment, the Jo2 rate of at least one phase and three of
the four entering and e8iting compositions must "e F8ed "y the process re?uirements. The
necessary Jo2 rate of the second phase is often a design (aria"le. For e8ample, consider the
case in 2hich phase #, 2ith a !no2n #&, changes in composition from E+3 to E+5 "y transferring
solute to a second phase that enters the to2er 2ith composition M+5. +ccording to e?uation
A>3=36B, the operating line must pass through point AM+5,E+5B and must end at the ordinate E+3.
Three possi"le operating lines are sho2n in Figure >3.33. Each line has a different slope, $& D#&,
and since #& is F8ed "y the process re?uirement, each line represents a different ?uantity, $&, of
the second phase. *n fact, as the slope decreases, $& decreases. The minimum, $& 2hich may "e
used, corresponds to the operating line ending at point ,> . This ?uantity of the second phase
corresponds to an operating line that touches the e?uili"rium line. *f 2e recall from hapter 5:
the deFnition of dri(ing forces, 2e should immediately recogni<e that the closer the operating
line is to the e?uili"rium cur(e, the smaller 2ill "e the dri(ing force for o(ercoming any mass=
transfer resistance. +t the point of tangency, the diffusional dri(ing force is <eroT thus, mass
transfer "et2een the t2o phases cannot occur. This then represents a limiting condition, the
minimum $& D#& ratio for mass transfer. *n the case of e?uili"rium cur(es that are conca(e
up2ard, the minimum $& D#& ratio corresponds to the second phase $3 lea(ing in e?uili"rium
2ith the entering phase #3T that is, point AM3,E3B lies on the e?uili"rium cur(e.
E+
,3
& B3
&B5
E+3
A$& D#
,5
B>
D# &
A$ & &lopes
,>
E?uili"rium
cur(e
E+5
M+5
A$
&
D#
M+
Figure >3.33 %perating=line locations.
EM+M,$E >
+mmonia is to "e a"sor"ed from an air mi8ture at 5:> 0 and 3.63>`365 ,a pressure in a countercurrent
pac!ed to2er, using 2ater at 5:> 0 as the a"sor"ent. +n inlet gas rate of 3.53 ` 36U5m>Ds and an
ammonia=free 2ater rate of :.@; ` 36U> !gDs 2ill "e used. *f the ammonia, /H>, concentration is
>3.> Mass -alances For ontinuous ontact To2ersC %perating=$ine E?uations ;35
reduced from >.55 to 3.5:b "y (olume, determine the ratio of A$&D#&BactualDA$&D#&Bmin. E?uili"rium data
for the system at 5:> 0 and 3.63> ` 365. ,a are as follo2sC
M
E
!g mol /H>
!g mol H5 %
!g mol /H>
!g mol H5 %
6.63;@
6.653
6.6555
6.6>5
6.6>@:
6.6@5
6.6@55
6.65>
6.6955
6.67
The total moles of gas entering the to2er per hour may "e e(aluated using the ideal gas la2.
h,1 A3C63> ` 365 ,aBA3C53 ` 365 m5 DsB
P#3 + P moles entering gasDs P
RT
,a C m>
W5:> 0X7C>3@mol C 0
P 6C56> molNs
The gas enters the to2er 2ith a mole fraction of ammonia, E+3, e?ual to 6.6>55. hoosing a cross=
sectional area for the to2er of + m5, 2e may e(aluate the moles of # on a solute=free "asis as

mol6C:;@76C@7> mol
P#& P #3 A3 U y+3 B P 6C56>5s+ s C m5+m
The moles of phase $ on a solute=free "asis are

!g!g mol35C5; ` 36U@ !g mol 6C55; mol
$& P :C@; ` 36U>PP
s37 !g+ m5s C m5+ s C m5+
The ratio of the actual $& to #& is e(aluated as

$&6C55; +mole /H>=free $ phase
P 3C6:P
+ 6C@7>mole /H>=free # phase#& actual
The composition of the !no2n streams, #3, #5, and $5 on a solute=free "asis, are e(aluated from the
!no2n mole fraction as
y/H> ,36C6>55
P 6C6>;5PE/H> ,3 P
3 U y/H> ,3 6C:;@7
y/H> , 56C635:
P 6C63>3E/H> , 5 PP
3 U y/H> , 5 6C:793
8/H> , 5
M/H> , 5 PP6
3 U 8/H> , 5
The e8iting composition, M/H>,3, can "e e(aluated "y
#& AE+3 U E+5 B P $& AM+3 U M+5 B
6C@7>6C55;
A6C6>;5 U 6C63>3B PAM+3 U 6B
++
M+3 P 6C6535
The actual and minimum operating lines are sho2n in Figure >3.35. The composition of the solution
in e?uili"rium 2ith E/H>,3 P 6.6>;5 is o"tained from the e?uili"rium cur(e as M/H>, e?ull. P 6.65:;.
The slope of the minimum operating line is
$&
#&
P
minimum
DE 6C6>;5 U 6C63>3mole /H>=free li?uid phase
PP 6C9:
DM6C65:; U 6mole /H>=free gas phase
The desired ratio, A$&D#&BactualDA$&D#&Bminimum is then a ratio of the t2o (alues, 3.6:D6.9: or 3.>7.
6.6@
6.6>;5
E+, in moles
of /H>Dmole
of air
ac
tu
al
6.6>
6.65
A$
s D#
sB
D#
A$ s
Bm
s
in
6.653; 6.65:;
6.63
6
6 6.636.656.6>
M+, in moles of /H> Dmole of 2ater
6.6@
Figure >3.35 &olution to e8ample >.
EM+M,$E @ *n ,ro"lem >6.36, the production of ultra pure silicon tetrachloride for the chemical (apor deposition
of silicon 2as descri"ed. Hydrogen chloride, Hl, 2as produced in the elimination of trichlorosilane,
&iHl> , and the Hl 2as stripped from the li?uid silicon tetrachloride into an /5 carrier gas stream.
AaB *f the Hl concentration 2as reduced from 3.7 to 6.5 molb "y its transfer into the 5:7 0
and 3.63>`365 ,a nitrogen gas carrier stream, determine the A$sD#sBmin ratio. +t the in(ol(ed lo2
concentration le(els, the HlOH5 system o"eys HenryHs la2 2ith the HenryHs constant, HH, e?ual to
@9.5 atmDmol fraction Hl in the li?uid.
A"B Determine the Hl concentration in the e8iting /5 stream 2hen @6 times the minimum
#s is used in the stripper.
The compositions of the !no2n streams, $5, $3, and #3, on a solute=free "asis are e(aluated from
the !no2n mole fractions as
8Hl, 56C637
P 6C637>P
3 U 8Hl, 5 6C:75
8Hl, 36C665
MHl, 3 PP 6C665P
3 U 8Hl, 3 6C::7
yHl, 3
EHl, 3 PP6
3 U yHl, 3
/ote that the solute=free compositions are essentially e?ual to the mole=fraction compositions for
lo2 concentrations.
The e?uili"rium concentration is e(aluated 2ith HenryHs la2

atm
A8Hl BpHl AatmB P @9C5
mole fraction
MHl, 5 P
>3.>
E
Mass -alances For ontinuous ontact To2ersC %perating=$ine E?uations ;39
5.:6
6.6
al$& D#& actu 6.3@9
6.665
$& D#
&
min
6.6375
M Figure >3.3> &olution to e8ample @.
+t end 5 of the to2er

pHl, 5 P @9C5

atm
A6C637B P 6C755 atm
mole fraction
pHl, 56C755
P 5C:6P
, U pHl, 5 6C3@5
and
}EHl,5 P
Figure >3.3> illustrates the operating lines for "oth #&,min and #&,actual for this e8ample. +s one
notes, the operating lines for the stripping process are "elo2 the e?uili"rium line.
}E5 U E3$&5C:6 U :
PPP >;5
#& min M5 U M3 6C637> U 6C665
and
$&
#&
$&
#&
P
actual
$&>;5
P :C65P
@6A#sBA@6B
E5 U E3E5 U 6
P
M5 U M3 6C637> U 6C665
P :C65 P
actual
E5 P 6C3@9
The mole fraction of the e8iting gas stream is
yHl, 5 P
E56C3@9
P 6C357CP
3 V E5 3C3@9
ocurrent Flo2
For steady=state mass=transfer operations in(ol(ing cocurrent contact of t2o immisci"le
phases as sho2n in Figure >3.3@, the o(erall mass "alance for component + is
$& M+5 V #& E+5 P $& M+3 V #& E+3
or
$& AM+5 U M+3 B P #& AE+3 U E+5 B
A>3=35B
$5, $s, 8+5, M+5 #5, #s, y+5, E+5
< N <5
$<, $s, 8+,<, M+,<
#<, #s, y+,<, E+,<
< N <3
$3, $s, 8+3, M+3 #3, #s, y+3, E+3
Figure >3.3@ &teady=state cocurrent process.
The mass "alance on component + around planes 3 and an ar"itrary plane < stipulates that
$& M+, < V #& E+, 3=3>B
E?uations A>3=35B and A>3=3>B are "oth straight lines that pass through a common point
AM+3 ,E+3 B and ha(e the same slope, U$& D#& , E?uation A>3=3>B is the general e8pression
that relates to the composition of the t2o contacting phases at any plane in the e?uipment.
*t is designated as the operating=line e?uation for cocurrent operations. Figures >3.35 and
>3.3; illustrate the location of the operating line relati(e to the e?uili"rium line. + mass
"alance for component + o(er the differential length, d<, for cocurrent flo2C
$& dM+ P U#& dE+
(eriFes the slope of the operating line for cocurrent operation is O$sD#s.
E+
E+3
%perating
line
&lope N O
E+5
$s
#s
E?uili"rium cur(e
E+i, (ersus M+i
E+
E?uili"rium cur(e
E+i, (s. M+i
E+5
%perating
line
&lope N O
$s
#s
E+3
M+3 M+5
M+ M+5 M+3
M+
Figure >3.35 &teady=state cocurrent process, transfer
from phase # to phase $.
Figure >3.3; &teady=state cocurrent process transfer
from phase $ to phase #.
>3.> Mass -alances For ontinuous ontact To2ersC %perating=$ine E?uations ;3:
+s in the case of countercurrent Jo2, there is a minimum $sD#s ratio for cocurrent mass=
transfer operations esta"lished from the F8ed process (aria"lesC #&3 ,E+3 ,E+5 , and M+3. *ts
e(aluation in(ol(es the same procedure as discussed for countercurrent Jo2.
EM+M,$E 5 The ammoniaOair feed stream descri"ed in e8ample > is fed cocurrently 2ith an ammoniaOfree 2ater
stream. The ammonia concentration is to "e reduced from >.55 to 3.5:b "y (olume, using a 2ater
stream 3.>9 times the minimum. Determine AaB the minimum $sD#s ratio, A"B the actual 2ater rate, and
AcB the concentration in the e8iting a?ueous stream.
*n e8ample >, the follo2ing compositions 2ere e(aluatedC
entering
e8iting
entering
E/H> ,3 P 6C6>;5
E/H> ,5 P 6C63>3
M/H> ,3 P 6C6
molThe moles of # on a solute=free "asis 2ere e(aluated to "e 6C@7> m5 C s. *n Figure >3.39,
the mini=+
mum and actual operating lines are sho2n. For these operating lines
$s
#s
min
E/H> ,3 U E/H> ,5 6C6>;5 U 6C63>3
P
6C63 U 6M/H> ,5 U M/H> ,5
moles /H> =free $ phase
P 5C>@
moles /H> =free # phase
P
and
$&
#&

$&moles /H> =free $ phase
P 3C>9P 3C>9A5C>@B P >C53
moles /H> =free # phase#& minactual
The composition of the e8iting stream can "e e(aluated 2ith the slope of the actual operating line "y

E/H>,3 U E/H>, 5$&6C6>;5 U 6C63>3
P >C53 PP
M/H>, 5 U 6#& actualM/H> ,5 U M/H>, 3
6.6@
E+, in moles
of /H> Dmole
of air
E+3 N 6.6>;5
6.6>
$&
min
#&
$&
actual
#&
E?uili"rium
cur(e
6.65
E+5 N 6.63>3
6.6695
6.63
6.63
6
6 6.636.656.6>6.6@
M+, in moles of /H> Dmole of 2ater
Figure >3.39 &olution to
e8ample 5.
or
M/H> ,5 P
6C65>@mol /H>
P 6C669> P
>C53mol /H> =free 2ater
The moles of /H>=free 2ater fed to the to2er, $s , is also e(aluated using the (alue of

$&mol /H> free $ phase
P >C53
mol /H> free # phase#& actual
Then

6C@733C55 mol
P$& P >C53#& P >C53
++ m5 C s
>3.@ E/TH+$,E -+$+/E& F%R %/T*/'%'&=%/T+T& T%WER&
Many mass=transfer operations are
isothermal. This is especially true
2hen 2e are dealing 2ith dilute mi8=
tures. Ho2e(er, 2hen large ?uanti=
ties of solute are transferred, the heat
of mi8ing can produce a tempera=
ture rise in the recei(ing phase.
*f the temperature of the phase
changes, the e?uili"rium solu"ility
of the solute 2ill "e altered, and in
turn, the diffusion dri(ing forces
2ill "e altered.
onsider the steady=state coun=
tercurrent process illustrated in
Figure >3.37. +n enthalpy "alance
around the planes 3.37 &teady=state countercurrent process.
$5 H$5 V #H# P #5 H#5 V $H$
A>3=3@B
2here H is the molal enthalpy of the stream at its particular temperature, pressure, and
concentration. The enthalpies are normally "ased upon a reference of pure solute=free
carrier sol(ent and puresolute at a chosen "ase temperature, T6 . The normal enthalpy of
a li?uid mi8ture is e(aluated a"o(e this "ase temperature "y the relation
H$ P cp$ AT$ U T6 BMa(g V DH&
A>3=35B
2here H$ is the enthalpy of the li?uid stream, in !JDmol of $T cp$ is the heat capacity of the
mi8ture on a mass "asis, !JD!g C 0T T$ is the temperature of the mi8ture in 0T Ma(g is the
a(erage molecular 2eight of the mi8tureT and DH& is the integral heat of solution, e(aluated
at the "ase temperature, T6, and at the concentration of the mi8ture in !JDmol.
The molal enthalpy of a gas mi8ture, 2ith the same "ase temperature and standard state
of the solute is e8pressed as
H# P wysolute cp,# solute Msolute V A3 U ysolute BAcp,# solute=free #=phase B
AMsolute=free #=phase BxAT# U T6 B V ysolute hf, g solute Msolute
A>3=3;B
>3.5 Mass=Transfer apacity oefFcients ;53
2here H# is the enthalpy of the gas stream, in !JDmol of #T cp, g is the heat capacity in the
gas phase in !JD!gC 0T T# is the temperature of the gas mi8ture in 0T M is the molecular
2eightT and hf,g solute is the heat of (apori<ation of the solute in !JD!g. The integral heat of
solution, DH& , is <ero for ideal solutions and essentially <ero for gas mi8tures. For
nonideal solutions, it is a negati(e ?uantity if heat is e(ol(ed on mi8ing and a positi(e
?uantity if heat is a"sor"ed on mi8ing.
E?uation A>3=3@B may "e used to compute the temperature of a gi(en phase at any plane
2ithin the mass=transfer e?uipment. The calculations in(ol(e the simultaneous application
of the mass "alance in order to !no2 the Jo2 rate of the stream associated 2ith the particular
enthalpy term.
>3.5 M+&&=TR+/&FER +,+*TE %EFF**E/T&
The indi(idual mass=transfer coefFcient, !#, 2as deFned "y the e8pression
/+ P !# A p+,# U p+,i BA5:=;B
and the o(erall mass=transfer coefficient 2as defined "y a similar e?uation in terms of the
o(erall dri(ing force in partial pressure units
/+ P 0# A p+,# U p} B+
A5:=36B
*n "oth e8pressions, the interphase mass transfer 2as e8pressed as moles of + transferred
per unit time per unit area per unit dri(ing force in terms of partial pressure. *n order to
use these e?uations in the design of mass e8changers, the interphase contact area must "e
!no2n. +lthough the 2etted=2all column, as descri"ed in hapter 5;, has a definite
interfacial surface area, the corresponding area in other types of e?uipment is (irtually
impossi"le to measure. For this reason the factor a must "e introduced to represent the
interfacial surface area per unit (olume of the mass=transfer e?uipment. The mass transfer
2ithin a differential height, d<, per unit cross=sectional area of the mass e8changer is
Q Q
moles of + transferredinterfacial area
/+ad<AlengthB
AtimeBAinterfacial areaB(olume
P
AtimeBAcross=sectional areaB
or, in terms of the mass=transfer coefFcients
/+ a d3=37B
+s "oth the factor a and the mass=transfer coefFcients depend on the geometry of the
mass=transfer e?uipment and on the Jo2 rates of the t2o contacting, immisci"le streams,
they are commonly com"ined as a product. The indi(idual capacity coefFcient, !# a, and the
o(erall capacity coefFcient, !# a, are each e8perimentally e(aluated as a com"ined process
(aria"le. The units of the gas phase capacity coefFcient are
QQ
moles of + transferredinterfacial area
!# a
AtimeB Ainterfacial areaBApressureB(olume
P
AtimeBA(olumeBApressureB
A>3=39B
the most often encountered units are g moles of +Ds C m> C ,a. The capacity coefFcients
in terms of li?uid concentration dri(ing forces are similarly deFned "y
/+ a d3=56B
A>3=3:B
The most common units for the li?uid=phase capacity coefficients are g moles of
+Ds C m> C g moles of +Dm> of solution. Mass=transfer capacity e?uations in terms of
!y a, !8 a, !E a, and !M a are similarly defined.
>3.; %/T*/'%'&=%/T+T E.'*,ME/T +/+$E&*&
The moles of the diffusing component + transferred per time per cross=sectional area ha(e
"een deFned "y t2o entirely different concepts, the material "alance and the mass=transfer
e?uations. For e?uipment in(ol(ing the continuous=contact "et2een the t2o immisci"le
phases, these t2o e?uations may "e com"ined and the resulting e8pression integrated to
pro(ide a deFning relation for the un!no2n height of the mass e8changer.
onstant %(erall apacity oefFcient
onsider an isothermal, countercurrent mass e8changer used to achie(e a separation in a
system that has a constant o(erall mass=transfer coefFcient 0E a through the concentration
range in(ol(ed in the mass=transfer operations. The mass "alance for component + o(er the
differential length d< is descri"ed "y
P $& dM+ P #& dE+
The mass transfer of component + in the differential length d< is defined "y
}P /+ a d3=53B
A>3=33B
+s e?uation A>3=53B in(ol(es the mass flu8 of component +, /+, it is a (ectorial e?uation
that not only defines the ?uantity of + transferred per time and cross=sectional area "ut it
also indicates the direction of mass transfer. *f the dri(ing force, E+UE+}, is positi(e, the
transfer of + must "e from the "ul! composition in the # phase to the "ul! composition in
the $ phase. The t2o differential ?uantities in e?uation A>3=33B, $s dM+ and #sdE+, stipulate
only the ?uantity of + transferred per time and cross=sectional areaT each term must ha(e
either a positi(e or a negati(e sign assigned to it to indicate the direction of the + transfer.
$et us consider the transfer of + from the # phase to the $ phaseT U#s dE+ indicates that
the # phase is losing +. The mass transfer of component + in the differential length d< may
"e deFned "y com"ining e?uation A>3=53B and the modiFed component of e?uation A>3=33B
}U#& dE+ P 0E aAE+ U E+ B
d<
or
d3=55B
>3.; ontinuous=ontact E?uipment +nalysis ;5>
This e?uation may "e integrated o(er the length of the mass e8changer, 2ith the
assumption of a constant o(erall capacity coefficient
f
<5
<3
U#&
d3=5>B
dE+
}E+ U E+
f
3.>, 2e may
}e(aluate E+ U E+ from the plot of
E+
(s. M+ as illustrated in Figure >3.3:.
The (ertical distance "et2een
the operating line and the e?uili=
"rium line represents the o(erall
dri(ing force in E=units. *t may "e
determined for each (alue of the "ul!
concentration, E+, and its reciprocal,
}3DAE+ U E+ B, may then "e plotted (s.
E+, as illustrated in Figure >3.56.
+fter o"taining the area under
the cur(e in Figure >3.3:, 2e may
e(aluate the length of the mass
e8changer "y E?uation A>3=5>B.
When the transfer is from the $
phase to the # phase, as in the case of
desorption or stripping, #, dy+ 2ill "e
positi(eT the mass transfer of compo=
nent + in the differential length d< 2ill
"e
}#& dE+ P 0E aAE+ U E+ B d<
E+5
%perating
line
E+
E+5
E+
E?uili"rium
line
M+< M+3
M+
}Figure >3.3: E(aluation of E+ U E+ the o(erall
dri(ing force.
3
E+ O E+
E+
3
+rea N
E+
5
dE+
AE+ O E+ B
E+5 E +3
E+
or
d3.56 E(aluation of the integral
C
}
E+
dE+U#&
P
U E+ 0E a
C
dE+
}E+ U E+
and the same design e?uation A>3=5>B 2ill "e o"tained.
+ similar "ut more comple8 e?uation can "e deri(ed in terms of the constant o(erall
capacity coefFcient, 0# a
#&
3=5@B
+s t2o different units for gas concentrations are in(ol(ed, this e?uation is a little more
difficult to e(aluate.
The length of the mass e8changer can also "e determined "y an e?uation 2ritten in
terms of the o(erall li?uid capacity coefFcient, 0Ma. For the transfer of + from the # phase
into the $ phase,
}U$& dM+ P 0M aAM+ U M+ B d<
or
d3=55B
or
$&
fP
0M a
C
M+3
f
M+5
dM+
}M+ U M+
}The o(erall dri(ing force, M+ U M+ , is the hori<ontal difference "et2een the operating
line and the e?uili"rium line (alues on a plot similar to Figure >3.3:.
1aria"le %(erall apacity oefFcientC +llo2ance
for Resistance in -oth #as and $i?uid ,hase
*n hapter 5:, the o(erall coefFcient 2as found to (ary 2ith concentration unless the
e?uili"rium line 2as straight. +ccordingly, 2e should e8pect that the o(erall capacity
coefFcient 2ill also (ary 2hen the slope of the e?uili"rium line (aries 2ithin the region that
includes the "ul! and interfacial concentrations. With slightly cur(ed e?uili"rium lines, one
may safely use the design e?uations A>3=5>BOA>3=55B. Ho2e(er, in the case of e?uili"rium
lines 2ith more pronounced cur(ature, the e8act calculations should "e "ased on one of the
indi(idual capacity coefFcients.
The mass "alance for component + o(er the differential length d< is
$& dM+ P #& dE+
Differentiating E?uation A>3=7B, 2e o"tain
dE+ P
dy+
A3 U y+ B5
dy+
A3 U y+ B5
A>3=33B
This relation may "e su"stituted into e?uation A>3=33B to gi(e
$& dM+ P #&
A>3=5;B
The mass transfer of component + in the differential length, d<, is defined in terms of the
indi(idual gas=phase capacity coefficient "y
/+ a d3=59B
>3.; ontinuous=ontact E?uipment +nalysis ;55
om"ining e?uation A>3=59B and a modified e?uation A>3=5;B that accounts for the
transfer from the # phase, 2e o"tain upon rearranging
d3=57B
U#& dy+#
!# aA p+# U p+i BA3 U y+# B5
+s discussed in hapter 5:, the interfacial compositions, y+i and 8+i may "e found for
each point on the operating line "y dra2ing a line from the point to2ard the e?uili"rium line.
The slope of this line is U!$D!# on a p+ (s. c+ plot, or is Uc!$D!#, on a y+ (s. 8+ plot, 2here c
is the molar concentration in the li?uid phase. *n Figure >3.53, the location of the interfacial
compositions on "oth phase plots are illustrated. *t is important to recall from the discussion
in &ection >3.> that the operating line is not straight on plots of y+ (s. 8+ and p+ (s. c+, e8cept
2hen 2e are dealing 2ith relati(ely dilute gas and li?uid mi8tures. 0no2ing the interfacial
composition, y+i, for e(ery "ul! composition y+# in the gas stream, 2e may numerically or
graphically integrate e?uation A>3=57B to o"tain the length of the mass e8changer.
y+
y+3
%perating
line
y+
y+i
8+i
8+5 8+3
8+
c+5
E?uili"rium line
p+
p +3
&lope N O
c!$
!#p
p+5
E?uili"rium line
%perating
line
p+#
p+i
c+i
c+3
c+
&lope N O
!$
!#
y+5
Figure >3.53 Determination of interfacial composition for transfer from phase # to phase $.
$ogarithmic=Mean Dri(ing Force
+lthough the graphical integration procedure must "e employed in most practical design
calculations, it is sometimes possi"le to use a much simpler e?uation "ased upon a logarithmic=
mean dri(ing force. When the t2o contacting streams are relati(ely dilute, the e?uili"rium
cur(e and the operating line may "oth "e linear in terms of the mole fractions o(er the range of
concentration in(ol(ed in the mass=transfer operation. 'nder these conditions, #3 b #5 b #
and $3 b $5 b $. The mass "alance for component + may "e appro8imated "y
$A8+3 U 8+ B P #Ay+3 U y+ B
or
$ d8+ P # dy+
A>3=>6B
A>3=5:B
The rate of interphase transfer may "e e8pressed in terms of the o(erall gas=phase
capacity coefficient "y
/+ a d3=>3B
+s the operating and e?uili"rium lines are straight, the difference in the ordinates of the
t2o lines must (ary linearly in composition. Designating the difference y+ U y} "y D, 2e+
see that this linearity stipulates
dD Dend3 U Dend5D3 U D5
PP
dy+y+3 U y+5y +3 U y + 5
A>3=>5B
For the transfer of + from the # phase into the $ phase, 2e can com"ine the rate of mass
transfer from e?uation A>3=>3B and the mass "alance for + using a modified component
of e?uation A>3=>6B to o"tain
d3=>>B
*ntegrating o(er the length of the mass e8changer, 2e o"tain
3=>@B
#
0# a,
C
Ay+3 U y+5 B
D3 U D5
C ln D3
D5
Ay+ U y} B3 U Ay+ U y} B5++P
} B DAy U y} B ^ln\Ay+ U y+ 3 ++
5
$A8+3 U 8+5 B
0$ acA8} U 8+ Blm+
A>3=>5B
+ similar e8pression in terms of the o(erall li?uid=phase capacity coefFcient is
3=>9B
A>3=>;B
EM+M,$E ;
+mmonia is to "e a"sor"ed from air at 5:> 0 and 3.63>`365 ,a pressure in a countercurrent,
pac!ed to2er, 6.5 m in diameter, using ammonia=free 2ater as the a"sor"ent. The inlet gas rate
2ill "e 6C5 m> Ds and the inlet 2ater rate 2ill "e 56> !gDs. 'nder these conditions, the o(erall
mole
capacity coefFcient, 0E, may "e assumed to "e 76 >. The ammonia concentrationm C s C DE+
2ill "e reduced from 6.6755 to 6.66> mol fraction. The to2er 2ill "e cooled, the operation thus
ta!ing place essentially at 5:> 0T the e?uili"rium data of e8ample > may "e used. Determine
the length of the mass e8changer.
>3.; ontinuous=ontact E?uipment +nalysis ;59
The concentrations of three of the streams 2ere gi(enT these may "e e8pressed on a /H>=free
"asis "y
E/H> ,3 P
y/H> ,36C6755
P 6C6:P
3 U y/H> ,3 6C:395
y/H> ,56C66>
P 6C66>E/H> ,5 PP
3 U y/H> ,5 6C::9
and
M/H> ,5 P 6C6
pD5 pA6C5 mB5
The cross=sectional area of the to2er is e?ual toPP 6C3:; m5 . The gas enters the
@@
e8changer at plane 3, and its Jo2
1,
#P
RT
C
3 A6C56 m> DsBA3C63> ` 365 ,aB
P
+,a C m>
A5:> 0B7C>3@mol C 0
C
3mol
P @5C@ 5
5BA6C3:; mm Cs
The /H>=free gas Jo2 rate is
#s P #3 A3 U y/H> ,3 B P @5C@
molmol
A6C:395B P >7C: 5m5 C sm Cs
The /H>=free 2ater Jo2 rate is e(aluated using the Jo2 into the e8changer at plane 5.

