1 Writing and Printing Equipment, Catalogue of

the Tibetan Collection and other Lamaist Material in

the Newark Museum, ed. E. Olson, et al. (Newark:
1971) vol. III, 109.
Tibetan books: scientific examination and conservation
approaches
Agnieszka Helman-Wany
Introduction
The written word is enormously respected in Tibet. The Scriptures possess an
even greater sanctity than images, for it is by the Word that the form is given life.
Even holy images represent the recollected visions of individuals, which can
never be as reliable a guide as the Scriptures. Sacred volumes are never located
below religious sculptures and paintings, and it is considered inappropriate for
a sacred text to be carried under the arm or lower than the waist.
1
To throw even
a fragment of writing on the ground is considered to be a sacrilege. The only way
to destroy a text is by ritual burning. Books are therefore of great importance in
Tibetan culture.
Not all Tibetan books are religious. The most important historical documents
of Tibet were originally stored in the Lhasa Archive, while religious texts were
kept in monasteries, virtually inaccessible to Westerners. Monastic libraries
usually possessed a number of volumes, which could satisfy the needs of
thousands of readers (Fig 1). Evidence for the interest in religious literature in
Tibet can be traced back to the eighth century when the earliest Tibetan collection
of religious scriptures has been dated. The content of Tibetan written objects can
range from chronicles, economic documents and letters to pre-Buddhist and
Buddhist writings. During the Cultural Revolution in China a great, though
unidentified, number of texts were destroyed. However, a considerable number
were rescued and dispersed throughout the worlds museums, libraries,
Buddhist centers and private collections. Some of these original manuscripts are
among the most precious cultural gems of the world and are invaluable for
Tibetan Studies.
With a history spanning more than 2000 years, Buddhism has long been a
major world religion. The translation of Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan not only
preserved the language and history of these peoples but also assists in the study
247
Fig 1 Part of the library in the monastery of
Namche Basar in the Khumbu District, Nepal.
Books are placed close to the altar.
Edinburgh Conference Papers 2006
Helman-Wany
2 Tibetan religious scriptures mainly consist of:
Kanjur, which is the cannonical literature
attributed to Buddha, and Tenjur, which are
authoritative commentaries on Kanjur.
3 H. Eimer, Spurensicherung: Das verschollene
Berliner Fragment des Wanli-Kanjur. Zentral-
asiatische Studien 30 (2000) 2751.
4 Samye dabate took place in the Samye
monastery at the request of Tibetan king Tri song
de cen. The point was to decide from whom
Tibetans should learn Buddhist teaching,
choosing between Indian and Chinese scholars.
5 The text was drawn with a sharp stick on the
surface of the leaf; ink rubbed on the leaf
remained in the scored depressions. The leaves
were threaded on a string, like beads, and put
together into a pile. In this formthey were placed
between two boards. The string was attached to
the wooden boards. They are read in the same
way as contemporary calendars. D. Hunter,
Papermaking. The History and Technique of an
Ancient Craft (New York: Knopf, 1943) 14.
6 G. Grnbold, Tibetishe Buchdeckel (Munich:
Ausstellungskataloge Bayerische Staats-
bibliothek, 1991) 1618.
7 The term books includes both handwritten
books, referred to as manuscripts, and printed
books.
8 A. Helman-Wany, Tybetaskie ksiki w zbiorach
polskich: badania i problemy konserwatorskie, PhD
dissertation presented at the Nicolaus
Copernicus University in Torun, Poland, 23
January 2007 (manuscript).
9 W. Zajczkowski, Orientalistyka, Polska
Akademia Umiejtnoci 18721952. Nauki
humanistyczne i spoeczne. Materiay sesji
jubileuszowej, Krakw 34 maja 1973 roku, Krakw
1974, 353355.
of Eastern culture. Tibetan texts are therefore crucial source material.
Xylographic editions usually include more information on their date and origin
than handwritten sets of Buddhist text. It is why the most well-known Tibetan
books are xylograph printed texts of Kanjur and Tenjur.
2
In effect the Buddhist Cannon written in the Tibetan language today
represents the largest collection of Buddhist texts, by far exceeding the canonical
literature in the Chinese language.
3
Tibetan Buddhism is related to Indian
Culture, but, from the thirteenth century, Buddhism ceased to exist in India after
the Moslem invasion and the rejuvenation of Hinduism. From that time Tibetans
became the only heirs to the late Buddhist culture of India. Tibetan books should
thus be considered to be a homage paid by Tibetans to their Indian masters and
teachers, the content and form being directly inspired by the traditional Indian
palm-leaf books called pustaka. After the Samye [bSam-yas]
4
debate between 792
and 794, when Tibet embraced the Indian form of Buddhism, Tibetans together
with holy texts, also inherited the form for their books: long narrow leaves with
horizontal text written on both sides.
5, 6
This format Tibetans called pothi.
