Carrier Sense Multiple Access with

Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

A Shared Medium
The Ethernet network may be used to provide shared access by a group of attached nodes to the physical
medium which connects the nodes. These nodes are said to form a Collision Domain. All frames sent on the
medium are physically received by all receivers, however the Medium Access Control MAC! header contains a
destination address which ensure only the specified destination actually forwards the received frame the other
computers all discard the frames which are not addressed to them!. Consider a "A# with four computers, all
connected by a common Ethernet cable$
%ne computer &lue! sends a packet to the shared medium, which has a destination address corresponding to the
source address of the red computer.
The cable propagates the signal in both directions, so that the signal eventually! reaches all four of the
computers. Termination resistors at the ends of the cable absorb the frame energy, preventing reflection of the
signal back along the cable.
All computers receive the frame and each e'amines it to check its length and checksum. The header destination
address is ne't e'amined, to see if the packet should be accepted by the computer.
%nly the red computer recognises the destination address as valid, and therefore this computer alone forwards
the contents of the frame to the network layer. The other computers discard the unwanted frame.
The shared cable allows any computer to send whenever it wishes, but if two computers happen to transmit at
the same time, a collision will occur, resulting in the data being corrupted.
ALOHA & Collisions
To control which computers are allowed to transmit at any given time, a protocol is re(uired. The simplest
protocol is known as A"%)A this is actually an )awaiian word, meaning *hello*!. A"%)A allows any
computer to transmit at any time, but states that each computer must add a checksum at the end of its
transmission to allow the receivers! to identify whether the frame was correctly received.
A"%)A is therefore a best effort service, and does not guarantee that the frame of data will actually reach the
remote recipient without corruption. +t therefore relies on A,- protocols to retransmit any data which is
corrupted. An A"%)A network only works well when the medium has a low utilisation, since this leads to a low
probability of the transmission colliding with that of another computer, and hence a reasonable chance that the
data is not corrupted.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Ethernet uses a refinement of A"%)A, known as Carrier .ense Multiple Access C.MA!, which improves
performance when there is a higher medium utilisation. /hen a node has data to transmit, the node first listens
to the cable using a transceiver! to see if a carrier signal! is being transmitted by another node. This may be
achieved by monitoring whether a current is flowing in the cable each bit corresponds to 01234 milliAmps
mA!!. The individual bits are sent by encoding them with a 04 or 044 M)5 for 6ast Ethernet! clock using
Manchester encoding. Data is only sent when no carrier is observed i.e. no current present! and the physical
medium is therefore idle. Any computer which does not need to transmit, listens to see if other computers have
started to transmit information to it.
)owever, this alone is unable to prevent two nodes transmitting at the same time. +f two noes simultaneously try
transmit, then both could see an idle physical medium i.e. neither will see the other7s carrier signal!, and both
will conclude that no other node is currently using the network. +n this case, both will then decide to transmit
and a collision will occur. The collision will result in the corruption of the data being sent, which will
subse(uently be discarded by the receiver since a corrupted Ethernet frame will with a very high probability!
not have a valid 832bit MAC C,C at the end.
Collision Detection (CD)
A second element to the Ethernet access protocol is used to detect when a collision occurs. Each transmitting
node monitors its own transmission, and if it observes a collision i.e. e'cess current above what it is generating,
i.e. 9 3: mA! it stops transmission immediately and instead transmits a 832bit ;am se(uence. The purpose of this
se(uence is to ensure that any other node which may currently be receiving this frame will receive the ;am
signal in place of the correct 832bit MAC C,C, this causes the other receivers to discard the frame due to a C,C
error.
To ensure that no node may completely receive a frame before the transmitting node has finished sending it,
Ethernet defines a minimum frame si5e i.e. no frame may have less than :< bytes of payload!. The minimum
frame si5e is related to the distance which the network spans, the type of media being used and the number of
repeaters which the signal may have to pass through to reach the furthest part of the "A#. Together these define
a value known as the Ethernet Slot Time, corresponding to =03 bit times at 04 Mbps.
/hen two or more transmitters each detect a corruption of their own data i.e. a collision!, each responds in the
same way by transmitting the ;am se(uence. The following se(uence depicts a collision$
At time t>4, a frame is sent on the idle medium by computer A.
A short time later, computer & also transmits. +n this case, the medium, as observed by the computer at &
happens to be idle too!.
