Cross Cutura Varaton n Attachment

Cross-Cutura Varaton Study - Van

I|zendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)
AIMS:
To nvestgate varatons n attachment styes between
dherent cutures, through a meta-anayss of research that had
studed attachments n other cutures. (usng other studes
resuts)
They compared ony the ndngs of studes that had used the Strange
Stuaton n order to draw concusons about the externa vadty of ths as a
measure of attachment to other popuatons (popuaton vadty) and other settngs
(ecoogca vadty).
PROCEDURES:
They used the resuts of 32 studes that had used the strange stuaton to
measure attachment.
Research from 8 dherent countres was used ncudng Western cutures
(e.g. US, Great Brtan, Germany) and non-Western cutures (e.g. |apan, Chna,
Israe).
FINDINGS:
Secure attachment was the most common type of attachment n a 8 natons.
However, sgncant dherences were found n the dstrbuton of nsecure
attachments.
Western cutures = Avodant was the domnant nsecure attachment
Non-Western cutures = Resstant was the domnant nsecure attachment
There was greater varaton wthn cutures than between cutures.
CONCLUSIONS:
The overa consstency n attachment types eads to the concuson that there
may be unversa characterstcs that underpn nfant and caregver nteractons
However, the sgncant varatons show that unversaty s mted.
The sgncant dherences queston the vadty of the Strange Stuaton.
The varatons n both between and wthn cutures may show that chd-rearng
practces vary both between and wthn cutures.
Expanatons of Attachment
Learnng Theory
Refers to behavourst attempts to expan a behavour n terms of
conditioning
Accordng to ths theory accounts of attachment formaton, through
classical conditioning babes earn to assocate ther care gvers wth
food, whch an unconditioned or priar! rein"orcer.
Caregver ony becomes rewardng through satsfyng the babys
psychoogca needs, earnng theory known as cupboard ove"
Evauaton of Learnng Theory
#ased largel! on researc$ in%ol%ing non&$uan anials' we
cannot be sure that these ndngs appy to attachment n chdren
E%en (a(! on)e!s need co"ort ore t$an "ood'
*arlo+ ,-./.0 studed earnng usng monkeys separated
newborns from ther mothers and rased them n cages on ther own, each
cage contanng a "baby banket" Babes became extremey dstressed
whenever the banket was removed for any reason Harow suggested
that attachment snt based on assocaton wth food. To test
ths hypothess:
Harow paced monkeys n cages wth two surrogate
mothers one made from wre and had a baby botte tted to
t, other made from soft cuddy coth and no botte Babes
spent most of ther tme cngng to the coth mother even
though she provded no mk Monkeys have an nnate
unearned need for contact comfort
1$ere2s ore to $uan attac$ent t$an 3cup(oard lo%e4
Sc$a5er and Eerson ,-.670 studed 60 babes every four weeks
throughout ther rst year, then agan at 18months Mothers were
asked about the babes protests n varous separaton stuatons, ncudng
beng eft aone n a room, beng eft wth a baby stter and beng put to
bed Babes were ceary attached to peope who werent nvoved n ther
physca care (father) Aso 39% of cases, the mother wasnt the babys
man attachment gure
Evoutonary Perspectve:
Bowbys Theory of Attachment
|ohn Bowby was a chd psychoanayst nterested n the reatonshp
between chd and ther caregver
He was nuenced by the evoutonary theory & beeved that attachment
was an nnate response, whch evoved and served to promote survva n
severa ways such as:
Attac$ent is innate and adapti%e:
Chdren have an nnate drve to become attached to a caregver n
