AC power

Question 1:
If a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an impedance with a phase angle of 0
o
, the resulting
voltage and current waveforms will look like this:
Given that power is the product of voltage and current (p = i e), plot the waveform for
power in this circuit.
Reveal nswer
Notes:
sk !our students to o"serve the waveform shown in the answer closel!, and determine
what sign the power values alwa!s are. #ote how the voltage and current waveforms
alternate "etween positive and negative, "ut power does not. $f what significance is this
to us% &hat does this indicate a"out the nature of a load with an impedance phase angle
of 0
o
%
'ide nswer
Question 2:
If a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an impedance with a phase angle of (0
o
, the resulting
voltage and current waveforms will look like this:
Given that power is the product of voltage and current (p = i e), plot the waveform for
power in this circuit. lso, e)plain how the mnemonic phrase LI the ICE man" applies to
these waveforms.
Reveal nswer
*he mnemonic phrase, +,I the I-. man/ indicates that this phase shift is due to an
inductance rather than a capacitance.
Notes:
sk !our students to o"serve the waveform shown in the answer closel!, and determine
what sign the power values are. #ote how the power waveform alternates "etween
positive and negative values, 0ust as the voltage and current waveforms do. sk !our
students to e)plain what negative power could possi"l! mean.
$f what significance is this to us% &hat does this indicate a"out the nature of a load with
an impedance phase angle of (0
o
%
*he phrase, +,I the I-. man/ has "een used "e generations of technicians to remem"er
the phase relationships "etween voltage and current for inductors and capacitors,
respectivel!. $ne area of trou"le I1ve noted with students, though, is "eing a"le to
interpret which waveform is leading and which one is lagging, from a time2domain plot
such as this.
'ide nswer
Question 3:
If a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an impedance with a phase angle of 2(0
o
, the
resulting voltage and current waveforms will look like this:
Given that power is the product of voltage and current (p = i e), plot the waveform for
power in this circuit. lso, e)plain how the mnemonic phrase LI the ICE man" applies to
these waveforms.
Reveal nswer
*he mnemonic phrase, +,I the I-. man/ indicates that this phase shift is due to a
capacitance rather than an inductance.
Notes:
sk !our students to o"serve the waveform shown in the answer closel!, and determine
what sign the power values are. #ote how the power waveform alternates "etween
positive and negative values, 0ust as the voltage and current waveforms do. sk !our
students to e)plain what negative power could possi"l! mean.
$f what significance is this to us% &hat does this indicate a"out the nature of a load with
an impedance phase angle of 2(0
o
%
*he phrase, +,I the I-. man/ has "een used "e generations of technicians to remem"er
the phase relationships "etween voltage and current for inductors and capacitors,
respectivel!. $ne area of trou"le I1ve noted with students, though, is "eing a"le to
interpret which waveform is leading and which one is lagging, from a time2domain plot
such as this.
'ide nswer
Question 4:
3ower is eas! to calculate in 4- circuits. *ake for e)ample this 4- light "ul" circuit:
-alculate the power dissipation in this circuit, and descri"e the transfer of energ! from
source to load: where does the energ! come from and where does it go to%
Reveal nswer
3 = 567 &atts
If the source is a chemical "atter!, energ! comes from the chemical reactions occurring
in the "atter!1s electrol!te, "ecomes transfered to electrical form, and then converted to
heat and light in the "ul", all at the rate of 567 8oules per second (89s).
Notes:
4iscuss with !our students the one2wa! flow of energ! in a circuit such as this. lthough
electric current takes a circular path, the actual transfer of energ! is one2wa!: from
source to load. *his is ver! important to understand, as things "ecome more comple)
when reactive (inductive and capacitive) components are considered.
'ide nswer
Question 5:
generator is coupled to a "ic!cle mechanism, so that a person can generate their own
electricit!:
*he person pedaling this "ic!cle9generator notices that it "ecomes more difficult to pedal
when the generator is connected to a load such as a light "ul", or when it is charging a
"atter!. &hen the generator is open2circuited, however, it is ver! eas! to spin. .)plain
wh! this is, in terms of work and energ! transfer.
Reveal nswer
*he energ! consumed "! the load must "e supplied "! whatever mechanical source turns
the generator. In this case, the source is the human "eing pedaling the "ic!cle.
:ollow2up ;uestion: what would it mean if a generator re;uired no ph!sical effort to turn
while it was powering an electrical load%
Notes:
4iscuss how the ,aw of .nerg! -onservation relates to this scenario.
'ide nswer
Question 6:
If the power waveform is plotted for a resistive - circuit, it will look like this:
&hat is the significance of the power value alwa!s "eing positive (a"ove the <ero line)
and never negative ("elow the <ero line)%
Reveal nswer
3ositive power represents energ! flowing from the source to the (resistive) load, in this
case meaning that energ! never returns from the load "ack to the source.
Notes:
sk !our students what it means in ph!sical terms for energ! to flow to a resistive load,
and what it would mean for energ! to flow from a resistive load "ack to the source.
'ide nswer
Question 7:
If the power waveform is plotted for an - circuit with a (0 degree phase shift "etween
voltage and current, it will look something like this:
&hat is the significance of the power value oscillating e;uall! "etween positive (a"ove
the <ero line) and negative ("elow the <ero line)% 'ow does this differ from a scenario
where there is <ero phase shift "etween voltage and current%
Reveal nswer
s!mmetricall! oscillating power waveform represents energ! going "ack and forth
"etween source and load, never actuall! dissipating.
Notes:
4iscuss with !our students the energ!2storing and energ!2releasing a"ilit! of capacitors
and inductors, and how the! differ from resistors. *his is ke! to understanding the <ero
net power dissipation of reactive components in - circuits.