After a period, e(ual to the propagation delay of the network, the computer & detects the other transmission
from A, and is aware of a collision, but computer A has not yet observed that computer & was also transmitting.
& continues to transmit, sending the Ethernet ?am se(uence 83 bits!.
After one complete round trip propagation time twice the one way propagation delay!, both computers are
aware of the collision. & will shortly cease transmission of the ?am .e(uence, however A will continue to
transmit a complete ?am .e(uence. 6inally the cable becomes idle.
Retransmission Bac!O""
+f all nodes attempted to retransmit immediately following a collision, then this would certainly result in another
collision. Therefore a procedure is re(uired to ensure that there is only a low probability of simultaneous
retransmission. The scheme adopted by Ethernet uses a random back2off period, where each node selects a
random number, multiplies this by the slot time minimum frame period, =0.3 @.! and waits for this random
period before attempting retransmission.
%n a busy network, a retransmission may still collide with another retransmission or possibly new data being
sent for the first time by another node!. The protocol therefore counts the number of retransmission attempts
using a variable # in the above figure! and attempts to retransmit the same frame up to 0= times.
6or each retransmission, the transmitter constructs a set of numbers$
A4, 0, 3, 8, :, =, ... "B where " is C3 to the power D!E20! and where D>#F DG> 04F
A random value , is picked from this set, and the transmitter waits defers! for a period
, ' slot time! i.e. , ' =0.3 Micro .econds
6or e'ample, after two collisions, #>3, therefore D>3, and the set is A4, 0, 3, 8B giving a one in four chance of
collision. This corresponds to a wait selected from A4, =0.3, 043.:, 0=8.<B micro seconds.
After 8 collisions, # > 8, and the set is A4, 0, 3, 8, :, =, <, HB, that is a one in eight chance of collision.
&ut after : collisions, #>:, the set becomes A4, 0, 3, 8, :, =, <, H, 1, I, 04, 00, 03, 08, 0:, 0=B, that is a one in 0<
chance of collision.
The scaling is performed by multiplication and is known as e'ponential back2off. This is what lets C.MAJCD
scale to large numbers of nodes 2 even when collisions may occur. The first ten times, the back2off waiting time
for the transmitter suffering collision is scaled to a larger value. The algorithm includes a threshold of 043:. The
reasoning is that the more attempts that are re(uired, the more greater the number of computers which are trying
to send at the same time, and therefore the longer the period which needs to be deferred. .ince a set of numbers
A4,0,...,0438B is a large set of numbers, there is very little advantage from further increasing the set si5e.
Each transmitter also limits the ma'imum number of retransmissions of a single frame to 0< attempts #>0=!.
After this number of attempts, the transmitter gives up transmission and discards the frame, logging an error. +n
practice, a network that is not overloaded should never discard frames in this way.
Late Collisions
+n a proper functioning Ethernet network, a node may e'perience collision within the first slot time after it starts
transmission. This is the reason why Ethernet nodes monitor the CD signal during this time and use C.MAJCD.
A faulty CD circuit, or misbehaving #+C or transceiver may lead to a late collision i.e. after one slot time!.
Most Ethernet nodes therefore continue to monitor the CD signal during the entire transmission. +f they observe
a late collision, they will normally inform the sender of the error condition.
#er"ormance o" CSMA / CD
+t is simple to calculate the performance of a C.MAJCD network where only one node attempts to transmit at
any time. +n this case, the node may saturate the network and near 044K utilisation of the network may be
achieved, providing almost 04 Mbps of throughput on a 04 Mbps "A#.
)owever, when two or more nodes attempt to transmit at the same time, the performance of Ethernet is less
predictable and not covered by this course!. The fall in utilisation and throughput occurs because some
bandwidth is wasted by collisions and back2off delays. +n practice, a busy shared 04 Mbps Ethernet network will
typically supply 32: Mbps of throughput to the nodes connected to it.
As the level of utilisation of the network increases, particularly if there are many nodes competing to share the
bandwidth, an overload condition may occur. +n this case, the throughput of Ethernet "A#s reduces very
considerably, and much of the capacity is wasted by the C.MAJCD algorithm, and very little is available for
sending useful data. This is the reason why a shared Ethernet "A# should not connect more than 043:
computers. Many Engineers use a threshold of :4K Ltilisation to determine if a "A# is overloaded. A "A#
with a higher utilisation will observe a high collision rate, and likely a very variable transmission time due to
back off!. .eparating the "A# in to two or more collision domains using bridges or switches would likely
provide a significant benefit assuming appropriate positioning of the bridges or switches!.