order to ensure ther survva and utmatey reproducton (adaptve)
Adults respond to innate social releases:
Aduts have a drve to care for ther nfant to ensure ther survva to
ensure the contnuty of ther genes
Soca reeases ncude smng and cryng
Attac$ent "ors during a sensiti%e8critical
period:
Attachment takes pace between 6 months and 3 years
After ths tme, t becomes ncreasngy dmcut to form nfant-
caregver attachments
Attac$ent is iportant "or protection and as
a secure (ase:
Secure attachments aow nfants to become ndependent as the
caregver s a secure base that the nfant can return to f threatened
In"ants "or a priar! attac$ent (ecause
sensiti%e responsi%eness and a $ierarc$! o" ot$er
attac$ents ,onotrop!0:
Infants show bas towards one ndvdua, usuay the chds mother
Ths prmary attachment s formed wth the adut who s most
responsve
Secondary attachment gures aso hep nfants deveop soca sks
1$e internal +or)ing odel leads to t$e
continuit! $!pot$esis:
There s consstency between eary emotona experences and ater
reatonshps
Indvduas who are securey attached n nfancy contnue to be
socay and emotonay competent whereas nsecurey attached
chdren have more soca and emotona dmcutes ater n chdhood
and aduthood

Evauaton of Bowbys theory
1$e ot$er isn2t special in t$e +a! #o+l(! claied' babes and
young chdren dspay a whoe range of attachment behavours
towards varous attachment gures other than ther mothers
Multiple attac$ents are t$e nor' athough Bowby ddnt deny
that chdren form mutpe attachments, Schaher and Emersons
(1964) study showed that these are the rue
Fat$ers can (e 3ot$ers4 too' for Bowby, fathers arent of any
drect emotona mportance to the baby - ther man roe s to provde
emotona and nanca support to the mother
Bowbys materna deprvaton hypothess (MDH)
|ohn Bowby combned ths wth hs theory of onotrop! to form hs MD*
Whch s the mother-nfant attachment cannot be broken n the rst year of
fe wthout the chds emotona and nteectua deveopment beng
serousy and permanenty harmed
MD Ahectoness Psychopathy Harm Irreversbe
SUPPORT
Gold"ar( ,-.790
(Group 1) Studed 15 chdren rased n nsttutons from
about sx months unt three and a haf years of age; they
ved n amost tota soca soaton durng ther rst year
They were matched wth (Group 2) wth 15 chdren whod
gone straght from ther natura mothers to foster homes
At age three, group 1 agged behnd group 2 on measures
of abstract thnkng, soca maternty, rue-foowng and
socabty.
Between the ages 10 and 14, group 1 contnued to
perform more poory, and ther average IOs were 72 and
95 respectvey
Spit: ,-.7/; -.760
Studed chdren rased n some very poor quaty South
Amercan orphanages
Stah were over worked and untraned, and rarey taked to
the babes or pcked them up, even for feedng; they were
shown no ahecton and ddnt have any toys
The babes dspayed " anactc
depresson" ( a reacton to the oss of a
ove ob|ect )
Ths depresson ncudes fear, sadness,
weepness, wthdrawa, oss of appette,
weght oss, nabty to seep, and deveopmenta
retardaton
Spit: ,-.760
Studed 91 orphanage nfants n the USA and Canada; over
a thrd ded before ther rst brthday, despte good
nutrton and medca care
Evauaton of Bowbys MDH
Accordng to Bowby, Godfarb, Sptz and Wof, a these nsttutons had
one factor n common - namey, ack of materna care. Ths was the cruca
harmfu nuence on the chdren growng up n them.
However, MDH nterpretaton fas to do the foowng thngs:
Recognise soe o" t$e et$odological +ea)nesses o" t$ese
studies' possbe n Godfarb that Group 2 was brghter, easy gong,
socabe and heathy from eary age, ths s why they were fostered
rather than sent to an nsttuton.