The content of a great many extant Tibetan books is still unknown and
scientists involved in Tibetan studies are still searching and finding historical
texts thought to have been lost. Thanks to surveys of Tibetan collections, carried
out for example in Bhutan, Dharamsala or Lhasa, many books have been
rediscovered, enriching our knowledge of Tibetan history and the craftsmanship
of Inner Asia. There is today an increase in the number of editions of Buddhist
books being produced, ensuring that the Buddhist written heritage of Tibet will
not disappear. However, of concern is the practice of replacing old copies, with
new. Currently, books accumulated in the centres of Tibetan Buddhism are
mainly contemporary copies of classical works. The monastic community
enthusiastically receives every reprint, which is often multiplied with the use of
printers and Xerox

copies, while historic editions fall into oblivion. As a result,

many traditional crafts related to book-making disappear. This paper describes
some of the findings of a comprehensive survey of Tibetan material housed in
Polish collections, undertaken as a preliminary stage for its conservation. The
reference study of Tibetan books and traditional storing methods was carried out
in the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives in Dharamsala, India and Buddhist
Monasteries in Mustang, Manang and Khumbu region in Nepal. The survey was
conducted in Polish museums and libraries by the author, with a view to locating
and describing paper-based Tibetan artefacts, tracing provenance, estimating the
size and character of Tibetan collections in Poland and singling out collections of
Tibetan books.
7
Many interesting and valuable objects were found through a
questionnaire and detailed library research. Of the objects looked at 75 artefacts
were selected for study as the basis of a PhD research.
8
The origin of Tibetan books in Poland
The history of Oriental books in Poland goes back to scientific expeditions to the
Far East at the beginning of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, conducted by
the collaborators of the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences, when valuable
artefacts were collected. However, a substantial part of the Polish collections
emerged in the twentieth century as a result of gifts and donations from
independent travellers.
The appearance of the Oriental Collection of Poland is directly related to the
development of Oriental Studies; this discipline is relatively young in Poland,
but it stems from an older research tradition, which had discontinued at the time
of the partitions in the last decade of the eighteenth century. The interest in
Oriental studies fell in Poland during the nineteenth century when Polish
scientific activity could not be officially conducted. As a result, after regaining
independence in 1919, Poland could not boast the same scientific credentials as
England, France or Russia. Despite this, interest in Oriental studies in Poland
grew quickly after 1919.
9
Geographical and archaeological expeditions were
undertaken and Oriental philologists became more active, often the increase in
interest stemming from the activity of Poles in the service of the Tsar or fugitives
248
Tibetan books: scientific examination and conservation approaches
10 Zajaczkowski, 353355.
11 H. Stoddard, The Style and Artistic Context,
S.G. Karmay, Secret Visions of the Fifth Dalai Lama
(London: Serindia, 1998) 10.
12 This manuscript was elaborated as a case
study: A. Helman-Wany, The Diamond Sutra in
the Collection of the Pomeranian Library of
Szczecin in the Historical and Artistic Context of
Buddhist Books from Central Asia, Journal of
Conservation-Restoration 14 (34): 161166.
13 H. Eimer, Spurensicherung: Das
verschollene Berliner Fragment des Wanli-
Kanjur, Zentralasiatische Studien 30 (2000): 2751.
from Siberia.
10
One form of scientific activity in Asia was the purchase of books
and other historic objects. However, the majority of objects entered Polish
collections much later during the early 1960s, often as donations from private
collectors. It is difficult to determine the provenance of many of the objects; it is
thought that they must have been brought from Mongolia.
The Museum of Asia and Pacific in Warsaw possess the largest Polish
collection of historic Tibetan books. Founded in 1973, the museum is the only
Polish institution that promotes knowledge of the cultural heritage of Asia,
Australia, and Oceania. Although the museums Tibetan paper holdings
represent only a few percent of its entire collection, it houses 80 books and texts
from Mongolia, Tibet and Nepal on handmade paper and 36 xylographs from
Nepal on handmade paper with silk thread. The most important of these is the
unique object: Gold manuscript type of book, written in gold ink on black paper
(Fig 2).
11
Two such manuscripts were found during the survey in Polish
collections. The second
12
is preserved in the Pomeranian Library in Szczecin, and
was a gift for the Buddhist Book Project Poland from H.H. 14th Dalai Lama.
These artefacts are the sacred Buddhist books containing the Tibetan text of the
Diamond Sutra (Fig 2).
Another collection of Tibetan books can be found in the Ethnographic
Museum in Krakow, which possesses an interesting and unique object, the
Tibetan Pharmacy. It is one of the earliest Tibetan artefacts in Poland. It was
purchased and brought to Poland by Witold Swiatopelk-Mirski and donated to
the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences in Krakow by Prof. Julian Talko-
Hryncewicz in 1908, and later transferred to the museum in 1921. The Tibetan
Pharmacy contains 2 handwritten books and additionally almost 300 medications
with descriptions, contained in separate bottles and sacks.
The search for Tibetan books in Poland put the author on the track of the
Pander collection from the former Prussian Library, now deposited in the
Jagiellonian University Library in Krakow. Eugene Panders books constitute a
collection of immense value, which is temporarily deposited in Poland. Allegedly,
it contains the Tibetan literary heritage deemed to be lost.