'ide nswer
Question 8:
If this circuit is "uilt and operated, it will "e found that the resistor "ecomes much hotter
than the inductor, even though "oth components drop the e)act same amount of voltage
and carr! the e)act same amount of current:
.)plain wh! there is such a remarka"le difference in heat output "etween these two
components, given their identical voltage drops and currents.
Reveal nswer
*he inductor can onl! store and release energ!, not dissipate it. *herefore, its actual
power dissipation is <ero=
Notes:
*his ;uestion seeks to challenge students1 perceptions of what constitutes electrical
power. :rom the ph!sical effects descri"ed, it is evident that there is more to calculating
power than simpl! multipl!ing a voltage drop "! a current=
'ide nswer
Question 9:
-alculate the current in this circuit, and also the amount of mechanical power (in units of
/horsepower/) re;uired to turn this alternator (assume >00? efficienc!):
Reveal nswer
I = >7>.>@
3 = (0.@ horsepower
Notes:
Aolving this pro"lem re;uires unit conversions: from /watts/ to /horsepower./ ,et !our
students research how to perform this conversion, then discuss their various techni;ues
during discussion time.
'ide nswer
Question 10:
-alculate the current in this circuit, and also the amount of mechanical power (in units of
/horsepower/) re;uired to turn this alternator (assume >00? efficienc!):
Reveal nswer
I = >7>.>@
3 = 0 horsepower, so long as the inductor is /pure/ (>00 percent inductance, with no
resistance).
Notes:
*he answer to this ;uestion will surprise man! of !our students, "ecause the! are
accustomed to calculating power simpl! "! multipl!ing voltage "! current (3 = I .).
sk !our students how the! calculated line current in this circuit, and then challenge
them with the ;uestion of how 0 watts of power can "e dissipated in this circuit with all
this current and all this voltage (7@0 volts).
'ide nswer
Question 11:
student is pondering the "ehavior of a simple series R- circuit:
It is clear "! now that the 7 kB capacitive reactance does not directl! add to the C kB
resistance to make D kB total. Instead, the addition of impedances is vectorial:
E

F-
5
G R
5

= Htotal
ZC G ZR = Ztotal
(7 kB I(0
o
) G (C kB 0
o
) = (J kB IJC.>C
o
)
It is also clear to this student that the component voltage drops form a vectorial sum as
well, so that 7 volts dropped across the capacitor in series with C volts dropped across
the resistor reall! does add up to J volts total source voltage:
VC G VR = Vtotal
(7 K I(0
o
) G (C K 0
o
) = (J K IJC.>C
o
)
&hat surprises the student, though, is power. In calculating power for each component,
the student arrives at 7 m& for the capacitor (7 volts times > milliamp) and C m& for the
resistor (C volts times > milliamp), "ut onl! J m& for the total circuit power (J volts
times > milliamp). In 4- circuits, component power dissipations always added, no matter
how strangel! their voltages and currents might "e related. *he student honestl!
e)pected the total power to "e D m&, "ut that doesn1t make sense with J volts total
voltage and > m total current.
*hen it occurs to the student that power might add vectoriall! 0ust like impedances and
voltage drops. In fact, this seems to "e the onl! wa! the num"ers make an! sense:
'owever, after plotting this triangle the student is once again "eset with dou"t. ccording
to the ,aw of .nerg! -onservation, total power in must e;ual total power out. If the
source is inputting J m& of power total to this circuit, there should "e no possi"le wa!
that the resistor is dissipating C m& and the capacitor is dissipating 7 m&. *hat would
constitute more energ! leaving the circuit than what is entering=
&hat is wrong with this student1s power triangle diagram% 'ow ma! we make sense of
the figures o"tained "! multipl!ing voltage "! current for each component, and for the
total circuit%
Reveal nswer
$nl! the resistor actuall! dissipates power. *he capacitor onl! a"sor"s and releases
power, so its /7 m&/ figure does not actuall! represent power in the same sense as the
resistor. *o make this sensi"le, we must think of all the non2resistive /powers/ as
something other than actual work "eing done over time:
:ollow2up ;uestion: when making the leap from 4- circuit anal!sis to - circuit anal!sis,
we needed to e)pand on our understanding of Lpposition/ from 0ust resistance (R) to
include reactance (F) and (ultimatel!) impedance (H). -omment on how this e)pansion of
terms and ;uantities is similar when dealing with /power/ in an - circuit.
Notes:
*he point of this ;uestion is to ease the pain of learning a"out power factor "! relating it
to a parallel concept: opposition to electric current (R e)panding into F and H). *his
makes the follow2up ;uestion ver! significant.
'ide nswer
Question 12:
-alculate the current in this circuit, and also the amount of mechanical power (in units of
/horsepower/) re;uired to turn this alternator (assume >00? efficienc!):
Reveal nswer
I = ((.@5
3 = 7J.7 horsepower
Notes:
sk students what each of the load components (inductor and resistor) do with the
electrical energ! delivered to them "! the alternator. *he two components "ehave ver!
differentl! with regard to power, and onl! one if them is dissipative.
'ide nswer
Question 13:
In this circuit, three common - loads are modeled as resistances, com"ined with
reactive components in two out of the three cases. -alculate the amount of current
registered "! each ammeter, and also the amount of power dissipated "! each of the
loads:
If someone were to read each of the ammeters1 indications and multipl! the respective
currents "! the figure of >50 volts, would the resulting power figures (3 = I .) agree with
the actual power dissipations% .)plain wh! or wh! not, for each load.
