Green Cities

Asia shares a vision of one day making all its cities livable. The knowledge and financial
resources needed to realize that vision exist. But if the challenges of climate change and
pollution are to be met, it is essential that we reduce energy demand in cities, and reduce the
undesirable environmental impacts associated with energy production. It is also necessary
to address the pollution of watersheds and the air. To achieve this, we must manage
urbanization, city form, design, development density industry and logistics systems more
efficiently and effectively.
About the Asian Development Bank
ADBs vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its developing
member countries reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the
regions many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the worlds poor: 1.8 billion people
who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is
committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, environmentally
sustainable growth, and regional integration.
Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main
instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity
investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.
Livable and Sustainable Cities in Asia
Green Cities
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Publication Stock No. ARM102658
Printed in the Philippines
Printed on recycled paper
Green Cities 1
A
sia is urbanizing at an unprecedented pace.
In 1950, Asia was predominantly rural, with
only 17% of its 1.4 billion people living in
towns or cities. By mid-2022, the urban population
will surpass that of rural areas, and the United Nations
(2004) estimates that by 2030, 55% of Asians, or
2.7billion people, will live in urban areas (Figure1).
From 2015 onward, efectively all of the regions
population increase will occur in urban areas.
Cities occupy only 2% of the worlds land but
consume 75% of the planets resources and generate
a similar percentage of waste, including air pollution,
solid waste, and toxic efuents (Girardet 1996).
Activities within cities and to service cities produce
Green Cities
Livable and Sustainable Cities for Asia
Figure 1 Asias Urban and Rural Population
(19502030)
Source: Computations based on fgures from World Urbanization
Prospects: The 2003 Revision. United Nations. 2004.
0
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1950 1975 2000 2015 2030
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2 Green Cities
in Jakarta, Indonesia, exceeds perhaps
$1billion per year, whereas the cost in
Bangkok, Thailand, is more than $2 billion.
Air pollution alone can have an estimated
2%4% negative impact on gross domestic
product (GDP). For example, the province of
Ontario, Canada, estimates that air pollution
costs its 12million residents at least $1 billion
annually in hospital admissions, emergency
room visits, and worker absenteeism (Ontario
Medical Association 2000). In the Peoples
Republic of Chinahome to some of the
most polluted air in the worlddeaths
and illnesses of urban residents due to air
pollution cost an estimated 5% of GDP
(Sheram and Soubbotina 2000). Likewise, a
World Health Organization study of Austria,
France, and Switzerland found that health
costs from trafc pollution amounted to
approximately 1.7% of GDP, dramatically
more than the cost of treating injuries from
trafc accidents (CNN 2000).
Pollution Cost:
Air pollution alone can
have an estimated 2%4%
negative impact on gross
domestic product
nearly 80% of greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxide,
which contribute to global climate change
and rising sea levels. Urban expansion and
the associated destruction of forests and
vegetation also have a strong efect on
climate. If urban areas in the developing
world grow unchecked, their environmental
impact will be catastrophic (Pearce 2006).
The economic, health, and other costs of
environmental degradation are already
high. According to Brandon and Ramankutty
(1994), the cost of air and water pollution











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Green Cities 3
Rising sea levels are a particularly pressing
outcome of global warming and, according
to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, worldwide sea level is expected to
increase by 888 centimeters during the 21st
century (Watson 2001). Many of Asias largest
cities are located on or close to the shore, and
vulnerable cities include Bangkok; Chennai,
India; Dhaka, Bangladesh; Jakarta; and Tianjin,
Peoples Republic of China. Global warming
also means more violent weather, which
heavily afects those living in poor quality
housing and informal settlements.
Asias rapid urban growth has thus wrought
massive environmental problems, and the
poor, who are most vulnerable to declining
environmental quality and climate change,
face aggravated poverty and deepening
environmental squalor. But urban economic
growth has also improved living standards
and brought millions out of poverty. A key
challenge, therefore, is to maintain economic
growth and improved living standards while
addressing environmental sustainability,
climate change, and environmental damage
from urban production, consumption, and
waste generation.