Recognise t$at t$e institutions +ere e<treel! unstiulating
en%ironents "or !oung c$ildren' ack of stmuaton coud have
been responsbe for ther poor deveopment, as opposed to the
absence of materna care
Distinguis$ (et+een t$e e5ects o" depri%ation and pri%ation'
for Bowby, fathers arent of any drect emotona mportance to the
baby - ther man roe s to provde emotona and nanca support to
the mother
Dsrupton of Attachment (Ehects)
EFFEC1S OF DEPRI=A1ION8SEPARA1ION
SUPPORT OF SHORT TERM DEPRIVATION
Ro(ertson and Ro(ertson
Investgated the ehects of dsrupton of attachment
|ohn was paced n a resdenta nursery for 9 days whe hs mother
was n hospta. He was cared for by stahs that attended to hs
physca needs but were too busy to gve hm much attenton.
Found that |ohn sought comfort n a teddy bear, refused food and
drnk, cred a ot, gnored hs father when he vsted and once he
returned home, had outbursts of anger towards hs mother for many
months
Concuded that dsrupton to attachment occurs when there s
nadequate substtute emotona care and can resut n wthdrawa
and dstress
Liitation: Case study - woud be unethca to do experment,
produces rch quatatve data, ndngs cannot be generased
1*E COMPONEN1S OF DIS1RESS > #O?L#@ ,-.6.0
Protest: the mmedate reacton to separaton nvoves cryng,
screamng, kckng and generay struggng to escape, or
cngng to the mother to prevent her from eavng. Ths s an
outward, drect expresson of the chds anger, fear, btterness
and confuson
Despair: the struggng and protest are eventuay repaced by
camer behavour. The chd may seem apathetc, but st fees
a the anger and fear etc. inwardly. S/he keeps these feengs
"ocked up" and may no onger expect the mother to return. The
chd hardy reacts to other peopes ohers of comfort nstead,
s/he prefers to comfort hm/hersef, by rockng or thumb suckng
Detac$ent: f the separaton contnues, the chd begns to
respond agan - but everyone s treated ake, and rather
supercay. When reunted wth the mother, the chd may have
to "reearn" ts reatonshp wth her, possby even "re|ectng"
her as she "re|ected" hm/her
SEPARATION
Separation takes pace when the chd spends some tme
away from ther prmary attachment gure, coud be for
short or ong perods
Separation an<iet!- a onger term ehect of separaton n
whch the chd aternates between cngness and
detachment
S$ort ter separations
Protest- chd protests angry and cres when parent eaves and
mght cng onto the parent
Despair- after a whe, they appear camer but they are st upset
and are key to refuse others attempt to comfort them and are
unnterested n everythng
Detac$ent- begns to engage wth other peope agan but mght be
wary and mght re|ect caregver when they return and show sgns of
anger
Separation an<iet! long ter e5ects o" separation
E<tree clinginess- chd may cng onto parent n a
stuaton where they are eavng them so they dont have to
be separated agan e.g. droppng oh at nursery or when babystter s
comng
Detac$ent- detached from caregver and refuse to be hugged ths
s desgned to protect them from beng hurt agan f they are eft
Chd may be more demandng of ther attachment gure
?$at "actors a5ect t$e c$ild2s response to separationA
Age of chd: response to short term separaton s strongest between
12-18 months, coud be due to the understand that the attachment
gure w return
Type of attachment the chd and caregver has: a secured
attachment s more key to cope better wth short separatons as
they beef ther mother w return
Sex of the chd: boys respond more strongy to separaton than grs
Whom the chd s eft wth and quaty of care: f eft wth another
mutpe attachment gure then ehects are mnma
Experence of prevous separatons: f they had experences where
they have been separated then they are key to respond better than
nfants who havent experenced ths
FAILURE TO FORM ATTACTMENTS - Prvaton
Prvaton s key to ead to (Rutter 1981):
In$i(ited - shy and wthdrawn, unabe to cope wth most soca
stuatons
Disin$i(ited - over-frendy and attenton seekng
Is Pri%ation re%ersi(leA & *odges and 1i:ard ,-.B.0
Ai: Investgated the ehects of prvaton of attachment