Reveal nswer
:luorescent lamp: I = 0.6D7 M ctual power = 60 &
Incandescent lamp: I = 0.J M ctual power = 60 &
Induction motor: I = 0.76J M ctual power = J5.0 &
In ever! load e)cept for the incandescent lamp, more current is drawn from the source
than is /necessar!/ for the amount of power actuall! dissipated "! the load.
Notes:
Nour students should reali<e that the onl! dissipative element in each load is the resistor.
Inductors and capacitors, "eing reactive components, do not actuall! dissipate power. I
have found that students often fail to grasp the concept of device modeling, instead
thinking that the resistances shown in the schematic are actual resistors (color "ands and
all=). 4iscuss with them if necessar! the concept of using standard electrical elements
such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors to simulate characteristics of real devices
such as lamps and motors. It is not as though one could take an ,-R meter and staticall!
measure each of these characteristics= In each case, the resistance represents whatever
mechanism is responsi"le for converting electrical energ! into a form that does not return
to the circuit, "ut instead leaves the circuit to do work.
sk !our students how the O)cess/ current drawn "! each load potentiall! influences the
si<e of wire needed to carr! power to that load. Auppose the impedance of each load
were >00 times less, resulting in >00 times as much current for each load. &ould the
O)tra/ current "e significant then%
Peing that most heav! - loads happen to "e strongl! inductive in nature (large electric
motors, electromagnets, and the /leakage/ inductance intrinsic to large transformers),
what does this mean for - power s!stems in general%
'ide nswer
Question 14:
ver! important parameter in - power circuits is power factor. .)plain what /power
factor/ is, and define its numerical range.
Reveal nswer
Power factor is the ratio "etween true power (&atts) and apparent power (Kolt2mps),
ranging "etween 0 and > inclusive.
Notes:
*his is not the onl! wa! to define power factor (Q39AR), "ut it is perhaps the most
straightforward.
'ide nswer
Question 15:
4efine true power, in contrast to /reactive/ or /apparent/ power.
Reveal nswer
*rue power is that power in a circuit that leaves the circuit and never returns. It is the
power that does useful work, plus an! dissipative losses.
Notes:
sk !our students where the! found information helpful to answering this ;uestion.
'ide nswer
Question 16:
4efine apparent power, in contrast to /true/ or /reactive/ power.
Reveal nswer
pparent power is the simple product (multiplication) of voltage and current in an -
circuit. It is the amount of power that appears to "e in the circuit, and not necessaril! the
true power.
Notes:
sk !our students where the! found information helpful to answering this ;uestion.
'ide nswer
Question 17:
4efine reactive power, in contrast to /true/ or /apparent/ power.
Reveal nswer
Reactive power is that power in a circuit that is a"sor"ed and returned in a circuit due to
capacitance and9or inductance. It is the power that never leaves the circuit, whether in
the form of useful work or dissipative losses.
Notes:
sk !our students where the! found information helpful to answering this ;uestion.
'ide nswer
Question 18:
*he three different t!pes of power in - circuits are as follows:
S
A = apparent power, measured in Kolt2mps (K)
S
3 = true power, measured in &atts (&)
S
T = reactive power, measured in Kolt2mps reactive (KR)
.)plain the names of each of these power t!pes. &h! are the! called Upparent,/ /true,/
and /reactive/%
Reveal nswer
Vpparent/ power is apparently the total circuit power when volts and amps are
multiplied together. /Reactive/ power is due to reactive components (, and -) onl!, and
/*rue/ power is the onl! t!pe that actuall! accounts for energ! leaving the circuit
through a load component.
Notes:
*hese definitions ma! "e found in an! num"er of te)t"ooks, "ut that does not mean
the! are eas! to understand. Pe sure to discuss these ver! important concepts with
!our students, given their tendenc! to generate confusion=
'ide nswer
Question 19:
3ower calculation in 4- circuits is simple. *here are three formulae that ma! "e used
to calculate power:
3 = IK 3 = I
5
R 3 =
K
5
R
3ower in 4- circuits
-alculating power in - circuits is much more comple), "ecause there are three
different t!pes of power: apparent power (A), true power (3), and reactive power (T).
&rite e;uations for calculating each of these t!pes of power in an - circuit:
Reveal nswer
A = IK A = I
5
H A =
K
5
H
pparent power in -
circuits
3 = IK cosW 3 = I
5
R 3 =
K
5
R
*rue power in - circuits
T = IK sinW T = I
5
F T = K
5
Reactive power in - circuits
F
:ollow2up ;uestion X>: alge"raicall! manipulate each of the following e;uations to
solve for all the other varia"les in them:
T = I
5
F A =
K
5
H
3 = I
5
R
:ollow2up ;uestion X5: su"stitute Y, f, and either , or - into the reactive power
e;uations so that one ma! calculate T without having to directl! know the value of F.
Notes:
#othing much to comment on here, as these e;uations ma! "e found in an! num"er of
te)ts. $ne thing !ou might consider doing to encourage participation from !our
students is to ask three of them to write these e;uations on the "oard in front of class,
one student per power t!pe (A, 3, and T). *his would "e an ideal ;uestion for !our
more timid students, "ecause there is little e)planation involved and therefore little
chance of em"arrassment.
'ide nswer
Question 20:
-alculate the power factor of this circuit:
Reveal nswer
3.:. = 0.@D5
Notes:
In order to solve for power factor, !our students must find at least one formula to use
for calculating it. *here is definitel! more than one method of solution here, so "e sure
to ask multiple students to share their strategies for the "enefit of all.
'ide nswer
Question 21:
.)plain the difference "etween a leading power factor and a lagging power factor.
Reveal nswer
leading power factor is one created "! a predominantl! capacitive load, whereas a
lagging power factor is one created "! a predominantl! inductive load.