13
The reappearance of
such a vast number of new sources may change many of the accepted views
within the area of Buddhist studies. During the closing stages of the Second World
War, collections from the Prussian Library in Berlin were evacuated to Ksi
Castle, Lower Silesia. The collections were later discovered by a group of
researchers from the Jagiellonian University Library, who transported, among
others, the Pander Collection to the main Library seat in Krakow. The collection,
placed in the Jagiellonian Library on the rights of deposit, comprises Tibetan
books, which Eugene Pander brought to Berlin in 1889. The collection was first
donated to the Museum fr Vlkerkunde in Berlin and then to Kgl. Bibliothek.
The collection is completely unknown and uncatalogued. Panders texts and
letters provide some clues as to its contents. The original collection seems to have
included, among other texts, portions of Kanjur, works of Tibetan masters and
Tibetan-Mongolian dictionaries. These, however, are but a small part of the 300
library units of the Pander collection placed in the Jagiellonian University Library
(since the collection is uncatalogued, it is difficult to give even a tentative estimate
of its size; there are usually a few books within one library unit). In comparison,
the Polish collections of Tibetan books (the subject of the authors doctoral
dissertation) appear at least a number of times smaller and are dispersed in
museums and libraries throughout the country. While the Pander collection was
completed by the end of the nineteenth century, the Polish collections include
mainly objects dating from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Tibetan books in Polish collections
There has no been decisive information about the number and location of Tibetan
books housed in collections in Poland before this project. The books have not
been catalogued and existing museum descriptions contain only general
information.
A number of previously uncatalogued Tibetan books from Polish collections,
249
Fig 2 Diamond Sutra written in gold ink on a
black paper fromthe Asia and Pacific Museumin
Warsaw, Poland.
Helman-Wany
14 A. Bareja-Starzyska and M. Mejor, Klasyczny
jzyk tybetaski (Warszawa: Dialog, 2002) 56.
15 Bareja-Starzyska and Mejor, 56.
16 Translation from Tibetan was undertaken by
Dr. Thuptena Khunga Chashab, Oriental
Institute at Warsaw University. Part of the
content of the books studied had already been
identified before this project started.
17 H. Eimer, Uwagi na temat tybetaskiego
kanonu buddyjskiego (Kandur), Studia
Indologiczne 6 (1999): 7283.
were studied. The final group comprised 75 books, written mainly in Tibetan, but
not necessarily from Tibet itself. It was surmised that there were also examples
from other Himalayan countries following Tibetan Buddhist culture, such as
Mongolia or China. For the purposes of the study all such books were considered
Tibetan.
Selection of historic Tibetan books for the study
Of the 75 books identified for research, 10 of the most interesting were chosen for
closer study. Using interdisciplinary research their techniques and materials
were examined as well as their paleographical and art-historical significance.
Any findings were evaluated as to the possibilities and limitations of these
methods for dating and identifying the origin of Tibetan books. The most
significant books were found in the Museum of Asia and Pacific in Warsaw, the
Ethnographic Museum in Kracow, and the Pomeranian Library in Szczecin. The
Tibetan books found were much more varied than anticipated from scientific
literature. Because of a lack of references in the literature, examination of
techniques and materials tests were sometimes very difficult to interpret. No
historical treaties on Tibetan books were found. The cataloguing process
therefore consisted, for the most part, of gathering scanty information based on
materials study from different disciplines.
Paleography of the Tibetan books under research
The main problem once books for further research had been identified, was
related to determining the provenance of particular books. An original attempt
to single out books from the territory of proper Tibet failed. According to Bareja-
Starzynska and Mejor a rough estimate for the number of Tibetan language
speakers is four million.
14
These people inhabit historical Tibet (now Tibetan
Autonomous Region and the neighboring provinces: Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu
and Yunnan), and Sub-Himalayan countries and provinces, such as Ladakh,
Zaskar [Zangskar], Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. Since classical Tibetan is the
liturgical language of Tibetan Buddhism, it is used in religious contexts by
Mongols and Buriats.
15
Due to this fact the task of describing the specific origin
of the books is difficult. Generally, the Tibetan books preserved in Polish
collections are examples of religious art.
The text that features most frequently in Polish collections is the Diamond
Sutra, one of the most important texts of Mahayana Buddhism.
16
This can be
explained by the popularity of the Diamond Sutra, which was translated into a
number of languages and published in many editions. The Diamond Sutra, part
of the larger cycle of the Prajnaparamita sutras (Tib. rDo rje gcod pa), lit. Perfection
of Wisdom is an element of the Buddhist canon referred to as Kanjur (Bka-gyur),
containing the words of teaching traditionally attributed to Buddha.
17
The analyses of particular aspects, such as book-structure, type of paper and
decoration were evaluated for the whole research material. An attempt was
made to describe elements of the Tibetan book in the context of its function in
Tibetan Buddhism. The key problem is the difference in character and functions
of the book in Tibet and Western culture. Tibetan religious books contain neither
a list of contents nor abstracts. They are to be read gradually, often to be recited
as are Buddhist mantras; they can be read in fragments. It should be noted that
a book may be interpreted on different levels depending on the reader. Another
interesting element to be observed in many books are the readers notes made
directly on the pages of old books. This is not considered to be an act of
vandalism, but on the contrary, as a sign of thorough study.
Often a variety of objects is catalogued under one inventory number. Initially,
it appeared that ignorance of the content led to the mixing of separate leaves.