Supply-side approaches, such as burning
clean coal in the industrial sector; increasing
the use of natural gas; developing mass
public transport; and introducing regulations,
fees, and targeted subsidies, have not been
encouraging so far, with failures especially
apparent in eforts to reduce demand.
However, cities can, and should become,
better places for everyone to live, with
Many of Asias largest cities
are vulnerablelocated on
or close to the shore
Cities can protect the
environment through
integrated development
of low-carbon buildings,
industry, and transport
more green spaces and less air and water
pollution. The global environment must be
protected by encouraging lower emissions
of greenhouse gases. Sustainable but
afordable urban development represents
a dramatic shift from focusing on economic
growth to focusing on quality of life. This
can be accomplished. Better planning and
new technology can substantially reduce the
demand for fossil fuels without adversely
afecting quality of life.
4 Green Cities
Healing the Urban Environment
Any future urban model must be
sustainable. Economies must thrive, and
people have the right to earn a living.
However, future cities will have to be
signifcantly more environmentally friendly,
and to this end, Asian cities are turning
to green urban development. Green
urban development focuses on reducing
the energy consumption of buildings,
industries, and transportation. The six key
elements of green city investments are
low-carbon transport; green industry;
energy-efcient building; city greening;
green, resilient infrastructure; and
intelligent systems (Figure 2).
Support to Low-Carbon
Transport
Green
Industry
Complex
Energy-Ecient
Buildings
Green,
Resilient
Infrastructure
City
Greening
Intelligent
Systems
Figure 2 Green City Investments
Source: Asian Development Bank.
Green Cities 5
6 Green Cities
Low-Carbon Transport
The most practical approach to creating
sustainable cities is to infuence the scale,
location, and type of land development
and its integration with transport. Without
access, there is no development, and
thus the transportation network can be
highly efective in guiding growth. Yet city
authorities rarely deploy their authority to
manage land or to develop roads as a way
to manage growth. To guide development,
governments can construct infrastructure,
particularly for water, transport,
and housing.
The frst step, therefore, is to create links
between planning and implementation.
This requires a strong planning process that
includes representatives from national and
city governments, public works departments,
major developers, and civil society. The second
step is to develop area road networks (both
arterial and secondary) in fringe areas
where development is desired. Design and
construction guidelines in these areas should
be consistent with the needs and means
of future occupants, including low-income
groups. Efcient public transport reduces
pollution and should be provided from the
outset. The use of zero-emission vehicles and
bicycles should be encouraged, and private
cars should be kept out of city centers.
Green Industry
Cities with efective recycling schemes can
recycle up to 75% of household waste, but
manufacturing and construction activities
generate four times as much waste as
households (Girardet 1996). One way to
overcome this problem is to mimic nature,
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ergy and the Planet
Green Cities 7
where waste produced by one organism
often is reabsorbed by another. Industrial
processes can follow a similar path, turning
the waste or byproduct of one enterprise
into the resource or input of another. This
is the approach being taken by circle
economy (CE) cities in the Peoples Republic
of China and by Japans eco-towns.
Successful CE implementation requires
government involvement and efective
institutional arrangements. Although
introducing the CE approach initially imposes
some increased cost, many CE solutions also
turn out to be economically advantageous
when the avoided cost of environmental
damage is taken into account. The legislation,
policies, and pilot programs already in place
demonstrate the potential of CE to make a
diference. Such projects must focus on
improving the efectiveness and
efciency of CE policies;
actively involving the production sector,
local government, community groups,
industrial associations, professional
networks, and nongovernment
organizations in establishing a CE;
Solar energy is becoming
less expensive, and solar
electric roof tiles could
make buildings largely
self-sufcient
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8 Green Cities
Well-designed built
environment can encourage
airfow for passive cooling
and reduced energy loads
building capacity for CE implementation
and monitoring through enhanced
training and dissemination of local and
international experience; and
strengthening governance by
establishing high-level leadership,
coordinating CE eforts across sectors
and ministries, and promoting and
enforcing private CE activity rather than
directly implementing such activity
(World Bank 2007).