Notes:
sk !our students to e)plain the phase relationships "etween voltage and current for
each of these two conditions: a circuit with a /leading/ power factor, and a circuit with
a /lagging/ power factor. *he terms ma! make a lot more sense once these
relationships are seen.
'ide nswer
Question 22:
In this circuit, three common - loads are represented as resistances, com"ined with
reactive components in two out of the three cases. -alculate the amount of true power
(3), apparent power (A), reactive power (T), and power factor (3:) for each of the
loads:
lso, draw power triangle diagrams for each circuit, showing how the true, apparent,
and reactive powers trigonometricall! relate.
Reveal nswer
:luorescent lamp: 3 = 60 & M T = J7.C KR M A = @0.( K M 3: = 0.D7, leading
Incandescent lamp: 3 = 60 & M T = 0 KR M A = 60 K M 3: = >.0
Induction motor: 3 = J5.0 & M T = 50.7 KR M A = JJ.@ K M 3: = 0.(C, lagging
Notes:
Nour students should reali<e that the onl! dissipative element in each load is the
resistor. Inductors and capacitors, "eing reactive components, do not actuall! dissipate
power.
sk !our students how the O)cess/ current drawn "! each load potentiall! influences
the si<e of wire needed to carr! power to that load. Auppose the impedance of each
load were >00 times less, resulting in >00 times as much current for each load. &ould
the O)tra/ current "e significant then%
Peing that most heav! - loads happen to "e strongl! inductive in nature (large
electric motors, electromagnets, and the /leakage/ inductance intrinsic to large
transformers), what does this mean for - power s!stems in general%
'ide nswer
Question 23:
-alculate the amount of phase shift "etween voltage and current in an - circuit with a
power factor of 0.(D (lagging), and an apparent power of C.J kK. lso, write the
e;uation solving for phase shift, in degrees.
Reveal nswer
W = arccos(3:) = >7.>
o

Notes:
sk !our students whether this circuit is predominantl! capacitive or predominantl!
inductive, and also how the! know it is such.
It is ver! important for students to "e a"le to solve for angles in simple trigonometric
e;uations, using Urcfunctions,/ so "e sure !ou discuss the method of solution for this
;uestion with !our students.
'ide nswer
Question 24:
common analog! used to descri"e the different t!pes of power in - circuits is a mug
of "eer that also contains foam:
.)plain this analog!, relating the ;uantities of "eer and foam to the different t!pes of
power in an - circuit, and also wh! this analog! is often emplo!ed to descri"e the
/desira"ilit!/ of each power t!pe in a circuit.
Reveal nswer
*he "eer itself is /true/ power (3, measured in &atts). Good "eer, good. Ideall!, we1d
like to have a full mug of "eer (true power). Znfortunatel!, we also have foam in the
mug, representing /reactive/ power (T, measured in Kolt2mps2Reactive), which does
nothing "ut occup! space in the mug. Pad foam, "ad. *ogether, their com"ined volume
constitutes the Upparent/ power in the s!stem (A, measured in Kolt2mps).
:ollow2up ;uestion: can !ou think of an! potential safet! ha<ards that low power factor
ma! present in a high2power circuit% &e1re talking - power circuits here, not "eer=
Notes:
sk !our students to appl! this analog! to the following - circuits: how much "eer
versus foam e)ists in each one%
'ide nswer
Question 25:
If an electrical device is modeled "! fi)ed values of resistance, inductance, and9or
capacitance, it is not difficult to calculate its power factor:
3.:. =
R
E
R
5
G ([,)
5
In real life, though, things are not so simple. n electric motor will not come la"eled
with an ideal2component model e)pressed in terms of R and ,. In fact, that would "e
impossi"le, as the resistance R in the circuit model represents the sum total of
mechanical work "eing done "! the motor in addition to the energ! losses. *hese
varia"les change depending on how heavil! loaded the motor is, meaning that the
motor1s power factor will also change with mechanical loading.
'owever, it ma! "e ver! important to calculate power factor for electrical loads such as
multi2thousand horsepower electric motors. 'ow is this possi"le to do when we do not
know the e;uivalent circuit configuration or values for such a load% In other words, how
do we determine the power factor of a real electrical device as it operates%
$f course, there do e)ist special meters to measure true power (wattmeters) and
reactive power (/var/ meters), as well as power factor directl!. Znfortunatel!, these
instruments ma! not "e readil! availa"le for our use. &hat we need is a wa! to
measure power factor using nothing more than standard electrical9electronic test
e;uipment such as multimeters and oscilloscopes. 'ow ma! we do this%
'int: remem"er that the angle W of the A2T23 /power triangle/ is the same as the
angle in a circuit1s H2F2R impedance triangle, and also the same as the phase shift
angle "etween total voltage and total current.
Reveal nswer
Zse an oscilloscope to measure the circuit1s W (phase shift "etween voltage and
current), and then calculate the power factor from that angle.
:ollow2up ;uestion X>: e)plain how !ou could safel! measure currents in the range of
hundreds or thousands of amps, and also measure voltages in the range of hundreds
or thousands of volts, using an oscilloscope. Pear in mind that !ou need to
simultaneousl! plot "oth varia"les on the oscilloscope in order to measure phase shift=
:ollow2up ;uestion X5: e)plain how !ou could measure either A, T, or 3 using a
multimeter.
Notes:
*his is a ver! practical ;uestion= *here is a lot to discuss here, including what specific
devices to use for measuring voltage and current, what safet! precautions to take, how
to interpret the oscilloscope1s displa!, and so on. $f course, one of the most important
aspects of this ;uestion to discuss is the concept of empiricall! determining power
factor "! measuring a circuit1s K9I phase shift.