mol3mol
$s P A56> gDsBP 59C5 5537 g 6C3:; mm Cs
The li?uid lea(es the e8changer at plane 3T its concentration is e(aluated, using the countercurrent
material "alance e?uation
#s AE/H> ,3 U E/H> ,5 B P $s AM/H> ,3 U M/H> ,5 B
>7C:A6C6: U 6C66>B P 59C5AM/H> ,3 U 6B
M/H> ,3 P 6C65:
The operating and e?uili"rium lines are sho2n in Figure >3.55.
E/H>
E/H>,3 N 6.6:
E/H> N 6.655
E/H> N 6.6@55
E/H>,3 N 6.65:
E/H>,5 N 6.66>
M/H>,5 N 6
M/H>
Figure >3.55 The operating line for e8ample ;.
+s this is not a case in 2hich the gas and li?uid concentrations are dilute enough for us to assume
straight e?uili"rium and operating lines on the plot of y (s. 8, the height of the to2er must "e
e(aluated "y the graphical integration procedure, using
#&
 T3 mol
m5 C s
m C s C DE+
>7C:
f
E/H> T5
dE/H>
}E/H> U E/H>
}
*n Ta"le >3.3, E/H> is the composition at a point on the operating line, and E/H> is the composition on
the e?uili"rium line directly "elo2 the E/H> (alue. +n e8ample of these compositions is illustrated in
Figure >3.53. The integral
E/H> T3
f
E/H> T5
dE/H>
}E/H> U E/H>
is graphically e(aluated in Figure >3.5>.
Ta"le >3.3 E8ample > gas compositions
E+
6.66>
6.63
6.65
6.6>5
6.655
6.6;5
6.695
6.6:
}
E+
}E+ U E+ }3DAE+ U E+ B
6
6.66;5
6.635>
6.6595
6.6@55
6.656>
6.657
6.6;7>
6.66>
6.66>5
6.66@9
6.6695
6.6355
6.63@9
6.639
6.6539
>>>.>
5:;
535.5
3>>.>
76.6
;7.6
57.:
@9.;
>66
3
E/H> O E/H>

566
366
6.66>
E/H>
6.6:
Figure >3.5> #raphical e(aluation
of the integral.
>3.; ontinuous=ontact E?uipment +nalysis ;5:
The area under the cur(e is the numerical (alue of the integral. The resulting length of the mass
e8changer is
mol
>7C: 5m C s A36C:5B P 5C>5 mfP
mol
76 >m C s C DE+
R E/H> T3 dE/H>
The integral E/H T5 E/H UE } can also "e e(aluated numerically using either a spreadsheet or a
> >
mathematical soft2are program. With the (alues for #s, $s, y/H>3 and M/H>3 already determined, the
operating line e?uation "ecomes
#& AE/H> ,3 U E/H> , ,3 U M/H> ,7C: 5A6C6: U E/H> , ,< Bm Csm Cs
2hich upon rearrangement yields
M/H> T T, 2hen Ftted to a polynomial of the second order, can "e represented
"y
}5E/H> P U5C;:6> M/H> V 3C5:5> M/H> V 6C666>
These t2o e?uations are used to de(elop the follo2ing ta"leC
}
E/H>
/H>
E/H>
6.66> 6
6.63
6.65
6.6>
6.6@
6.65
6.6;
6.69
6.67
6.6:
M/H>
6
E U E}
6.66>
3
E U E}
>>>.>
3
E U E}
a(g
DE/H>
3
E U E}
DE/H>
a(g
>65.:5
6.66@9; 6.6;@33 6.66>57:
6.6335> 6.63@77 6.66535
6.637>6 6.65>36 6.66;7:9
6.6556; 6.6>369 6.667:5:
6.6>375 6.6>79: 6.63353
6.6>75: 6.6@;57 6.63>95
6.6@5>; 6.65>53 6.63;@7
6.65535 6.6;656 6.63:56
6.6577: 6.6;955 6.65595
597.;
5>;.:5
3:5.>
396.35
3@5.6
357.5
335.6
366.;
7:.5
73.6>
95.:
;;.97
;6.;;
55.:7
53.5:
@9.;5
@>.:;
6.669
6.63
6.63
6.63
6.63
6.63
6.63
6.63
6.63
5.3@
5.>9
3.96
3.57
3.63
6.73
6.;9
6.5;
6.@7
Total area P 33.65
The integral
R E/H>, 3 dE/H>
}E/H>, 5 E/H> UE/H e?uals 33.65 and the height of the mass e8changer is>f E/H 3
>,#&dE/H>
fP
}0E a E/H>, 5 E/H> U E/H>
mol
>7C: 5m C s A33C65B P 5C>; mfP
mol
76 >m Cs
;>6 hapter >3 Mass=Transfer E?uipment
Recently enacted legislation re?uires that the effecti(eness of the a"sorption system, currently
employed to reduce the le(el of a pollutant in a process off=gas, must "e impro(ed to meet ne2 state
re?uirements. 'nder current operating conditions, 3>.; molDsC m5 of off=gas Jo2s countercurrent to
59.5 molDs C m5 of 2ater in the 35=m tall a"sor"er. The concentration of + is reduced from 5 to
6.5 molb.
*t has "een suggested that the re?uired concentration le(el in the off=gas may "e o"tained "y
dou"ling the 2ater rate in the e8isting to2er. *ts diameter is large enough to permit this higher Jo2
rate. *f it is assumed that the process is gas=Flm controlled and that the o(erall gas capacity
coefFcient, 0#a, is proportional to the mass (elocity of the sol(ent raised to the 6.@ po2er, determine
the concentration of + in the efJuent gas 2hen the same 35=m to2er and the same gas mass (elocity
are used 2ith the dou"led li?uid Jo2 rate.
E?uili"rium for the system is deFned "y a modiFed HenryHs la2T y} P 3C58+ .+
+s the concentrations are in the dilute range 2here the e?uili"rium cur(e is a straight line, the
height of the to2er may "e e(aluated "y e?uation A>3=>@B
fP
#Ay+3 U y+5 B
0# a,Ay+ U y} Blm+
EM+M,$E ;
+n o(erall material "alance on the e8isting system Asystem *B esta"lishes the composition of its
e8iting li?uid stream.
A3>C; molDs C m5 BA6C65 U 6C665B P A59C5 molDs C m5 BA8+3 U 6B
8+3 P 6C6695
The compositions at each end of the to2er for the e8isting system are
-ottom C y+3 P 6C65
8+3 P 6C6695
y} 3 P 3C58+3 P 3C5A6C6695B P 6C633>+
Top C y+5 P 6C665
8+5 P 6C6
#Ay+3 U y+5 B P $A8+3 U 8+5 B
y} 5 P 3C58+5 P 6C6+
Ay+ U y} Bend3 U Ay+ U y} Bend5+Q+
Ay+ U y} Bend3+
ln
Ay+ U y} Bend5+
For the e8isting to2er, Ay+ U y} Blm is e(aluated "y e?uation A>3=>5B+
Ay+ U y} Blm P+
A6C65 U 6C633>B U A6C665 U 6B
P 6C66;9
A6C65 U 6C633>B
ln
A6C665 U 6C6B
'pon su"stituting the !no2n (alues into e?uation A>3=>@B, 2e o"tain
P
A3>C; molDs C m5 BA6C65 U 6C665B
0# a* ,A6C66;9B
A3>C; molDs C m5 BA5C5@B
35 m P
0# a* ,
35 m P
A>3=>7B
When 2e consider the proposed system Asystem **B, 2e o"tain the follo2ing relationship 2ith
e?uation A>3=>@B
35 P
A3>C; molDs C m5 BA6C65 U y+5 B
0# a** ,Ay+ U y} Blm+ A>3=>:B
>3.; ontinuous=ontact E?uipment +nalysis ;>3
'pon e?uating and simplifying e?uations A>3=>7B and A>3=>:B, 2e o"tain

5C5@A6C65 U y+5 B
P
0# a * 0# a ** Ay+ U y} Blm **+
or

0# a ** A5C5@B A6C65 U y+5 B
P
0# a *Ay+ U y} Blm **+
A>3=@6B
+s the capacity coefFcient is proportional to the mass (elocity of the sol(ent raised to the 6.@ po2er,
the ratio of the capacity coefFcients is
Q6C@Q
0# a**$** 6C@A5@C@ molDs C m5 BA6C637 !gDmolB
PPP 3C>5A59C5 molDs C m5 BA6C637 !gDmolB0# a*$*
+ccordingly, e?uation A>3=@6B "ecomes

6C65 U y+5
P A3C>5BA5C5@B P 5C:5
Ay+ U y} Blm **+
A>3=@3B
This e?uation re?uires a trial=and=error solution. With a guess of y+5 P 6C6653, 2e can ma!e an
o(erall "alance to esta"lish 8+3 for the proposed system.
#Ay+3 U y+5 B P $A8+3 U 8+5 B
A3>C; molDs C m5 BA6C65 U 6C6653B P A5@C@ molDs C m5 BA8+3 U 6C6B
8+3 P 6C66@5
The compositions at each end of the proposed to2er Asystem **B are
-ottomC y+3 P 6C65
8+3 P 6C66@5
y} 3 P 3C58+3 P 3C5A6C66@5B P 6C66;9+
TopC y+5 P 6C6653 Aestimated (alueB
8+5 P 6C6
y} 5 P 3C58+5 P 3C5A6C6B P 6C6+
The Ay+ U y} Blm for the proposed to2er is e(aluated "y e?uation A>3=>5B+
Ay+ U y} Blm P+
Ay+ U y} Bend3 U Ay+ U y} Bend5+Q+
Ay+ U y} Bend3+
ln
Ay+ U y} Bend5+
A6C65 U 6C66;9B U A6C6653 U 6C6B
QP 6C66;69
A6C65 U 6C66;9B
ln
A6C6653 U 6C6B
Ay+ U y} Blm P+
6C65 U y+56C65 U 6C6653
P 5C:5}B P6C66;69
Ay+ U y+ lm
This satisFes e?uation A>3=@3BT as a result of the trial=and=error solution, the concentration of + in the
efJuent gas is 6.53b.
,ac!ed=To2er Diameter
The pac!ed to2er is the most commonly encountered continuous=contacting e?uipment in
gasOli?uid operations. + (ariety of pac!ing material is used, ranging from specially
designed ceramic or plastic pac!ing, as illustrated in Figure >3.@, to crushed roc!. The
pac!ing is chosen to promote a large area of contact "et2een the phases, 2ith a minimum
resistance to the Jo2 of the t2o phases. Ta"le >3.5 lists some of the properties of pac!ing
fre?uently used in the industry.
Ta"le >3.5 To2er ,ac!ing haracteristicsy
/ominal si<e, in. AmmB
,ac!ing
Raschig rings
eramic
e
cf
ap ft5 Dft>
Metal
e
cf
ap ft5 Dft>
-erl saddles
eramic
e
cf
ap ft5 Dft>
*ntalo8 saddles
eramic
e
cf
ap ft5 Dft>
,lastic
e
cf
ap ft5 Dft>
,all rings
,lastic
e
cf
ap ft5 Dft>
Metal
e
cf
ap ft5 Dft>
y
3
@
W;X
3
5
W3>X
>
@
W3:X
3 A55B
3 3 W>7X
5
5 A56B
6.9>
3;66
5@6
6.;:
966
5>;
6.;>
:6:
333
6.7@
>66
357
6.9>
555
76
6.77
355
7>.5
6.9>
355
57
6.:5
335
;5.9
6.93
:5
>7
6.9@
;5
57
6.;6
:66
59@
6.;>
5@6
3@5
6.;;
396
75
6.;:
336
9;
6.95
;5
@@
6.95
@5
>5
6.95
955
>66
6.97
566
3:6
6.99
3@5
365
6.995
:7
97
6.:3
>>
;>
6.73
55
5:.5
6.9:
@6
>;
6.:>
5;.5
>>
6.:6
55
;>
6.:@
@7
;>
6.:3
@6
>:
6.:5
57
>:
6.:5
55
>3
6.:;
56
>3
R. E. Trey"al, Mass=Transfer %perations, Mc#ra2=Hill -oo! ompany, /e2 Eor!, 3:76.
>3.; ontinuous=ontact E?uipment +nalysis ;>>
$og R,D<,
pressure
dropDheight
Flooding
-
36,
6 $d N
5,6
$d N
$d N
Dry
pac
!in
g, $d
,6 6
6
66
66 35
N6
$oading
+
$og #d , superficial gas mass (elocity
Figure >3.5@ Typical gas
pressure drop for countercurrent,
pac!ed to2er.
We ha(e pre(iously esta"lished that the height of a continuous=contact to2er is
determined "y the rate of mass transfer. The diameter of the to2er is esta"lished to handle
the Jo2 rates of the t2o phases to "e treated.
+s illustrated in Figure >3.5@, the pressure drop encountered "y the gas phase as it Jo2s
through the pac!ing is inJuenced "y the Jo2 rates of "oth phases. This is to "e e8pected
"ecause "oth phases 2ill "e competing for the free cross section that is a(aila"le for the
streams to Jo2 through. $et us consider a to2er operating 2ith a F8ed li?uid Jo2 rate, $6 T
"elo2 the region mar!ed +, the ?uantity of li?uid retained in the pac!ed "ed 2ill remain
6.@
6.5
6.36
6.67
6.6;
r#Ar$ O r#Bgc
#d 5cl$6.3J
6.6@
6.65
6.63
6.667
6.66;
6.66@
6.665
6.663
6.63
3566
766
@66
566
366
+ppro8imate
flooding
56
#as pressure drop
p l"fDft5
N ;.>9
ftf
in H5%
N 3.55@
ft
6.65 6.6@ 6.3
/Dm5
m
36O>
/Dm5
m
/Dm5
m
6.@
3D5
36O>
6.5 3.6 5 @ 36
r#$d
r$ O r##d
Figure >3.55 Flooding and pressure drop in random=pac!ed to2ers.
;>@ hapter >3 Mass=Transfer E?uipment
reasona"ly constant 2ith changing gas (elocities. +s the gas Jo2 rate increases, the
interphase friction increases and a greater ?uantity of li?uid is held up in the pac!ing. This is
!no2n as loading. Finally, at a certain (alue of the gas Jo2 rate, #6 , the holdup is so high that
the to2er starts to Fll 2ith li?uid. The to2er cannot "e operated a"o(e this Jooding (elocity,
2hich is a function of the li?uid (elocity, the Juid properties, and the characteristics of the
pac!ing.
*n Figure >3.55, a correlation is gi(en for the Jooding (elocity in a random pac!ed
to2er. +"sor"ers and desor"ers are designed to operate 2ell "elo2 the pressure drop that
is associated 2ith Jooding. Typically, they are designed for gas pressure drops of
566O@66 /Dm5 per meter of pac!ed depth. The a"scissa on this Fgure in(ol(es a ratio of
the superFcial li?uid and gas=mass Jo2 rates and the densities of the gas and li?uid phases. The
ordinate in(ol(es the superFcial gas=mass Jo2 rate, the li?uid=phase (iscosity, the li?uid
and gas densities, a pac!ing characteristic, cf, 2hich can "e o"tained from Ta"le >3.5, and t2o
constants. For &* units, gc e?uals 3, and J e?uals 3T for '.&. English units, m$ is in centipoise,
densities are in l"m Dft> , mass Jo2 rates are in l"m DAft5 BAhB, gc e?uals @.37 ` 367, and
J e?uals 3.565.
E8ample 7 2ill illustrate ho2 2e may e(aluate the diameter of a pac!ed to2er "y using
Figure >3.55.
EM+M,$E 7 + pac!ed to2er is to "e used to reduce the ammonia concentration in the gas stream from @ to 6.>b
"y (olume. + 2ater stream is fed to the top of the to2er at a rate of 5>3 gDs and the gas is fed
countercurrently at a rate of 6.5 m>Ds. The to2er, 2hich is pac!ed 2ith 5.5@=cm A3=inchB Raschig
rings, is operated isothermally at 5:> 0 and 3.63> ` 365 ,a.
Determine AaB the composition of the e8iting li?uid streamT A"B the diameter of the a"sorption
to2er if the gas pressure drop is limited to 566 /Dm5 per meter of pac!ing.
The concentration of the three !no2n streams may "e e8pressed on a /H>=free "asis
E/H> ,3 P
y/H> ,36C6@
PP 6C6@39
3 U y/H> ,3 6C:;
y/H> ,56C66>
PP 6C66>E/H> ,5 P
3 U y/H> ,5 6C::9
M/H> ,5 P 6C6
The gas enters the to2er at plane 3, and its molar Jo2 rate is