.hared networks may also be constructed using 6ast Ethernet, operating at 044 Mbps. .ince fast Ethernet
always uses fibre or twisted pair, a hub or switch is always re(uired.
$thernet Capture
A drawback of sharing a medium using C.MAJCD, is that the sharing is not necessarily fair. /hen each node
connected to the "A# has little data to send, the network e'hibits almost e(ual access time for each node.
)owever, if one node starts sending an e'cessive number of packets, it may dominate the network. .uch
conditions may occur, for instance, when one node in a "A# acts as a source of high (uality packetised video.
The effect is known as *Ethernet Capture*.
Ethernet Capture by Node A.
The figure above illustrates Ethernet Capture. Computer A dominates computer &. %riginally both computers
have data to transmit. A transmits first. A and & then both simultaneously try to transmit. & picks a larger
retransmission interval than A shown in red! and defers. A sends, then sends again. There is a short pause, and
then both A and & attempt to resume transmission. A and & both back2off, however, since & was already in
back2off it failed to retransmit!, it chooses from a larger range of back2off times using the e'ponential back2off
algorithm!. A is therefore more likely to succeed, which it does in the e'ample. The ne't pause in transmission,
A and & both attempt to send, however, since this fails in this case, & further increases its back2off and is now
unable to fairly compete with A.
Ethernet Capture may also arise when many sources compete with one source which has much more data to
send. Lnder these situations some nodes may be *locked out* of using the medium for a period of time. The use
of higher speed transmission e.g. 044 Mbps! significantly reduces the probability of Capture, and the use full
duple' cabling eliminates the effect.
See also
MAC frame header and Ethernet ,eceive Algorithm
Ethernet
Ethernet )ubs and ,epeaters Collision Domains!
Ethernet Calculations
Gorry Fairhurst - email:G.Fairhurst@eng.abdn.ac.u - !ate: "#$#"$%""# EG&''(
Carrier Sense M%ltiple Access/ Colision
Detect (CSMA/CD)
Ln Medio Compartido
"a red Ethernet se puede utili5ar para proporcionar el acceso compartido por un grupo de
nodos unidos al medio fMsico (ue conecta los nodos. Estos nodos se dicen para formar un
dominio de la colisiNn. Todos los marcos enviados en el medio son recibidos fMsicamente por
todos los receptores, no obstante la cabecera de la MAC contiene una direcciNn de destino
(ue aseguren solamente (ue la direcciNn destino especificada remitan realmente el marco
recibido las otras computadoras todo el descarte los marcos (ue no se tratan ellos!.
Considere una "A# con cuatro computadoras, conectadas todo por un cable comOn de
Ethernet$
"a computadora a5ul! envMa un pa(uete al medio compartido, (ue tiene una direcciNn de
destinaciNn el corresponder a la direcciNn de la fuente de la computadora ro;a.
El cable propaga la sePal en ambas direcciones, de modo (ue la sePal eventual! alcance los
cuatro de las computadoras. "os resistores de la terminaciNn en los e'tremos del cable
absorben la energMa del marco, previniendo la refle'iNn de la sePal detrQs a lo largo del cable.
Todas las computadoras reciben el marco y cada uno lo e'amina para comprobar su longitud
y suma de comprobaciNn. "a cabecera de direcciNn de destino se e'amina despuRs, para
considerar si el pa(uete es aceptado por la computadora.
.olamente la computadora ro;a reconoce la direcciNn de destino como vQlida, y por lo tanto
esta computadora solamente remite el contenido del frame a la capa de red. "as otras
computadoras desechan el marco indeseado.
El cable compartido permite (ue cual(uier computadora envMe siempre (ue desee, pero si dos
computadoras deciden transmitir en el mismo tiempo, ocurrirQ una colisiNn, dando por
resultado (ue los datos sean corrompidos.
ALOHA & las Colisiones
Sara controlar (uR computadoras se permitan transmitir en cual(uier momento, se re(uiere un
protocolo. El protocolo mQs simple se conoce como A"%)A esto es realmente una palabra
hawaiana, significando *hola*!. A"%)A permite cual(uier computadora transmita en
cual(uier momento, pero indica (ue cada computadora debe agregar una suma de
comprobaciNn en el e'tremo de su transmisiNn para permitir (ue el receptorres! identifi(ue
si el marco fue recibido correctamente.
