Topic 2.

1 Cells Theory Board Notes

TOPIC: CELLS
2.1 CELL THEORY - BOARD NOTES
BACKGROUND INFORMATION:
Charactr!"t!c" #$ L!%!&' Th!&'" (MRS GREN)
L!%!&' th!&'":
M#%
R"*!r: require E. for growth, movement etc.
rganisms can respire!
Ar#+!c r"*!rat!#&: C
"
#
12

"
$glucose% & "
2
' "C
2
& "#
2
& Energy $all cells%
A&ar#+!c r"*!rat!#&! C
"
#
12

"
$glucose% ' 2C
2
#
(
# $ethanol% & 2C
2 &
Energy $plant cells%
C
"
#
12

"
$glucose% ' 2C
)
#
"

2
$lactic acid% & Energy $animal cells%
S&"!t!%: respond to stimuli.
Gr#,: increase in c-- "!. * c-- &/0+r $cell reproduction%.
R*r#1/c: produce offspring.
2 types of reproduction!
S2/a- r*r#1/ct!#&: 2 parents required $egg & sperm are produced +y meiosis%.
A"2/a- r*r#1/ct!#&! 1 parent only $mitosis%.
E2crt: release unwanted wastes.
N/tr!t!#&: require food which provides E.
rganisms can +e classified as!
A/t#tr#*h": ma,e their own food +y photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
Htr#tr#*h": cannot ma,e their own food- eat other organisms.
O& 1$!&!t!#& #$ -!$: .an organi/ed genetic unit capa+le of meta+olism, reproduction and evolution..
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Topic 2.1 Cells Theory Board Notes
CLASSIFICATION OF LI3ING THINGS
THINGS
LI3ING THINGS (ORGANISMS) NON-LI3ING THINGS (NON-CELLULAR)
CELLS 3IRUSES
EUKARYOTE CELLS PROKARYOTE CELLS
ANIMAL 4 PLANT CELLS BACTERIA
ALL living things consist of #& #r 0#r c--".
0 c-- consists of a c5t#*-a"0 surrounded +y a 00+ra& * contains '&t!c 0atr!a-.
C--" ca& + c-a""!$!1 a":
U&!c--/-ar #r'a&!"0": consists of a "!&'- c-- which carry out all activities essential to life eg eating,
e1creting wastes, producing offspring etc%.
M/-t!c--/-ar #r'a&!"0": consists of a 0a&5 c--"6 each cell is "*c!a-!"1 2 has a particular "tr/ct/r 4
$/&ct!#&.
E/7ar5#t c--": cells which have a true nucleus * mem+rane +ound organelles eg plant * animal
cells.
Pr#7ar5#t c--": cells which do not have a true nucleus * mem+rane +ound organelles eg +acteria.
2.1.1 4 2.1.2 C-- Th#r5 4 %!1&c ,h!ch "/**#rt" th th#r5
C-- Th#r5 "tat":
a. L!%!&' #r'a&!"0" ar c#0*#"1 #$ c--".
Evidence! organisms o+served under the 0!cr#"c#* appear to +e composed of cells.
+. C--" ar th "0a--"t /&!t #$ -!$.
Evidence! a unicellular organism shows all the characteristics of -!%!&' *r#c""".
Or'a&--" (-!tt- #r'a&" !& th c5t#*-a"0) ,#r7 t#'thr for the successful function of the cell.
c. C--" c#0 $r#0 *r-2!"t!&' c--".
Evidence! cells carry out a form of cell division $mitosis or +inary fission% to form identical new cells.
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Topic 2.1 Cells Theory Board Notes
E2c*t!#&":
1. M/"c- t!""/ and many $/&'! 1# &#t ha% "*arat c--" they are 0/-t!-&/c-at1 ' have more than one
nucleus per cell.
M/"c- c--": F/&'a- C--":