m>
A3C63> ` 365 ,aB6C56h1, 3s
C P C 3 P 7C>39 mol#3 P
+sRT +,a C m>
7C>3@A5:> 0Bmol C 0
mol 3C A6C:;B P 9C:7 mol C 3#& P #3 A3 U y/H>, 3 B P 7C>39
s+s+
The /H>=free 2ater Jo2 rate is
$& P $5 A3 U 8/H>T 5 B P 5>3
g
s
C
3
+
C
mol
37 g
C
3mol
P 35C7>
+s
C
3
+
-y an o(erall "alance for ammonia, the concentration of the e8iting li?uid stream can "e esta"lished.
$& AM/H> ,3 U M/H> ,5 B P #& AE/H> ,3 U E/H> ,5 B
mol 3C AM/H>, 3 U 6B P 9C:7 mol C 3 A6C6@39 U 6C66>B
35C7>
s+s+
M/H> ,3 P 6C65@
>3.;
or
8/H> ,3 P
The li?uid Jo2 rate at end 3 is
ontinuous=ontact E?uipment +nalysis ;>5
M/H> ,36C65@
P 6C65>@P
3 V M/H> ,3 3C65@
mol 3C35C7>
$&s
+ P 3>C3> mol$3 PP
3 U 8/H> ,3s3 U 6C65>@
C
3
+
The ma8imum mass Jo2 rates for "oth phases 2ill occur at end 3. +ccordingly, 2e 2ill use these
Jo2 rates to determine the diameter of the to2er.
%n a unit=area "asis, the li?uid stream at end 3 2ill contain 35.7> molDs and H5% 3>C3> U
35C7> P 6C> molDs /H> . The total mass Jo2 rate is

mol H5 % 337 gmol /H> 339 gg 3C CC CV 6C>P 5>;C3 C35C7>
s+mol+mols +s
The a(erage molecular 2eight of the gas is

mol /H>39 gmol air 5: gg
6C6@V 6C:;P 57C5
molmolmolmolmol
The total gas=mass Jo2 rate is

mol
7C>39
s
The ratio of the t2o mass Jo2 rates is

3 g g
57C5
P 5>9 s+mol
C C
3
+

g 3
5>;C3 s$6+
P gU 3 [ P 6C::;6
#
5>9 s +
/ote that this ratio can "e e(aluated 2ithout !no2ing either the diameter or the cross=sectional area.
The density of the gas stream entering the to2er is
r# P
n,
MW PMW P
1RT
3C63> ` 365 ,a
,a C m>
A5:> 0B7C>3@mol C 0
C 57C5
g
mol
P 3375 gDm> P 3C375 !gDm>
The density of the dilute a?ueous stream 2ill "e essentially that of 2ater at 5:> 0 that is ::7.5 !gDm>.
The a"scissa for Figure >3.55 "ecomes
3D53N5
$6r#3C375
P 6C::;P 6C6>@
::7C5 U 3C375#6 r$ U r#
+t a pressure drop of 566 /Dm5 per meter of pac!ing, this a"scissa (alue indicates an ordinate (alue of
6.6@:T conse?uently
A#6 B5 cf Am$ B6C3 J
6C6@: P
r# Ar$ U r# Bgc
'pon rearrangement
A#6 B5 P
6C6@:r# Ar$ U r# Bgc
cf Am$ B6C3 J
;>; hapter >3 Mass=Transfer E?uipment
From Ta"le >3.5, 2e e(aluate the cf for 3=in. Raschig rings to "e 355. The (iscosity of the
a?ueous stream at 5:> 0 is gi(en in +ppendi8 Ta"le * to "e ::>`36U; ,aC s.

!g!g
6C6@: 3C375 >::7C5 U 3C375 > A3C6B
mm6 5P 6C9@5A# B PU; ,a C sBA3C6BA355BA::> ` 36
!gg#6 P 6C7;> 5C s P 7;> m5 C sm
g 3g+s the gas feed rate, #6 , to the to2er is e?ual to 5>9 C and 7;> 5 , the cross=
sectional area of
s +m Cs
the to2er is
g
5>9 s5+Pg P 6C595 m
7;> 5m Cs
pD5
T accordingly, the diameter isThe area is
@
Q3D5
A6C595 m5 BA@B
DPP 6C5: m
p
>3.9 $%&'RE
ontinuous=contact mass e8changers are designed "y integrating an e?uation that relates
the mass "alance and the mass=transfer relations for a differential area of interfacial contact.
*n this chapter, 2e ha(e descri"ed the four maIor types of mass=transfer e?uipment.
The fundamental e?uations for the design of continuous=contact e?uipment ha(e "een
de(eloped. + mass "alance for the diffusing component + in terms of solute=free con=
centration units produced the follo2ing important operating line e?uationsC
steady=state countercurrent operations
#& AE+3 U E+5 B P $& AM+3 U M+5 B
and
#& dE+ P $& dM+
steady=state cocurrent operations
#& AE+3 U E+5 B P $& AM+5 U M+3 B
and
#& dE+ P U$& dM+
-ecause of the difFculty in measuring the interphase contact area 2ithin most mass=transfer
e?uipment, the factor a, the interphase surface area per unit (olume of the mass e8changer,
2as introduced. The product of the mass=transfer con(ecti(e coefFcient and the factor a 2as
designated the mass=transfer capacity coefFcient. The mass transferred in a differential
length per cross=sectional area 2as e8pressed in empirical e?uations, one of 2hich 2as
/+ a d9
For e?uipment in(ol(ing the continuous=contact "et2een t2o immisci"le phases, the
differential mass "alance and the differential mass=transfer e?uations 2ere com"ined to
produce the follo2ing design e?uationsC
onstant o(erall capacity coefFcient 0E a
<P
#&
0E a
fE+3
E+5
dE+
}AE+ U E+ B
The integral e(aluation must "e accomplished graphically.
1aria"le o(erall capacity coefFcient=allo2ance for resistance in "oth gas and li?uid phases
fE+3
<P
E+5
#& dy+
!# a ,Ay+ U y+i BA3 U y+ B5
This integral is also e(aluated graphically.
&traight e?uili"rium and operating lines on the 8Oy coordinatesKthe log mean dri(ing force
#Ay+3 U y+5 B
<P
!# a,Ay+ U y} Blm+
2here
Ay+ U y} Blm P+
Ay+ U y} B3 U Ay+ U y} B5++
} B DAy U y} B ^ln\Ay+ U y+ 3 ++
5
The similarity "et2een mass and energy transfer 2as further emphasi<ed in this
chapter. 'sing a com"ined term representing the total resistance, !# a as compared to '+,
and a total resistance, Ap+, # == p} B as compared to DTo(erall , 2e ha(e o"tained design+
e?uations for mass e8changers "y integrating o(er the area of contact.
,R%-$EM&
>3.3 + 57>=m> A36,666 ft> B "asin is to "e aerated 2ith si8
spargers, each sparger using air at the rate of 9C67 ` 36U> m5 Ds.
*f 57> 0 2aste2ater, initially containing a dissol(ed o8ygen
le(el of 5`36U> mmolD$ and Flling the "asin to a depth of
@.55 m, is aerated for :666 s, e(aluate the Fnal dissol(ed o8ygen
le(el. The dissol(ed solids content 2ill "e lo2 enough so that
HenryHs la2 2ill "e o"eyed, 2ith a HenryHs la2 constant of
>C59 ` 36@ atmDmole fraction.
>3.5 +n o<one, %>, sparger system has "een proposed for a
2ater=treatment plant. The incoming 2ater in a 76 m> pond has
"een stripped of all o<one=demanding su"stances, and the pH
is sufFciently lo2 such that the o<one decomposition 2ill "e
insigniFcant. The o<one "u""ler 2ill ha(e eight spargers, each
using a compressed gas feed containing @ mol b o<one. The
spargers 2ill "e located >.5 m "elo2 the surface of the pond and
each spargerHs gas rate 2ill "e 39.7 m>Dh. HenryHs la2 constant
for the o<oneO2ater system 2ill "e 6.6;99 atmDAmolDm>B
a. 'se the Ec!enfelder plot for o8ygen transfer factor,
!$ W+D1X, and e(aluate the !$ W+D1X for o<one, recalling that
the penetration theory predicts, for mass transfer from gas
"u""les into li?uids, that !$ W+D1X 2ill "e proportional to the
li?uid diffusi(ity raised to the po2er of 3D5. The diffusi(ity
of o8ygen in 2ater is 5C3@ ` 36U5 cm5 Ds and the diffusi(ity
of o<one into 2ater is 3C9 ` 36U5 cm5 Ds.
". Determine the time re?uired to raise the initially o<one=free
2ater in the pond to a concentration le(el of 6.35 molDm>.
>3.> + @55=m> W35,666 ft> X "asin Flled 2ith 2aste2ater is to "e
aerated 2ith 36 spargers, each sparger using air at the rate of
9C67 ` 36U> m5 Ds. Find the time that is necessary to raise the
dissol(ed o8ygen le(el in the 2aste2ater from 7 ` 36U5 to
5 ` 36U3 mmolD$ if the temperature of the 2ater is 57> 0 and
the depth of the 2ater a"o(e the spargers is >.5 m. The dissol(ed
solids content 2ill "e lo2 enough so that HenryHs la2 2ill "e
o"eyed,2ithaHenryHsla2constantof>.59`36@ atmDmolefraction.
>3.@ + @55=m> A35,666 ft> B "asin, e?uipped 2ith 36 gas dis=
persers of a ne2 design, is to "e installed for stripping
hydrogen sulFde, H5&, from 2aste2ater. The dispensers, each
to use air at a rate of 9C67 ` 36U> m> Ds, 2ill "e located at a depth
pac!ed a"sorption to2er and Jo2s countercurrent to an initially
1%=free sol(ent stream that 2as fed to the top of the to2er.
+t the gi(en temperature and pressure of the system, the e?ui=
li"rium of the system 2ill o"ey HenryHs la2 as represented "y
E1% P 6C5>;M1%
a. Determine the moles of sol(ent re?uired per mole of 1%=
free carrier gas if the e8iting gas stream is to contain only
6.5 mol b 1% and if 3.5 times the minimum sol(ent is used.
". Determine the mole fraction composition of the e8iting li?uid.
>3.; *t is desired to strip trichloroethylene, %5 Hl> , from a
contaminated ground2ater stream. The ground2ater, 2hich can
"e treated as a dilute 2ater stream, 2ill "e fed to the top of the
to2er operating at 577 0 and 3.63>`365 ,a. +n air stream,
Jo2ing countercurrent to the a?ueous stream, is to reduce the
TE concentration from @6 to 5mgN$. +t 577 0, the HenryHs
la2 constant for TEOair system is 33.9`36U> atmDAmolDm>B.
a. Determine the moles of 2aste2ater per mole of air if three
times the minimum air stream is used.
". Determine the concentration of the e8iting air stream.
>3.9 The a"sor"er for ,ro"lem >3.5 2ould ha(e "een e8ces=
si(ely tallT accordingly, (arious schemes are "eing considered
for using t2o shorter a"sor"ers side "y side. Ma!e freehand
s!etches of operating diagrams, sho2ing the operating line for
each to2er and the e?uili"rium line relati(e to the operating
lines, for each scheme. *ndicate, in general, 2here the concen=
trations of each stream 2ill "e 2ith respect to each other, "ut do
not compute the actual concentration.
of >.5 m A36.5 ftB "elo2 the li?uid surface. + preliminary
analysis of the 57> 0 2aste2ater indicates an initial H5&
concentration of 6.> mmolD$.
*n a pilot in(estigation of the proposed ne2 dispenser, the
designated Jo2 rate of 9C67 ` 36U> m> Ds 2as discharged from a
single dispenser located at >.5 m "elo2 the surface of the 2ater
held in a 57.>=m> A3666=ft>B tan!. This 2ater 2as maintained at
57> 0. +fter @ h of aeration, the dissol(ed o8ygen concentration
increased from 6.6@ to 6.55 mmolD$. -ased upon this pilot
in(estigation, determine
a. the 0$a for o8ygen for this ne2 dispenser 2hen it is
operated >.5 m "elo2 the li?uid surface 2ith the air Jo2
rate of 9C67 ` 36U> m> Ds. +t 57> 0, HenryHs la2 constant
for the o8ygenO2ater system is >.59`36@ atmDmole fraction.
". the 0$a for H5& for this ne2 dispenser 2hen it is operated
>.5 m "elo2 the li?uid surface 2ith the air Jo2 rate of
9C67 ` 36U> m> Ds. *f the penetration=theory model holds,
the capacity coefFcient, 0$ a, is proportional to the li?uid
mass diffusi(ity raised to the po2er of 3D5. The li?uid diffu=
si(ity of o8ygen in 2ater at 57> 0 is 5.3@ ` 36U5 cm5Ds and of
H5 & in 2ater at 57> 0 is 3.@ ` 36U5 cm5Ds.
c. the concentration of H5& in the @55=m> "asin after @h of
operation if the 2aste2aterHs initial H5& concentration is
6.> m moleD$. HenryHs la2 constant for H5&O2ater system at
57> 0 is 6.6>;9`36@ atmDmole fraction.
>3.5 +n e8haust stream lea(ing a semiconductor fa"rication
plant contains @ mol b (olatile organic chemical, 1%, pollu=
tant. T2enty=F(e cu"ic meters per minute enter the "ottom of a
E5,a
M5,a
M5,"
E5,"
AaB A"B
M5,a
M5,"
E5,"
A"B
E5,a
AaB
E3,a
M 3, a
M5,"
E3,"
E3,a
M3,"
M3,a
E3,"
&cheme A**B
&cheme A*B
M5,a
M5,"
E5,"
E5,a
AaB A"B
M3,a
E3,a
E3,"
M3,"
&cheme A***B
,ro"lems
>3.7 +nother designer 2as as!ed to propose a design for the
stripping of a pollutant from a li?uid solution. He decided to use
the same schemes of t2o to2ers side "y side as sho2n in ,ro"=
lem >3.9. Ma!e freehand s!etches of operating diagrams, sho2=
ing the operating line for each to2er and the e?uili"rium line
relati(e to the operating lines, for each scheme. *ndicate, in gene=
ral, 2here the concentrations of each stream 2ill "e 2ith respect
to each other, "ut do not compute the actual concentration.
>3.: +n a"sor"er is "eing used "y an industrial company as a gas
scru""er. + dilute airOammonia mi8ture, containing 5.6 mol b /H>
is dra2n through the to2er countercurrent to an initially ammonia=
free 2ater stream. The inlet gas stream rate is 3>; molDm5C s and the
inlet /H> =free 2ater rate is >.@ !gDm5C s. +t the temperature and
pressureofthea"sor"er,thee?uili"riumconcentrationsarerelated"y
y/H> P 3C695 8/H>
*f the e8iting gas stream is to contain only 6.5 mol b ammonia,
determine
a. the composition of the e8iting li?uid streamT
". the ratio of the actual $s D#s is larger than the minimum $s D#s .
c. the composition of the li?uid stream Jo2ing "y the gas
stream 2hen the gas mi8ture contains 5.6 mol b ammonia.
>3.36 The a"sor"er used in ,ro"lem >3.: is no2 going to "e
used "y the same industrial company to reduce a dilute airO
ammonia mi8ture from @.:> mol b /H> to the desired 6.5
mol b /H>. The inlet gas rate 2ill "e 3>; molDm5C s and the inlet
/H> =free 2ater rate 2ill Jo2 countercurrent to the rising gas
stream, Jo2ing at an actual $sD#s ratio that is 3.@ times the
minimum $sD#s ratio. +t that Jo2 rate, the o(erall mass=transfer
capacity coefFcient, 0E a, is estimated to "e e?ual to 369 molDm5 C
s C DE+ . +t the temperature and pressure of the a"sor"er, the
e?uili"rium concentrations are related "y
y/H> P 3C695 8/H>
Determine
a. the !g of ammonia a"sor"ed per second per s?uare meters of
cross=sectional areaT
". the height of pac!ing re?uired for the a"sorption process.
>3.33 + scheme for the remo(al of H5& from a gas stream "y
scru""ing 2ith 2ater at 5:> 0 and 3.63>`365 ,a is "eing
considered. The li?uid 2ill initially contain >.9 mol b H5&. *t
is desired that the e8iting gas stream contains only 6.5 mol b
H5&. The a"sor"ing 2ater 2ill enter at the top of the to2er that is
H5& free. +t the gi(en temperature and pressure of the system,
the e?uili"rium of H5&O2ater 2ill o"ey HenryHs la2 according to
the follo2ing relationshipC
EH5 & P @7C> MH5 &
a. For a countercurrent a"sor"er, determine the moles of 2ater
that are re?uired per mole of H5&=free carrier gas if 3.5 times
the minimum ratio 2ill "e used.
". Determine the composition of the e8iting li?uid.
;>:
>3.35 -en<ene freed from coal gas in a scru""er is reco(ered
"y passing the "en<eneO2ash oil solution through a to2er in con=
tact 2ith steam. The entering li?uid stream contains 9 mol b "en=
<ene and the steam is "en<ene free. *t is desired to reco(er 75b of
the "en<ene "y using a steam rate 3.@ times the minimum steam
rate. + 2ash=oil Ali?uid sol(ent="en<ene freeB Jo2 rate of ;.:@
molDs 2ill "e used. Determine the re?uired moles of steam if
a. a countercurrent to2er is usedT
". a cocurrent to2er is used.
E?uili"rium data for the "en<eneO2ash oilOsteam system are as
follo2s
M
mole "en<ene
6.66
mole 2ash oil
E
mole "en<ene
6.66
mole steam
6.69 6.3@ 6.55 6.>3 6.@65 6.535 6.;5
6.65 6.6@ 6.6; 6.67 6.36 6.35 6.3@
>3.3> +n a"sor"er is to "e designed to remo(e a 1% pollutant
from an e8haust gas stream. Fifteen cu"ic meters per minute of
gas at 57: 0 and 3.63>`365 ,a containing 5.6 mol b 1% is
fed to the "ottom of the a"sorption to2er. -y feeding a 1%=free
sol(ent stream to the top of the to2er, the 1% concentration
is reduced to 6.> mol b. The sol(ent stream lea(es the to2er con=
taining >.;5 mol b 1%. With the speciFed stream Jo2 rates, the
o(erall mass=transfer capacity coefFcient, 0E a, e?uals 55.6 molD
s C m5 C DE+. The cross=sectional area of the to2er is 6.5 m5.
+t 5:7 0, the e?uili"rium for the 1%=sol(ent system may
"e represented "y
E+ P 6C7 M+
Determine the hight of the to2er.
>3.3@ + to2er, 35 cm in diameter, is to "e used to lo2er the
ammonia, /H>, concentration in a gas stream from >.; to
6.> mol b. Water is fed to the top of the to2er at a rate of
3@.5 molDs and the gas stream is fed to the "ottom at a rate of
7 molDs. The to2er operates isothermally at 5:> 0 and 3.63> `
365 ,a. The o(erall mass=transfer capacity coefFcient, 0E a, may
"e assumed to e?ual 93 molDm5C s C DE+. The e?uili"rium data
at 5:> 0 are as follo2sC
M
mole /H>
mole /H> =free 2ater
6.66 6.63;@ 6.6555 6.6>@: 6.6@@5 6.6955
E
mole /H>
mole /H> =free air
6.66 6.653 6.6>5 6.6@5 6.65> 6.676
E(aluate
a. the ratio A$&D#&Bactual to A$&D#&BminimumT
". the height of to2er re?uired, "y graphical integration.
>3.35 + to2er, 35 cm in diameter, is to "e used to lo2er the
ammonia, /H>, concentration in a gas stream from >.; to
;@6 hapter >3 Mass=Transfer E?uipment
Determine the height of pac!ing re?uired if the sol(ent
lea(es the "ottom of the to2er containing >.65 mol b mer=
captan, the o(erall mass=transfer capacity coefFcient, 0Ea,
e?uals @6.6 molDm5.s.DE+, and the cross=sectional area of the
to2er is 6.5 m5.
>3.3: +n a"sor"er pac!ed to the height of @.5 m 2ith 3.6=in.
Raschig rings has "een designed to reduce the concentration
le(el of a mercaptan pollutant in an e8haust stream from 5.6 to
6.> mol b. + non(olatile, mercaptan=free sol(ent stream 2ill "e
fed to the top of the to2er and 2ill Jo2 countercurrent to
6.5>; m>Ds of the e8haust gas stream. The sol(ent lea(es the
"ottom of the to2er containing >.65 mol b mercaptan. +t the
pressure and temperature of the to2er, 5:> 0 and 3.63>`365 ,a,
the e?uili"rium data for the mercaptan=sol(ent system are as
follo2sC
M
moles mercaptan
mole mercaptan=free sol(ent
M
moles mercaptan
mole mercaptan=free air
6.66
6.66
6.63
6.66@5
6.65
6.63@5
6.6>
6.6>36
6.6@
6.65@5
6.> mol b. Water is fed to the top of the to2er at a rate of
3@.5 molDs and the gas stream is fed to the "ottom at a rate of
7 molDs. The to2er operates isothermally at 5:> 0 and
3.63>`365 ,a. The o(erall mass=transfer capacity coefFcient,
0E a, may "e assumed to e?ual 93 molDm5 C s C DE+. The e?uili=
"rium data at 5:> 0 are as follo2sC
mole /H>
mole /H> =free 2ater
E
mole /H>
mole /H> =free air
6.66 6.653 6.6>5 6.6@5 6.65> 6.676
M 6.66 6.63;@ 6.6555 6.6>@: 6.6@@5 6.6955
Determine the height of the to2er using a modiFed E?ua=
tion A>3=>@B.
>3.3; + mass=transfer to2er is to "e designed for reducing a
1% concentration from 6.6>:@ to 6.63>3 mg molD$. Fi(e
thousand gallons per hour of 2aste2ater 2ill "e fed to the
6.; m diameter to2er, countercurrent to a stripping air stream
that 2ill enter the to2er free of any 1%. *f a (olumetric Jo2
rate .$Am>DhB to a gas Jo2 rate #AmolDhB of 3.5 is used, the
o(erall mass=transfer capacity coefFcient, 0$a, 2ill e?ual 6C63Ds.
The e?uili"rium data at the pressure and temperature of the to2er
are
c+, moles 1%Dm>
y+,1%
6.63@
6.637
6.65@6
6.6>6
6.6>@:
6.6@5
6.6@:7
6.65>
Determine the diameter of the to2er if the gas pressure drop
2ithin the pac!ing is limited to >66 /Dm> of pac!ing. The gas
enters the to2er 2ith an a(erage molecular 2eight of >6.3 and
the li?uid stream, lea(ing the "ottom of the to2er, has an a(erage
molecular 2eight of 376, a speciFc gra(ity of 6.73 and a
(iscosity of >.:`36U> ,aC s.
>3.56 +n a"sor"er is to "e designed for reducing a process off=
gas, initially containing 35.5b to 6.@b Hl "y (olume. Hl=free
2ater at 5:> 0 and 3.63>`365 ,a pressure 2ill "e fed to the top
of a pac!ed, 6.;=m=diameter column, Jo2ing countercurrent to
the rising gas stream. ,reliminary design calculations indicate
that an operating $sD#s ratio should "e 3.;@ times the minimum
$sD#s ratio. With these Jo2 rates, the o(erall mass=transfer
capacity coefFcient, 0#a, may "e ta!en as 7.7 !g molDm>C sC ,a.
The e?uili"rium relation for solutions of Hl in 2ater at 5:> 0 is
gi(en "y the follo2ing dataC
MHl
EHl
6.536
6.665>
6.5@>
6.66:5;
6.579
6.6535
6.>>6
6.655>
6.>5>
6.6755
6.>95
6.3>5
6.@66
6.56>
6.@55
6.>55
Determine
a. the minimum gas Jo2 rate that might "e usedT
". the height of the to2er.
>3.39 The a"sorption of 2ater in sulfuric acid is an e8othermic
process. Descri"e the effect this 2ould ha(e on the re?uired
height of a mass=transfer column as compared to the height that is
e(aluated if isothermal conditions are assumed.
>3.37 +n a"sor"er is to "e designed to reduce the concentra=
tion le(el of a mercaptan pollutant in an e8haust stream from 5.6
to 6.> mol b. + non(olatile, mercaptan=free sol(ent stream 2ill
"e fed to the top of the to2er and 2ill Jo2 countercurrent to
6.5>; m>Ds of e8haust gas stream. The to2er is to operate at
5:> 0 and 3.63>`365 ,aT at these conditions, the e?uili"rium
data for the mercaptan=sol(ent system are as follo2sC
M
moles mercaptan
mole mercaptan=free sol(ent
moles mercaptan
6.66
6.66
6.63
6.66@5
6.65
6.63@5
6.6>
6.6>36
6.6@
6.65@5
E
mole mercaptan=free air
Determine
a. the percentage of Hl to "e remo(ed "y the a"sorption
processT
". the e8it concentration of the acid streamT
c. *f 5 m>Dmin of process off=gas, measured at 5:> 0 and
3.63>`365 ,a pressure, are "lo2n into the to2er, determine
the height of ceramic pac!ing re?uired in the a"sor"er.
/omenclature
a
a
ap
+
+i
+p
c
c+
c +o
c+,i
c+,$
c+,s
c+T3
ci
cp
D
f
f
H
sf
dc
dp
D
D+-
D+e
D6
+e
D+,mi8
De?,
D0+
Do
+-
dpore
ds
e
interphase mass=transfer area per unit (olumeT ft5Dft>, m5Dm>.
accelerationT ftDs5, mDs5.
pac!ing characteristicT ft5Dft>, m5Dm>.
areaT ft5, m5.
interphase mass=transfer areaT ft5, m5.
proIected area of surfaceT ft5, m5T e?uation A35=>B.
total molar concentrationT l" molDft>T molDm>.
concentration of + in e?uili"rium 2ith the "ul! composition of gas phase,
,+C# T l" molDft>T molDm>.
concentration of + at time t P 6T l" molDft>T molDm>.
li?uid molar concentration of + at the interfaceT l" molDft>, molDm>T &ection 5:.5.
li?uid molar concentration of + in the "ul! streamT l" molDft>, molDm>T
&ection 5:.5.
concentration of + at the surfaceT l" molDft>, molDm>.
concentration of + in the "ul! streamT l" molDft>, molDm>.
molar concentration of species iT l" molDft>, molDm>T e?uation A5@=@B.
heat capacityT -tuDl" 7F, JD!g 0.
dimensionless concentrationT dimensionless.
a(erage random molecular (elocityT mDsT &ections 9.> and 35.5.
capacity rate of cold Juid streamT -tuDh 7F, !WD0T e?uation A55=3B.
drag coefFcientT dimensionlessT e?uation A35=>B.
coefFcient of s!in frictionT dimensionlessT e?uation A35=5B.
pac!ing characteristicT dimensionless.
capacity rate of hot Juid streamT -tuDh 7F, !WD0T e?uation A55=3B
correlating coefFcient for nucleate "oilingT dimensionlessT Ta"le 53.3.
diameter of cylinderT ft, m.
diameter of spherical particleT ft, m.
tu"e diameterT ft, m.
mass diffusi(ity or diffusion coefFcient for component + diffusing through
component -T ft5Dh, m5DsT e?uation A5@=35B.
effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of species + 2ithin straight poresT ft5Ds, m5Ds.
effecti(e diffusion coefFcient of species + 2ithin random poresT ft5Ds, m5Ds.
diffusion coefFcient of species + in a multicomponent mi8tureT ft5Ds, m5Ds.
e?ui(alent diameterT ft, mT e?uation A3>=37B.
0nudsen diffusion coefFcient of species +T ft5Ds, m5Ds.
diffusion coefFcient of solute + in sol(ent - at inFnite dilutionT ft5Ds, m5Ds.

