1

Objective: 1- To obtain the Darcy coefficient of fluid friction for the two copper pipes and a
galvanized steel pipe and to compare these values with those calculated using Haalands
formula.
2- To compare the effects of pipe roughness and cross-section on friction factor and
head loss in the piping system
3- To compare the friction factor of the copper and galvanized pipes with equal cross
section.

Apparatus:
Fluid Friction Loss Measuring System HM 122 is as described in the diagram below. The
major components involved in the experiment are:
Galvanized iron and copper pipes:
1. Copper pipe, 28 x 1mm; di=26mm
2. Copper pipe, 18 x 1mm; di=16mm
3. Steel pipe, galvanized, 1/2, di=16mm
(Measuring length of all pipes is 1.3m.)
Manometers with graduated scales
Flow meters






2

Diagram of Apparatus (Fluid Friction Loss Measuring System HM 122)





















3

I ntroduction:
Pipes are all around us. Every time we turn the faucet, we expect water to come out. We expect
there to be sufficient pressure to get the job done. A lot of experimentation went behind the
selection of pipe sizes used in various applications to ensure that what comes out is acceptable.
The pipe flow experiment provides an experimental backbone or learning how to apply
engineering equations to real world situations where fluids flow.
Theory:
In piping systems a pressure is caused by viscosity and is directly related to the wall shear
stress. This is called pipe friction loss or head loss. For horizontal pipes of constant diameter this
head loss may be measured by the height of the pressure drop. Head loss can also be expressed
using the Darcy Weisbach equation. The Darcy Weisbach equation is a theoretical equation
that predicts the frictional energy loss in a pipe based on the velocity of the fluid and the
resistance due to friction. Therefore head loss due to friction is expressed as:

The friction factor will be equal to:

Where:
d- diameter
g- acceleration due to gravity
h
f
-head loss due to gravity
L- Length of pipe under study
p- pressure
U- mean velocity of flow
- Darcy friction factor (=4f)
- density of the flowing fluid
The Darcy friction factor is usually selected from a chart known as the Moody diagram. The
Moody diagram is a set of curves that relate the friction factor to the Reynolds number of the
flowing fluid and the relative roughness if the pipe.

4

Alternatively the value of the friction factor can also be determined by using Haalands
equation which states that:

Where Re is reynolds number = and k is the typical roughness, the Reynolds number (Re)
is a dimensionless number that gives a measure of the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces
and consequently quantifies the importance of these two types of forces for given flow
conditions.
assuming that : k= 0.001 mm for Cu pipe
k= 0.1 mm for Steel galvanized pipe
v= 0.894 x 10
-6
m
2
/sec for water at 25
0
C
Procedure:
1. The flow rate was adjusted to get the desired value by using the main flow valve
upstream of the pipes. The outlet valve (located at 21 on the diagram) was opened in
order to get a reading.
2. The pressure tubes upstream and downstream of the pipe under test were connected.
3. The outlet valve was opened and the flow was adjusted to a specific starting value. The
flow rate was not allowed to exceed 3000L/min due to the limitations of the galvanized
pipe.
4. The difference in height of the manometer was recorded.
5. The procedure was repeated for four (4) different flow rates.
6. The same flow rates were used along with the same procedure for the remaining two
pipes.
7. All results were neatly tabulated .

5

Results/Analysis
Pipe Material: Galvanized Steel
Pipe Diameter (mm): 16
Length of piper for experiment (m): 1.3

Flow Meter reading
(Units=
Up stream
Manometer (cm)
Down stream Manometer (cm)

Item # Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.
1
0.6m
3
/h 0.6m
3
/h 55.6 55.4 20.5 20.3
2 500L/h 500L/h 44.9 44.7 29.4 29.2
3 400L/h 400L/h 43.7 43.5 33 32.8
4 300L/h 300L/h 43.1 42.9 34.3 34.1
5 200L/h 200L/h 42 41.8 35.1 34.9
Table 1

Pipe Material: Copper
Pipe Diameter (mm): 16
Length of piper for experiment (m): 1.3

Flow Meter reading
(Units=
Up stream
Manometer (cm)
Down stream Manometer (cm)

Item # Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.
1
2m
3
/h 2m
3
/h 54.4 54.2 22.75 22.6
2
1m
3
/h 1m
3
/h 45.4 45.3 28.15 28
3 500L/h 500L/h 42.1 42 18.5 18.4
4 400L/h 400L/h 40.5 40.4 19.8 19.7
5 300L/h 300L/h 39 38 20.7 20.6
Table 2






6

Pipe Material: Copper
Pipe Diameter (mm): 26
Length of piper for experiment (m): 1.3

Flow Meter reading
(Units=
Up stream
Manometer (cm)
Down stream Manometer (cm)