For example, Japans Kitakyushu Eco-Town
has created an extensive range of recycling
and environmental industries covering a
large number of materials and products, from
plastic, paper, and metal to ofce equipment,
vehicles, construction waste, and solvents.
Energy-Efcient Building
Solar energy is becoming less expensive,
and solar electric roof tiles could make
buildings largely self-sufcient. Another
option is simply to use less power; electricity
consumption could be cut by more than
60% by adopting existing eco-friendly
devices and practices.
The incentives for more energy-efcient
building and behavior must come both from
national and local government policies. In
addition to transport and land-use initiatives,
cities can act to reduce individual energy
use through planning; encourage energy
alternatives, such as wind and solar power;
support the development and use of efcient
transport technologies; and encourage the
adoption of energy-efcient development,
housing, and construction materials. Much
of the agenda can be accomplished or
encouraged through appropriate utility
pricing and property taxes, as well as through
building regulations attuned to sustainability.
From an environmental perspective, building
codes should aim to maintain densities,
encourage the use of natural light and the
harvesting of water, utilize alternative energy,
and deal adequately with wastewater. Asias
building codesoften based on those of
countries with diferent climates and physical
and social environmentsmust become more
appropriate to the needs of dense, rapidly
growing, largely tropical or subtropical cities.
One example of encouraging innovation in
the quest for more sustainable buildings is
the U.S. Green Building Councils Leadership
in Energy and Environmental Design Green
Building Rating System. This voluntary,
consensus-based rating system encourages
builders to adopt accepted benchmarks for
the design, construction, and operation of
sustainable buildings. Such buildings have
lower operating costs and increased asset
value, reduce waste and greenhouse gas
emissions, and conserve energy and water.
A similar approach could be adopted
in Asian cities, beginning with national,
provincial, and local governments, which
should develop their own new buildings
according to the highest green standards
and should rate their existing buildings with
a view to later upgrades. Private developers
should be encouraged to do likewise, and
local governments should undertake the
evaluation of the building stock with an eye
toward further improvement.
Green Cities 9
City Greening
As the climate heats up, city planners will
be challenged to create compact, cool
communities with natural amenities that
ofer alternatives to urban sprawl and its
consequences. Wind afects temperature,
rates of evaporative cooling, and plant
transpiration, and thus, is an important
factor in implementing district-wide passive
cooling strategies at a microclimate level.
The built environment can encourage airfow
for passive cooling and reduced energy
loads. Parks, green roofs, and water bodies
can accentuate the cooling efect of wind,
and the alignment and design of streets can
reinforce both external and passive cooling.
For example, streets in Abu Dhabis
Masdar development and in the planned
redevelopment of Thanh Hoa, VietNam,
encourage air circulation, fresh air distribution,
and microclimate protection (Raven 2010).
Parks and open plazas are vital components
of such designs. Trees absorb carbon and
sulfur emissions, flter dust, cool the urban
environment, produce oxygen, and help
reduce carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
About 30% of the worlds land is presently
used for agriculture, and farming has
radically altered the natural landscape
and ecosystems. Rapid population growth
requires more land for food, but land is no
longer available. Alternative approaches
to food production aim to avoid further
encroachment on remaining functioning
ecosystems while also increasing a citys
biodiversity and resilience. Instead of
trucking or fying produce in, for instance,
produce can be grown in the city. Shanghai,
for example, is almost self-sufcient
in vegetables and grain, and growing
vegetables on empty urban lots and
on rooftops is popular in Berlin and NewYork.
10 Green Cities
Urban farming activities range from simple
balcony boxes to proposed vertical farms
growing food inside environmentally
controlled, multistory buildings that recycle
organic, human, and animal waste and
wastewater (Figure 3).