'ide nswer
Question 26:
Auppose that a single2phase - electric motor is performing mechanical work at a rate
of 7J horsepower. *his e;uates to CC.JD k& of power, given the e;uivalence of watts to
horsepower (> '3 \ D76 &).
-alculate the amount of line current necessar! to power this motor if the line voltage is
760 volts, assuming >00? motor efficienc! and a power factor of >.
#ow re2calculate the necessar! line current for this motor if its power factor drops to
0.6J. ssume the same efficienc! (>00?) and the same amount of mechanical power
(7J '3).
&hat do these calculations indicate a"out the importance of maintaining a high power
factor value in an - circuit%
Reveal nswer
3.:. = > M current = D5.(@ amps
3.:. = 0.6J M current = >>5.C amps
:ollow2up ;uestion: what is the O)tra/ current in the 0.6J power factor scenario doing,
if not contri"uting to the motor1s mechanical power output%
Notes:
3oints of discussion for this ;uestion should "e rather o"vious: wh! is a current of
>>5.C amps worse than a current of D5.(@ amps when the e)act same amount of
mechanical work is "eing done% &hat circuit components would have to "e oversi<ed to
accommodate this e)tra current%
'ide nswer
Question 27:
n oscilloscope is connected to a low2current - motor circuit to measure "oth voltage
and current, and plot them against one another as a ,issa0ous figure:
*he following ,issa0ous figure is o"tained from this measurement:
:rom this figure, calculate the phase angle (W) and the power factor for this motor
circuit.
Reveal nswer
W \ JD
o
3.:. \ 0.J7
:ollow2up ;uestion: is this the onl! wa! we could have used the oscilloscope to
measure phase shift "etween voltage and current, or is there another mode of
operation "esides plotting ,issa0ous figures%
Notes:
sk !our students to e)plain the function of the resistor Rshunt shown in the schematic
diagram. 4iscuss whether or not this resistor should have a ver! low or a ver! high
resistance value. lso discuss the placement of the oscilloscope1s ground clip, which is
ver! important in a potentiall! lethal - power circuit.
'ide nswer
Question 28:
ver! high2power - electric motor needs to have its power factor measured. Nou and
an electrician are asked to perform this measurement using an oscilloscope. *he
electrician understands what must "e done to measure voltage and current in this
dangerous circuit, and !ou understand how to interpret the oscilloscope1s image to
calculate power factor.
It would "e impractical to directl! measure voltage and current, seeing as how the
voltage is 7>60 volts - and the current is in e)cess of 500 amps. :ortunatel!, 3*
(/potential transformer/) and -* (/current transformer/) units are alread! installed in
the motor circuit to facilitate measurements:
fter the electrician helps !ou safel! connect to the 3* and -* units, !ou o"tain a
,issa0ous figure that looks like this:
-alculate the power factor of the - motor from this oscilloscope displa!.
Reveal nswer
3.:. \ 0.@7, lagging (most likel!)
:ollow2up ;uestion: is it possi"le to determine which waveform is leading or lagging the
other from a ,issa0ous figure% .)plain !our answer.
Notes:
*his ;uestion provides a good opportunit! to review the functions of 3*s and -*s.
Remem"er that 3*s are transformers with precise step2down ratios used to measure a
proportion of the line or phase voltage, which in man! cases is safer than measuring
the line or phase voltage directl!. -*s are speciall!2formed transformers which fit
around the current2carr!ing conductor for the purpose of stepping down current
(stepping up voltage) so that a low2range ammeter ma! measure a fraction of the line
current.
Atudents familiar with large electric motors will reali<e that a 7>60 volt motor is going
to "e three2phase and not single2phase, and that measuring power factor "! means of
phase shift "etween voltage and current ma! "e a "it more complicated than what is
shown here. *his scenario would work for a N2connected four2wire, three2phase
s!stem, "ut not all three2phase s!stems are the same=
'ide nswer
Question 29:
large electrical load is outfitted with a wattmeter to measure its true power. If the
load voltage is D.5 kK and the load current is 57 amps, calculate the load1s apparent
power (A). -alculate the power factor and also the phase angle "etween voltage and
current in the circuit if the wattmeter registers >JJ k& at those same voltage and
current values.
4raw a /power triangle/ for this circuit, graphicall! showing the relationships "etween
apparent power, true power, and phase angle.
Reveal nswer
3.:. = 0.@(D W = 56.5C
o

Notes:
*his ;uestion provides more practice for students with trigonometr!, as well as
reinforcing the relationships "etween A, 3, W, and power factor.
'ide nswer
Question 30:
*he power factor of this circuit is as low as it can possi"l! "e, 0:
-alculate the apparent, true, and reactive power for this circuit:
S
A =
S
3 =
S
T =
#ow, suppose a capacitor is added in parallel with the inductor:
Re2calculate the apparent, true, and reactive power for this circuit with the capacitor
connected:
S
A =
S
3 =
S
T =
Reveal nswer
Without capacitor
S
A = >.7C5 K
S
3 = 0 &
S
T = >.7C5 KR
With capacitor
S
A = 0.C6( K
S
3 = 0 &
S
T = 0.C6( KR
Notes:
lthough the power factor of this circuit is still 0, the total current drawn
from the source has "een su"stantiall! reduced. *his is the essence of
power factor correction, and the point of this ;uestion.