However, on closer examination it turned out that such a format often
represented a type of a mini-library belonging to a individual owner. For this
reason it seemed useless to single out particular texts, unless there was clear
evidence that they were incomplete and unrelated fragments (for example
printing scrap).
250
Tibetan books: scientific examination and conservation approaches
18 The most frequently used wood for
xylographic blocks was from pear and jojoba
trees.
In general terms, Tibetan books can be divided into the categories of
manuscripts and prints. While the history of manuscripts would seem to end with
the invention and proliferation of printing in Tibet and Mongolia, even after the
invention of xylography, the tradition of manuscripts still continues. Despite their
high price, manuscripts were still being produced in the second half of the
twentieth century, when Tibet became part of China and the editing process was
automated. The sacred Buddhist manuscripts with Tibetan text handwritten in
black ink usually contain miniatures representing Buddhist Pantheon. They
comprise loose leaves, each leaf being made up of several layers of paper glued
together, covered with boards made of wood, or paper layers joined with paper or
leather strips.
Out of 75 catalogued objects in Polish collections, 43 are manuscripts and 30
are books printed with xylography. Xylograph-printed books have the same
formas handwritten books, but the text, border and possible woodcut images are
printed from the same engraved wood plates by using black ink (Fig 3).
18
It is the
type of book that is commonly taken to represent Tibetan publishing culture.
Objects printed with movable type make up the smallest group in the collection
(Fig 4). They must originate fromregions other than Tibet itself. It is of interest that
books printed using lithography were found in Dharamsala (Fig 5). Neither
printing with movable type nor lithography have ever been developed in Tibet.
251
Fig 3 Xylograph printed book, from the collection in the Asia and Pacific
Museum in Warsaw, Poland.
Fig 4 Tibetan book printed with movable type, from the collection in the
Asia and Pacific Museum in Warsaw, Poland.
Fig 5 Tibetan monastery book printed in the
1960s in India using lithography, preserved in
the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives in
Dharamsala, India.
Helman-Wany
19 Translation of this Diamond Sutra undertaken
by Prof. dr. hab. Marek Mejor, Oriental Institute
at Warsaw University. The relevant fragment of
the colophon: ...Out of 84 thousand Dharma
collections this Diamond of Perfection of
Wisdom the essence of teachings written out of
good intentions is put with golden ink on
supreme paper which resembles lapis lazuli....
20 R.E. Fisher, Art of Tibet (London: Thames and
Hudson, 1997) 111.
21 Grnbold, 9.
22 M. -,

,
, (Moskwa, 1988) 336.
23 Grnbold, 10.
24 R. Davies, Observation on the condition
structure and formats of Tibetan manuscripts
collected from Dunhuang during Steins second
expedition, 2005, unpublished manuscript, placed
in the Oriental Conservation Studio (Studio B) at
the British Library.
25 Fibre identification was carried out by the
author in keeping with standards: PN-72/P-
04604; PN-76/P-50125. Comparative material: T.
Collings and D. Milner, The identification of
oriental papermaking fibers, The Paper
Conservator 3 (1978): 5179; M. Sisko and I. Pfffli,
Fiber Atlas, Identification of Papermaking Fibers
(Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1995)
348349; R.O. Meisezahl, Bemerkungen zu
Tibetischen Handschriften des 17.19.
Jahrhunderts, Ergnzt Durch die
Mikroskopische Untersuchung im Institut fr
Cellulosechemie der Technischen Hochschule
Darmstadt, Papier Geschichte 8:2 (1958): 1728.
26 The first extant manuscripts in Inner Asia
using a glued base of several layers date fromthe
fifth century AD.
27 Traditional papermaking in the Himalaya
was studied by many authors during last
century, but Hunter still remains the best
authority on papermaking in general: Hunter,
77203; W.F. Tschudin, lteste Papier-
bereitungsverfahren im Fernen Osten, Textil-
Rundschau 13 (1958): 679689. More recent
studies: E. Koretsky, Papermaking Today in
Tibet and China, Hand Papermaking 1
(Washington, 1986): 26; A.-G. Rischel,
Traditional Paper Making in the Far East,
Annual Newsletter of the Scandinavian Institute of
Asian Studies 19 (Copenhagen, 1985): 718; J.
Dbrowski and J. Siniarska-Czaplicka, Rkodzieo
papiernicze (Warszawa: Sigma Not., 1991) 3048.
28 pH surface measurements taken using pH-
METR type 517 according to standard: PN-84/P-
50109.
29 The analyses of binding media were carried
out by Dr. I. Zadrona at the Department of
Chemistry of the Warsaw Polytechnic and
allowed the technology of the Sutras creation to
be reconstructed. The composition of the binding
agent was established using two independent
spectroscopic techniques: gas chromatography
coupled with mass spectrography (GC-MS) and
infra-red spectroscopy used for corroboration of
the results obtained by GC-MS.
Materials of the Tibetan books under research
For noted religious texts the character of the material used was an important
element connected with the principles of Buddhist aesthetic. This principle, of
using the most precious and the best materials for religious books, is confirmed
by the colophon of the Diamond Sutra from Szczecin.