Item # Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.
1
4m
3
/h 4m
3
/h 45 44.5 25.2 24.8
2
3m
3
/h 3m
3
/h 38.7 38.2 26.6 26.4
3
2m
3
/h 2m
3
/h 33.3 33 27.8 27.6
4 500L/h 500L/h 30.2 29.9 29.8 29.6
5 250L/h 250L/h 29.6 29.4 28.2 28
Table 3

Calculated Results:
Pipe Material: Galvanized Steel
Cross Sectional Area (m
2
): 0.000201
log Re log Re
-
0.90886 14835.47 4.171301
-
1.10547 12362.89 4.09212
-1.0726 9890.315 3.99521
-
0.90762 7417.736 3.870271
-
0.66107 4945.157 3.69418
Table 4
Q
h
1

(cm)
h
2

(cm) h
f
(cm) h
f
(m) Q(m
3
/s) u (m/s) d(m) L(m) g(m
2
/s) =h
f
*2*g*d/L*u
2

0.6 55.5 20.4 35.1 0.351 0.0001667 0.82893 0.016 1.3 9.81 0.123351645
500 44.8 29.3 15.5 0.155 0.0001389 0.69078 0.016 1.3 9.81 0.078438994
400 43.6 32.9 10.7 0.107 0.0001111 0.55262 0.016 1.3 9.81 0.084606577
300 43 34.2 8.8 0.088 8.333E-05 0.41447 0.016 1.3 9.81 0.123703074
200 41.9 35 6.9 0.069 5.556E-05 0.27631 0.016 1.3 9.81 0.218237525

7







Pipe Material: Copper
Cross Sectional Area (m
2
): 0.000201

Q
h
1

(cm) h
2
(cm) h
f
(cm) h
f
(m) Q(m
3
/s) u (m/s) d(m) L(m) g(m
2
/s) =h
f
*2*g*d/L*u
2

2 54.3 22.675 31.625 0.3163 0.0005556 2.76311 0.016 1.3 9.81 0.010002553
1 45.35 28.075 17.275 0.1728 0.0002778 1.38155 0.016 1.3 9.81 0.021855381
500 42.05 18.45 23.6 0.236 0.0001389 0.69078 0.016 1.3 9.81 0.119429695
400 40.45 19.75 20.7 0.207 0.0001111 0.55262 0.016 1.3 9.81 0.163678144
300 38.5 20.65 17.85 0.1785 8.333E-05 0.41447 0.016 1.3 9.81 0.250920439
log Re log Re
-
1.99989 49451.57 4.69418
-
1.66044 24725.79 4.39315
-
0.92289 12362.89 4.09212
-
0.78601 9890.315 3.99521
-
0.60046 7417.736 3.870271

Table 5





8

Pipe Material: Copper
Cross Sectional Area (m2): 0.000530
log Re log Re
-
1.75215 60863.47 4.784357
-
1.72047 45647.61 4.659418
-
1.70926 30431.74 4.483327
-
1.69746 7607.934 3.881267
-
0.49334 3803.967 3.580237

Table 6

Sample Calculations:
Galvanized Pipe ; di=16mm = 0.016 m
Converting flow rate from m
3
/h to m
3
/s
0.63600 = 0.000167 m
3
/s
Uniform velocity of flow
U = Q/A (area/A= d
2
/4= (0.016
2
)/4 = 0.000201 m
2
)
=0.000167m
3
/s 0.000201 m
2
=0.8289 m/s


Q
h
1

(cm)
h
2

(cm) h
f
(cm) h
f
(m) Q(m
3
/s) u (m/s) d(m) L(m) g(m
2
/s) =h
f
*2*g*d/L*u
2

4 44.75 25 19.75 0.1975 0.0011111 2.09277 0.026 1.3 9.81 0.017695151
3 38.45 26.5 11.95 0.1195 0.0008333 1.56958 0.026 1.3 9.81 0.019034109
2 33.15 27.7 5.45 0.0545 0.0005556 1.04638 0.026 1.3 9.81 0.019531863
500 30.05 29.7 0.35 0.0035 0.0001389 0.2616 0.026 1.3 9.81 0.020069437
250 29.5 28.1 1.4 0.014 6.944E-05 0.1308 0.026 1.3 9.81 0.321110993

9

Head loss/ Piezometric Pressure drop
Hf = average upstream average downstream
=0.555m-0.204m = 0.351m
Calculating Friction factor experimentally
Given

Transposing for friction factor gives:

Hence = 2x 0.351m x 9.8 m
2
/s x 0.016 =0.123351645
1.3m x 0.8289
2
m/s


Calculate one Friction factor each pipe using Haalands Equation

Galvanized pipe. k = 0.0001m d= 0.016m
(Reynoldss # = = (0.8289 x 0.016)/ 0.894 x 10
-6
m2/s = 14835.5