Green, Resilient Infrastructure
Cities are major power consumers and can
achieve savings by introducing technical
innovations, such as energy-saving lights
and automatic switching for street lighting,
and by improving management and
operation. Measures to optimize pumping
operations in water and sewerage systems
can also result in signifcant power savings.
Many new technologies are available,
including smart grids, distributed power,
and efcient district heating and cooling,
and all of these forms of infrastructure
must be made climate resilient.
Measures to optimize
pumping operations
in water and sewerage
systems can also result in
signifcant power savings
Figure 3 A Vertical Farm
Gray water collection and
sand fltration system -
used to irrigate soil crops
and fush toilets
Methane and CO
2
tanks -
methane used for heating
biogas digester, apartment
cooking and heating
Biogas Digester-Methaneand
CO
2
by-products
Black water gravity
fltration system
through perimeter
hydroponics
Black water liquid and
solid separation tanks-
solid waste dried in kiln
for fertilizer
Liquid separate sent to
Hydroponic Filtration
Loop
Nutrients removed
by plants as source of
fertilizer
Black water gravity fed
fltration system through
perimeter hydroponics
By-product of fresh
water used in gray water
collection or safely
returned to water source
2009 BLAKE KURASEK
Black water collection -
from building sewage
CO
2
= carbon dioxide.
Source: Despommier, Dickson. The Vertical Farm: Reducing the Impact of Agriculture on Ecosystem Functions
and Services. Columbia University, New York. Available: www.verticalfarm.com
Green Cities 11
Intelligent Systems
The use of information and communication
technologies can improve information
and service delivery; encourage citizen
participation; and make government more
accountable, transparent, and efective.
Such systems integrate green infrastructure,
increase efciencies and cost recovery,
improve service delivery, and enable cross-
sector synergies. For example, efcient
transport and higher-density building
development provide energy efciency
benefts while yielding higher taxes. As such,
these systems represent the backbone of
a green city.
Traditionally, the interaction between a
citizen or business and government occurred
in a public ofce. Now, information and
communication technologies make it possible
to locate service facilities much closer to clients,
whether through a kiosk in a government
agency or through a users personal computer.
Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu, India, for example,
employs a number of e-governance initiatives,
including systems to track the condition
of streetlights and the status of garbage
collection; to monitor legal cases, land records,
and town planning; and to address complaints
or collect taxes and fees.
Efcient transport and
higher-density building
development provide
energy efciency benefts
while yielding higher taxes
12 Green Cities
Financing Sustainable Cities
tradable rights to use a quantity of
a resource (usually water) and the
establishment of a market for such rights;
marketable permits entitling an entity
to treat its waste and sell its permit, or
to not treat its waste and purchase
more permits;
employers taxes on all but small
employers;
joint development through public
private partnerships;
tax-increment fnancing, in which a
portion of tax revenues resulting from
improvements is earmarked to repay the
cost of those improvements; and
refund systems for commodities
packaged in nonreturnable containers,
to ensure that these are returned for
proper disposal or reuse.
Leverage Private Sector Financing
Private sector participation must be
supported by efective, independent
regulation to resolve the risks associated
with a purely private sector, laissez-faire
approach to basic commodities, such as
water and energy. The regulatory regime
must contain provisions for a fair service
price, sustainable service provision, and
protection of distributional objectives.
Contracts should clearly specify that
funding for any public service obligation
of the provider, such as lower prices
for the poor, is guaranteed by
the government.
The regulatory regime
must contain provisions
for a fair service price,
sustainable service
provision, and protection
of distributional objectives
A
city can fnance its sustainable
services by maximizing existing
revenue sources and locating
potential new ones, by leveraging
additional resources from the private sector,
and by accessing international and local
funding to support the development of
green investments.