Procedure: Longtudna study of 65 chdren that had been
paced n an nsttuton before the age of 4 months (had not
deveoped attachments yet). Caretakers n nsttuton were not
aowed to form attachments wth chdren
Findings: 70% of chdren not abe to care deepy for anyone,
more key to be quarresome and attenton seekng (dsnhbted
attachment). Chdren who were adopted found to have
deveoped strong attachments wth ther adoptve parents, but
both adopted and non-adopted chdren had probems wth peer
reatons
Concluded: Eary prvaton has a negatve ehect on the abty
to form reatonshps even when gven good subsequent
emotona care. Ths supports Bowbys vew that faure to form
attachments durng the senstve perod of deveopment has an
rreversbe ehect on emotona deveopment
Liitations: Cannot be sure that chdren dd not form
attachments before age of 4 months. Case study - woud be
unethca to do experment, produces rch quatatve data,
ndngs cannot be generased
FAILURE TO FORM ATTACTMENTS- Studes of Extreme
Prvaton
Genie
was ocked n a room by her father unt she was 13 because he
beeved she was mentay retarded
When she was found, she coud not stand propery, was unabe to
speak and was dsnterested n other peope
She never recovered socay
1$e C:ec$ t+ins were ocked up unt the age of 7
When they were dscovered, they were cared for by two ovng ssters
By the age of 20, they had above average ntegence and exceent
reatonshps wth members of ther foster famy

LONG TERM EFFECTS OF INSTITUTIONLISATION AND
PRIVATION
Ahectoness Psychopathy (Bowby)
Less key to have a speca frend (Hodges & Tzzard)
More key to be bued (Hodges & Tzzard)
Depresson- Loss of appette; soaton; seepessness; mpared soca
& nteectua deveopment
Deprvaton Dwarsm- physca underdeveopment due to emotona
deprvaton
Reacti%e attac$ent disorder:
A rare, but serous condton whch chdren are permanenty
damaged by ther eary experences, caused by prvaton. The
symptoms mean an nabty to gve or receve ahecton, poor soca
reatonshps, dshonesty & crmna behavour
Day Care
Da! Care Doesn2t A5ect on Eotional De%elopent
Clar)e&Ste+art ,-..70: Studed the connecton between tme spent
n day care and quaty of attachment n over 500 chdren. They found
that 15-month-od chdren who spent 30 hours or more a week n day
care from 3 months of age were no more dstressed n the Strange
Stuaton than chdren who spent ess than 10 hours a week n day care.
We can concude that attachment was not ahected by the separaton.
Roggan ,-..70: Found no bad ehects from eary day care. Usng
the Strange Stuaton he compared chdren who were cared for at home
and those who went day care before the age of one. Both groups were
equay secure and attached to ther mothers.
#els)e! and Ro%ine used the Strange Stuaton to assess
attachment type n nfants who had been recevng twenty hours or
more of day care per week before they were one years od.
They found that these chdren were more key to be nsecurey
attached compared wth chdren at home
S$ea ,-.B-0: Vdeoed 3 and 4 year od chdren n the payground
durng the rst 10 weeks at nursery, socabty ncreased over tme, t
ncreased qucker n those who attended nursery 5 days a week than
those ony attendng 2. We can concude nursery can make chdren
become more actve, outgong and payfu.
Clar)e&Ste+art ,-..70: Found that peer reatonshps were more
advanced n chdren who attended day care; they earnt how to cope n
soca settngs and how to negotate wth peers. They ooked at 150
chdren from Chcago (cutura bas) aged 2 to 3 and from varous soca
backgrounds.
E%idence 1$at Da! Care Does A5ect Peer Relations
Penne(a)er ,-.B-0: If chdren are shy then the nursery
experence can seem threatenng

Erel ,CDDD0: They ooked at the ehects of day care on sx factors
one of whch was peer reatons and t had no ehect.
NIC*D ,CDD90: In a controed famy envronment the nuence of
day care durng the rst 4 years on peer reatons was modest;
however, hgher quaty chd care was assocated wth hgher eves
of cogntve sks and anguage performance. Increased tme n non-
materna care was assocated wth ess soca abty but ony to a
sma extent.