2. Mat/r r1 +-##1 c--" in humans 1# &#t ha% a &/c-/".
). The 25-0 %""- $transport water % consists of 1a1 c--" .
3. The *h-#0 %""- consists of cells which have -#"t th!r &/c-/".
(. S/r$ac "7!& c--" of mammals have -#"t th!r c5t#*-a"0 a&1 &/c-/".
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Topic 2.1 Cells Theory Board Notes
2.1.8 U&!c--/-ar #r'a&!"0" carr5 #/t a-- th $/&ct!#&" #$ -!$.
U&!c--/-ar #r'a&!"0" are a+le to carry out all the processes which are characteristic of living things such as!
C--/-ar ract!#&" eg respiration.
H#0#"ta"!" ' the maintenance and regulation of internal cell conditions.
R*r#1/ct!#& 2 ase1ual eg +inary fission.
N/tr!t!#& eg a/t#tr#*h!c or htr#tr#*h!c.
E1amples of unicellular organism! Bacteria $pro,aryote% * amoe+a $eu,aryote%

2.1.9 R-at!% "!." #$ "tr/ct/r a&1 /&!c--/-ar #r'a&!"0
R-at!% S!.":
1 00 (0!--!0tr) : 1 ;;; 0 (0!cr#0tr)
1 00 : 1 ;;; ;;; &0 (&a&#0tr)
&0: &a&#0tr (1;
-<
0) 0 : 0!cr#0tr (1;
-=
0)
R-at!% "!."!
1. 4olecules $1 nm%.
2. 5lasma mem+rane thic,ness $16 nm%. Electron microscope $nm%
). 7irus $166 nm%.
3. Bacteria $1 0%. 8ight microscope $0)
(. rganelles $9 16 0%.
". Cells $9 166 0% ' generally plant cells $166 0% are larger than animal cells $(6 0%.

T#K:
0ll the +iological entities in the a+ove list are +eyond our a+ility to perceive directly. They must +e o+served through the use of technology such
as the light and electron microscope.
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Topic 2.1 Cells Theory Board Notes
Ma"/r0&t" #$ C--"
1. 0 light * electron microscope can +e used to view * measure the si/e of cells.
2. 0n electron microscope has greater resolution * magnification, than a light microscope.
:esolution is the a+ility to distinguish +etween two points.
). 4easurement of Cells using a 8ight 4icroscope!
$a% Sca&&!&' O+>ct!% L&" $31%! total magnification 3116 ; 361
<ield of vision!
=iameter ; ( mm $( 666 um%

$+% L#, P#,r O+>ct!% L&" $161%! total magnification 16 116 ;1661
<ield of vision!
=iameter 2 mm or 2 666 um
$view less of the field of vision%

$c% H!'h P#,r O+>ct!% L&" $361%! total magnification 36 116 ; 3661
<ield vision!
=iameter 6.( mm or (66 um
$view > less of the field of vision%
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5 cells each 1 000 um
2 cells each 1 000
umum um
1/2 cell shown here only
Topic 2.1 Cells Theory Board Notes
2.1.? Ca-c/-at!&' th L!&ar Ma'&!$!cat!#& #$ Dra,!&'"
Ca-c/-at!&' th -!&ar 0a'&!$!cat!#& #$ 1ra,!&'"
n an image of a specimen it is useful to show how much larger?smaller the image is than the real specimen.
This is called magnification.
T# ca-c/-at 0a'&!$!cat!#&:
1. @sing a ruler 0a"/r th "!. #$ th !0a'.
2. C#&%rt th /&!t" t# th "a0 /&!t" of measurement ' as required.

). 4agnification is calculated as follows!
Ma'&!$!cat!#& : Ma"/r1 -&'th #$ th !0a' @@. M/"t ha% +#th /&!t" th "a0A
Ma"/r1 -&'th #$ th "*c!0&
3. The act/a- -&'th #$ th !0a' can +e calculated as follows!
L&'th #$ th act/a- "*c!0& : L&'th #& th !0a'
Ma'&!$!cat!#&
(. E1ample! :ose leaf
Amage length ; 3.2cm 4agnification ; 6.B).
:eal length ; 3.2 cm ; (cm
6.B)
". Amages or diagrams often carry a "ca- +ar which is a hori/ontal
line drawn on the image.
Th "ca- +ar "h#," h#, -#&' th -!& !" !& th ra- "*c!0&.
C. E1ample! The scale +ar indicates the length of 1 cm ; 16um
The diameter of nucleus measures 1.( cm
DDDDDDD therefore its real length ; 1( um.