'ide nswer
Question 31:
-alculate the line current and power factor in this - power s!stem:
#ow, calculate the line current and power factor for the same circuit after
the addition of a capacitor in parallel with the load:
Reveal nswer
Without capacitor
S
Iline = 7@
S
3.:. = 0.@5(
With capacitor
S
Iline = C(.@D
S
3.:. = 0.((@
:ollow2up ;uestion: does the addition of the capacitor affect the
amount of current through the J B load% &h! or wh! not%
Notes:
*he answers to this ;uestion ma! seem reall! strange to students accustomed to 4-
circuit calculations, where parallel "ranch currents alwa!s add up to a greater total. &ith
comple) num"ers, however, the sum is not necessaril! greater than the individual values=
'ide nswer
Question 32:
It is in the "est interest of power distri"ution s!stems to maintain the power factors of
distant loads as close to unit! (>) as possi"le. .)plain wh!.
Reveal nswer
,ow power factors result in e)cessive line current.
Notes:
sk !our students to ela"orate on the given answer, e)plaining why power factor results
in e)cessive line current. sk them what is meant "! the word O)cessive./
Question 33:
*he /power triangle/ is a ver! useful model for understanding the mathematical
relationship "etween apparent power (A), true power (3), and reactive power (T):
.)plain what happens to the triangle if power factor correction components are added to
a circuit. &hat side(s) change length on the triangle, and what happens to the angle W%
Reveal nswer
s power factor is "rought closer to unit! (>), the power triangle /flattens,/ with 3
remaining constant:
Notes:
sk !our students to e)plain what the /triangle/ looks like at a power factor of unit!.
'ide nswer
Question 34:
&hen a capacitor is to "e connected in parallel with an inductive - load to correct for
lagging power factor, it is important to "e a"le to calculate the reactive power of the
capacitor (T-). &rite at least one e;uation for calculating the reactive power of a
capacitor (in KRs) given the capacitor1s reactance (F-) at the line fre;uenc!.
T- =
.
5
F-
T- = I
5
F-
:ollow2up ;uestion: which of the two e;uations shown a"ove would "e
easiest to use in calculating the reactive power of a capacitor given the
following information%
Notes:
*his step seems to "e one of the most difficult for students to grasp as the! "egin to
learn to correct for power factor in - circuits, so I wrote a ;uestion specificall! focusing
on it. $nce students calculate the amount of reactive power consumed "! the load (Tload),
the! ma! reali<e the capacitor needs to produce the same (T-), "ut the! often "ecome
mired in confusion tr!ing to take the ne)t step(s) in determining capacitor si<e.
'ide nswer
Question 35:
n inductive - load draws >C.7 amps of current at a voltage of 50@ volts. *he phase
shift "etween line voltage and line current is measured with an oscilloscope, and
determined to "e 5C
o
. -alculate the following:
S
pparent power (A) =
S
*rue power (3) =
S
Reactive power (T) =
S
3ower factor =
n electrician suggests to !ou that the lagging power factor ma! "e
corrected "! connecting a capacitor in parallel with this load. If the
capacitor is si<ed 0ust right, it will e)actl! offset the reactive power
of the inductive load, resulting in <ero total reactive power and a
power factor of unit! (>). -alculate the si<e of the necessar!
capacitor in :arads, assuming a line fre;uenc! of 60 '<.
Reveal nswer
S
pparent power (A) = 5.D@D kK
S
*rue power (3) = 5.J6D k&
S
Reactive power (T) = >.0@( kKR
S
3ower factor = 0.(5>
S
-orrection capacitor value = 66.DD ]:
-hallenge ;uestion: write an e;uation solving for the power
factor correction capacitor si<e (in :arads) given an! or all of the
varia"les provided in the ;uestion (A, 3, T, f, K, 3.:.).
Notes:
*here are multiple methods of solution for this pro"lem, so "e sure to have !our students
present their thoughts and strategies during discussion= *he formula the! write in answer
to the challenge ;uestion will "e nothing more than a formali<ed version of the solution
strateg!.
'ide nswer
Question 36:
n - load e)hi"its a lagging power factor of 0.DC at 5C0 K- and C>J amps. If the
s!stem fre;uenc! is 60 '<, calculate the following:
S
pparent power (A) =
S
*rue power (3) =
S
Reactive power (T) =
S
W =
S
#ecessar! parallel - si<e to correct power factor to unit! =
Reveal nswer
S
pparent power (A) = D5.7J kK
S
*rue power (3) = J5.@( k&
S
Reactive power (T) = 7(.J5 kKR
S
W = 7C.>>
o

S
#ecessar! parallel - si<e to correct power factor to unit! = 5,7@C ]:
Notes:
*here are multiple methods of solution for this pro"lem, so "e sure to have !our students
present their thoughts and strategies during discussion=
'ide nswer
Question 37:
n inductive - load consumes >J.5 ^& of true power at a voltage of >>J kK and >7(.@
amps. If the s!stem fre;uenc! is J0 '<, calculate the following:
S
pparent power (A) =
S
Reactive power (T) =
S
3ower factor =
S
W =
S
#ecessar! parallel - si<e to correct power factor to unit! =
Reveal nswer
S
pparent power (A) = >D.5C ^K
S
Reactive power (T) = @.>0D ^KR
S
3ower factor = 0.@@5
S
W = 5@.>
o

S
#ecessar! parallel - si<e to correct power factor to unit! = >.(J> ]:
Notes:
*here are multiple methods of solution for this pro"lem, so "e sure to have !our students
present their thoughts and strategies during discussion=
'ide nswer
Question 38:
dual2trace oscilloscope is used to measure the phase shift "etween voltage and current
for an inductive - load:
-alculate the following, given a load voltage of >>0 volts, a load current of C.5 amps, and
a fre;uenc! of 60 '<:
S
pparent power (A) =
S
*rue power (3) =
S
Reactive power (T) =
S
W =
S
3ower factor =
S
#ecessar! parallel - si<e to correct power factor to unit! =
Reveal nswer
pparent power (A) = CJ5 K
S
*rue power (3) = C5@.5 &
S
Reactive power (T) = >5D.5 KR
S
W = 5>.5
o

S
3ower factor = 0.(C5
S
#ecessar! parallel - si<e to correct power factor to unit! = 5D.( ]:
:ollow2up ;uestion: identif! which waveform represents voltage and which waveform
represents current on the oscilloscope displa!.