Da! Care E5ects on Aggression
NIC*D ,CDD90: Longtudna study of 1000 chdren from a range of
backgrounds and ocatons. Chdren at age 5: the more tme the chd
spent n day care, the more aduts rated them as assertve,
dsobedent and aggressve. Chdren n fu tme day care were 3
tmes more key to show antsoca behavour than those ooked after
ther mothers. Ant soca behavour ncudes: frequent argung,
temper tantrums, yng and httng. Concuded: day care eads to hgh
eves of aggresson 83% of chdren who spent 10-30 hours n day
care dd not show hgher eves of aggresson Mother senstvty
seems to have more of an mpact than day care
=andell and Corasaniti ,-..D0: They studed 8 year od chdren
who had receved fu tme day care snce before they were one,
whch contnued unt they started schoo. They were rated by
mothers and teachers as beng more dsobedent than other chdren
O%erall E%aluation: It ooks as f young chdren who spend ots of tme n
day care have an ncreased rsk of showng physca aggresson; however,
we need to consder other factors such as probems at home that have
nothng to do wth the day care. It woud be better had the chdrens
aggresson been compared before and after tme n day care athough, ths
snt feasbe because of the young age some chdren start day care. The
dherence between aggresson and assertveness s aso mportant as an
ncrease n assertveness can be a postve thng.
Mediating Factors in Da! Care
Eualit! o" Care
NICHD study reported that ow quaty day care was assocated wth
poor soca deveopment
Howes and Hamton found that secure attachments occurred wth
ony 50% of day care stah but wth 70& of mothers
Robertson and Robertson study shows that f sutabe substtute
emotona care s provded, there may be no/few negatve ehects
Indi%idual Di5erences
Pennebaker et a found that shy chdren found day care harder to
cope wth
NICHD study found that nsecurey attached chdren found separaton
from caregver more dmcut
Egeand and Hester found that nsecurey attached chdren dd best
n day care whereas securey attached chdren became more
aggressve - ths may be due to nsecurey attached chdren needng
compensatory care and therefore benetng from day care whereas
securey attached chdren dd not need extra attenton
C$ild2s Age and Nu(er o" *ours
Two mportant varabes when consderng whether day care has good
or bad ehects and be sgncant factors because:
Age - a chd beow the age of 3 s st wthn Bowbys senstve
perod and therefore separaton may have a greater ehect
Tme - a chd who s dstressed w respond by progressvey
becomng more detached the onger they are on ther own e.g.
Robertsons |ohn
Gregg et a found that negatve ehects were more key to be found
n chdren who are paced n day care before they were 18 months
od
Carke-Stewart et a found no dherence n attachment between
chdren who spent a ot of tme n day care (>30 hours a week from
age 3 months) wth chdren who spent ess tme (<10 hours a week)
Impcatons of Research nto Attachment
Eualit! o" Da! Care
Research hgh sts that day care factes must have a number of
factors n order to provde good substtute emotona care:
Lo+ c$ild&to&sta5 ratios:
NICHD study found that ts day care stah coud provde senstve
care ony f the ratos were as ow as 3:1
Minial sta5 turno%er:
Schaher dentes that when stah come and go, chdren may
ether fa to form attachments to the stah or, f they have formed
an attachment, may suher the anxety assocated wth deprvaton
when the stah go
Sensiti%e eotional care:
The NICHD study found that 23% of nfant-care provders gve
hghy senstve nfant care, 50& of them ony moderatey
senstve care, and 20% are emotonay detached from the
nfants under ther care
EualiFed sta5:
Syva et a reported that quaty was assocated wth the
quacaton eves of the day-care stah. The hgher the
quacatons of stah, partcuary the manager of the centre, the
better the outcomes for the chdren n terms of soca
deveopment
=isiting arrangeents in $ospital:
Parents encouraged to vst to avod dsrupton of attachment
RESEARCH METHODS
Operationalise:
makng a theory nto somethng you can test.