pore diameterT +, nm.

molecular diameterT +, nm.
pipe roughnessT in., mmT &ection 3>.3.
;@3
;@5 /omenclature
e
E
E
E
E"
f
f6
fD
ff
F
F
Fii
F iI
g
gc
#
#
#
#6
#"
#M
#s
h
h fgT solute
h$
hr
H
H
Hi
DHs
DH(, +

Hi
*
I6
ID
IH
Ii
J
Ji
!
!
speciFc energy or energy per unit massT -tuDl"m, JD!gT &ection ;.3.
total energy of systemT -tu, JT &ection ;.3.
total emissi(e po2erT -tuDh ft5, WDm5T e?uation A5>=5B.
electrical potentialT 1T &ection 35.5.
"lac!"ody emissi(e po2erT -tuDh ft5, WDm5T e?uation A5>=35B.
dependent (aria"le used in the -lasius solution of "oundary layerT dimension=
lessT e?uation A35=3>B.
similarity parameter for con(ecti(e analysis of "oundary layer, prime denotes
deri(ati(e 2ith respect to hT dimensionlessT e?uation A3:=3;B.
Darcy friction factorT dimensionlessT e?uation A3>=@B.
Fanning friction factorT dimensionlessT e?uation A3>=>B.
forceT l"f, /T &ection 3.5.
correction factor for compact heat=e8changer conFgurationsT dimensionlessT
e?uation A55=3@B.
(ie2 factor for radiant heat transferT dimensionlessT &ection 5>.9.
reradiating (ie2 factorT dimensionlessT &ection 5>.:.
acceleration due to gra(ityT ftDs5, mDs5.
dimensional con(ersion factorT >5.5 ft l"mDl"f s5, 3 !g [ mDs5 [ /.
irradiationT -tuDh ft5, WDm5T &ection 5>.9.
mass (elocityT l"mDft5 h, gDm5 [ s.
total moles of the gas phase per time per cross=sectional areaT l" molDft5 h,
g molDm5 [ sC
superFcial gas=mass Jo2 rateT l"mDh ft5T &ection >3.;.
mass (elocity of "u""lesT l"mDft5 s, !gDm5 [ sT e?uation A53=@B.
molar (elocityT l" molDft5 h, g molNm5 [ s.
moles of gas stream on a solute=free "asis per time per cross=sectional areaT l"
molDft5 h, g molDm5 [ s.
con(ecti(e heat=transfer coefFcientT -tuDh ft5 7F, WDm5 [ 0T e?uation A35=33B.
heat of (apori<ation of soluteT -tuDl"m, !JD!g.
head loss, D,DrT ft l"fDl"m, ,aDA!gDm>BT &ection 3>.3.
radiation heat=transfer coefFcientT -tuDh ft5 7F, WDm5 [ 0T &ection 5>.35.
HenryHs la2 constantT concentration of gas phaseDconcentration of li?uid phase.
moment of momentumT l"m ft5Ds, !g [ m5 DsT e?uation A5=9B.
enthalpy of species iT -tu, J.
integral heat of solutionT -tuDl" mol of soluteT JDg mol of solute.
enthalpy of (apori<ation for species +T -tuDl" mol, JDg mol.
partial molar enthalpy of species iT -tuDl" mol, JDmol.
intensity of radiationT -tuDh ft5, WDm5T &ection 5>.>.
I factor for heat transfer 2ith tu"e "undlesT dimensionlessT Figures 56.35
and 56.3>.
I factor for mass transfer, hilton=ol"urn analogyT dimensionless.
I factor for heat transfer, ol"urn analogyT dimensionlessT e?uation A3:=>7B.
mass Ju8 relati(e to the mass=a(erage (elocityT l"mDft5 h, !gDm5 [ sT
e?uation A5@=39B.
radiosityT -tuDh ft5, WDm5T &ection 5>.36.
molar Ju8 relati(e to the molar=a(erage (elocityT l" molDh ft5, molDm5 [ sT
e?uation A5@=35B.
thermal conducti(ityT -tuDh ft 7F, WDm [ 0T e?uation A35=3B.
rate constant for chemical reaction, used to deFne r+ and R+T &ection 55.3.
/omenclature ;@>
!6
!c
!c
!#
!$
!#a
! $a
0#
0$
0 #a
0 $a
0 Ma
0E a
$
$
$
$e?
$m
$s
m
m
m
M
Mi
n
n
n
/
n
ni
ni
/i
/T'
}
p+
p+,#
p+,i
pi
p-,lm
mass=transfer coefFcient 2ith no net mass transfer into FlmT l" molDft5 s Dc+ T
molDm5 [ s [ Dc+ .
con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcientT l" molDft5 h Dc+ T molDm5 [ s [ molDm> .
mean con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcientT l" molDft5 h Dc+ T molDm5 [ s [
molDm> .
con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcient in the gas phaseT l" molDft5 h atm,
molDm5 [ s [ ,a.
con(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcient in the li?uid phaseT l" molDft5 h l" molDft>,
molDm5 [ s [ molDm> .
indi(idual gas=capacity coefFcientT l" molDh ft> atm, molDs [ m> [ ,a.
indi(idual li?uid=capacity coefFcientT l" molDh ft>Dc+ T molDs [ m> [ molDm> .
o(erall mass=transfer coefFcient in the gas phaseT l" molDh ft5 atm,
molDs [ m5 [ ,a.
o(erall mass=transfer coefFcient in the li?uid phaseT l" molDh ft5Dc+ T molDs [
m5 [ molDm> .
o(erall gas=capacity coefFcientT l" molDh ft> atm, molDs [ m> [ ,a.
o(erall li?uid=capacity coefFcientT l" molDh ft>Dc+ T molDs [ m> [ molDm> .
o(erall li?uid=capacity coefFcient "ased on DM+ dri(ing forceT l" molDh
ft>DM+ , molDs [ m> [ DM+.
o(erall gas=capacity coefFcient "ased on DE+ dri(ing forceT l" molDh
ft>DE+ , molDs [ m> [ DE+.
mi8ing lengthT e?uations A35=55B, A3:=@3B, and A57=@>B.
characteristic lengthT ft, m.
total moles of li?uid phase per time per cross=sectional areaT l" molDh ft5,
molDs [ m5 .
e?ui(alent lengthT ft, mT e?uation A3>=39B.
molar li?uid=mass (elocityT l" molDh ft5, molDs [ m5 .
moles of li?uid phase on a solute=free "asis per time per cross=sectional areaT
l" molDh ft5, molDs [ m5 .
mass of moleculeT &ection 9.>.
relati(e resistance P D+- D!c 83 T dimensionlessT &ection 59.@.
slope of the e?uili"rium lineT units of gas concentration per units of li?uid
concentration.
momentT l"m ft5Ds5, !g [ m5 Ds5 .
molecular 2eight of species iT l"Dl" mol, !gD!g mol.
pac!ed "ed constantT dimensionlessT e?uation A>6=>>B.
num"er of species in a mi8tureT e?uations A5@=3B, A5@=>B, and A5@=;B.
relati(e position P 8D83 T dimensionlessT &ection 59.@.
molecules per unit (olumeT &ection 9.>.
out2ard directed unit normal (ectorT &ections @.3, 5.3, ;.3.
num"er moles of species i.
mass Ju8 relati(e to a set of stationary a8esT l"mDh ft5, !gDs [ m5 .
molar Ju8 relati(e to a set of stationary a8esT l" molDh ft5, molDs [ m5 .
num"er of transfer unitsT dimensionlessT &ection 55.@.
partial pressure of + in e?uili"rium 2ith "ul! composition in li?uid phase,
c+,$ T atm, ,a.
partial pressure of component + in the "ul! gas streamT atm, ,aT &ection 5:.5.
partial pressure of component + at the interfaceT atm, ,aT &ection 5:.5.
partial pressure of species iT atm, ,a.
log mean of partial pressure of the nondiffusing gasT atm, ,a.
;@@ /omenclature
,
,
,+
,
,c
,i
,g
?
|?
.
.
r
r
rcrit
R
R
Rt
r+
R+
s
&
&
t
te8p
T
T
T"
Tc
Tf
Tsat
u
'
h1
(8
(y
(<
(3
(V
(
(
(i
(i U (
(i U 1
1
1"
1c
1
W
total pressureT atm, ,a.
po2er input for stirred tan! of li?uidT / [ mDs.W.
(apor pressure of pure (olatile li?uid species +T l"f DinC5 , ,a.
total linear momentum of systemT l"m ftDs, !g [ mDsT e?uation A5=3B.
critical pressureT atm, ,a.
(apor pressure of species iT atm, ,a.
po2er input for aerated stirred tan! of li?uidT / [ mDs., W.
heat Jo2 rateT -tuDh, WT e?uation A35=3B.
(olumetric energy generation rateT -tuDh ft>, WDm>T e?uation A3;=3B.
heat transferT -tu, JT &ection ;.3.
acti(ation energy for solid diffusion coefFcientT JDg mol.
radial distance in "oth cylindrical and spherical coordinatesT ft, m.
radiusT ft, m.
critical radius of insulationT ft, mT e?uation A39=3>B.
radius of sphere, ft, m.
gas constantT 6.9> atm ft>Dl" mol 7F, 7C>3@ ,a [ m> Dmol [ 0.
thermal resistanceT h FD-tu, 0DWT e?uation A35=3;B.
rate of the production of mass + 2ithin the control (olumeT l"m Dft> hT !gDm> [ s.
rate of production of moles + 2ithin control (olumeT l" molDft> hT molDm> [ s.
surface rene2al factor.
shape factorT ft or mT e?uation A35=3:B.
partition coefFcient for dissolution of a gas into a solidT !g molDm> [ ,a.
timeT h, s.
time of e8posureT s.
a"solute temperatureT 7R, 0.
dimensionless temperatureT dimensionless.
normal "oiling temperatureT 0.
critical temperatureT 0.
Flm temperatureT 7F, 0T e?uation A3:=57B.
temperature of saturated li?uid=(apor mi8turesT 7F, 0T Figure 53.3.
mean molecular speedT ftDs, mDs.
o(erall heat=transfer coefFcientT -tuDh ft5 7F, WDm5 [ 0T e?uation A35=39B.
(olumetric Jo2 rate of JuidT ft>Ds, m>Ds.
8 component of (elocity, (T ftDs, mDs.
y component of (elocity, (T ftDs, mDs.
< component of (elocity, (T ftDs, mDs.
free stream (elocity of Jo2ing JuidT ftDs, mDs.
dimensionless (elocity.
(elocity, ftDs, mDs.
mass=a(erage (elocity for multicomponent mi8tureT ftDs, mDs e?uation A5@=3>B.
(elocity of species iT ftDs, mDs.
diffusion (elocity of species i relati(e to mass=a(erage (elocityT ftDs, mDsT
&ection 5@.3.
diffusion (elocity of species i relati(e to the molar=a(erage (elocityT ftDs, mDsT
&ection 5@.3.
(olumeT ft>, m>.
molecular (olume at the normal "oiling point, cm>Dg mol.
critical molecular (olumeT cm>Dg mol.
molar=a(erage (elocityT ftDs, mDs e?uation A5@=3@B.
2or! doneT -tu, JT &ection ;.3.
/omenclature ;@5
2+
Ws
Wd
Wt
8
8+
M+
MD
y
yV
y+
y-,lm
y6
n
E
E
E+
<
<
f
f
a
a
a
a
"
"
d
d
dc
di
Dlm
e
e
e
e+-
eD
eH
ei
eM
h
h
hF
u
u
u
ug
2
mass rate of Jo2 of species +T l"mDh, gDs.
shaft 2or!T -tu, JT &ection ;.3.
normal stress 2or!T -tu, JT &ection ;.3.
shear 2or!T -tu, JT &ection ;.3.
rectangular coordinate.
mole fraction in either li?uid or solid phaseT dimensionlessT e?uation A5@=9B.
mole of +Dmole of +=free li?uid.
relati(e time, D+- tD85 T dimensionlessT &ection 59.>.3
dimensionless distanceT e?uation A35=;6B.
mole fraction in the gas phase.
log=mean mole fraction of the carrier gas.
log fraction of component n in a gas mi8ture on species i=free "asisT
e?uation A5@=@:B.
parameter in heat e8changer analysisT dimensionlessT e?uation A55=35B.
unaccomplished changeT dimensionlessT &ection 59.@.
mole of +Dmole of +=free gas.
distance in the < directionT ft, m.
2all collision fre?uencyT e?uation A9=7B.
parameter in heat=e8changer analysisT dimensionlessT e?uation A55=3>B.
a"sorpti(ityT dimensionlessT &ection 5>.5.
thermal diffusi(ityT ft5Dh, m5DsT e?uation A3;=39B.
ratio of Ju8es, /-D/+T dimensionless.
pac!ed="ed constant.
"ul! modulus of elasticityT l"fDft, /Dm e?uation A3=33aB.
coefFcient of thermal e8pansionT 3D 7F, 3D0T e?uation A3:=36B.
"oundary layer thic!nessT ft, mT e?uation A35=57B.
thic!ness of stagnant or laminar layerT ft, m.
concentration "oundary layer thic!nessT ft, m.
thermal "oundary layer thic!nessT ft, mT e?uation A3:=55B.
}log=mean concentration difference, Wy+ U y+ Xlm T dimensionlessT
e?uation A>3=>5B.
emissi(ityT dimensionlessT e?uation A5>=5B.
(olume (oid.
pac!ing characteristicT dimensionless.
a $ennard=Jones parameterT erg.
eddy mass diffusi(ity, ft5Dh, m5Ds.
eddy thermal diffusi(ityT ft5Dh, m5DsT &ection 3:.9.
a $ennard=Jones parameterT erg.
eddy momentum diffusi(ity or eddy (iscosityT ft5Dh, m5DsT e?uation A35=55B.
dependent (aria"le used "y -lasius in solution of "oundary layerT dimensionlessT
e?uation A35=35B.
similarity parameter for con(ection analysisT dimensionlessT e?uation A3:=39B.
Fn efFciencyT dimensionlessT &ection 39.>, Figure 39.33.
temperature parameter P T U T3 T 7F, 0T &ection 39.>.
fractional (oid space of a catalyst.
angle in cylindrical or spherical coordinatesT rad.
correlating constant.
reduced pore diameterT dimensionless.
;@; /omenclature
!
l
l
l
lTs
m
m-
mc
n
n
p
r
r
r
ri
s
s
s+
s +-
si
s ii
t
ti I
t6
f
f
f
(
(i
(D5
#
D
DTlm
E
F-
1
1D
1!
1m
-olt<mann constantT 3C>7 ` 36U3; ergD0.
molecular mean free pathT &ections 9.>, 35.5, and 5@.5.
2a(e length of thermal radiationT mmT &ection 5>.@.
ionic conductanceT A+Dcm5BA1DcmBAg e?ui(alentDcm>B.
latent heat of (apori<ationT -tuDl" mol, JDg mol.
(iscosityT l"mDft s, ,a [ sT e?uation A9=@B.
(iscosity of sol(ent -T cp.
chemical potential of gi(en speciesT -tuDmol, JDmol.
fre?uencyT H<T &ection 5>.3.
!inematic (iscosity, mDrT ft5Ds, m5Ds.
pi groups in dimensional analysisT &ections 33.>, 3>.3, 3:.>, and 57.>.
density of a JuidT l"mDft>, !gDm>T &ection 3.5.
mass density of mi8tureT l"mDft>, !gDm>.
reJecti(ityT dimensionlessT &ection 5>.5.
mass concentration of species i, l"mDft>, !gDm>.
surface tensionT l"fDft, /Dm.
&tefan=-olt<mann constantT 6C393@ ` 36U7 -tuDh ft5 F@ , 5C;95 ` 36U7 WDm5 [
0@ T e?uation A35=3>B.

$ennard=Jones molecular diameter of species +T +, nm.