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Topic 2.1 Cells Theory Board Notes
2.1.= S/r$ac ara: 3#-/0 rat!#" a" a $act#r -!0!t!&' c-- "!.:
Cells are 0!cr#"c#*!c. EhyF
1.6 cm 2.6 cm ).6 cm
Calculations!
Gurface area ; length 1 width 1 " $cm
2
%
7olume ; length 1 width 1 +readth $cm
)
%
8ength $cm% G0 $cm
2
% 7olume $cm
)
% G0! 7olume ratio
1 " 1 " ! 1
2 23 B 23 ! B ) ! 1
) (3 2C (3 ! 2C 2 ! 1
Conclusion
0s the "!. #$ a "tr/ct/r 1cra" the "/r$ac ara t# %#-/0 rat!# !&cra"".
Therefore the rat #$ 2cha&' $diffusion?radiation% !&cra"".
This is true for #r'a&--", c--", t!""/", #r'a&" and #r'a&!"0".
The rate of e1change of su+stances therefore 1*&1" #& th #r'a&!"0B" "/r$ac ara that !" !&
c#&tact ,!th th "/rr#/&1!&'".
0s organisms get +igger their volume and surface area +oth get +igger, +ut not +y the same amount.
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Topic 2.1 Cells Theory Board Notes
B!#-#'!ca- C#&"C/&c":
8arge organisms the rate of e1change with their surroundings occurs more slowly.
8o1odonta africana $0frican elephant%.
0ccording to the calculations a+ove the elephant should have a small surface are to volume ratio in comparison to
smaller animals.
#eat e1change ought to +e quite slow which would +e a pro+lem for an animal living in a warm region.
The elephant has evolved large ears to increase the surface area for heat e1change allowing the elephant to
remain cool.
Gmall organisms have the opposite pro+lem of a rapid rate of e1change with the environment.
Gore1 minutus $pygmy shrew%
Gi/e: 0ppro1imately "6mms from tip of nose to +ase of tail. The tail is around 36mms long. 4ass! 3 grams.
This shrew looses +ody heat so fast that it consumes food at a furious rate simply to produce heat from
respiration. A understand that this particular species needs to eat every two hours to stay alive.
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Topic 2.1 Cells Theory Board Notes
2.1.D M/-t!c--/-ar #r'a&!"0" "h#, 0r'&t *r#*rt!"
Gylla+us! HEmergent properties arise from the interaction of the component parts- the whole is greater than the
sum of the partsH.
BI 1$!& -!$ a"....a ,h#- that th!" *r-"/**#"1 +5 a-- !t" *art"B S. C#-r!1'
Gystems +iologists attempt to put together the parts that ma,e up a system and then o+serve the properties of
that HemergeH from the system +ut which could not have predicted from the parts themselves.

T#K:
The concept of emergent properties has many implications in Biology. Ehat are theyF
8ife itself can +e viewed as an emergent property, and therefore one can discuss the differences of living and
non' living things and the pro+lems a+out defining death in medical decisions.
Bac,ground Anformation!
0s a model consider the electric light +ul+. The +ul+ is the system and is composed of a filament made of
tungsten, a metal cup, and a glass container. Ee can study the parts individually how they function and the
properties they posses. These would +e the properties of tungsten, the properties of the metal cup and the
properties of the glass container. Ehen studied individually they do not allow the prediction of the properties of
the light +ul+. nly when we com+ine them to form the +ul+ can these properties +e determined. There is
nothing supernatural a+out the emergent properties rather it is simply the com+ination of the parts that results
in new properties +eing shown.
Biological systems need a different approached, population thin,ing, which ac,nowledges the role of variation in a
population. Consequently the deterministic laws and theories of the physical sciences do not apply to all aspects
of +iological systems. The IpartsJ of the living system vary on +oth a phenotypic level and at the level of the
genetic program. This is an important feature of the +iological system $compared to the non'living% that it is not
Kust affected +y the physiochemical laws +ut also +y a genetic program.
Theory reduction is the concept that theories and laws in one science field are simply special cases of theories
which are to +e found in the physical sciences.
Emergence is the occurrence of une1pected characteristics or properties in a comple1 system. These properties
emerge from the interaction of the IpartsJ of the system. :emem+er that +iology insists on a population thin,ing
so that we ,now the interacting IpartsJ vary in themselves and therefore their IemergingJ properties can only +e
generalised. ne of the classic e1amples cited is to thin, of the emergent properties of water $fluidity% that
cannot +e predicted from ,nowledge of the constituent gases hydrogen and o1ygen. n a +iological scale consider
the current de+ate a+out the nature of human consciousness or the origin of life itself.
1
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th
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2
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Topic 2.1 Cells Theory Board Notes
2.1.G M/-t!c--/-ar #r'a&!"0" a&1 "*c!a-!"1 c-- $/&ct!#&
C-- 1!$$r&t!at!#& is the process where /&"*c!a-!.1 c--" develop a "*c!a-!.1 "tr/ct/r 4 $/&ct!#&.
ALL cells of an organism contain the "a0 genetic information, only certain genes are activated to produce
specialised cells.
Th 1!a'ra0 +-#, !--/"trat" h#, th 1!$$r&t c-- t5*" 1%-#* !& th h/0a& +#15:
ADULT FEMALE (9=) ADULT MALE (9=)
M!#"!" ($#r0at!#& #$ 'a0t") M!#"!"
EGG (28 Ha*-#!1 C--) SPERM (28 Ha*-#!1 C--)
Frt!-!"at!#& (/&!#& #$ '' a&1 "*r0 &/c-!)
HYGOTE (9= D!*-#!1 C--)
M!t#"!" (!1&t!ca- c--" ar *r#1/c1)
EMBRYO (A +a-- #$ c--")
C-- D!$$r&t!at!#&
Crta!& '&" !& th c-- ar act!%at1 a&1 crta!& '&" ar 1c#11 t# 1tr0!& th charactr!"t!c" #$
th c--. Th '&" 1c#11 %ar5 $r#0 c-- t5* t# c-- t5*.
NER3E CELLS CONNECTI3E EG BLOOD CELLS EPITHELIAL CELLS MUSCLE CELLS