Notes:
*here are multiple methods of solution for this pro"lem, so "e sure to have !our students
present their thoughts and strategies during discussion=
Question 39:
-alculate the power factor of this circuit:
*hen, calculate the si<e of the capacitor necessar! to /correct/ the power factor to a
value of >.0, showing the "est location of the capacitor in the circuit.
Reveal nswer
Zncorrected power factor = 0.D0D, lagging
:ollow2up ;uestion: when we use
capacitors as power factor correction
components in an - power s!stem,
the e;uivalent series resistance (.AR)
inside the capacitor "ecomes a
significant factor:
-urrent through this e;uivalent series resistance produces heat, and when we1re dealing
with ^KRs worth of reactive power in high2current circuits, this heat can "e su"stantial
unless .AR is held low "! special capacitor designs. 4escri"e some possi"le ha<ards of
e)cessive .AR for a power factor correction capacitor in a high2current circuit.
-hallenge ;uestion: the ideal location for power factor correction capacitors is at the load
terminals, where the reduction in current will "e /felt/ "! all components in the s!stem
e)cept the load itself. 'owever, in real life, power factor correction capacitors are often
located at the power plant (the alternator). &h! would an!one choose to locate
capacitors there% &hat "enefit would the! provide at all, in that location%
Notes:
*hough there are other methods for correcting power factor in - circuits, the addition of
capacitors is perhaps the simplest. Ideall!, correction capacitors should "e added as close
to the load terminals as possi"le, "ut in real life the! are sometimes located at the power
plant (near the alternators). -ompare the reduction in conductor currents with the
correction capacitor located in different parts of the circuit, and !ou will see one place in
the s!stem where current is reduced no matter where the capacitor is located=
Atill, this does not answer the ;uestion of wh! correction capacitors are not alwa!s
located at the load terminals. 4iscuss this with !our students and see if !ou can figure
out wh! (hint: what happens when the load1s effective resistance changes, as would
happen to an electric motor under var!ing mechanical loads%).
Question 40:
If an - circuit has a lagging power factor, the wa! to correct for that power factor is to
add a capacitor to the circuit to create leading reactive power. *his leading reactive power
will cancel the lagging reactive power of the load, ideall! negating one another so that
there is no reactive power demands placed on the source (<ero net reactive power in the
circuit):
4efine a step2"!2step procedure for calculating the si<e of compensating capacitor
needed (in :arads) in order to correct an! lagging power factor to a value of unit!. ^ake
!our procedure general enough that it ma! appl! to an! scenario.
Reveal nswer
I1ll let !ou determine !our own procedure, "ased on the steps !ou had to take to correct
power factor in other ;uestions=
Power factor correction calculation procedure
Notes:
Atudents generall! do not like to e)plain procedures. *he! would much rather follow a
procedure given "! an uthorit!, "ecause it re;uires less thinking. It is !our responsi"ilit!
as their instructor to enforce the re;uirement for thinking in the classroom. It serves !our
students little to provide them with step2"!2step instructions on how to calculate certain
things, "ecause ultimatel! their success will depend on their a"ilit! to think deepl! and
criticall!, and to pro"lem2solve all on their own.
nswering this ;uestion in a group discussion setting need not "e intimidating. Nou ma!
choose to have groups of students answer this ;uestion instead of 0ust one or two, or !ou
ma! even assign this ;uestion specificall! to a group of students so that there is the
impetus of shared responsi"ilit! and the safet! of friendl! assistance in finding an answer.
Question 41:
^ost methods of power factor correction involve the connection of a parallel capacitance
to an inductive load:
It is technicall! possi"le to correct for lagging power factor "! connecting a capacitor in
series with an inductive load as well, "ut this is rarel! done:
.)plain wh! series capacitance is not considered a practical solution for power factor
correction in most applications.
Reveal nswer
*his is essentiall! a series2
resonant circuit, with all the
inherent dangers of series
resonance (I1ll let !ou review what
those dangers are=).
:ollow2up ;uestion: aside from
safet!, there is also the matter of
relia"ilit! that concerns us.
.)amine the parallel2capacitor
circuit and the series2capacitor
circuit from the perspective of a
failed capacitor. .)plain how each
t!pe of capacitor failure (open
versus short) will affect these two
circuits.
Notes:
#ot onl! would a series2resonant power circuit "e dangerous, "ut it would also re;uire
capacitors rated for handling large continuous currents. *he e;uivalent series resistance
(.AR) of the capacitor would have to "e ver! low in order to not e)perience pro"lems
handling full load current for e)tended periods of time.
It should "e mentioned that series capacitors sometimes are used in power s!stems,
most nota"l! at the connection points of some high2voltage distri"ution lines, at the
su"station(s).
Question 42:
lthough most high2power - loads are inductive in nature, some are capacitive. .)plain
what !ou would have to do to correct for the leading power factor of a large capacitive
load, provided the power factor were low enough to warrant the e)pense of e;uipment to
correct it.
Reveal nswer
If inductive loads have their low power factors corrected "! the addition of parallel
capacitors, the solution to correcting low power factor for a capacitive load should "e
eas! to identif!. I1ll let !ou figure out the answer to this=
-hallenge ;uestion: e)plain how !ou could e)ploit the inductive nature of electric motors
and other more common load devices in correcting for an e)cessivel! low leading power
factor.