A"%)A es por lo tanto del tipo de mayor esfuer5o, y no garanti5a (ue el marco de datos
alcan5arQ realmente al destino remoto sin corrupciNn. Sor lo tanto confMa en protocolos de
A,- para retransmitir cual(uier dato se corrompa (ue. Lna red de A"%)A traba;a solamente
bien cuando el medio tiene una utili5aciNn ba;a, puesto (ue Rste conduce a una probabilidad
ba;a de la transmisiNn (ue choca con la de otra computadora, y por lo tanto una cantidad
ra5onable de los datos (ue no estRn corrompidos y necesiten retransmisiNn.
Acceso M%ltiple con detector De #ortador (CSMA)
Ethernet utili5a un refinamiento de A"%)A, conocido como acceso mOltiple de sentido de
portador C.MA!, (ue me;ora funcionamiento cuando hay una utili5aciNn media mQs alta.
Cuando un nodo tiene datos a transmitir, el nodo primero escucha el cable (ue usa un
transmisor2receptor ! para considerar si un portador sePal! estQ siendo transmitido por otro
nodo. Esto puede ser alcan5ada supervisando si una corriente estQ fluyendo en el cable cada
pedacito corresponde a 01234 miliamperios mA!!. "os pedacitos individuales son enviados
codificQndolos con megaciclos para Ethernet rQpida! un relo; 04 o 044 usando la
codificaciNn Manchester . .e observan los datos se envMan solamente cuando ningOn portador
es decir ningOn presente actual! y el medio fMsico es por lo tanto ocioso. Cual(uier
computadora (ue no necesite transmitir, escucha para ver si otras computadoras han
comen5ado a transmitir la informaciNn a ella.
.in embargo, este solo no puede prevenir dos nodos (ue transmiten en el mismo tiempo. .i
dos nodos intentan simultQneamente transmitir, despuRs (ue ambos podrMan ver un medio
fMsico ocioso es decir ni unos ni otros verQn la otra sePal de portador!, y ambos concluirQn
(ue ningOn otro nodo estQ utili5ando actualmente la red. En este caso, ambos entonces
decidirQn a transmitir y ocurrirQ una colisi)n. "a colisiNn darQ lugar a la corrupciNn de los
datos (ue son enviados, (ue serQn desechados posteriormente por el receptor puesto (ue el
frame Ethernet con una probabilidad muy alta! al no tener un campo MAC de 832bit vQlidos
de C,C en el e'tremo.
Detecci'n De la Colisi'n (CD)
Ln segundo elemento al protocolo del acceso de Ethernet se utili5a para detectar cuando
ocurre una colisiNn. Cada nodo (ue transmite supervisa su propia transmisiNn, y si observa
una colisiNn es decir e'ceso de la corriente sobre lo (ue estQ generando, es decir 9 3: mA!
(ue para la transmisiNn inmediatamente y en lugar de otro (ue transmite una secuencia 832bit
del atasco. El propNsito de esta secuencia es asegurarse de (ue cual(uier otro nodo (ue pueda
recibir actualmente este marco recibirQ la sePal del atasco en lugar del MAC 832bit correcto
C,C, Rste hace los otros receptores desechar el marco debido a un error del C,C.
Sara asegurarse de (ue ningOn nodo pueda recibir totalmente un marco antes de (ue el nodo
(ue transmitMa haya acabado el enviar de Rl, Ethernet define un tamaPo mMnimo del marco es
decir ningOn marco puede tener menos de :< octetos de carga Otil!. El tamaPo mMnimo del
marco se relaciona con la distancia (ue la red atraviesa, el tipo de medios (ue son utili5ados y
el nOmero de los repetidores (ue la sePal puede tener (ue para pasar a travRs al alcance a la
parte mQs le;ana de la "A#. ?untos Rstos define un valor conocido como el tiempo de la
ranura de Ethernet , correspondiendo a =03 bit times a 04 Mbps .
Cuando dos o mQs transmisores cada uno detectaron una corrupciNn de sus propios datos es
decir una colisiNn!, cada uno responde de la misma manera transmitiendo la secuencia del
atasco. "a secuencia siguiente representa una colisiNn$
En el tiempo t>4, un marco es enviado por la computadora A, en el medio ocioso.