$ennard=Jones parameterT +.

a $ennard=Jones parameterT +.
normal stressT l"fDin.5, /Dm5T &ection 3.5.
transmissi(ityT dimensionlessT &ection 5>.5.
shear stressT l"fDin.5, /Dm5T &ection 3.5.
shear stress at the surfaceT l"f Din.5, /Dm5T e?uation A35=>6B.
(elocity potentialT &ection 36.@.
angle in spherical coordinatesT rad.
argument of error functionT dimensionless.
angular (elocityT 3Ds.
mass fraction of species iT dimensionless.
(orticityT e?uation A36=@B.
Jo2 rate of condensate Flm per 2idthT l"mDft s, !gDm [ sT e?uation A53=3>B.
}y+ U y+ dimensionlessT e?uation A>3=>3B.
logarithmic=mean temperature differenceT 7F, 0T e?uation A55=:B.
heat=e8changer effecti(enessT dimensionlessT e?uation A55=39B.
association parameter.
stream functionT &ection 36.5.
solid angleT radT &ection 5>.>.
collision integralC +ppendi8 0.
$ennard=Jones collision integralT e?uation A35=9B and +ppendi8 0.
$ennard=Jones collision integralT e?uation A9=36B and +ppendi8 0.
D*ME/&*%/$E&& ,+R+METER&
-i
Eu
Fo
Fr
#r
#r+-
-iot num"er, Ah1D+BD!T e?uation A37=9B.
Euler num"er, ,Dr(5 T e?uation A33=5B.
Fourier num"er, atDA1D+B5T e?uation A37=7B.
Froude num"er, ( 5Dg$T e?uation A33=@B.
#rashof num"er, "gr5 $> DTDm5 T e?uation A3:=35B.
mass=transfer #rashof num"er, $> gDr+ Drn> T e?uation A57=:B.
/omenclature ;@9
#<
$e
/u
/u+-
,e
,e+-
,r
Re
&c
&h
&t
&t+-
#raet< num"er, WpD@XWDD8X Re ,rT &ection 56.5.
$e2is num"er, !Drc p D+- T e?uation A57=>B.
/usselt num"er, h$D!T e?uation A3:=;B.
mass=transfer /usselt num"er, !c$DD+-T e?uation A57=9B.
,eclet num"er, D(rcp D ! P Re ,rT &ection 56.5.
mass=transfer ,eclet num"er, D(DD+- P Re &cT Ta"le >6.3.
,randtl num"er, nDa P mcp D!T e?uation A3:=3B.
Reynolds num"er, $(rD m P $(D nT e?uation A33=9B.
&chmidt num"er, mDrD+- T e?uation A57=5B.
&her2ood num"er, !c$DD+-T &ection 57.>.
&tanton num"er, hDr(cp T e?uation A3:=7B.
mass=transfer &tanton num"er, !c D( 3 .
M+THEM+T*+$ %,ER+T*%/&
DDDtsu"stantial deri(ati(eT e?uation A:=@B.
di( +or N [ +, di(ergence of a (ector.
erf fthe error function of fT +ppendi8 $.
e8p 8or e8, e8ponential function of 8.
ln 8logarithm of 8 to the "ase e.
log368logarithm of 8 to "ase 36.
YYY
N P e8 V ey V e< .
Y8YyY<
+ppendi8
+
Transformations of the
5%perators N and N to
ylindrical oordinates
THE %,ER+T%R N */ E$*/DR*+$ %%RD*/+TE&
*n artesian coordinates, N is 2ritten as
N P e8
YYY
V eyV e<
Y8YyY<
A+=3B
When transforming this operator into cylindrical coordinates, "oth the unit (ectors and
the partial deri(ati(es must "e transformed.
+ cylindrical coordinate system and a artesian coordinate system are sho2n in
Figure +.3. The follo2ing relations are o"ser(ed to e8ist "et2een the artesian and
cylindrical coordinatesC
y
B
2hereas, from the chain rule
+s
Figure +.3 ylindrical and
artesian coordinates.
;@7
+ppendi8 + ;@:
thus
Y
Y8

Ysin u Y
P cos uU
YrrYu
YY YrY Yu
PV
YyYr YyYu Yy
A+=@B
*n a similar manner,
2here
Yry
P P sin u
Yyr
Thus, WYNYyX "ecomes
Y
Yy
and
Yu3cos u
PP
Yy 8 sec5 ur

Ycos u Y
P sin uV
YrrYu
A+=5B
The unit (ectors must also "e transformed. Resol(ing the unit (ectors into their 8=, y=, and
<=direction components, 2e o"tain
e< P e<
e8 P er cos u U eu sin u
ey P er sin u V eu cos u
&u"stituting the a"o(e relations into e?uation A+=3B, 2e o"tain
YYsin u cos u YYsin5 u Y5P er cos u U erU eu sin u cos u V eue8
Y8YrrYuYrr Yu
YYsin u cos u YYcos5 u Y5
eyP er sin u V erV eu sin u cos u V eu
YyYrrYuYrr Yu
and
e<
YY
P e<
Y<Y<
W+=;X
W+=9X
W+=7X
+dding the a"o(e relations, 2e o"tain, after noting that sin5 u V cos5 u P 3,

Yeu YY
VV e<N P er
YrY<r Yu
A+=:B
;56 +ppendi8 +
THE %,ER+T%R N5 */ E$*/DR*+$ %%RD*/+TE&
+ unit (ector may not change magnitudeT ho2e(er, its direction may change. artesian unit
(ectors do not change their a"solute directions, "ut in cylindrical coordinates "oth er and eu
depend upon the angle u. +s these (ectors change direction, they ha(e deri(ati(es 2ith
respect to u. +s er P e8 cos u V ey sin u and eu P Ue8 sin u V ey cos u it may "e seen that
Y
er P 6T
Yr
2hereas
Y
er P eu
Yu
and
Y
eu P Uer
Yu
/o2 the operator N5 P N
N
Y
eu P 6
Yr
A+=36B
A+=33B
Y eu YY
V e<er V
Yr r YuY<
N and thus
Yeu YY
VV e<er
YrY<r Yu
N P N5 P
,erforming the indicated operations, 2e o"tain
Y
er
Yr
eu Y
r Yu
or
eu Y
r Yu
and
Y
e<
Y<
Thus, the operator N5 "ecomes
Y53 Y3 Y5Y5
V 5 5 V 5N P 5 V
r Yrr YuYrY<
5
Y5
NP
Yu
eu
NP
r

YYeu
erV
YuYrr

Y eu Y
Yu r Yu
NP
3 Y3 Y5
V 5 5
r Yr r Yu
Y5
NP 5
Y<
A+=35B
or

3 YY3 Y5Y5
rN PV 5 5V 5
r YrYrr YuY<
5
A+=3>B
+ppendi8
-
&ummary of Differential
1ector %perations in 1arious
oordinate &ystems
+RTE&*+/ %%RD*/+TE&
oordinate system
Figure -.3 'nit (ectors at the point A8, y, <B.
#radient
N, P
Di(ergence
N ( P
url
Y( 8 Y( y Y( <
VV
Y8YyY<
A-=5B
Y,Y,Y,
e8 Vey Ve<
Y8YyY<
A-=3B
7 :
__ Y( < Y( y
__
_
_
_ Yy U Y< e8 ___
__
___ _
N] Y(Y( <8UN`(Pey
__ Y<Y8
__
___ _
__ Y(__Y( 8__y_Ue< _TC
Y8Yy
Y5T Y5T Y5T
N TP 5V 5V 5
Y8YyY<
5
A-=>B
$aplacian of a scalar
A-=@B
;53
;55 +ppendi8 -
E$*/DR*+$ %%RD*/+TE&
oordinate system
Figure -.5 'nit (ectors at the point Ar, u, <B.
#radient
N, P
Di(ergence
N ( P
url
3 Y3 Y( u Y( <
Wr( r X VV
r Yrr YuY<
A-=;B
Y,3 Y,Y,
er Veu Ve<
Yrr YuY<
A-=5B
:7
_
_ 3 Y( < U Y( u e__
__r__ r YuY<__
__
____N]
Y( rY( <
N`(PUeu
__ Y<Yr__
_)__Qd ___
__ 3 YY( r__
_
TCWr( u X Ue< _
r YrYu

3 YYT3 Y5TY5T
N T PrVV 5
r YrYrr Yu5Y<5
5
A-=9B
A-=7B
&,HER*+$ %%RD*/+TE&
oordinate system
Figure -.> 'nit (ectors at the point Ar, u, fB.
+ppendi8 - ;5>
#radient
N, P
Di(ergence
N[(P
url
3 Y 53Y3 Y( f
Wr ( r X VW( u sin uX V
r 5 Yrr sin u Yur sin u Yf
A-=36B
Y,3 Y,3 Y,
er Veu Vef
Yrr Yur sin u Yf
A-=:B
7Q :
YY( u__ 3
__
_
_
_ r sin u YuW( f sin uX U Yf er ___
__
__
__Q
N]
3 Y( r3Y
Wr( f X euUN`(P
__ r sin u Yfr Yr
__
__
__Q
__3 Y__Y( r__
__
Wr( u X UefTC
r YrYu
A-=33B

3 YYT3YYT3Y5T55N TP 5
rsin u
V 5V 5
r YrYrr sin u YuYur sin5 u Yf5
A-=35B
+ppendi8
&ymmetry of the &tress Tensor

The shear stress ti I can "e sho2n to "e e?ual to t ITi "y the follo2ing simple argument.
onsider the element of Juid sho2n in Figure .3. The sum of the moments on the element
2ill "e related to the angular acceleration "y
M
|M P *(
A=3B
Figure .3 Free "ody of element
2here * is the mass moment of inertia of the element. &u"stituting into e?uation A=3B
WD85 V Dy5 X |
(<UWty8 D8 D<XDy V Wt8y Dy D<XD8 P r D8 Dy D<
35
2here the moment of inertia of a rectangular prism has "een used for the element.
The (olume of the element D8 Dy D< may "e canceled to yield
5
D8 V Dy5 |
(< P t8y U ty8A=5Br
35
/o2 the difference in shear stress is seen to depend upon the si<e of the element. +s the
element shrin!s to a point. D8 and Dy approach <ero independently, and 2e o"tain, in the
limit,
t 8y P ty8
or, as this can "e done a"out any a8is,
ti I P t Ii
+nother 2ay to loo! at e?uation A=5B is to determine the angular acceleration (< as the
element shrin!s to a point. The angular acceleration at a point must "e FniteT hence, ty8
and t8y must "e e?ual.
;5@
+ppendi8
D
The 1iscous ontri"ution
to the /ormal &tress
The normal stress, s, may "e di(ided into t2o partsC the pressure contri"ution, U,, and a
(iscous contri"ution, s ( . The (iscous contri"ution to the normal stress is o"tained "y
analogy 2ith Hoo!eHs la2 for an elastic solid. *n Hoo!eHs la2 for three=dimensional stress,
the normal stress, s 8,8 in the 8 direction is related to the strains in the 8, y, and < directions "y3
5#h
Ae8 V ey V e< Bs 8,8 P 5#e8 VAD=3B
3 U 5h
2here # is the share modulus, h is ,oissonHs ratio, and e is the a8ial strain.
When /e2tonHs (iscosity relation 2as discussed, the shear strain in a solid 2as seen to
"e analogous to the rate of shear strain in a Juid. +ccordingly, the a8ial strain in a solid, e 8 ,
is ta!en to "e analogous to the a8ial strain rate in a Juid, Y( 8 DY8.
When the (elocity deri(ati(es are su"stituted for the strains in e?uation AD=3B, and the
(iscosity is used in place of the shear modulus, 2e o"tain
As 8,8 B(iscous P 5m
Y( 8
V lN [ (
Y8
AD=5B
Here the sum of the strain=rate deri(ati(es is o"ser(ed to "e e?ual to N [ (, and the second
coefficient has "een designated l and is called the "ul! (iscosity or second (iscosity
coefficient. The total normal stress in the 8 direction "ecomes
s 8,8 P U, V 5m
Y( 8
V lN [ (
Y8
AD=>B
*f the corresponding normal stress components in the y and < directions are added
together, 2e o"tain
s 8,8 V s y,y V s <,, V W5m V >lXN [ (
so that the a(erage normal stress s is gi(en "y

5m V >l
s P U, VN[(
>
3
+ more familiar form is
s 8,8 P
E
\A3 U hB e8 V hAey V e< B^
A3 V hBA3 U 5hB
The shear modulus # has "een replaced 2ith its e?ui(alent, ED5A3 V hB.
;55
;5; +ppendi8 D
5
Thus, unless l P U m, the a(erage stress 2ill depend upon the Jo2 properties rather
>
5
than the Juid property, ,. &to!es assumed that l P U m, and e8periments ha(e indicated
>
that l is of the same order of magnitude as m of air. +s N [ ( P 6 in an incompressi"le Jo2,
the (alue of l is of no concern e8cept for compressi"le Juids.
The resulting e8pressions for normal stress in a /e2tonian Juid are
s 8, 8 P U, V 5m
Y( 8 5
U mN [ (
Y8 >
Y( y 5
U mN [ (
Yy >
Y( < 5
U mN [ (
Y< >
AD=@B
s y, y P U, V 5m
AD=5B
s <, < P U, V 5m
AD=;B
+ppendi8
E
The /a(ierO&to!es E?uations
for onstant r and m in
artesian, ylindrical, and
&pherical oordinates
+RTE&*+/ %%RD*/+TE&
8 direction
5
Y( 8Y( 8Y( 8Y( 8Y,Y (8 Y 5 (8 Y 5 (8
V rg8 V mV (8V (yV (<rVVAE=3BPU
Y8YtY8YyY<Y85Yy5Y<5
y direction
5
Y( yY( yY( yY( yY (y Y 5 (y Y 5 (yY,
V rgy V mV (8V (yV (<VVAE=5BPUr
YyYtY8YyY<Y85Yy5Y<5
< direction
5
Y( <Y( <Y( <Y( <Y,Y (< Y 5 (< Y 5 (<
V rg< V mV (8V (yV (<VVAE=>BPUr
Y<YtY8YyY<Y85Yy5Y<5
E$*/DR*+$ %%RD*/+TE&
r direction

(5Y( rY( r( u Y( rY( ru
rV (rVUV (<
YtYrr YurY<
Q
Y,Y 3Y3 Y5(r5 Y( uY 5 (r
V rgr V mWr( r X V 5 5 U 5PUV
YrYr r Yrr Yur YuY<5
u direction

Y( uY( u( u Y( u(r (uY( u3 Y,
V rguV (rVVV (<PUr
r YuYtYrr YurY<
Q
Y 3Y3 Y5(u5 Y( rY5(u
Wr( u X V 5 5 V 5VVm
Yr r Yrr Yur YuY<5
AE=@B
AE=5B
;59
;57 +ppendi8 E
< direction

Y( <Y( < ( u Y( <Y( <
V (rVV (<r
YtYrr YuY<
Q
Y,3YY( <3 Y5(< Y5(<
V rg< V mrPUV 5 5 V
Y<r Yrr YuYrY<5
AE=;B
&,HER*+$ %%RD*/+TE&3
r direction
r
( f Y( rY( rY( r( u Y( r
V (rVVUU
YtYrr Yur sin u Yfrr
(5f
(5u
Q
Q
AE=9B
Y,55 Y( u55 Y( f
V rgr V m N5 ( r U 5 ( r U 5U 5 ( u cot u U 5PU
Yrrr Yurr sin u Yf
u direction
s4
Y( 5 cot u( f Y( uY( uY( u( u Y( u(r (ufV
(rVVVUr
3 Y,5 Y( r(u5 cos u Y( f
V rgu V m N5 ( u V 5U 5 5 U 5PU
r Yur Yur sin u r sin5 u Yf
f direction

Y( fY( f ( u Y( f( f Y( f ( f ( r(u (f
V (rVVVVcot ur
(f3 Y,5 Y( r 5 cos u Y( u
V rgf V m r5 ( f U 5 5 V 5PUV
r sinu Yfr sin u r sin u Yf r 5 sin5 u Yf
Q
AE=9B
Q
AE=9B
3
*n the a"o(e e?uations,