Notes:
If some students fail to understand the answer to this ;uestion, tr! drawing an _pside2
down/ power triangle to illustrate:
'ide nswer
Question 43:
In - power s!stems, a common wa! of thinking a"out reactive power among engineers
is in terms of production and consumption. Inductive loads, it is said, consume reactive
power. -onversel!, capacitive loads produce reactive power.
.)plain how the models of /production/ and /consumption/ relate to reactive power in
capacitors and inductors, respectivel!. Peing that neither t!pe of component actuall!
dissipates or generates electrical energ!, how can these terms "e appropriate in
descri"ing their "ehavior%
Reveal nswer
It is true that inductors and capacitors alike neither dissipate nor generate electrical
energ!. *he! do, however, store and release energ!. nd the! do so in complementar!
fashion, inductors storing energ! at the same time that capacitors release, and visa2
versa.
3art of the answer to this ;uestion lies in the fact that most large - loads are inductive
in nature. :rom a power plant1s perspective, the reactive power of a customer (a
/consumer/ of power) is inductive in nature, and so that form of reactive power would
naturall! "e considered /consumption./
Notes:
sk !our students this ;uestion: if customers on an electrical s!stem /consume/ reactive
power, then who has the 0o" of suppl!ing it% -arr!ing this ;uestion a "it further, are the
alternators used to generate power rated in watts or in volt2amps% Is it possi"le for an
alternator to suppl! an infinite amount of purel! reactive power, or is there some kind of
limit inherent to the device% *o phrase the ;uestion another wa!, does the necessit! of
`uppl!ing/ reactive power to customers limit the amount of true power than a power
plant ma! output%
'ide nswer
Question 44:
nother name for /capacitor/ is condenser. .)plain what a synchronous condenser is, and
how it is used to correct power factor in - power s!stems.
Reveal nswer
`!nchronous condenser/ is a special t!pe of - electric motor that happens to have a
varia"le power factor. *he! are used as varia"le capacitors to correct for changing power
factors.
-hallenge ;uestion: capacitors are considered reactive devices "ecause the! have to
a"ilit! to store and release energ!. 'ow would a s!nchronous condenser store and
release energ!, seeing as it does not make use of electric fields as capacitors do%
Notes:
*here is a fair amount of information availa"le on the internet and also in power
engineering te)ts on the su"0ect of s!nchronous condensers, although this mature
technolog! is "eing superseded "! solid2state static VA compensator circuits which have
no moving parts.
Nou might wish to mention that most - generators (alternators) have the a"ilit! to run
as s!nchronous motors, and therefore as s!nchronous condensers. It is commonplace for
spare generators at power plants to "e adled/ as electric motors and used to generate
leading KRs to reduce heating in the windings of the other generators. *his is especiall!
true at h!droelectric dams, where fre;uent shut2downs and start2ups of generator units is
discouraged due to the massive si<e of the units and the ph!sical wear incurred during
that c!cling.
'ide nswer
Question 45:
-alculating apparent power for a single2phase - circuit is eas! 2 simpl! multipl! line
voltage "! line current (A = KI):
'ow do we calculate apparent power in a "alanced three2phase circuit, given the same
figures%
Reveal nswer
A = EC(KI)
:ollow2up ;uestion: suppose the three2phase s!stem were a 4elta configuration instead
of a &!e configuration. 4oes this influence the apparent power calculation% &h! or wh!
not%
Notes*he formula for calculating power in a "alanced three2phase s!stem ma! "e found
in an! te)t"ook. ,et !our students do the necessar! research=
'ide nswer
Question 46:
ver! large C2phase alternator at a h!droelectric dam has the following continuous full2
power ratings:
S
600 ^& power output
S
>J kK line voltage
S
5C.6@6 k line current
-alculate the continuous full2load apparent power for this alternator (in ^K), its
continuous full2load reactive power (in ^KR), and its power factor (in percent).
Reveal nswer
A = 6>J.C@ ^K T = >C6.D5 ^KR 3.:. = (D.J?
Notes:
*hese figures came from a real h!droelectric generator that I saw once on a tour.
#eedless to sa!, this alternator was very large=
S
Maximum continuous ratings
S
6>J.C@ ^K apparent power output
S
600 ^& true power output
S
>J kK line voltage
S
5C.6@6 k line current
S
(D.J? power factor
S
C6J volts e)citer voltage
S
C,75J amps e)citer current
S
Maximum continuous overload ratings
S
D0D.6( ^K apparent power output
S
6(0 ^& true power output
S
>J kK line voltage
S
5D.5C( k line current
S
(D.J? power factor
S
7>0 volts e)citer voltage
S
C,670 amps e)citer current
'ide nswer
Question 47:
,arge power distri"ution centers are often e;uipped with capacitors to correct for lagging
(inductive) power factor of man! industrial loads. *here is never an! one value for
capacitance that will precisel! correct for the power factor, though, "ecause load
conditions constantl! change. t first it ma! seem that a varia"le capacitor would "e the
answer (ad0usta"le to compensate for any value of lagging power factor), "ut varia"le
capacitors with the ratings necessar! for power line compensation would "e prohi"itivel!
large and e)pensive.
$ne solution to this pro"lem of varia"le capacitance uses a set of electromechanical
rela!s with fi)ed2value capacitors:
.)plain how a circuit such as this provides a step2varia"le capacitance, and determine the
range of capacitance it can provide.
Reveal nswer
-apacitors ma! "e selected in com"ination to provide an!where from 0 ]: to >J ]:, in >
]: steps.
Notes:
lthough semiconductor2"ased static KR compensator circuits are now the method of
choice for modern power s!stems, this techni;ue is still valid and is eas! enough for
"eginning students to comprehend. circuit such as this is a great application of the
"inar! num"er s!stem, too=
'ide nswer