19
Despite the Indian origin of Tibetan books, they were written, not on palm
leaves as are the Indian pustaka, but on birch bark and paper; and they were
never threaded with a string. However, their page shape is similar to that of a
palm leaf and so Tibetan books of loose leaves are called pothi type, or they are
described as being in a pothi format. Tibetan scribes did alter the size of the page,
largely because of using different materials from palm leaves.
20, 21
The size of
leaves of this study were varied. The most often documented leaves were 714cm
in width, and 2055cm in length.
22
and according to Grnbold the largest known
book measures 130cm high by 170cm wide (preserved in Sakya [Sa-skya]
monastery).
23
Archaeological findings confirm that Tibetan books exist in the form of paper
and silk scrolls, Chinese-style binding, and concertina form, which was also
confirmed by Davies study of Tibetan manuscripts from the Stein collection.
24
Examination of techniques and materials showed that the majority of the objects
in Polish collections are in a loose-leaf format. However, five were boarded books
and three were folded. Many other examples of Tibetan binding styles were seen
in the collection of the British Library, the Library of Tibetan Works andArchives,
and the Tibetan Museum in Lhasa. It was much rarer to find stitched books with
textile or even leather covers in the material studied in the above institutions.
The differences in binding seem to depend on region rather than date. To create
a chronology for Tibetan bindings more books need to be precisely dated,
however it is not a simple task and both dating and tracing provenance has
proved difficult for western museums and libraries. Even mention of date in the
text is not necessarily straightforward as it has to be translated from the Tibetan
Calendar. It should be stressed, that there are many books without any notes in
the colophon to identify them. In such cases the best results could be obtained by
interdisciplinary research based on both text and materials analyses, usually
performed during conservation.
Various types of paper supports were identified during this study. In general,
it was possible to single out 3 kinds of paper support: 17 examples were of
handmade wove paper, 30 were handmade laid paper and 36 were machine-
made paper. 42 books contained paper sheets that had been made by adhering 2
to 4 layers of handmade wove and laid paper together. There were 20 objects
made up of single-layer leaves (mostly machine-made sheets). Many of the loose-
leaf Tibetan books contained both types.
1 Handmade wove paper
The most traditional paper is handmade using a floating mould, typical of
Inner Asia (Fig 6). When analysed papers of this type were mostly composed of
the fibres from the Thymelaeaceae family of plants, such as Daphne sp. and
Edgeworthia sp. shrubs which are common at the foot of the Himalayas.
25
The
colour of the papers examined usually ranged from yellowish to dark brown,
though no organic substance that could be responsible for the colour was
detected. Originally, newly made paper of this type has a creamy colour and
contains small pieces of solid, dark brown, pulp impurities. This type of paper
was identified as having been used in the most decorated handwritten books and
a few xylographs from the Polish collections. The leaves of the studied books
usually comprised three to five layers of thin wove paper with a rough surface
adhered together to make thicker sheets.
26
Microscopic study clearly indicated
that the paper contained rather long fibres with many irregularities in the fibre
walls and lumens. Leaves of this type of paper were highly sized, as they were
prepared for writing, contrary to typical paper manufactured in the Himalayas,
which was never sized.
27
The paper was usually in good condition due to its
physical and chemical stability and strength. The pH of the samples that had
deteriorated most was in the range of pH 67.
28
The binding media of the
252
Tibetan books: scientific examination and conservation approaches
30 The term historic refers to the pre-twentieth
century papers.
31 Dbrowski and Siniarska-Czaplicka, 33.
32 Y. Imaeda, Papermaking in Bhutan, Acta
Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae XLIII
23 (1989): 409414.
33 Imaeda, 414.
34 This papermaking mill was identified with
the kind help of Dr. Elena Mikolaychuk, a paper
history specialist from Hermitage, Saint
Petersburg, Russia.
35 . . ,
, 1972, 111.
36 Stoddard, 10.
37 Dr. Thupten Kunga, tibetologist from
Warsaw University, personal communication.
analysed objects made of this kind of paper showed that the paper sheets had
been stuck together with animal glue and resin from coniferous trees.
29
As
papers were never sized any adhesives identified must have been introduced to
the paper during the books production.
2 Handmade laid paper
Historic
30
paper with chain and laid lines, was found in numerous books and
suggests the paper had been made using a dipping mould with a movable
bamboo sieve. In Tibet the wove-type of floating mould has been used since the
beginning of papermaking. Such a technique could suggest that the paper comes
from China, where both type of moulds were invented and used.
31
It should
however be remembered that probably a floating mould equipped with movable
sieve made of bamboo was developed in Bhutan under Chinese influence.
32
But
it is likely that the papermaking technique with a floating mould and the pulp
pouring method had been introduced into Bhutan from Tibet. Bhutan is,
however, the solitary example, in this part of Himalayas, of the practice of a
dipping method using a mould with a bamboo sieve.
33
Those laid papers that
were examined were composed of various kinds of fibres, mainly straw, bamboo,
softwood, hardwood and even woodpulp. The leaves made of this type of paper
were usually of a single layer, at most two.