3 YY3YY3Y5
rV 5sin uV 5r P 5
r Yr Yrr sin u YuYur sin u Yf5
5
+ppendi8
F
harts for &olution
of 'nsteady
Transport ,ro"lems
Ta"le F.: &ym"ols for unsteady=state charts
,arameter
sym"ol
'naccomplished change, a dimensionless ratio
Relati(e time
Relati(e position
Relati(e resistance
T P temperature
c+ P concentration of component +
8 P distance from center to any point
t P time
! P thermal conducti(ity
hT !c P con(ecti(e=transfer coefficients
a P thermal diffusi(ity
D+- P mass diffusi(ity
Molecular
mass transfer
c+3 U c+
c+3 U c+6
D+- t
85
3
8
83
D+-
!c 83
Heat
conduction
T3 U T
T3 U T6
at
85
3
8
83
!
h83
E
M
n
m
&u"scripts C
6 P initial condition at time t P 6
3 P "oundary
+ P component +
3 P reference condition for temperature
;5:
;;6 +ppendi8 F
3.6
mN
8
mN;
83
&la"
83
mN5
mN5
mN3
6.36
n N 3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.6
mN3
E
m N 6.5
n N 3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.6
mN6
mN6
6.636
m N 6.5
n N 3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.6
mN6
nN3
n N 6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.6
6.6636
6 3.6 5.6 >.6
M
@.6 5.6 ;.6
Figure F.3 'nsteady=state transport in a large Jat sla".
+ppendi8 F
3.6
mNI
mN;
8
83
;;3
mN5
ylinder
mN5
n N 3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.6
6.36
mN3
E
mN6 mN6 mN3
n N 3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.6
m N 6.5
6.636
m N 6.5
mN6
nN3
n N 6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.6
n N 3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.6
6.6636
6 6.5 3.6 3.5
M
5.6 5.5 >.6 >.5
Figure F.5 'nsteady=state transport in a long cylinder.
;;5 +ppendi8 F
3.6
mN
8
mN;
83
&phere
mN5
6.36
mN5
n N 3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.6
E
n N 3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.6
m N 6.5
6.636
m N 6.5
mN3
mN6 mN6
mN3
mN6
nN3 6.6636 6 6.5
n N 6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.63.6 3.5
n N 3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.5
6.65.6 M 5.5 >.6 >.5 Figure F.> 'nsteady=state transport in a sphere.
+ppendi8 F
;;>
3.6
6.7
6.@
6.5
6.3
6.67
6.6@
6.65
6.@
3. 35 3@ 6
6.
7
6.9
:
36
9 7
Ec N ATc O T BD
AT6 O T B
6.63
6.67 5
;
6.66@
6.665
6.663
6
5 @ ; 7 36 353@ 3;37 5655 5; >6 56
5M N atD83
Figure F.@ enter temperature history for an inFnite plate.
mN
!
h83
,late
366
76
;6
:6
96
56
@5
>5
5
6.
6.
;
6.>
@6
>6
55
> @
6.5
5.5 6.65 56373;
5 3.73.; 3.@3.5 6.3
6
96 :6
336 3>6 356>66 @66 566 ;66 966
566
3.6
6.7
ylinder
6.@
6.5
@
>.6
5
>.5
55
37
6.3
6.67
6.6@
3@
6.65
Ec N ATc O T BD
AT6 O T B
6.63
6.67
6.66@
6.665
6.663
6
5 @ ; 7 35 3@ 3; 37 56 55
;;@
+ppendi8 F
5M N atD83
Figure F.5 enter temperature history for an inFnite cylinder.
mN
!
h83
36
6
:6
96
56
3;
5.
6
76
5
5.
;6
;
3.
3.
7
36
35
@5
3.5
56
3.@
7
6.7 6.; 3.6 6.5
6.3
6.@
6
@6 >5>6
; 9 :
6.5 6.>
5; >6 56 96 :6 336 3>6 356 566 >66 >56
3.6
6.7
6.@
6.5
6.3
6.67
6.6@
6.65
>
5.;
5.5
3@
mN
:6
96
56
!
h83
366
&phere
76
36 35
5.7
;6
@5
Ec N ATc O T BD
AT6 O T B
5.
: @6
7
@
>6
7
3. 9 5.
6
3.@
;
>5
3.
; 6.63
6.67
6.66@
6.665
6.663
6 6.5 3.6 3.5 5.6 5.5
5
55
56 3;
6.3
6.65
6
@
5
6.9
6.>5
Figure F.; enter temperature history for a sphere.
+ppendi8 F
6.5 6.5 3.5 3.6
> @ 5 ; 9 7 : 36
5M N atD83
>.5
56 >6
37
@6 56 :6 3>6 396 536 556
;;5
;;; +ppendi8 F
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
n N 6.66
6.5 6.@ 6.; 6.7
5a tD83
3.6 3.5 3.@
@.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.95
6.56
6.55
6.36
m N 6.66
6.3
6.6
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
n N 6.56
6.5 6.@ 6.; 6.7
5a tD83
@.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.95
6.56
6.55
6.36
m N 6.66
6.3
6.6 3.6 3.5 3.@
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
n N 6.@6
6.5 6.@ 6.;
@.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.95
6.56
6.55
6.36
m N 6.66
6.7
5a tD83
3.6 3.5 3.@
6.3
6.6
Figure F.9 harts for solution of unsteady transport pro"lemsC Jat plate.
+ppendi8 F
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
n N 6.;6
6.5 6.@
m N 6.66
6.; 6.7
5a tD83
55
@.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.95
6.56
55
@.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.95
6.56
6.55
6.36
3.6 3.5 3.@
;;9
6.3
6.6
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
6.55
6.3
6.6
n N 6.76
6.5
m N 6.66
6.@
6.36
6.; 6.7
5a tD83
55
;.6
@.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.95
6.56
m N 6.36 6.55
3.6 3.5 3.@
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
n N 3.66
6.3
6.66.5
6.@ 6.; 6.7
5a tD83
3.6 3.5 3.@
Figure F.9 ontinued.
;;7 +ppendi8 F
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
n N 6.6
6.5
m N 6.66
6.@
6.55
6.; 6.7
5a tD83
36.6
;.6
@.6
>.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.95
m N 6.66
6.@
6.55
6.; 6.7
5a tD83
6.56
3.6 3.5 3.@
36.6
;.6
@.6
>.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.95
6.56
3.6 3.5 3.@
6.3
6.6
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
n N 6.5
6.5
6.3
6.6
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
36.6
;.6
@.6
>.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.95
m N 6.66 6.55 6.56
n N 6.@
6.3
6.66.5
6.@ 6.; 6.7
5a tD83
3.6 3.5 3.@
Figure F.7 harts for solution of unsteady transport pro"lemsC cylinder.
+ppendi8 F
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
36.6
;.6
@.6
>.6
5.6
3.5
3 .6
n N 6.;
m N 6.66
6.3
6.6 6.5 6.@
6.55
6.;
6.56
6.7
5a tD83
366
36.6
;.6
@.6
>.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
6.5
n N 6.7
6.3
6.6
m N 6.66
6.5 6.@
6.55
6.;
6.56
6.7
5a tD83
366
36.6
;.6
@.6
>.6
5.6
3.5
3.6
3.6 3.5 3.@
6.95
3.6 3.5 3.@
6.95
;;:
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
3.6
6.7
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
m N 6.55 6.56 6.95
n N 3.6
6.3
6.66.5 6.@ 6.; 6.7
5a tD83
3.6 3.5 3.@
Figure F.7 ontinued.
;96 +ppendi8 F
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
3.56
6.5
n N 6.6 6.36
6.55
6.@
6.56
6.;
6.95
6.7
5a tD83
3.66
3.6 3.5 3.@
36.6
;.66
@.66
>.66
5.66
m N 6.66
6.3
6.6 6.5
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
3.56
6.5
n N 6.5 6.36
6.55
6.@
6.56
6.;
6.95
6.7
5a tD83
3.66
3.6 3.5 3.@
36.6
;.66
@.66
>.66
5.66
m N 6.66
6.3
6.6 6.5
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
n N 6.@
6.3
6.6
6.36
6.55
6.@
6.56
6.;
6.95
6.7
5a tD83
3.66
3.6 3.5 3.@
m N 6.66
6.5
5.66
3.56
36.6
;.66
@.66
>.66
Figure F.: harts for solution of unsteady transport pro"lemsC sphere.
+ppendi8 F
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
5.66
3.56
n N 6.; 6.36
6.55
6.@
6.56
6.;
3.66
6.95
6.7
5a tD83
3.6 3.5 3.@
36.6
;.66
@.66
>.66
;93
m N 6.66
6.3
6.6 6.5
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
6.36nN
6.7
6.3 m N 6.66
6.6 6.5
36.6
;.66
@.66
>.66
5.66
3.56
3.66
6.55
6.@
6.56 6.95
6.; 6.7
5a tD83
3.6 3.5 3.@
3.6
6.7
AT O T BDAT6 O T
B
6.;
6.@
6.>
6.5
6.36nN
3.6
6.55
6.3 m N 6.36
6.6 6.5
36.6
;.66
@.66
>.66
5.66
3.56
3.66
6.56
6.@
6.95
6.; 6.7
5a tD83
3.6 3.5 3.@
Figure F.: ontinued.
+ppendi8
#
,roperties of the
3
&tandard +tmosphere
Ta"le #.3 English units
h
AftB
6
3,666
5,666
>,666
@,666
5,666
;,666
9,666
7,666
:,666
36,666
33,666
35,666
3>,666
3@,666
35,666
3;,666
39,666
37,666
3:,666
56,666
53,666
55,666
5>,666
5@,666
55,666
5;,666
59,666
57,666
5:,666
T
A7FB
5:.66
59.@@
53.79
@7.>3
@@.9@
@3.37
>9.;5
>@.65
>6.@:
5;.:5
5>.>;
3:.76
3;.5>
35.;9
:.36
5.5@
3.:7
U3.5:
U5.35
U7.95
U35.57
U35.7@
U3:.@3
U55.:9
U5;.5@
U>6.36
U>>.;;
U>9.5>
U@6.9:
U@@.>;
a
AfpsB
3339
333>
336:
3365
3365
36:7
36:@
36:6
367;
3675
3697
369@
3696
36;;
36;5
3657
365@
3656
36@;
36@3
36>9
36>>
365:
3655
3653
3639
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6.56:
6.555
6.5@>
6.55:
6.57:
,r
"`36>
A3D FB
g"r5 Dm5 `36U:
A3D F [ ft> B
3.59
3.9;
3.:@
5.6:
5.>7
5.;5
5.79
>.3;
>.96
@.35
@.76
5.5@
@6
;6
76
366
356
566
556
>66
@66
566
;66
766
Mercury
3.>3
3.5@
3.37
3.3@
3.6;
3.65
6.:96
6.:57
6.75;
6.76>
6.95@
6.;:7
@.55
@.;@
@.95
@.76
5.6>
5.55
5.@5
5.;5
;.65
;.@>
;.76
9.@5
6.65:5
6.6596
6.6555
6.65>:
6.6536
6.63:3
6.6395
6.63;6
6.63>9
6.633:
6.6365
6.6679
6.67@
;:6
T
A7FB
+ppendi8 *
r
Al"m Dft> B
57.3
59.;
59.5
5;.>
55.5
5@.;
55.:
53.5
@7.9
cp
A-tuDl"m FB
6.>>5
6.>57
6.>5@
6.>39
6.>6:
6.>65
6.>6@
6.>6@
6.>65
m ` 36>
Al"m Dft sB
6.@7:
6.@57
6.>97
6.>65
6.557
6.55@
6.376
6.355
6.356
n ` 36;
Aft5 DsB
7.@>
9.@>
;.;3
5.>;
@.;@
@.33
>.@6
5.:9
5.@9
!
A-tuDh ft FB
&odium
@:.7
@:.>
@7.7
@9.>
@5.5
@>.3
>7.7
>;.6
>@.5
a
5 DhBAft
" ` 36>
A3D FB
g"r5 Dm5 ` 36U;
A3D F [ ft> B
;7.6
79.@
336
3;7
55@
579
@37
5@7
9:5
,r
566
556
>66
@66
566
;66
766
3666
3>66
5.57
5.;6
5.;@
5.;;
5.;@
5.57
5.@3
5.>3
5.>3
6.6337
6.636>
6.66:6>
6.66955
6.66;>>
6.6659@
6.66536
6.66@;>
6.66>75
6.35
+ppendi8
J
Mass=Transfer Diffusion
oefficients in -inary &ystems
Ta"le J.3 -inary mass diffusi(ities in gasesy
&ystem
+ir
+mmonia
+niline
-en<ene
-romine
ar"on dio8ide
ar"on disulFde
hlorine
Diphenyl
Ethyl acetate
Ethanol
Ethyl ether
*odine
Methanol
Mercury
/aphthalene
/itro"en<ene
n=%ctane
%8ygen
,ropyl acetate
&ulfur dio8ide
Toluene
Water
+mmonia
Ethylene
+rgon
/eon
ar"on dio8ide
-en<ene
ar"on disulFde
Ethyl acetate
T A0B
59>
5:7
5:7
5:>
59>
59>
59>
@:3
59>
5:7
5:>
5:7
5:7
;3@
5:7
5:7
5:7
59>
>35
59>
5:7
5:7
5:>
5:>
>37
>37
>3:
D+- ,Acm5 atmDsB
6.3:7
6.695;
6.6:;5
6.6:3
6.3>;
6.677>
6.35@
6.3;6
6.696:
6.3>5
6.67:;
6.67>@
6.3;5
6.@9>
6.6;33
6.67;7
6.6;65
6.395
6.6:5
6.355
6.67@@
6.5;6
6.399
6.>5:
6.6935
6.6935
6.6;;;
D+- ,Am5 ,aDsB
5.66;
6.9>5
6.:9@
6.:5>
3.>97
6.7:@
3.55;
3.;53
6.937
3.>>9
6.:67
6.7@5
3.;@3
@.9:3
6.;3:
6.79:
6.;36
3.99>
6.:>5
3.5>;
6.755
5.;>@
3.9:>
>.>>>
6.95@
6.95@
6.;95
AcontinuedB
;:3
;:5 +ppendi8 J
Ta"le J.3 AontinuedB
&ystem
Ethanol
Ethyl ether
Hydrogen
Methane
Methanol
/itrogen
/itrous o8ide
,ropane
Water
ar"on mono8ide
Ethylene
Hydrogen
/itrogen
%8ygen
Helium
+rgon
-en<ene
Ethanol
Hydrogen
/eon
Water
Hydrogen
+mmonia
+rgon
-en<ene
Ethane
Methane
%8ygen
Water
/itrogen
+mmonia
Ethylene
Hydrogen
*odine
%8ygen
%8ygen
+mmonia
-en<ene
Ethylene
T A0B
59>
59>
59>
59>
5:7.;
5:7
5:7
5:7
5:7
59>
59>
577
59>
59>
5:7
5:7
5:>
5:>
5:7
5:>
5:>
59>
59>
59>
59>
5:>
5:>
5:7
577
59>
59>
5:>
5:;
5:>
D+- ,Acm5 atmDsB
6.6;:>
6.65@3
6.556
6.35>
6.365
6.3;5
6.339
6.67;>
6.3;@
6.353
6.;53
6.3:5
6.375
6.;@3
6.>7@
6.@:@
3.;@
3.5>
6.:67
6.7@:
6.996
6.>39
6.@>:
6.;55
6.;:9
6.756
6.5@3
6.3;>
6.9@>
6.696
6.373
6.55>
6.6:>:
6.375
D+- ,Am5 ,aDsB
6.965
6.5@7
5.595
3.556
3.6;@
3.;95
3.375
6.79@
3.;;3
3.5>6
;.5:5
3.:@5
3.79@
;.@:>
>.7:6
5.66@
3;.;3>
35.@;6
:.3:7
7.;66
9.766
>.533
@.@@9
;.>>3
9.6;3
7.;33
5.@@3
3.;53
9.559
6.96:
3.7>@
5.5;>
6.:53
3.7@@
R. . Reid and T. 0. &her2ood, The ,roperties of #ases and $i?uids, Mc#ra2=Hill, /e2 Eor!, 3:57,
hapter. 7.
y
+ppendi8 J
Ta"le J.5 -inary mass diffusi(ities in li?uidsy
&olute +
hlorine
Hydrogen
chloride
&ol(ent -
Water
Water
Temperature
A0B
57:
59>
57>
57:
597
577
57>
5:>
5:3
&olute concentration
Ag molD$ or !g molDm>B
6.35
:
5
:
5.5
6.5
>.5
3.6
6
6
6.65
6.5
3.6
>.6
5.@
6
3.6
6.63
3.6
>.95
6.65
5.6
6
6
5.6
;:>
Diffusi(ity Acm5Ds `
365 or m5 Ds ` 36: B
3.5;
5.9
3.7
>.>
5.5
5.@@
3.5@
3.99
3.@;
3.99
3.5;
3.53
3.5@
3.>;
3.5@
3.57
6.75
6.:3
6.:;
6.56
6.7>
6.:6
6.99
>.5
3.55
+mmonia
ar"on dio8ide
&odium
chloride
Water
Water
Water
Methanol
+cetic acid
Water
Water
577
575.5
5:3
57>
57:
577
5:6
5:>
Ethanol Water
n=-utanol
ar"on dio8ide
hloroform
y
Water
Ethanol
Ethanol
R. E. Trey"al, Mass Transfer %perations, Mc#ra2=Hill, /e2 Eor!, 3:55, p. 55.
Ta"le J.> -inary diffusi(ities in solidsy
&olute
Helium
Hydrogen
-ismuth
Mercury
+ntimony
+luminum
admium
y
&olid
,yre8
/ic!el
$ead
$ead
&il(er
opper
opper
Temperature
A0B
5:>
99>
>57
@>7
5:>
5:>
5:>
5:>
5:>
Diffusi(ity
Acm Ds or m5Ds `36@ B
5
Diffusi(ity
Aft5DhB
3C9@ ` 36U36
9C9; ` 36U7
@C5 ` 36U7
@C69 ` 36U9
@C59 ` 36U3;
:C9 ` 36U35
3C>; ` 36U56
5C6@ ` 36U>6
3C65 ` 36U3@
@C@: ` 36U33
5C66 ` 36U7
3C3; ` 36U7
3C65 ` 36U9
3C36 ` 36U3;
5C56 ` 36U35
>C53 ` 36U53
3C>6 ` 36U>6
5C93 ` 36U35
R. M. -arrer, Diffusion *n and Through &olids, Macmillan, /e2 Eor!, 3:@3.
+ppendi8
0
$ennardOJones onstants
Ta"le 0.3 The collision integrals, 1m and 1D "ased on the $ennardOJones potentialy
1m P 1!
Afor (iscosity
and thermal
conducti(ityB
5.975
5.;57
5.@:5
5.>;7
5.559
5.35;
5.6;5
3.:75
3.:67
3.7@3
3.976
3.955
3.;95
3.;5:
3.579
3.5@:
3.53@
3.@75
3.@55
3.@5@
3.>::
3.>95
3.>5>
3.>>>
3.>3@
3.5:;
3.59:
3.5;@
1m P 1!
Afor (iscosity
and thermal
conducti(ityB
3.5>@
3.553
3.56:
3.3:9
3.37;
3.395
3.35;
3.3>7
3.355
3.369
3.6:>
3.673
3.6;:
3.657
3.6@7
3.6>:
3.6>6
3.655
3.63@
3.669
6.::::
6.::>5
6.:796
6.:733
6.:955
6.:966
6.:;@:
6.:;66
6.:55>
1D
Afor mass
diffusi(ityB
3.357
3.33;
3.365
3.6:@
3.67@
3.695
3.659
3.6@3
3.65;
3.635
6.:::;
6.:797
6.:996
6.:;95
6.:59;
6.:@:6
6.:@6;
6.:>57
6.:55;
6.:37;
6.:356
6.:657
6.7::7
6.7:@5
6.7777
6.77>;
6.7977
6.79@6
6.7;:@
AcontinuedB
!TD e
1D Afor mass
diffusi(ityB
!TD e
3.95
3.76
3.75
3.:6
3.:5
5.66
5.36
5.56
5.>6
5.@6
5.56
5.;6
5.96
5.76
5.:6
>.66
>.36
>.56
>.>6
>.@6
>.56
>.;6
>.96
>.76
>.:6
@.66
@.36
@.56
@.>6
6.>6
6.>5
6.@6
6.@5
6.56
6.55
6.;6
6.;5
6.96
6.95
6.76
6.75
6.:6
6.:5
3.66
3.65
3.36
3.35
3.56
3.55
3.>6
3.>5
3.@6
3.@5
3.56
3.55
3.;6
3.;5
5.;;5
5.@9;
5.>37
5.37@
5.6;;
3.:;;
3.799
3.9:7
3.95:
3.;;9
3.;35
3.5;5
3.539
3.@9;
3.@>:
3.@6;
3.>95
3.>@;
3.>56
3.5:;
3.59>
3.55>
3.5>>
3.535
3.3:7
3.375
3.3;9
3.35>
;:@
+ppendi8 0
Ta"le 0.3 AcontinuedB
1m P 1!
Afor (iscosity
and thermal
conducti(ityB
3.5@7
6.:@;@
6.:@55
6.:>75
6.:>@>
6.:>65
6.:5;:
6.7:;>
6.7959
6.75>7
1m P 1!
Afor (iscosity
and thermal
conducti(ityB
6.:569
6.75@5
6.9@>5
6.9665
6.;937
6.;56@
6.;>>5
6.;3:@
6.;69;
6.5:9>
;:5
!TD e
3.96
@.56
@.;6
@.96
@.76
@.:6
5.6
;.6
9.6
7.6
1D Afor mass
diffusi(ityB
3.3@6
6.7;36
6.75;7
6.75>6
6.7@:5
6.7@5;
6.7@55
6.735@
6.97:;
6.9935
!TD e
@.@6
36.6
56.6
>6.6
@6.6
56.6
;6.6
96.6
76.6
:6.6
1D
Afor mass
diffusi(ityB
6.7;55
6.9@5@
6.;;@6
6.;5>5
6.5:;6
6.595;
6.55:;
6.5@;@
6.5>55
6.555;
Ta"le 0.5 $ennardOJones force constants calculated from (iscosity datay
ompound
+cetylene
+ir
+rgon
+rsine
-en<ene
-romine
i=-utane
n=-utane
ar"on dio8ide
ar"on disulFde
ar"on mono8ide
ar"on tetrachloride
ar"onyl sulFde
hlorine
hloroform
yanogen
yclohe8ane
Ethane
Ethanol
Ethylene
Fluroine
Helium
n=Heptane
n=He8ane
Hydrogen
Hydrogen chloride
y
<
Formula
5H5
+
+sH>
;H;
-r5
@H36
@H36
%5
&5
%
l@
%&
l5
Hl>
5/5
;H35
5H;
5H5%H
5H;
F5
He
9H3;
;H3@
H5
Hl
e + N!, in A0B
375
:9
35@
573
@@6
556
>3>
@36
3:6
@77
336
>59
>>5
>59
>59
>>:
>5@
5>6
>:3
565
335
36.55
575<
@3>
>>.>
>;6
s, in +
@.553
>.;39
>.@37
@.6;
5.596
@.5;7
5.>@3
@.::9
>.::;
@.@>7
>.5:6
5.773
@.3>
@.335
5.@>6
@.>7
;.6:>
@.@37
@.@55
@.5>5
>.;5>
5.59;
7.77>
5.:6:
5.:;7
>.>65
R. . Reid and T. 0. &her2ood, The ,roperties of #ases and $i?uids, Mc#ra2=Hill, /e2 Eor!, 3:57.
alculated from (irial coefFcients.3
;:; +ppendi8 0
Ta"le 0.5 AcontinuedB
ompound
Hydrogen iodide
*odine
0rypton
Methane
Methanol
Methylene chloride
Methyl chloride
Mercuric iodide
Mercury
/eon
/itric o8ide
/itrogen
/itrous o8ide
n=/onane
n=%ctane
%8ygen
n=,entane
,ropane
&ilane
&ilicon tetrachloride
&ulfur dio8ide
Water
Menon
Formula
H*
*5
0r
H@
H>%H
H5l5
H>l
Hg*5
Hg
/e
/%
/5
/5%
:H56
7H37
%5
5H35
>H7
&iH@
&il@
&%5
H5%
Me
e + N!, in A0B
>5@
556
3:6
3>;.5
569
@6;
755
;:3
753
>5.9
33:
:3.5
556
5@6
>56
33>
>@5
55@
569.;
>57
555
>5;
55:
s, in +
@.35>
@.:75
>.;6
>.755
>.575
@.95:
>.>95
5.;55
5.7:7
5.97:
>.@96
>.;73
>.79:
7.@@7
9.@53
>.@>>
5.9;:
5.6;3
@.67
5.67
@.5:6
5.;@:
@.655
+ppendi8
$
The Error Function3
f
6
6.655
6.65
6.36
6.35
6.56
6.55
6.>6
6.>5
6.@6
6.@5
6.56
6.55
6.;6
6.;5
6.96
6.95
6.76
erf f
6.6
6.6575
6.65;@
6.3355
6.3;76
6.5559
6.59;>
6.>57;
6.>9:@
6.@57@
6.@955
6.5565
6.5;>>
6.;6>:
6.;@56
6.;997
6.9335
6.9@53
f
6.75
6.:6
6.:5
3.6
3.3
3.5
3.>
3.@
3.5
3.;
3.9
3.7
3.:
5.6
5.5
5.@
5.;
5.7
erf f
6.9969
6.9:96
6.756:
6.7@59
6.7765
6.:36>
6.:>@6
6.:55>
6.:;;3
6.:9;>
6.:7>7
6.:7:3
6.::57
6.::5>
6.::73
6.:::>
6.:::7
6.::::
3
;:9
+ppendi8
M
&tandard ,ipe &i<es
/ominal
pipe
si<e Ain.B
3
>
3
@
>
7
3
5
%utside
diameter
Ain.B
6.@65
Wall
thic!ness
Ain.B
6.6;7
6.6:5
6.677
6.33:
6.6:3
6.35;
6.36:
6.3@9
6.379
6.33>
6.35@
6.537
6.3>>
6.39:
6.556
6.3@5
6.566
6.573
6.35@
6.537
6.>@>
6.56>
6.59;
6.>95
6.53;
6.>66
6.@>9
*nside
diameter
Ain.B
6.5;:
6.535
6.>;@
6.>65
6.@:>
6.@5>
6.;55
6.5@;
6.@;;
6.75@
6.9@5
6.;3@
3.6@:
6.:59
6.735
3.;36
3.566
3.>>7
5.6;9
3.:>:
3.;7:
5.@;:
5.>5>
5.355
>.6;7
5.:66
5.;5;
ross=
sectional
area of
metal AinC5 B
6.695
6.6:>
6.355
6.359
6.3;9
6.539
6.556
6.>56
6.>7@
6.>>>
6.@>>
6.596
6.@:@
6.;>:
6.7>9
6.9::
3.6;7
3.@5:
3.695