Maximize Conventional Finance
Aside from collecting all mandated taxes,
there are several additional areas where
cities may bolster fnancing, including
user charges that cover the full cost of
services, such as water and electricity,
including the cost of providing the
supply and of damages caused by usage,
and the opportunity cost of taking the
resource from other potential users,
including the ecosystem;
emission (efuent) charges based on
quality or quantity of waste (usually
wastewater);
product charges on products that
pollute surface or groundwater during or
after consumption, based on the actual
value of damages caused by their use;
Green Cities 13
viability and nonviability. Examples include
the following:
The Clean Development Mechanism,
defned in the Kyoto Protocol, is designed
to fund greenhouse gas reduction
through energy efciency projects or
through such emerging bilateral cap-
and-trade systems as Japans New Clean
Development Mechanism or the Republic
of Koreas Emission Reduction Scheme.
Climate Investment Funds ofer
fnancing to improve fuel economy
standards, accelerate fuel switching,
and promote shifts to public transport
in large metropolitan areas.
There is also is a need to explore the
unbundling of commercially viable or
contestable infrastructure components (which
can involve the private sector in fnancing)
from components that must be government
funded. For instance, water treatment plants
can be unbundled from the piped network in
a water system.
Funding for Green Investment
There are now many diferent modes
of fnancing for climate change and
environmental projects. These usually
supplement other fnancing sources and
rarely cover the full cost of an investment,
but they can make the diference between
14 Green Cities
The Global Environment Facility
is a partnership of 182 countries
and international institutions,
nongovernment organizations, and
the private sector to address global
environmental issues. Since 1991, it has
allocated $9.2 billion, supplemented by
more than $40billion in cofnancing.
The Clean Energy Financing Partnership
Facility aims to help developing countries
achieve signifcant, measurable change in
their energy consumption patterns while
securing a low-carbon future. It funds
energy efciency investments, fnances
some technology transfer costs, and
provides grant assistance for activities,
such as technology development.
Ethical funds pool the money of
hundreds of investors into a single fund
which, in turn, invests in the stock market.
The choice of investments is infuenced
by a range of social, environmental, or
other ethical considerations, and funds
employ various criteria to exclude or
include a company in a portfolio.
Export credit agencies are government
agencies that promote national exports
by fnancing transactions when private
fnancing is not availableoften because
of unacceptably high risks, such as for
innovative but unproven clean technologies.
Such agencies account for $50 billion to
$70billion of fnancing annually, supporting
large industrial and infrastructure projects in
developing countries (Norlen et al. 2002).
Urban Financing Partnership Facility
of the Asian Development Bank (ADB)
was established to raise and utilize
development partner funds for the
cofnancing of urban environmental
infrastructure projects and a wide range
of technical assistance to help lay the
groundwork for such projects. It supports
investment in climate change mitigation
and local urban infrastructure projects
that beneft the poor.
All of these elements can be used in
structuring the fnancing of a project, and
ADB can help in this. For instance, the Cities
Development Initiative for Asia, a partnership
between ADB and a number of development
agencies, has focused its activity specifcally
in this area.
ADB will help national
and city governments to
develop networks that will
strengthen collaboration
between businesses and
government in this feld
Green Cities 15
Transformation of Cities
A
sian countries share a vision of
one day making all their cities
livable. The knowledge and
fnancial resources needed to realize that
vision exist. But climate change looms
as a growing threat and is primarily the
product of the very cities whose future it
endangers. It is, therefore, essential that we
reduce the energy demand of cities and
the undesirable environmental impacts
associated with energy production. To
reduce energy demand, we must manage
urbanization, urban design, and logistics
systems more efciently and efectively.
Rapidly growing Asian cities, which are
already stretched to the breaking point, will
contribute more than half the increase in
greenhouse gases in the next 20years.
A technology-driven approach will not work
in isolation from self-reliant, well-resourced,
and efective urban institutions. National and
international entities need to ensure that
these institutions are in place.
To encourage sustainable development of
Asian cities, the Asian Cities agenda must
promote
Local land use and transportation
patterns. Municipal land use, density,
and transportation planning decisions
directly infuence whether people and
businesses will have mobility choices
that allow them to save energy
and moneybuild low-carbon
The Solar Valley Micro-E Hotel in Dezhou,
Peoples Republic of China, uses thousands of
permanent solar panels to sustain 70% of its
energy needs
16 Green Cities
References
Brandon, C., and R. Ramankutty. 1994. As Asia
Urbanizes, Pollution Problems Grow Even
More Urgent. International Herald Tribune.