3 Machine-made paper
Machine-made paper made up a large number of the manuscripts and
xylograph books. Despite using a contemporary material the form of the books
was in traditional pothi format. Blind embossed factory stamps from the factory
of Sumkins heirs: were found on some of the
paper (Fig 7). The same type of stamp with the name Platunov was discovered
on a few other samples. Both paper mills were located in the north of the
European part of Russia (in Vologda and Vjatka provinces).
34
The Sumkin factory
was founded in 1829 in the village of Afamovo in the Lalsk city district by a
merchant, Stepan Sumkin. Machine production was begun by Alexiey Sumkin in
1854, and use of the embossing stamps ceased in 1917. The only known
successors, the grandson and granddaughter of Alexiey Sumkin, Innokentiy
Shestakov and Ekaterina Shestakova inherited the paper mill in 1867, and owned
it until the Revolution in 1917, when all private property was nationalized. It
follows that, the papers embossed by the Sumkins heirs stamp within the Polish
collection of Tibetan books can be dated between 18671917.
Identifying and dating the Platunov paper mill stamp was not as straight
forward. The only known information is that the mill had been founded in 1812
on the Kordjaga river in the same province.
35
No date has been found as to when
papermaking machines were introduced into the mill, however it is assumed that
it was some time in the second half of the nineteenth century and production
continued until 1917, when the mill was nationalized. When analysed, the papers
of this type were found to be composed of flax/hemp, straw and wood fibres.
The condition of these objects was different from those with the Sumkins heirs
stamp however; in many cases the paper structure was relatively well preserved.
The very fact that machine-made paper has been used points to a more recent
date of production than indicated in the description. Thus, the largest group of
Tibetan books dates from the second half of the nineteenth century.
The Diamond Sutra in the Collection of the Pomeranian Library of Szczecin
This is a unique example of a Gold Manuscript
36
in the Polish collections. The
formof the object is characteristic for the region of the Himalayas and stems from
the form of the traditional pothi books. Not only is the text of the Diamond Sutra
meticulously written in a remarkably steady hand, but gold ink has been used
for all of the writing, which is exceptional. Texts written with gold ink on black
paper are referred to in Tibetan as shog gu (bu) thing nag.
37
Such manuscripts were
prepared as special copies, for example, as gifts or offering texts. Only a limited
number of such manuscripts have been preserved.
The sheets of the Sutra were made by gluing together layers of paper with
animal glue and the resin of coniferous trees. The sheets, surface-dyed black,
Fig 6 The paper-maker using a floating mould,
which is the most traditional technique of
papermaking in the Himalayas. Photograph by A.
Helman-Wany taken in Nuntala during a field
trip to the Khumbu region, Nepal (Spring 1997).
Fig 7 An embossed stamp with inscription:
(factory of
Sumkins heirs) found on the paper of the
manuscript from the Museum of Asia and Pacific
in Warsaw, Poland.
253
Helman-Wany
38 I. Zadrona, Sprawozdanie z bada spoiw w
buddyjskim rkopisie z tekstem Diamentowej
Sutry, Warsaw, 2003.
39 A. Helman-Wany, Produkcja papieru w
grach Centralnej Azji, Biuletyn Informacyjny
Konserwatorw Dzie Sztuki 12:2 (2001): 5055.
40 Philological research by Prof. M. Mejor,
Department of South-Asian Studies of Warsaw
University.
41 Radiocarbon dating can be used to determine
the age of Tibetan books, as this is an
independent and objective method for organic
materials. However, there are potential problems
with accuracy, which is in a range of 50300 years
depending on the time period. Typically, there
may be an error of 50 years on an uncalibrated
date. This is usually calibrated to get a date in
calendar years with a similar error. However,
from AD 16501955 there are many intercepts
with the calibration curve and several possible
dates exist. From AD 1955 to the present, the
resolution can be to the nearest year owing to
elevated 14C levels from the atmospheric testing
of atomic weapons until the Partial Test Ban
Treaty in AD 1963. In this case the date with the
highest probability is between 18101920, but
this date is still ambiguous. The AMS
measurements for radiocarbon dating were
taken in the Pozna Radiocarbon Laboratory by
Dr. hab. Tomasz Goslar, professor of Adam
Mickiewicz University.
were subsequently polished. In their preparation, black carbon-based pigment
was used with a binding agent made of animal glue.
38
The layout of the text, as
well as the shape of the letters, show that the manuscript was executed by an
artist. It contains a leaf with miniatures covered by three pieces of fabric, which
is similar to tankas where the representation of the deity is uncovered only for
meditation. This artistic effect enriches the artefact. The book was created with
the use of traditional materials, owing to which the noble formof the artefact was
preserved. This historic book was made of the paper from the phloem of Daphne.
The paper was manufactured by simple methods characteristic of the region of
the Himalayas.
39
The Diamond Sutra is a unique artefact both technologically and artistically,
but its dating is a difficult task. Its form suggests that it was created a long time
ago, which would have been an academic sensation, taking into account the rest
of the Polish collections. Because of this, analyses aimed at dating the artefact
were conducted. During microscopic examination, the relative shortness of the
fibres was observed, which could indicate that during the process of
papermaking they were ground and cut. Following that line of thought, one
might surmise that a grinding mill was used, which would point to a more
contemporary date for the books creation. Furthermore, a high degree of fibre
degradation, which implies that the raw materials are not of the best quality,
constitutes another clue as to a relatively recent date for the artefact. Philological
analysis had not been able to provide an answer as to where the book had been
created. The main problem of dating Buddhist monastic books by means of
stylistic methods stems from their unified form. No information was found
regarding the calligrapher or the time and place of publication. They occur very
rarely and are placed in the colophon.