E<periental:
manpuatng a stuaton to nd out how one factor ahects another
factor, other thngs are kept the same, whch are caed contros
Non&e<periental:
O(ser%ational tec$niGues: watch and record peopes behavor
Self Report: peope te you about themseves through ntervews or
questonnares
Case Stud!: one person or a sma group or studed ntensey
Correlational Anal!sis: 2 peces of nformaton are coected and
anayzed to see f there s a nk between them
Participant %aria(les:
Demand Characterstcs
Soca Desrabty
Cues n the envronment whch hep the partcpant work out the
hypothess of a study
Snge-bnd technque - dont et the partcpants know the am.
Doube-bnd technque - researcher does not know the am.
Order e5ects:
Practce
Boredom
Fatgue
Can ahect the partcpants performance n the next task
Practice e5ects: may deveop a strategy to mprove performance
Counter (alancing: changng the order of condtons/tasks
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Met$od Strengt$s ?ea)nesses
La( - speca envronment
where varabes can be
carefuy controed
hgh eve of contro
can be repeated
easy
can concude cause
and ehect
can ack ecoogca
vadty
hgher chance of
nvestgator/
partcpant ehects
Fed - manpuaton n a
more natura envronment
can concude cause
and ehect
hgher eves of
ecoogca vadty
reducton of
partcpant ehects
ess contro over
extraneous varabes
more tme
consumng
random aocaton
dmcut
Natural - ndependent
varabe s naturay
occurrng
us
efu where t woud be
unethca to
manpuate the
ndependent varabe
cause and ehect
cannot be
determned
no random
aocaton
hgh eves of
ecoogca vadty
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Design Strengt$s ?ea)nesses
Repeated easures
- one group, 2
condtons
partcpant
varabes
emnated
uses fewer
partcpants
order ehects
demand
characterstcs
Independent groups
- 2 groups, 2 condtons
no order ehects
reduced demand
characterstcs
partcpant
varabes
Matc$ed pairs no order ehects
contro partcpant
varabes
dmcut to match
partcpants
HYPOTHESIS
Ai: Genera statement about the purpose of an nvestgaton
*!pot$esis: a precse statement about the expected outcome of the
experment
Null $!pot$esis: no dherence/no ehect
Directional $!pot$esis: statng there w be a dherence and how
Non&directional $!pot$esis: statng there w a dherence of some
sort
Independent %aria(le: what the expermenter manpuates
Dependent %aria(le: what s measured
E<traneous %aria(les: thngs whch may ahect the outcome and
dstort the resuts
RELIBALITY AND VALIDITY
Relia(ilit!:
consstency of resuts
f a study s repcated and the resuts are smar
=alidit!:
does the study measure what t sets out to measure (face vadty)
nterna vadty free of desgn fauts
ecoogca vadty s t ke rea fe
Ethca Gudenes:
Consent: partcpants must agree to be nvoved and for ther resuts
to be used
Deception: partcpants must not be msed and nformaton must
not be wthhed
De(rieFng: partcpants must be tod about the nvestgatons
nature afterwards
?it$dra+al: partcpants have the rght to pu out at any tme
ConFdentialit!: partcpants must be tod f ther nformaton s to
be used
Protection: from physca and psychoogca harm
Pri%ac!: n observatona research
Ad%ice: ony gve advce they are quaed to gve
Colleagues: responsbty to ensure coeagues act ethcay
Researcher may communcate hs expectatons to the partcpants
through body anguage or tone of voce
Dherent nterpretatons of data
An attractve researcher may ahect responses
The presence of a researcher may ahect partcpant behavour
Researc$er (ias8E<perienter (ias
Researcher may communcate hs expectatons to the partcpants
through body anguage or tone of voce
Dherent nterpretatons of data
An attractve researcher may ahect responses
The presence of a researcher may ahect partcpant behavour
Participant e5ects8deand c$aracteristics
Partcpants may want to appear norma and therefore change ther
behavour
Partcpants may try to behave n a way whch they thnk the
researcher expects
They may, on the other hand, try to behave n an unexpected way
Sel" reports > Euestionnaires
Ouestonnares are smpy a st of questons for partcpants to answer.