So :

] = 5.197
=

2
= 0.03701

Copper Pipe k = 0.000001m d = 0.016m
Re = 49451.6

10

] = 6.92

=

2
= 0.02093

Copper Pipe k = 0.000001m d= 0.026m
Re = 60864.42

] = 7.08
=

2
= 0.01994

Graphs

Graph 1: Experimental Data
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
3.5 4 4.5 5
Galvanized 16mm
Copper 26mm
Copper 16mm
Experimental Data
Log vs Log Re
Log Re
L
o
g

11


Graph 2: Theoretical Data

Discussion:
In this experiment three different pipes were tested to investigate the effects that diameter
and the type of material would have on the head loss and thus the friction coefficient. During
study Darcy friction factor was acquired using two methods. The first was the Darcy- Weisbach
equation using results directly determined from the experiment and the second method was by
use of Haalands Formula. Haalands formula produces an effective approximation, usually
within a 2% error range for Reynolds number greater than 3000.
In this study the experimental data did not compare well to the theoretical data. The
theoretical data as shown in Graph 2 suggests that in turbulent flow the friction factor is
dependent mostly on the roughness of the pipe rather than the diameter of the pipe which mean
its less dependent on the Reynolds number. This is demonstrated by the plot of the 26 mm
copper pipe and the 16 mm copper pipe having almost identical plots while the 16 mm
Galvanized steel pipe produced a very different plot. This gives credibility to the fact that
because the boundary layer can be thin during turbulent flow the Darcy friction factor will
depend on the roughness.
-1.75
-1.7
-1.65
-1.6
-1.55
-1.5
-1.45
-1.4
-1.35
3.5 4 4.5 5
Galvanized Steel
16mm
Copper 16mm
Theoretical (Haaland's
Formula)
Log Re
L
o
g

12


The roughness features on the walls of the pipes wall affect the pressure drop of the fluid
flowing through it. This roughness effect can be described by flow area constriction and increase
in the wall shear stress. Therefore the smaller the cross sectional area the higher the head loss
resulting in higher pressure drops. Similarly the greater the roughness the greater the wall shear
stress also resulting in higher pressure drops.
This study proves both theoretically and experimentally that when two pipes of equal
cross sectional but different material are tested, the pipe with the large roughness will have the
higher frictional factor.
The study showed that a pipe with a small cross section and high flow rates produce more
head loss and in turn a high friction factor. This implies that the magnitude of the head loss is
also dependent on the flow rate and subsequently the flow velocity, which is found by
transposing the Continuity equation into u =

.
Sources of Error :
Constant fluctuation of fluid in manometer.
Incorrect values based on experimenter mistakes (eg.parallax) along with the fact that
different persons took values for the manometer.
The lab was not conducted in a closed environment; hence the temperature might have
not been 25
0
C.
Limitations:
The internal roughness, which affects the friction in the pipe may have been affected by
the build-up rust along with other minerals on the inside of the pipes
The constant temperature change may have affected the experiment, even though it may
negligible.
The values on the manometer scales were very small, hence making it quite hard to read
the values


13

I mprovements:
Use of new pipes and a new valve system
The fluid in the system should be flushed before conducting the experiment, ensuring that
no bubbles are present and that all equipment is up to standard.


Conclusion:
The friction factor in all cases depends upon the Reynolds number and the pipe
roughness. For laminar flow the correlation gives a steeper slope than for turbulent flow. The
relationship seen between the friction factor and the Reynolds number for turbulent flow suggest
that at large flow rates the friction factor becomes less dependent on the Reynolds number.
In experiment (Darcys equation used) the diameter along with the material used causes
large differences in the friction factor obtained, while in Haalands equation only the material
used makes a difference, as both the Copper 16mm and Copper 26mm had near identical friction
factors when using Haalands formula.
References:
Massey, B.S. Mechanics of Fluids, Eight edition 1998
Fluid Mechanics,J.F. Douglass, J.M. Gasiorek & J.A. Swaffield, Prentice Hall, Fifth
edition, 2005
Wilkes, James O. Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1999.
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/fluids/roughness.cfm
http://www.cs.cdu.edu.au/homepages/jmitroy/eng243/sect09.pdf- Osborne Reynolds
(1842-1912)
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/609625/turbulent-flow
http://www.csupomona.edu/~padashner/313/PipeFriction.pdf/HTML
ttp://www.kolumbus.fi/jukka.kiijarvi/clunowa/fluid_mechanics/pdf_articles/darcy_frictio
n_factor.pdf



14

Appendix