40
Unfortunately, no satisfying results were
obtained, thus there was a need for an independent material dating method.
Analyses using accelerated mass spectrometry (AMS) helped establish that the
Diamond Sutra of Szczecin is not older than the end of the seventeenth century,
and the most probable date will fall between 18101920.
41
Using the quality of
the paper and artistic context I would say that the book dates fromthe nineteenth
century.
Conservation approach
In all institutions possessing Tibetan book collections there are problems with
their conservation. In most of Asia conservation is largely understood as being
the replacement of older historical material with new. In effect, the number of
original copies is constantly being reduced. The European attitude towards
254
Fig 8 The design of the shelving resembles a
pigeon-hole system consisting of vertical and
horizontal wooden beams with separated spaces
for individual books.
Tibetan books: scientific examination and conservation approaches
conservation is to retain and conserve the historical material itself. In Poland, the
problem of the conservation of Tibetan books has not been addressed. The
Tibetan Monastic Libraries in the Himalayas contained many thousands of old
books, wrapped in cloth, held in place between board covers and piled up in
pigeon holes to the ceiling, usually close to the altars (Fig 8). The interiors were
invariably poorly lit and in winter extremely cold. Traditional storage conditions
were favourable for books in Tibet, as the climate is dry and cold, but now many
Tibetan books have been scattered across the world, where Tibetan minorities
exist among other cultures. Their religious context should be taken into account
during conservation: the books were usually consecrated as sacred objects and
will lose their function when treated.
The condition of those Tibetan books of this study shows that many had
deteriorated before they entered the Polish collections. All had damage caused
by frequent use and were covered in dust and dirt. Many of them had been
damaged by water. It is why many of the books need protective treatments. The
damage could have occurred when the books were carried during trips, which
Tibetans used to take as Buddhist pilgrims. It should also be remembered that
Tibetan books were often transported as objects of trade and collecting.
It is of interest that a comparatively small number of those books within the
studied materials were insect damaged. This supports the authors earlier
findings that paper in Tibetan books was successfully protected by introducing
into its structure orpiment (Arsenic(III) sulphide, As2S3), or other insect
deterring substances derived from plants. It should be noted that Daphne fibres
also act as an insect repellent due to their poisonous properties.
It has been recommended that procedures for reproducing original works in
such unknown collections be planned as a standard procedure. The Tibetan
custom of copying Buddhist texts can be considered as transferring books onto
other supports. However, the philosophy of copying is different. Generally,
digitisation ensures accuracy and facilitates wide dissemination of even the most
precious objects.
Conclusions
The collection of Tibetan books in Poland was identified by surveying Polish
book collections. The project helped to catalogue previously unknown Tibetan
books, make the collection accessible to the scholarly and scientific community.
The existence of such a collection in Poland confirms a national interest in
Tibetan history and culture, and fits with the historical interest in Oriental
Studies in Poland.
The Pander collection, which is of immense value, was rediscovered in Poland
as a result of this project. It was found to contain Tibetan literary heritage
deemed to be lost. The availability of the collection will be of a great significance
to Tibet and other Buddhist countries in the future.
Research of particular objects from Polish collections, as well as research on
Tibetan collections outside Poland, examined the history of Tibetan bookmaking
techniques as well as papermaking in Inner Asia. Documentation and research
on particular books showed that a variety of techniques and materials had been
used and will be vital for other research on dating and establishing the
provenance of Tibetan books. Study into techniques and materials, the book
structure and traditional methods of their storage has proved useful in planning
their conservation.
255
Helman-Wany
Contact address
email: ahw23@cornell.edu
Acknowledgements
This article is taken from the authors PhD thesis, Tibetan books in Polish
collections: scientific examination and conservation approaches conducted at
Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Poland under the supervision of
Prof. dr. hab. A. B. Strzelczyk. The PhD project was funded by a PhD grant
No. 1H01E00427 from the Polish Ministry of Science 20042006, and also
supported by a Domestic Grant for a Young Scientist Scholarship received
from the Foundation for Polish Science, awarded to the author in 2003 and
2004.
Summary
This study is concerned with the history of collecting Oriental books in
Poland and the historical and technical aspects of Tibetan books including
the problems of their conservation. The results are largely based on a project
carried out in major Polish museums and libraries, in the course of which a
number of interesting, but so far uncatalogued Tibetan texts and art were
discovered.
Two of the most interesting objects are a collection of books written in
gold ink on black paper from both the Museum of Asia and Pacific in
Warsaw and the Pomeranian Library in Szczecin, and a Tibetan Pharmacy
comprising Tibetan pharmaceutical texts, substance labels and several
actual substances from the Ethnographic Museum in Krakow. Attempts are
ongoing to classify these texts and objects in known artistic and historic
contexts through research of Central Asian book collections. The traditional
methods employed and materials used in making the artefacts are briefly
described and compared to known technological and material findings. The
research thus far has concentrated on Tibetan bookmaking techniques and
paper analyses; the dating problem of books from Central Asia is discussed
in this context. Additionally, the study includes the investigation of
destructive factors and the discussion of conservation methods to be
applied.