Ln tiempo muy corto mQs adelante, la computadora & tambiRn transmite. en este caso, el
medio, segOn lo observado por la computadora en & sucede ser ocioso tambiRn!.
DespuRs de un perModo, el igual a la propagaciNn retrasa de la red, la computadora & detecta
la otra transmisiNn de A, y estQ enterada de una colisiNn, pero la computadora A todavMa no ha
observado (ue la computadora & tambiRn transmitMa. & continOa transmitiendo, enviando la
secuencia del atasco de Ethernet ?am 83 bits!.
DespuRs de un ,ound Trip completo la propagaciNn unidireccional retrasa dos veces!,
ambas computadoras estQn enteradas de la colisiNn. & cesarQ pronto la transmisiNn de la
secuencia del atasco, no obstante A continuarQ transmitiendo una secuencia completa del
atasco. 6inalmente el cable llega a ser ocioso.
Bac!O"" De la Retransmisi'n
.i todos los nodos procuraran retransmitir inmediatamente despuRs de una colisiNn, entonces
Rste darMa lugar ciertamente a otra colisiNn. Sor lo tanto un procedimiento se re(uiere para
asegurarse de (ue haya solamente una probabilidad ba;a de la retransmisiNn simultQnea. El
es(uema adoptado por Ethernet utili5a un perModo al a5ar del back2off, donde cada nodo
selecciona un nOmero al a5ar, multiplica esto por el tiempo de la ranura perModo mMnimo del
marco, =0,3 @.! y las esperas para este perModo al a5ar antes de procurar la retransmisiNn.
En una red ocupada, una retransmisiNn puede inmNvil chocar con otra retransmisiNn o
posiblemente los nuevos datos (ue son enviados para la primera ve5 cerca otro nodo!. El
protocolo por lo tanto cuenta el nOmero de las tentativas de la retransmisiNn (ue usan una #
variable en la figura antedicha! y de las tentativas de retransmitir el mismo marco hasta 0=
veces.
Sara cada retransmisiNn, el transmisor construye un sistema de nOmeros$
A 4, 0, 3, 8, :, =... " B donde estQ " C 3 a la energMa D!E20! y donde D>#F DG > 04F
Ln valor al a5ar , se escoge de este sistema, y el transmisor espera difiere! por un perModo
, ' tiempo! de la ranura es decir , ' =0,3 segundos micro
Sor e;emplo, despuRs de dos colisiones, #>3, por lo tanto D>3, y el sistema A 4, 0, 3, 8 B estQ
dando el (ue esta7 en la ocasiNn cuatro de la colisiNn. Esto corresponde a una espera
seleccionada a partir A 4, =0,3, 043,:, 0=8,< B de micro2segundos.
DespuRs de 8 colisiones, # > 8, y el sistema estQ A 4, 0, 3, 8, :, =, <, H B, (ue es el (ue esta7 en
la ocasiNn ocho de la colisiNn.
Sero despuRs de : colisiones, #>:, el sistema se convierte A 4, 0, 3, 8, :, =, <, H, 1, I, 04, 00,
03, 08, 0:, 0= B, (ue es el (ue esta7 en la ocasiNn 0< de la colisiNn.
El escalamiento es reali5ado por la multiplicaciNn y conocido como back2off e'ponencial.
Esto es (uR de;a C.MAJCD escalar a una gran cantidad de nodos 2 incluso cuando las
colisiones pueden ocurrir. "os primeros die5 tiempos, el tiempo de espera del back2off para la
colisiNn sufridora del transmisor se escala a un valor mQs grande. El algoritmo incluye un
umbral de 043:. El ra5onamiento es (ue se re(uieren cuanto mQs tentativas, cuanto mayor el
nOmero de las computadoras (ue estQn intentando enviar en el mismo tiempo, y por lo tanto
mQs largo es el perModo (ue las necesidades de ser diferido. Suesto (ue un sistema de los
nOmeros A 4.0....0438 B es un sistema grande de nOmeros, hay venta;a muy pe(uePa mQs le;os
de aumentar el tamaPo del sistema.
Cada transmisor tambiRn limita el nOmero mQ'imo de retransmisiones de un solo bastidor a
0< tentativas #>0=!. DespuRs de (ue este nOmero de tentativas, el transmisor dR para arriba
la transmisiNn y deseche el marco, registrando un error. En la prQctica, una red (ue no se
sobrecarga debe nunca desechar marcos de esta manera.