3.@99
5.3:6
3.96@
5.55@
5.:@5
5.557
>.63;
@.565
*nside
sectional
area Aft5 B
6.666@6
6.66655
6.66695
6.66656
6.663>>
6.666:7
6.66533
6.663;>
6.66337
6.66>93
6.66>66
6.6656;
6.66;66
6.66@::
6.66>;5
6.63@3@
6.63555
6.66:9;
6.65>>6
6.65656
6.6355;
6.6>>55
6.65:@5
6.65@;>
6.653>6
6.6@579
6.6>9;3
AcontinuedB
&chedule
no.
@6
76
@6
76
@6
76
@6
76
3;6
@6
76
3;6
@6
76
3;6
@6
76
3;6
@6
76
3;6
@6
76
3;6
@6
76
3;6
6.5@6
6.;95
6.7@6
>
@
3.656
3 3.>35
3
3
5
3.:66
5 5.>95
3
5
5
5.795
> >.566
;:7
+ppendi8 M ;::
/ominal
pipe
si<e Ain.B
@
%utside
diameter
Ain.B
@.566
&chedule
no.
@6
76
356
3;6
@6
76
356
3;6
@6
76
356
3;6
56
>6
@6
;6
76
366
356
3@6
3;6
56
>6
@6
;6
76
366
356
3@6
3;6
56
>6
@6
;6
76
366
356
3@6
3;6
Wall
thic!ness
Ain.B
6.5>9
6.>>9
6.@>9
6.5>3
6.557
6.>95
6.566
6.;55
6.576
6.@>5
6.5;5
6.937
6.556
6.599
6.>55
6.@6;
6.566
6.5:>
6.937
6.735
6.:6;
6.556
6.>69
6.>;5
6.566
6.5:>
6.937
6.7@>
3.666
3.355
6.556
6.>>6
6.@6;
6.5;5
6.;79
6.7@>
3.666
3.355
3.>35
*nside
diameter
Ain.B
@.65;
>.75;
>.;5;
>.@>7
5.6@9
@.73>
@.5;>
@.>3>
;.6;5
5.9;3
5.563
5.37:
7.355
7.693
9.:73
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9.37:
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36.556
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36.656
:.956
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7.956
7.566
35.556
35.6:6
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33.;5;
33.>9;
33.6;@
36.956
36.566
36.35;
ross=
sectional
area of
metal AinC5 B
>.39>
@.@69
5.597
;.;53
@.>6@
;.335
9.:;>
:.;:;
5.57@
7.@65
36.93
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9.5;6
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:.75
35.79
35.99
53.55
5;.6>
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@9.3@
*nside
sectional
area Aft5 B
6.677@6
6.69:7;
6.69396
6.6;@@9
6.3>:6
6.35;>
6.33>;
6.3635
6.566;
6.3736
6.3;56
6.3@;:
6.>;63
6.>55>
6.>@9@
6.>>5:
6.>393
6.>637
6.573:
6.5;9>
6.55>5
6.59>3
6.5;6>
6.5@95
6.5357
6.@:7:
6.@9>5
6.@@73
6.@39;
6.>:@3
6.7375
6.9:95
6.999>
6.9>95
6.9657
6.;;99
6.;>6>
6.;63>
6.55:5
5 5.5;>
; ;.;55
7 7.;55
36 36.95
35 35.95
+ppendi8
/
&tandard Tu"ing #ages
Wall thic!ness
%utside
diameter
Ain.B
3
5
-.W.#. and
&tu"sHs gage
35
3@
3;
37
56
35
3>
3@
35
3;
39
37
35
3>
3@
35
3;
39
37
35
3>
3@
35
3;
39
37
35
3>
3@
Ain.B
6.36:
6.67>
6.6;5
6.6@:
6.6>5
6.36:
6.6:5
6.67>
6.695
6.6;5
6.657
6.6@:
6.36:
6.6:5
6.67>
6.695
6.6;5
6.657
6.6@:
6.36:
6.6:5
6.67>
6.695
6.6;5
6.657
6.6@:
6.36:
6.6:5
6.67>
*nside
diameter
Ain.B
6.575
6.>>@
6.>96
6.@65
6.@>6
6.5>5
6.5;6
6.57@
6.;6;
6.;56
6.;>@
6.;55
6.975
6.736
6.7>@
6.75;
6.796
6.77@
6.:65
3.6>5
3.6;6
3.67@
3.36;
3.356
3.3>@
3.355
3.575
3.>36
3.>>@
ross=
sectional
area Ain.5B
6.3>>7
6.3679
6.6777
6.6;:@
6.6533
6.53:5
6.3:55
6.39>:
6.35>@
6.3>:7
6.35;3
6.369:
6.>653
6.5963
6.5>:3
6.56::
6.3:6:
6.393;
6.3@;>
6.>:69
6.>@@9
6.>6@5
6.5;;5
6.5@3:
6.5395
6.37@7
6.@9;>
6.@3:>
6.>;:@
*nside
sectional
area Aft5B
6.666@>>
6.666;67
6.6669@9
6.666775
6.66366:
6.6635@
6.66393
6.6637;
6.66566
6.66536
6.6653:
6.665>5
6.66>>@
6.66>57
6.66>9:
6.66@66
6.66@3>
6.66@5;
6.66@@@
6.66573
6.66;3>
6.66;@3
6.66;99
6.66;7@
6.66963
6.6695@
6.667:;
6.66:>;
6.66:93
AcontinuedB
>
@
3
33
@
33
5
966
+ppendi8 /
Wall thic!ness
%utside
diameter
Ain.B
-.W.#. and
&tu"sHs gage
35
3;
39
37
36
33
35
3>
3@
35
3;
36
33
35
3>
3@
35
3;
*nside
diameter
Ain.B
3.>57
3.>96
3.>7@
3.@65
3.@75
3.536
3.5>5
3.5;6
3.57@
3.;6;
3.;56
3.9>5
3.9;6
3.975
3.736
3.7>@
3.75;
3.796
ross=
sectional
area Ain.5B
6.>379
6.5:>6
6.5;59
6.55>@
6.;76>
6.;3@5
6.5;56
6.@:>:
6.@>@;
6.>9:;
6.>@@3
6.9755
6.967@
6.;@95
6.5;7;
6.@::7
6.@>5:
6.>:53
963
Ain.B
6.695
6.6;5
6.657
6.6@:
6.3>@
6.356
6.36:
6.6:5
6.67>
6.695
6.6;5
6.3>@
6.356
6.36:
6.6:5
6.67>
6.695
6.6;5
*nside
sectional
area Aft5B
6.6366
6.6365
6.6369
6.636:
6.6356
6.635@
6.6357
6.63>>
6.63>9
6.63@3
6.63@>
6.63;@
6.63;:
6.639>
6.639:
6.637>
6.6377
6.63:3
3>
@
5
+uthor *nde8
+ddoms, J. /., >55
+rchimedes, 5@
+rnold, J. H., @35
+starita, #., 5@5
+yyas2amy, ,. &., >6>
+<i<, +. 5>;
-ailey, R. #., @35
-arrer, R. M., @5;, @@6
-ec!mann, W., 5:9
-edingFeld, . H., 597
-erenson, ,., >59
-ergelin, %. ,., >3;
-ernoulli, D., 95
-ernstein, M., >3>
-ird, R.-., 7;, 79, 56@, @6:, @33, @35
-lasius, H., 3@;
-oelter, $, M, 0., 5@6, >67
-oussines?, J., 357, 393
-o2man, R. +., >@>, >@5
-re2ster, M. ?., >:5
-rian, ,. $. T., 59@
-ro!a2, R. &., @3>
-romley, $. +., >59
-ro2n, #. +., >3;
-uch"erg, H., >6>
-uc!ingham, E., 357
alder"an!, ,. H., 599
alus, W. E., @39
arnahan, -., 555, 5;@
arsla2, H. &., 5>6, 5@6, 55:
ary, J. R., >3@
atton, *., >65, >6>
hang, ,., @3;
hapman, &., @67
hen, H. T., @35
hen, M. M., >>>
herry, 1. H., 5@6
hilton, T. H., 5>7
hristian, W. J., 557
hu, H. H. &., 5::, >66
hurchill, &. W., 5::, >66, >3>
ol"urn, +. ,., 579, >67, >3;, >>5, 5>7
ole"roo!, . F., 395
ostich, E. W. 57;
o2ling, T. #., @67
ran!, J., @59, @;@, @95, @:;
ullinan, H. T., @3:
urtiss, . F., 7;, @33, @3@
ussler, E. $., 5;:
Danc!2erts, ,. 1., 5@>, 5@@
Danner, R. ,., @35
Dau"ert, T. F., @35
Da(is, E. &., 5@:
De #root, &. R., @6>
Deissler, R. #., 376, 373, >36
Dittus, F. W., >67
Do"erstein, &. , >3;
Dre2, T. -., 597
Drop!in, D., >65
Ec!enfelder, W. W., Jr., ;6:
Ec!ert, E. R. #., >33, 55;
Ed2ards, D. 0., >6>
Emery, +. ,., >65
Errana, #., 56@
Euler, $., 5:
E(erett, H. J., 57;
E(nochides, &., 595
Eyring, H., @35
Fic!, +., @6>
Fourier, J. -. J., 5@6
Friedman, $., @59
Froessling, /., 595
Fuller, E. /., @35
#ean!oplis, ., J., 5;:, 57@
#iddings, J. ., @35
#iedt, W. H., >35
#illiland, E. R., @35, 576
#lasstone, &., @35
#lo"e, &., >65
#oldstein, &., 3@9
#raet<, $., >65
#regg, J. $., 5:9, 5::
#upta, +. &., 57@, 575
Hales, H. -., 59@
Halliday, D., 75
Hartnett, J. ,., 55;
Hatsopoulos, #. /., ;>
Hatta, &., @93
Haydu!, W., @37
Hess, D. W., @;3, @7:
Hig"ie, R., @7;, 5@>
Hirschfelder, J. %., 75, @6:, @33, @3@
Hoch"erg, +. 0., @5;, 565, 59@
Hollands, 0. #. T., >6>
Hollo2ay, F. +., 579
Hottel, H. ., >95, >9;, >:6
Hougen, %. +., ;63
Ho2ard, $., 3@9
Ho2ell, J. R., >:5
Hsu, &. T., >59
Hsu, E. E., >59
Hull, H. $., >3;
*ngersoll, +. ., 55:
*ngersoll, $. R., 55:
Jaeger, J. ., 5>6, 5@6, 55:
Jaco", M., 5>6
Jeans, J., @67
Johnson, H. +., 5@6
Johnstone, H. F., @75
Jost, W., @;@
0a!ati, D., 56@
0at<, D. $., >69
0ays, W. M., >>7, >@9, >@:
0eenan, J. H., ;>
0ennard, E. H., 75
0e<ios, &. ,., 557
0ing, . J., 579
0ir!"ride, . #., >>5
0nudsen, J. #., >69
0onice!, $., >6>
0ou, &., @5;
0ramer, E. %., @59
0raus, +. D., 5>;
0unii, D., 575
$aidler, 0. J., @35
$angharr, H. $., 376
$audie, H., @37
$efJer, J., @3:
$e(enspiel, %., 575
$e(ich, 1. #., 595
$e2is, W. 0., 5;6
$ightfoot, E. /., 7;, 56@
$inton, W. H., 5@3, 576
96>
96@ +uthor *nde8
,igford, R. $., @75, 5;:, 575, 57@, 579
,lanc!, M., >;>
,ohlhausen, E., 575
,randtl, $, 3, 3@@, 357, 35:, 3;6, 57:
,rausnit<, J. M., @35, @3@, @39, @3:, @@6
Raith"y, #. D., >6>
Ran<, W., >3;
Reichardt, H., 3;5
Reid, R. ., @35, @3@, @3:, @95, ;:5
Ren!in, J., @5@
Resnic!, R., :>
Reynolds, %., 3>9, 57;, 5>@
Rogers, . E., @59
Rohseno2, W. M., >55, >>6
&chei"el, E. #., @37
&chettler, ,. D., @35
&chmidt, E., 5:9
&cri(en, E., 575
&her2ood, T. 0., 5@3, 5;9, 576, 57@,
579, ;:5
&he2mon, ,. #., @5;
&ieder, E. /., >69, >67
&iegel, R., >:5
&!elland, +. H. ,., 5;:, 579
&lattery, J. ., @35
&oehngen, E., >33
&palding, #. E., @59
&parro2, E. M., 5:9, 5::
&pot<, E. $., @6:
&teadman, R. #., >37
&tein"erger, R. $., 595
&te2art, W. E., 7;, 56@
&to!es, . #., :7, 365
&utherland, W., @67
Tanford, ., @5@
Tate, #. E., >69, >67
Thi"odeau8, $. J., 5;:
Thodos, #., 595, 57@, 575
Toor, H. $., 5@5
Trey"ol, R. E., 595, 597, 579, ;>5
Tu, E. %., 57:
Tyne, M. J., @39, @3:
'nny, &. E., >6>
1anHt Riet, 0., 575
1ignes, +., @3:
1i(ian, J. E., 573
(on 0arman, T., 355, 35;, 393, 5:3
Welty, J. R., 5>;, 5@>
West2ater, J. W., >59
Whita!er, &., >3@
Whitman, W. #., 555, 5;6
Wil!e, . R., 79, @3@, @3;, 5;:, 57@, 579,
;63
Wil!es, J. %., 5@>, 5;@
Wilson, E. J., 57@
Euge, T., >63
fu"er, /., >59
$ondon, +. $., >>7, >@9, >@:
$oren<, $., 56@
$uther, H. +., 5@>, 5;@
Mac#regor, ,. 0., >65
Marchello, J. M., 5@5
Marshall, W., >3;
Martinelli, R. , 5@6
Mc+dams, W. H., >66, >35, >3@, >>5
Middleman, &., @5;, 565, 5;:, 59@
Modest, M. F., >:5
Moody, $. F., 39>
Moo=Eoung, M., 595
Morgan, 1. T., >63
Mueller, +. ., >@>, >@@, >55
/agata, &., 579
/agle, W. M., >@>, >@@, >55
/a(ier, $. M. H., 365
/e2ton, &ir *ssac, 3, 7, 3;, 3:, >5
/i!uradse, J., 3@7, 3;6, 3;3, 393
/orman, W. &., 5;:, 579
/orton, F. J., @5:
/usselt, W., >57, >>5, >@9
%strach, &., 5:9, 5:7
%thmer, D. F., @35
%uano, +. ., 57:
,ar!, #. &., @59
,ascal, -., 37
,erry, J. H., 5;>
&u"Iect *nde8
+"lation, 55:
+"sorption, @7>O;65
+"sorpti(ity, >;6, >96
monochromatic, >;3, >96
+cceleration, 355
con(ecti(e, 365
local, 365
uniform rectilinear, 3:
+coustic 1elocity, :
+d(erse pressures gradient, 355
+ppro8imate analysis of concentration
"oundary layer, 5>3O5>>
+ppro8imate integral analysis of
thermal "oundary layer,
57>O575
-atch "u""le tan!s or ponds, ;6@
-ernoulliHs e?uation, 95O9;, 336, 33:
-inary systems, mass=transfer diffusion
coefFcients in, ;:3O;:>
-iot modulus, 55@
-lac! "odies, >;3
radiant heat transfer "et2een,
>96O>9:
-lac! enclosures, radiant e8change in,
>9:O>76
-lasius solution for laminar "oundary
layer on a Jat plate, 3@;O356
-ody forces, @
-oiling, >5>O>57
Jo2, >57
regimes of, >5>O>55
-oiling heat=transfer data, correlations
of, >55O>57
-olt<mann constant, @67
-oundary conditionsC
commonly encountered, 553O555,
@>7O@@6
-oundary layer, 3@@
e?uations, 3@5O3@;
local mass=transfer coefFcient
predicted "y, 59>
model, 5@@
thermal, 595
-u""le=plate to2ers, ;6@O;65
-u""le to2ers, ;6>O;6@
-uc!ingham method, 3>3O3>5
of grouping (aria"les, 3>3
-uc!ingham pi theorem, 3>3, 55@
-ul! Modulus of Elasticity, :
-uoyancy, 5>O55
-urnout point, >5@
apacity coefFcients for pac!ed to2ers,
579O577
apillary +ction, 35
hemical potential, @69
hemical reactionC
one=dimensional mass=transfer
independent of, @55O@;>
one=dimensional systems associated
2ith, @;>O@9@
hemical (apor deposition, @@>
hilton=ol"urn analogy for heat and
mass=transfer, 5>7O5@5, 59:
ircular conduitsC friction factors for
Jo2 in entrance to, 39:O375
fully de(eloped laminar Jo2 in, of
constant cross=section, :5O:5
losed conduits, Jo2 in, 3;7O37@
losed=type e8changers, >>;
ocurrent Jo2, >>9
mass "alances for continuous contact
to2ers, ;39O;56
oefFcient, Flm mass=transfer, @57
ol"urn analogy, 579
ol"urn e?uation, >6>
ollision diameter, @67
ommonly encountered "oundary
conditions, 553O555
omposite 2alls, steady=Jo2 of energy
through, 555O559
ompressi"ility, :O36
oncentration "oundary layer, 537
appro8imate analysis of,
5>3O5>>
oncentrations, >::O@65
mass, >::
oncentration=time charts for simple
geometric shapes, 56:O535
ondensation, >57O>>@
drop2ise, >57, >>@
Flm, >57, >>3O>>@
onductance, thermal, 555
onduction, 563O565
one=dimensional, 55@O5>6
2ith internal generation of energy,
5>6O5>>
onducti(ityC
thermal, 563O569
(aria"le thermal, 5>6
onduit Jo2, dimensional analysis of,
3;7O3;:
onser(ation of energyC
control=(olume approach, ;>O76
application of, ;:O95
integral relation for, ;>O;7
onser(ation of mass, control=(olume
approach, >@O@5
onstant cross section, fully de(eloped
laminar Jo2 in circular conduit,
:5O:5
onstant o(erall capacity coefFcient,
;56O;5@
ontact angles for 2etting and non=
2etting interfaces, 35
ontinuous=contact e?uipment analysis,
;55O;>;
ontinuous contact to2ers, mass
"alances for, ;33O;56
ontinuumC
concept of, 3O5
Juids and, 3O5
ontrol=(olume approach, >5
conser(ation of energy and,
;>O;76
applications of, ;:O95
conser(ation of mass and, >@O@5
moment of momentum, 55O59
net momentum Ju8 through, 36>
/e2tonHs second la2 of motion,
@>O@;
time rate of change of momentum
2ithin, 36@O36;
on(ection, 569
forced, 569, 59@
free, 5:9O>65
natural, 569, 597O59:, @57
steps for modeling mass=transfer
processes in(ol(ing,
5:7O5:5
on(ecti(e acceleration, 365
on(ecti(e energy transfer, dimensional
analysis of, 59;O59:
965
96; &u"Iect *nde8
on(ecti(e mass=transfer correlations,
5;5O;65
capacity coefFcients for pac!ed
to2ers, 579O577
gas=li?uid, in stirred tan!s, 575O579
in(ol(ing Jo2 through pipes, 576O
573
in pac!ed and Juidi<ed "eds, 57@O575
to plates, spheres and cylinders,
5;:O576
Jat plate, 596O59@
single cylinder, 597O576
single sphere, 59@O599
spherical "u""le s2arms, 599O576
steps for modeling processes
in(ol(ing con(ection, 577O5:5
in 2etted=2all columns, 573O57>
ountercurrent Jo2, >>9
mass "alance for continuous contact
to2ers and, ;33O;39
ounterdiffusion, e?uimolar, @;5O@;>
ounterJo2, >>9
ritical radius, 557O55:
ritical Reynolds num"er for pipe Jo2,
3>7
roccoHs theorem, 33:
rossJo2C
cylinders in, >33O>3@
shell=and=tu"e e8changer analysis
and, >@>O>@9
tu"e "an!s in, >3;
ur(ed Fns of uniform thic!ness, 5>5O
5>;
ylinders, in crossJo2, >33O>35
ylindrical coordinates, 96@O965, ;55,
;59O;57
operator, r5 in, ;56
operator, r in, ;@7O;@:
ylindrical solid, 2ith homogeneous
energy generation, 5>6O5>5
DaltonHs la2, 555
Density, 5
Diameter, e?ui(alent, 39@
Differential continuity e?uation, 556O
553
Differential energy e?uation, special
forms of, 556O553
Differential e?uations for mass transfer,
@>>O@53
Differential Juid element, analysis of
in laminar Jo2, :5O:7
Differential mass=transfer e?uation,
special forms of, @>;O@>7
DiffusionC
2ith homogeneous, Frst=order
chemical reaction, @;:O@9@
interstitial, @5;
molecular, >::
pressure, @69
pseudo=steady=state, @57O@;5
thermal, @69
unimolecular, @55O@57
(acancy, @5;
Diffusion coefFcient, @6>, @69O@57
Diffusion controlled process, @;@
Diffusion (elocity, @6>
Diffusi(ityC
pore, @56O@55
solid mass, @55O@57
Dimensional analysis, 355O3>;
of conduit Jo2, 3;7O396
of con(ecti(e energy=transfer, 59;O
59:
of con(ecti(e mass=transfer, 553O55>
of /a(ier=&to!es e?uation, 35;O357
Directional emissi(ity, >;7O>96
Distri"ution=la2 e?uation, 55>
Dittus=-oelter e?uation, >67
Dopants, @55
Doping, 56>
Drag, 3>7O3@>
Drop2ise condensation, >57, >>@
Dynamic pressure, 3>:
Dynamic similarity, 3>3O3>5
Eddy diffusi(ityC
of heat, 577
of momentum, 357
Emissi(ity, >;3
a"sorpti(ity of solid surfaces and,
>;9O>96
directional, >;7O>96
monochromatic, >;9O>;7
Empirical relations, for tur"ulent Jo2,
3;5O3;>
Energy= and momentum=transfer
analogies, 575O579
Energy transferC
"y conduction, 563O565
general differential e?uation for,
539O556
Enthalpy "alances for continuous=
contact to2ers, ;56O;53
E?uili"rium, 553O55@
E?uimolar counterdiffusion, @;5O@;>
E?ui(alent diameter, 39@
Error function, ;:9
on(ecti(e heat=transfer, 59@O5:;
appro8imate integral analysis of ther=
mal "oundary layer, 57>O579
dimensional analysis of con(ecti(e
energy transfer, 59;O59:
energy= and momentum= transfer
analogies, 575O579
e8act analysis of laminar "oundary
layer, 59:O57>
fundamental considerations in,
59@O595
signiFcant parameters in, 595O59;
tur"ulent Jo2 considerations in,
579O5:>
on(ecti(e heat transfer correlations,
5:9O>55
forced
for e8ternal Jo2, >33O>37
for internal Jo2, >65O>33
natural, 5:9O>65
on(ecti(e mass transfer, @57O@5:,
539O556, 553O5;7
appro8imate analysis of concentration
"oundary layer, 5>3O5>>
dimensional analysis of, 553
into phase 2hose motion is due to
natural con(ection, 555O55>
transfer into stream Jo2ing under
forced con(ection, 553O555
e?uili"rium, 553O55@
e8act analysis of laminar
concentration "oundary layer,
55@O5>3
fundamental considerations in,
539O53:
mass, energy, and momentum transfer
analogies, 5>>
hilton=ol"urn analogy, 5>7O5@5
L L,randtl and (on !arman
analogies, 5>;O5>7
Reynolds analogy, 5>@O5>5
tur"ulent=Jo2 considerations,
5>5O5>;
models for con(ecti(e coefFcients,
5@5O5@5
signiFcant parameters in, 53:O553
t2o=resistance theory, 55@O5;>
indi(idual mass=transfer
coefFcients, 555O559
o(erall mass=transfer coefFcients,
559O5;>
on(ecti(e mass=transfer coefFcientC
in gas phase, 55;
in li?uid phase, 55;O559
&u"Iect *nde8
Euler e?uation, 36;
Eulerian coordinates, 5:O>6
Euler num"er, 53:
E8act analysis of laminar "oundary
layer, 59:O57>
E8tended surfaces, heat transfer from,
5>>O5@6
E8ternal forces, sum of, 365O36>
EyringHs sholes theory, @35
Fast neutrons, @69
Fic!Hs e?uation, >::O@6;
Fic!Hs la2, @6>
Fic!Hs second la2 of diffusion, @:;O@:9,
56:
Field, deFned, 5:
Film coefFcient, 567
Film concept, @5@
Film condensation, >>3O>>@
Film mass=transfer coefFcient, @57
Film theory, @5@, 5@5O5@>
Fin efFciency, 5>9O5>7
First la2 of thermodynamics, ;>