Rsum
Cette tude traite de lhistoire des collections de livres orientaux en Pologne
ainsi que des aspects historiques et techniques des livres tibtains y compris
de leurs problmes de restauration. Les rsultats reposent largement sur un
projet ralis dans de grands muses et bibliothques polonais au cours
duquel des textes tibtains intressants mais jusquici non catalogus ont t
dcouverts.
Deux des objets les plus intressants sont une collection de livres crits
lencre dore sur du papier noir provenant du Muse dAsie et du Pacifique
de Varsovie et de la bibliothque Pomeranian de Szczecin et une Pharmacie
tibtaine comprenant des textes pharmaceutiques tibtains, des tiquettes de
produits et plusieurs substances provenant du Muse ethnographique de
Cracovie. Par des recherches dans les collections de livres dAsie centrale,
on est en train dessayer de replacer ces textes et ces objets dans des
contextes artistiques et historiques connus. On dcrit brivement les
mthodes traditionnelles utilises et les matriaux employs pour fabriquer
les objets et on les compare avec des donnes technologiques et matrielles
connues. Jusqu prsent, les recherches se sont concentres sur les
techniques tibtaines de fabrication des livres et les analyses de papier. Le
problme de la datation des livres dAsie centrale est expos dans ce
contexte. En outre ltude comprend un examen des facteurs de
dgradation et une discussion des mthodes de restauration appliquer.
Zusammenfassung
Diese Studie beschftigt sich mit der Geschichte der Aquisition Tibetischer
Bcher in Polen, sowie den historischen und technischen Aspekten und den
Konservierungs/Restaurierungsproblemen tibetischer Bcher. Die
Resultate basieren zum groen Teil auf einem Projekt, das an den greren
polnischen Museen und Universitten ausgetragen wurde. Das Projekt
brachte eine Reihe von interessanten, aber bis jetzt unkatalogisierten,
tibetischen Schriften und Kunstwerken zu Tage.
Zwei der interessantesten Objekte waren Sammlungen von Bchern, die
in goldener Tinte auf schwarzem Papier geschrieben sind (im Museum
Asiens und des Pazifiks in Warschau und der Pommerischen Bibliothek in
Szczecin), und eine tibetische Apotheke, die tibetische pharmazeutische
Texte, einige Substanzen und auch Etiketts fr Substanzen enthlt (im
Ethnografischen Museum, Krakau). Versuche, diese Texte und Objekte
durch Recherche in Zentral asiatischen Buchsammlungen in bekannte
historische und kunsthistorische Kategorien einzuordnen, werden zur Zeit
unternommen. Die tradtionelle Art der Herstellung und die benutzten
Materialien werden kurz beschrieben und mit bekannten technischen
Befunden verglichen. Bisher hat sich die Recherche auf die
Herstellungstechniken tibetischer Bcher und auf Papieranalyse
konzentriert; das Problem der Datierung zentralasiatischer Bcher wird in
diesem Kontext diskutiert. Zustzlich enthlt die Studie eine Diskussion
der destruktiven Faktoren und prsentiert die angewandten
Konservierungs/Restaurierungsmethoden.
Resumen
Este estudio trata de la historia de la conformacin de la Coleccin de Libros
Orientales en Polonia y de los aspectos histricos y tcnicos de los libros
tibetanos, incluyendo el problema de su conservacin. Los resultados estan
basados, principalmente, en un proyecto realizado en los mayores museos
y bibliotecas de Polonia en el transcurso del cual se descubri un interesante
nmero de textos y arte tibetanos sin catalogar.
Dos de los ms interesantes objetos son una coleccin de libros escritos
con tinta dorada sobre papel negro provenientes de los Museos de Asia y
del Pacfico en Varsovia y de la Biblioteca Pomerania en Szczecin, y una
Farmacia Tibetana que comprende textos farmacuticos tibetanos,
inscripciones de las substacias y varias substancias provenientes del Museo
Etnogrfico de Cracovia.
Actualmente se estan clasificando estos textos y objetos en un conocido
contexto histrico y artstico, a travs de las investigaicones sobre
colecciones de libros de Asia central. Brevemente se describen los mtodos
tradicionales empleados y los materiales usados para elaborar los objetos y
se comparan la tecnologa conocida y los materiales encontrados. Hasta
ahora la investigacin se ha concentrado sobre las tcnicas de
encuadernacin tibetanas y sobre el anlisis del papel. En este contexto, se
discuten las dificultades para fechar los libros provenientes de Asia Central.
En adiccin, el estudio incluye la investigacin de factores destructivos y la
discusin sobre los mtodos de conservacin que deben ser aplicados.
Biography
Agnieszka Helman-Wany gained an MAin paper conservation at the Fine
Arts Academy in Warsaw in 2001 and a PhD in Theory and History of Art
at the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Poland in 2007.
256