Colisiones posteriores
En una red de Ethernet con funcionamiento apropiado, un nodo puede e'perimentar la
colisiNn dentro de la primera ranura despuRs de (ue comience la transmisiNn. Tsta es la ra5Nn
por la (ue los nodos de Ethernet supervisan la sePal CD durante este tiempo y utili5an
C.MAJCD. Ln circuito CD fallado, o el #+C o el tranceiver pueden conducir a una colisiNn
posterior es decir despuRs de la primera ranura!. "a mayorMa de los nodos de Ethernet por lo
tanto continOan supervisando la sePal CD durante la transmisiNn entera. .i observan una
colisiNn posterior, informarQn normalmente al remitente la condiciNn de error.
Rendimiento de CSMA/del CD
Es simple calcular el funcionamiento de una red de C.MAJCD donde solamente un nodo
procura transmitir en cual(uier momento. En este caso, el nodo puede saturar la red y acercar
a la utili5aciNn 044K de la red se puede alcan5ar , proporcionando casi 04 Mbps de
rendimiento de procesamiento en un "A# de 04 Mbps.
.in embargo, cuando dos o mQs nodos procuran transmitir en el mismo tiempo, el
funcionamiento de Ethernet es menos fiable y no cubierto por este curso!. "a caMda en la
utili5aciNn y el rendimiento de procesamiento ocurre por(ue una cierta anchura de banda es
perdida por colisiones y el back2off retrasa. En la prQctica, una red de Ethernet compartida
ocupada de 04 Mbps proveerQ tMpicamente 32: Mbps de rendimiento de procesamiento a los
nodos conectados con ella.
Mientras (ue el nivel de la utili5aciNn de la red aumenta, particularmente si hay muchos
nodos (ue compiten para compartir la anchura de banda, una condiciNn de sobrecarga puede
ocurrir. En este caso, el rendimiento de procesamiento de Ethernet "A#s reduce muy
considerablemente, y mucha de la capacidad es perdida por el algoritmo de C.MAJCD, y
muy poco estQ disponible para enviar datos Otiles. Tsta es la ra5Nn por la (ue un "A#
compartido de Ethernet no debe conectar mQs de 043: computadoras. Muchos ingenieros
utili5an un umbral de la utili5aciNn del :4K para determinarse si se sobrecarga un "A#. Ln
"A# con una utili5aciNn mQs alta observarQ una alta tarifa de la colisiNn, y probablemente un
rato muy variable de la transmisiNn debido retroceder!. .eparando el "A# adentro a dos o
mQs dominios de la colisiNn usando los puentes o los interruptores proporcionarMan
probablemente una venta;a significativa colocaciNn apropiada asumida de los puentes o de
los interruptores !.
"as redes compartidas se pueden tambiRn construir usando Ethernet rQpida, funcionando en
044 Mbps. Suesto (ue Ethernet rQpida utili5a siempre la fibra o el twisted pair, un cubo o un
interruptor se re(uiere siempre.
$thernet Capture
A drawback of sharing a medium using C.MAJCD, is that the sharing is not necessarily fair.
/hen each node connected to the "A# has little data to send, the network e'hibits almost
e(ual access time for each node. )owever, if one node starts sending an e'cessive number of
packets, it may dominate the network. .uch conditions may occur, for instance, when one
node in a "A# acts as a source of high (uality packetised video. The effect is known as
*Ethernet Capture*.
Ethernet Capture by Node A.
The figure above illustrates Ethernet Capture. Computer A dominates computer &. %riginally
both computers have data to transmit. A transmits first. A and & then both simultaneously try
to transmit. & picks a larger retransmission interval than A shown in red! and defers. A
sends, then sends again. There is a short pause, and then both A and & attempt to resume
transmission. A and & both back2off, however, since & was already in back2off it failed to
retransmit!, it chooses from a larger range of back2off times using the e'ponential back2off
algorithm!. A is therefore more likely to succeed, which it does in the e'ample. The ne't
pause in transmission, A and & both attempt to send, however, since this fails in this case, &
further increases its back2off and is now unable to fairly compete with A.
Ethernet Capture may also arise when many sources compete with one source which has
much more data to send. Lnder these situations some nodes may be *locked out* of using the
medium for a period of time. The use of higher speed transmission e.g. 044 Mbps!
significantly reduces the probability of Capture, and the use full duple' cabling eliminates the
effect.