First=order chemical reaction,
simultaneous diffusion and
heterogeneous, @;@O@;:
Flat plateC
con(ecti(e mass=transfer to,
596O59@
tur"ulent "oundary layer on, 3;>O3;5
Flooding (elocity, ;>>O;>@
Flo2C
in closed conduits, 3;7O37@
parallel to plane surfaces, >33
2ith pressure gradient, 356O355
properties, >
Flo2 "oiling, >5>, >57
Fluid Jo2, differential e?uations of,
::O363
Fluid Jo2 Felds, 5:O>6
Fluid machinery 375O566
Fluid rotation at a point, 33>O33@
FluidsC
"uoyancy of, 5>O55
continuum and, 3O5
deFned, 3
description of, in motion, 5:O>>
in(iscid Jo2 of, 33>O35@
non=/e2tonian, 75O7>
point=to=point (ariation of properties
in, 5O7
properties, 5O>
properties at a point, 5O5
shell=side, >>9
tu"e=side, >>9
(iscosity of, 7>O79
Fluid statics, 3;O57
Forced con(ection, 569, 59@, 59;O597
for e8ternal Jo2, >33O>3;
for internal Jo2, >65O>33
Forces on su"merged surfaces, 56O5>
Fouling resistances, >55
Fourier Feld e?uation, 555
Fourier modulus, 55@
Fourier rate e?uation, 565
Free con(ection, 59@, 5:5O5:>
Free (orte8, 353
Friction factors for Jo2 in entrance to
circular conduit, 39:O375
Friction Jo2 for pipe Jo2, 39>O39@
FroesslingHs e?uation, 595
Fundamental physical la2s, 5:
#asesC
physical properties of, ;9:O;75
radiation from, >77O>:5
#as=li?uid mass transferC
operations in 2ell=mi8ed tan!s,
;65O;36
in stirred tan!s, 575O579
#as mass=diffusi(ity, @67O@35
#as=phase controlled system, 5;6
#eometric shapesC
concentration=time charts for simple,
56:O535
temperature=time charts for simple,
5;3O5;5
#eometric similarity, 3>3
#rashof num"er, 5;:
#ray surfaces, >96
radiant heat transfer "et2een, >73O
>77
#urney=$urie charts, 56:
Hagen=,oiseuille e?uation, :5, 396
Hatta num"er, @93
Haydu!=$audie correlation, 575
Head losses due to Fttings, 395
Heat e8changersC
considerations in design of, >5@O>5;
types of, >>;O>>7
Heat transfer, 563O535
com"ined mechanisms of, 56:O53>
conduction, 563=565
con(ection, 569O56:
differential e?uations of, 539O55>
from e8tended surfaces, 5>>O5@6
radiation, 56:
969
to semi=inFnite 2all, 55:O5;3
thermal conducti(ity, 565O569
Heat=transfer e?uipment, >>;O>57
additional considerations in
heat=e8changer design,
>9>O>95, >5@O>5;
crossJo2 and shell=and=tu"e heat=
e8changer analysis, >@>O>@9
num"er=of=transfer=units A/T'B
method of heat=e8changer analysis
and design, >@9O>5@
single=pass heat=e8changer analysis,
log=mean temperature difference,
>>:O>@>
types of e8changers, >>;O>>7
HenryHs constant, @>:
HenryHs la2, @@;, 555, 575
HenryHs la2 constant, 5;3
Heterogeneous reaction, @;>
Hindered solute diffusion in sol(ent=
Flled pores, @5>O@55
HirschfelderHs e?uation, @6:
Hollo2 sphere, radial heat Jo2 through,
5>5
Homogeneous, Frst=order chemical
reaction, diffusion 2ith,
@;:O@9@
Homogeneous energy generation,
cylindrical solid 2ith, 5>>O5>;
Homogeneous reaction, @;>
Hori<ontal cylinders, >66
analysis of, >>5
Hori<ontal enclosures, >65
Hori<ontal plates, >66
Hori<ontal tu"es, "an!s of, >>>
Hydrodynamic "oundary=layer, 537,
593
thic!ness in laminar Jo2, 59>
*ndi(idual mass=transfer
coefFcients, 555O559
con(ecti(e coefFcient, 539, 553
*nertial reference, 3;
*nitial conditions, 553
*ntegral e8pressionC
applications of, for linear momentum,
@;O55
speciFc forms of, >5O>:
*ntegral method for one=dimensional
unsteady conduction, 5;;O596
*ntegral relation, >@O>5
for conser(ation of energy, ;>O;7
for linear momentum, @;O53
for moment of momentum, 55O5>
967 &u"Iect *nde8
$e2is num"er, 53:, 5;:
$inear momentumC
application of integral e8pression for,
@;O53
integral relation for, @>O@;
$i?uid=mass diffusi(ity, @35O@56
$i?uid=phase controlled system, 5;6
$i?uids, physical properties of, ;75O;:6
$ocal acceleration, 365
$ocal mass=transfer coefFcient,
predicted "y "oundary layer
theory, 559
$ocal Reynolds num"er, 3@@
$ogarithmic=mean dri(ing force, ;55O
;>3
$ogarithmic=mean temperature
difference, >@3
$ong, hollo2 cylinder, radial energy
Jo2 "y conduction through,
557O55:
$umped parameter analysis, 5;>O595
Mach num"er, :, 3>3
Mass=a(erage (elocity, @6>
Mass "alance for continuous contact
to2ers, operating line e?uations,
;33O;56
Mass concentration, >::
Mass diffusi(ity, @6>, 53:
Mass transfer, >:7O@>5
con(ecti(e, @57O@5:
deFned, >:7
differential e?uation for, @>>O@>7
diffusion coefFcient, @69O@35
in(ol(ing Jo2 through pipes, 576O573
molecular, >:7O@69
in pac!ed and Juidi<ed "eds, 57@O575
simultaneous heat and, @9:O@7>
simultaneous momentum and, @7>O
@77
steps for modeling, in(ol(ing
con(ection, 577O5:5
in 2etted=2all columns, 573O57@
Mass=transfer capacity coefFcients,
;53O;55
Mass=transfer diffusion coefFcients in
"inary systems, ;:3O;:>
Mass=transfer e?uipment, ;6>O;@6
"alances for continuous contact to2ers
cocurrent Jo2, ;39O;56
countercurrent Jo2, ;33O;39
operating line e?uations, ;33O;56
capacity coefFcients, ;53O;55
continuous=contact analysis constant
o(erall capacity coefFcient,
;55O;5@
logarithmic=mean dri(ing force,
;55O;>3
pac!ed=to2er diameter, ;>5O;>;
(aria"le o(erall capacity
coefFcient, ;5@O;55
enthalpy "alance for continuous
contact to2ers, ;56O;53
gas=li?uid operations in 2ell=mi8ed
tan!s, ;65O;36
types of, ;6>O;65
Mass=transfer /usselt num"er, 556
Mathematical operations, ;@9
Mi8ing=length theory, 357O3;6
(elocity distri"ution from, 3;6O3;3
Models for con(ecti(e mass=transfer
coefFcients, 5@5O5@5
Model theory, 3>5O3>@
Molar=a(erage (elocity, @6>
Molecular concentration, @66
Molecular diffusion, >::
steps for modeling process in(ol(ing,
@@3O@@>
Molecular mass transfer, >::O@6;
related types of, @6;O@69
Moment of momentum, integral relation
for, 55O5>
Momentum diffusi(ity, 53:
Momentum theorem, @;
Momentum transfer, effect of
tur"ulence on, 355O3;5
Monochromatic a"sorpti(ity, >;6, >96
Monochromatic emissi(e po2er, >;6
Monochromatic emissi(ity, >;9O>;7
/atural con(ection, 569, 59@, 597O59:,
5:9O>65, @57
/a(ier=&to!es e?uation, 363O336
dimensional analysis of, 35;O357
net momentum Ju8 through control
(olume, 36>O36@
sum of e8ternal forces, 365O36>
time rate of change of momentum
2ithin control (olume, 36@
/egligi"le surface resistance, heating
"ody under conditions of, 555O
559
/eutrons, thermal, @69
/e2tonian JuidC
laminar Jo2 of, do2n inclined plane
surface, :5O:9
shear stress in multidimensional
laminar Jo2s of, 77O:6
*ntensityC
of radiation, >;3O>;>
of tur"ulence, 35;
*nternal Jo2, forced con(ection for,
>65O>33
*nternational standards A&*B system of
units, 7
*nterstitial diffusion, @5;
*n(iscid Jo2s, 7>, 33>O35@
a"out inFnite cylinder, 33;O339
Juid rotation at a point, 33>O33@
irrotational Jo2, the (elocity
potential, 339O337
potential Jo2 analysis simple plane
Jo2 cases, 356O353
superposition, 353O35>
stream function, 33@O33;
total head in irrotational Jo2, 33:
utili<ation of potential Jo2, 33:O356
*rradiation, >73
*rrotational Jo2, (elocity potential,
339O337
J=factor for mass transfer, 5>7
0inematic similarity, 3>5
0inematic (iscosity, 7>
0inetic theory of gases, 7@, @67
0irchoffHs la2, >;3, >96
0nudsen diffusion, @56O@5>
$agrangion coordinates, 5:O>6
$aminar "oundary layer, 59:O57>
e8act analysis of, 59:O57>
$aminar concentration "oundary layer,
e8act analysis of, 55@O5>3
$aminar Jo2, 3@:, >65O>69
analysis of differential Juid element
in, :5O:7
factors affecting transition from, to
tur"ulent Jo2, 3;5
friction factors for fully de(eloped, in
circular conduits, 396
fully de(eloped, in circular conduit of
constant cross section, :3O:5
hydrodynamic "oundary=layer
thic!ness in, 59>
of ne2tonian Juid, :5O:9
shear stress in, 73O:3
$aminar su"layer, 3@@
$aplace e?uation, 33;, 337, 553, @>9
$ennard=Jones constants, ;:@O;:;
$ennard=Jones parameters, @6:
$ennard=Jones potential, 75, @67O@6:
&u"Iect *nde8
/e2ton A/B, 7
/e2tonHs la2 of cooling, 567
/e2tonHs rate e?uation, 567
/e2tonHs second la2 of motion, @>
and control=(olume approach, @>O@;
/e2tonHs (iscosity relation, 73O75
/omenclature, ;@3O;@9
/oninertial reference, 3;
/on=ne2tonian Juids, 75O7>
/ormal stress, :6
(iscous contri"ution to, ;55O;5;
/o=slip condition, 7>
/=type semiconductor, 56>
/ucleate "oiling, >5@
/um"er=of=transfer=units A/T'B
method of heat=e8changer analysis
and design, >@9O>5@
/umerical methods for transient
conduction analysis, 5;>O5;;
/usselt num"er, 59;
%ne=dimensional conduction, 55@O5@6
5>6O5>>
%ne=dimensional mass transfer
independent of chemical
reaction, @55O@;>
%ne=dimensional systems associated
2ith chemical reaction, @;>O@9@
%ne=dimensional unsteady conduction,
integration method for, 5;;O596
%pen=type e8changers, >>;
%perating line for countercurrent
operations, ;3>
%(erall heat=transfer coefFcient, 533
%(erall mass=transfer coefFcients, 559O
5;>
,ac!ed to2ers, ;65
capacity coefFcients for, 579O577
,ath line, >3
,eclet num"er, 596
,elton 2heel, 5@
,enetration theory, @77, 5@>
,enetration theory model, @93, @7;
,hysical propertiesC
of gases and li?uids, ;9:O;:6
of solids, ;9;O;99
,ipe Jo2C
analysis of, 39>O39:
friction factor and head=loss
determination for, 39>O39:
,ipes, mass transfer in(ol(ing Jo2
through, 576O573
,ipe si<es, standard, ;:7O;::
,lanc!Hs la2 of radiation, >;>O>;5
,lane surfaces, Jo2 parallel to, >33
,lane 2allC
conduction of energy through, 555
2ith (aria"le energy generation, 5>6O
5>>
,oint=to=point (ariation, of properties in
Juid, 5O7
,oisson e?uation, 553
,ool "oiling, >>>
,ore diffusi(ity, @56O@55
,otential Jo2, utili<ation of, 36;O369
,otential Jo2 analysisC
simple plane Jo2 cases, 356O353
superposition, 353O35>
,randtl analogy, 5:3, 5:>, 5>;
,randtl num"er, 595, 53:, 5;:
tur"ulent, 57:
,ressure diffusion, @67
,ressure drag, 3>:
,ressure gradientC
ad(erse, 355
Jo2 2ith, 356O355
,ressure (ariation in static Juid, 3;O3:
,roperties at a point, 5O5
,seudo=steady=state diffusion, @57O@;5
,=type semiconductor, 56>
,umps and fans, 5>, 375O3:9
centrifugal, analysis of, 7;O3:@
classiFcation, 37;
com"ined pumpDsystem performance,
3:>
net positi(e suction head, 3:5
performance parameters, 379O3:3
scaling la2s, 3:@O3:;
Radiant e8changeC
in "lac! enclosures, >9:O>76
2ith reradiating surfaces present,
>76O>73
Radiant heat transferC
"et2een "lac! "odies, >96O>9:
"et2een gray surfaces, >73O>77
Radiation, 56:
from gases, >77O>:5
intensity of, >;3O>;>
nature of, >5:O>;6
,lanc!Hs la2 of, >;>O>;5
thermal, >;>O>;5
Radiation heat transfer, >5:O>:9
emissi(ity and a"sorpti(ity of solid
surfaces, >;9O>96
from gases, >77O>:5
96:
intensity of, >;3O>;>
nature of, >5:O>;6
,lanc!Hs la2 of, >;>O>;5
radiant e8change
"et2een "lac! "odies, >96O>9:
"et2een gray surfaces,
>73O>77
radiant e8change in "lac! enclosures,
>9:O>76
radiant e8change 2ith reradiating
surfaces present, >76O>73
&tefan=-olt<mann la2, >;5
thermal, >;6O>;3
Radiation heat=transfer coefFcient,
>:5O>:>
Radiosity, >73
RaoultHs la2, @>:
Rayleigh num"er, 5::
Reaction controlled process, @;@
Reciprocity relationship, >9@
Rectangular enclosures, >63O>65
Recuperators, >>;
ReJection, specular, >;6
ReJecti(ity, >;6
Regenerators, >>;
Reradiating surfaces, radiant e8change
2ith, >76O>73
Reradiating (ie2 factor, >73
Resistance, thermal, 555
Reynolds analogy, 57;, 5>@O5>5
Reynolds num"er, 357
Reynolds stress, 357
&chmidt num"er, 53:, 555, 5;:
&elf=diffusion coefFcient, @67
&emi=inFnite 2all, heat transfer to,
55:O5;3
&hear strain, rate of, 77O7:
&hear stress, 77, :6
in laminar Jo2, 73O:3
in multidimensional laminar Jo2 of
/e2tonian Juid, 77O:6
&her2ood num"er, 556, 555
&ieder=Tate relation, >69
&ie(e=plate to2ers, ;65
&imultaneous heat and mass transfer,
@9:O@7>
&imultaneous momentum and mass
transfer, @7>O@79
&ingle cylinder, con(ecti(e mass=
transfer, 597O59:
&ingle=pass heat e8changer analysis,
log=mean temperature
difference, >>:O>@>
936 &u"Iect *nde8
&urface resistance, transition diffusion
in Fnite=dimensional medium
under conditions of, 566O56:
&ymmetry of stress tensor, ;5@
Temperature=time charts for simple
geometric shapes, 5;3
Thermal "oundary layer, 59:O579
appro8imate integral analysis of,
57>O575
Thermal conductance, 555
Thermal conducti(ity, 565O569
Thermal diffusion, @69
Thermal diffusi(ity, 556, 53:
Thermal neutrons, @69
Thermal radiation, >;6O>;3
Thermal resistance, 555
Thermodynamic e?uili"rium, >;3
Thi8otropic su"stances, 7>O7@
Time, 7
rate of change of momentum 2ithin
control (olume, 36@O365
Tissue engineering, @@;
Total emissi(e po2er, >;3
Total head in irrotational Jo2, 33:
Transient conduction analysis,
numerical analysis for, 5;>O5;;
Transient conduction processes, 555
Transient diffusionC
in Fnite=dimensional medium under
conditions of negligi"le surface
resistance, 566O567
in semi=inFnite medium, @:9O566
Transition region, 395
Transmissi(ity, >;6
Transpirational cooling, 55:
Tu"e "an!s in cross=Jo2, >3;
Tu"ing gages, standard, 966O963
Tur"o machines, 375
Tur"ulenceC
description of, 355O3;5
effect of, on momentum transfer,
355O3;5
Tur"ulent "oundary layer on Jat plate,
3;>O3;5
Tur"ulent Jo2, >69O>33
analysis, >>3
considerations, 579O5:3, 5>@O5>;
empirical relations for, 3;6O3;>
factors affecting transition from
laminar Jo2 to, 3;5
Tur"ulent ,randtl num"er, 57:
Tur"ulent shear stresses, 359O357
T2o=phase Jo2, >57
T2o=resistance theory, 55@O5;>
'niform cross=section, Fns or spines of,
5>@O5>5
'niform rectilinear acceleration, 3:O56
'nits, 7O:
'ni(ersal (elocity distri"ution, 3;3O3;5
'nsteady Jo2s, >6O>3
'nsteady=state conduction, 555O59>
analytical solutions, 555O5;3
integral method for one=dimensional
unsteady conduction,
5;;O596
numerical methods for transient
conduction analysis, 5;>O5;;
temperature=time charts for simple
geometric shapes, 5;3O5;>
'nsteady=state molecular diffusion,
@:;O53;
concentration=time charts for simple
geometric shapes, 56:O535
and Fic!Hs second la2, @:;O@:9
transient
in Fnite=dimensional medium under
conditions of negligi"le surface
resistance, 566O567
in semi=inFnite medium, @:9O566
'nsteady transport pro"lems, charts for
solution of, ;5:O;93
1acancy diffusion, @5;
1aria"le energy generation, plane 2all
2ith, 5>5O5>>
1aria"le o(erall capacity coefFcient,
;5@O;55
1aria"le thermal conducti(ity, 5>6
1elocity,
diffusion, @6>
distri"ution from mi8ing=length
theory, 3;3O3;5
mass=a(erage, @6>
molar=a(erage, @6>
1elocity potential, 339O337
1ie2=factor alge"ra, >99O>9:
1iscosity, 7>O79
1iscous contri"ution, to normal stress,
;55O;5;
1iscous Jo2, 3>9O3;9
-lasiusHs solution for laminar
"oundary layer on Jat plate,
3@;O356
"oundary=layer concept, 3@@
"oundary=layer e?uations, 3@5O3@;
drag, 3>7O3@>
2ith pressure gradient, 356O355
&ingle spheres, >3@O>3;
con(ecti(e mass=transfer to, 59@O599
&lug, 7
&olid mass=diffusi(ity, @55O@5:
&olids, physical properties of, ;9;O;99
&ol(ent=Flled pores, hindered solute
diffusion in, @5>O@55
&oret effect, @69
&pecular reJection, >;6
&pherical "u""le s2arms, con(ecti(e
mass transfer to, 599O597
&pherical coordinates, ;55O;5>, ;57
&pray to2er, ;6@O;65
&ta"le Flm "oiling regime, >5@
&tagnation points, 339
&tandard atmosphere, properties of
;95O;9>
&tatic JuidC
pressure at a point in, @O5
pressure (ariation in, 3;O3:
&teady Jo2s, >6O>3
&teady=state conduction, 55@O553
heat transfer from e8tended surfaces,
5>>O5@6
one=dimensional, 55@O5@6
5>6O5>>
t2o=and three=dimensional systems,
5@6O5@;
&teady=state molecular diffusion,
@55O@:5
one=dimensional mass transfer
independent of chemical
reaction, @55O@;>
one=dimensional systems associated
2ith chemical reaction,
@;>O@9@
simultaneous heat and mass transfer,
@9:O@7>
simultaneous momentum and mass
transfer, @7>O@77
t2o= and three=dimensional systems,
@9@O@97
&tefan= -olt<mann constant, 56:, >;5
&tefan=-olt<mann la2, >;5
&tirred tan!s, gas=li?uid mass transfer in,
575O579
&to!eHs (iscosity relation, :6
&tream function, 355O359
&treamlines, >3O>5
&tress at a point, >O@
&tress tensor, symmetry of, ;5@
&u"merged surfaces, forces on, 56O5>
&u"stantial deri(ati(e, 363
&u"Iect *nde8
ReynoldHs e8periment, 3>9O3>7
(on 0arman momentum integral
analysis, 355O355
(on 0arman analogy, 5:3, 5>7
(on 0arman integral relation, 35@
Well=mi8ed tan!s, gas=li?uid mass=
transfer and operations in, ;65O
;33
Wetted=2all columns, mass transfer in,
573O57>
933
Wiedemann, Fran<, $oren< e?uation,
56@
Wind=chill e?ui(alent temperature,
>3;

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Fundamentals of Momentum,

Heat, and Mass Transfer

36U36 ] RaD ] 36U5

Figure 5>.9 Emissi(ity at

dc+ c+6 !3 DD+-c+6 !3 DD+-

&ymmetry of the &tress Tensor

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