They must be worded carefuy as not to ead the partcpant to answer n
a certan way
Open Guestions: aow you to respond n any way you
want
Closed Guestions: mutpe choce/a scae
Ouantatve (cosed questons)
Ease of anayss
Coect arge amount of data
Convenence
Soca desrabty
Lyng
Low response rate
Interpretaton
Sel" reports & Inter%ie+s
Face-to-face or over the phone
Structured wth predetermned questons or unstructured
They are usuay recorded and then are anaysed n depth
Ouatatve data
More key to be truthfu
Tme consumng
Intervewer ehects
Dmcut to anayse
O(ser%ational Met$ods
Descri(ing (e$a%iour o(Hecti%el!:
need to have a cear dea of what they are observng
categories of behaviour to ook out for, system of recordng
more than one observer
INTER-OBSERVER RELIABILITY
extent of agreement between observers
80%+ s a good study
Structured %s non structured:
Record everythng?
Or behavour categores and systematc sampng?
e.g. tme, event or pont sampng
Participant %s non&participant:
Is the expermenter part of the group?
Naturalistic %s controlled:
Are any varabes beng manpuated / controed?
Studyng anmas not abe to be n captvty
More natura behavour when peope unaware
Studes not abe to be set up artcay
Observer may be detected, may ahect behavour
Need for more than one observer
Dmcut to repcate
Naturalistic o(ser%ation
Good ecoogca vadty
Low demand characterstcs
Lack of contro/ extraneous varabes
Low reabty, cannot repeat
Sub|ectve
Case Studies
Detaed nvestgaton of an ndvdua or sma group, usefu when a
ongtudna study s necessary
In depth data, unkey to overook any nformaton
Used to nvestgate rare human experence
The compex nteracton of many factors can be
studed
Dmcut to generase
Expensve
Tme consumng
Retrospect s unreabe
Ethca ssues : condentaty
Correlation
Used to see f there s a nk between 2 varabes
Positi%e correlation Negati%e
correlation
I- J
strong
positi%e
&- J
strong
negati%e
Strengt$s ?ea)nesses
Can make use of exstng data Cause and ehect cannot be
determned
Sgncant correaton can
|ustfy further nvestgaton
May be extraneous varabes
ahectng resuts
Procedures can be repeated to
conrm ndngs
May ack nterna/externa
vadty
Can rue out a causa
reatonshp f no correaton
0 -
-1
0 -
1
Euantati%e and Eualitati%e data
Euantati%e
,nuerical0
Eualitati%e
,detailed0
Strengths
easer to anayse
easy summarsed
Reduces varety of
possbtes
represents compex
human experence
access thoughts and
feengs
peope free to express
themseves
Weaknesses
oversmpes human
experence
more dmcut to
detect patterns
sub|ectve, dherent
nterpretatons
Measures o" central tendenc!
Mean - the average
Mode - the most common score
Medan - the score n the mdde when put n numerca order
Measures o" dispersion
Range - the dherence between the owest and hghest score
Standard devaton - how spread out the scores are
Measure o" central
tendenc!
Strengt$s ?ea)nesses
Mean Takes a scores nto
account

Can be dstorted by
extreme scores
Medan Unahected by
extreme scores
Ony takes nto
account one or two
scores
Mode Unahected by
extreme scores
Can be ahected by a
change n one score
Measures o"
dispersion
Strengt$s ?ea)nesses
Range Easy to cacuate Easy dstorted by
extreme scores
Standard Devaton Takes a scores nto
account
Very senstve
More dmcut to
cacuate
Content Anal!sis: Anaysng communcaton between peope rather
than ther behavour drecty
Pure Eualitati%e Anal!sis: Presentng research ndngs n purey
anguage form, dentfyng recurrent themes