4January.
CNN. 2000. Trafc Pollution Kills Thousands Every
Year. 1 September.
Despommier, D. 2009. The Vertical Farm:
Reducing the Impact of Agriculture
on Ecosystem Functions and Services.
Available at www.verticalfarm.com/
more?essay1&bcsi_scan_B90AE85AF6AB15
C6=b6rzsENyrxrIrRZhDiYvXBwAAAA0tUo1
Girardet, H. 1996. Giant Footprints. Our Planet.
8 (1). pp. 2123.
Norlen, D., R. Cox, M. Kim, and C.Glazebrook.
2002. Unusual Suspects: Unearthing the
Shadowy World of Export Credit Agencies.
ECA Watch.
Ontario Medical Association. 2000. Illness Costs
of Air Pollution in Ontario. Toronto, Canada.
Pearce, F. 2006. Eco-Cities Special: Ecopolis Now.
New Scientist. June.
Raven, J. 2010. Climate Resilient Urban Design.
Paper presented at the Resilient Cities
Congress 2010, Bonn, Germany,
27 May 2010.
Sheram, K., and T. Soubbotina. 2000. Urban Air
Pollution. In Beyond Economic Growth:
An Introduction to Sustainable Development.
Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
United Nations. 2004. World Urbanization
Prospects: The 2003 Revision. New York.
Watson, R. T. 2001. Climate Change 2001. Paper
presented at the resumed Sixth Conference
of Parties to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, Bonn,
Germany, 19 July 2001.
World Bank. 2007. Study on Policies for Promoting
Circular Economy in China. New York.
public transport, encourage non-
motorized transport, and discourage
the use of cars for the daily commute.
Building construction and resilient,
energy-efcient infrastructure.
Through zoning codes, building
codes, and the permitting process,
municipalities can encourage building
and neighborhood designs that save
energy and resources and adopt
infrastructure designs that are more
efcientusually both in fnancial, as
well as energy terms. Plan for climate
resilience when planning infrastructure.
Local economic activity. Municipal
economic development initiatives are
opportunities to encourage development
in low-energy, zero-carbon directions, by
both incentive and example. In particular,
local 3Rreduce, reuse, recycleplans
should be encouraged to make both
households and industry more efcient.
Efcient logistics both saves money for
business and the environment.
ADB will help national and city governments to
better target investments on capacity
development that will support the
Green City investments set out above;
work collaboratively to identify critical
strategic infrastructure projects that will
enhance the environmental and climate
performance of cities in the region;
build partnerships among development
assistance agencies, the private sector,
and governments to provide incentives
for improved performance; and
develop networks that will strengthen
collaboration between businesses and
government in this feld.
Photographs on pp. 1, 5, and 15 by AFP; on pp. 2 (left), and 4 (left) by
ADB; on pp. 2 (center), 34, 9, by F. Steinberg; p. 13, ADB. 2008. Managing
Asian Cities. Manila.
Green Cities
Asia shares a vision of one day making all its cities livable. The knowledge and financial
resources needed to realize that vision exist. But if the challenges of climate change and
pollution are to be met, it is essential that we reduce energy demand in cities, and reduce the
undesirable environmental impacts associated with energy production. It is also necessary
to address the pollution of watersheds and the air. To achieve this, we must manage
urbanization, city form, design, development density industry and logistics systems more
efficiently and effectively.
About the Asian Development Bank
ADBs vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its developing
member countries reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the
regions many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the worlds poor: 1.8 billion people
who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is
committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, environmentally
sustainable growth, and regional integration.
Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main
instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity
investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.
Livable and Sustainable Cities in Asia
Green Cities
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Publication Stock No. ARM102658
Printed in the Philippines
Printed on recycled paper