Communication $electrical impulses% Transport
2
8ine organs, s,in 2 protection Contraction '
movement
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Topic 2.1 Cells Theory Board Notes
H!rarch!ca- "tr/ct/r ,!th!& 0/-t!c--/-ar #r'a&!"0"
C--: Basic +uilding +loc, for all organisms.
3 types of cells! muscle, nerve, epithelial * connective cells
T!""/": Mroup of similar cells with the same structure and function.
3 types of tissues!
4uscle 2 movement $contraction%
Nerve 2 communication $electrical impulses%
Epithelial 2 protection $lining organs, s,in%
Connective 2 various types 2 red +lood cells 2 transport
2
.
Or'a&": Mroup of tissues that wor, together to perform an overall function.
Eg heart 2 pumps +lood around the +ody- lungs 2 e1changes
2
with C
2
.
Or'a& "5"t0"! Mroups of organs within an organism that together carry out a process.
Eg Cardiovascular system! heart, +lood vessels, +lood.
The diagram +elow illustrates the different cells, tissues, organs and organs systems!
2.1.< St0 c--"
St0 c--" retain the ca*ac!t5 t# 1!%!1 and ha% th a+!-!t5 t# 1!$$r&t!at along different pathways.

0 "t0 c-- !" a+- t# 1!%!1 +ut has &#t 5t 2*r""1 '&" to specialise to a particular function.
U&1r th r!'ht c#&1!t!#&" "t0 c--" ca& + !&1/c1 t# 2*r"" *art!c/-ar '&" and 1!$$r&t!at
into a specialised cell.
St0 c--" ca& + #+ta!&1 from 0+r5#" I +-a"t#c5t OR *-ac&ta.
A1/-t" "t!-- *#"""" "t0 c--" in some organs +ut much less than a child.
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Topic 2.1 Cells Theory Board Notes
2.1.1; Thra*/t!c /" #$ "t0 c--"

Therapeutic use of stem cells is an area of rapid development.
St0 C--" ca& + /"1 !& th $#--#,!&' tch&#-#'!":
1. E0+r5#&!c St0 c-- thra*5
An some treatments of cancers patients requires heavy doses of radiation and or chemotherapy.
This often destroys healthy +lood tissue as well as the diseased tissue.
#ealthy stem cells or marrow cells are often transplanted $sometimes donated from the patient +efore
treatment% +ac, to produce healthy +lood cells again.
2. Thra*/t!c c-#&!&'
An this process the nucleus of the patientHs cell is removed and retained and transferred to the
enucleated cell +ody.
The cells are then stimulated to divide forming a clone ' a +lastocyst.
The inner cell mass are called totipotent ' cells are capa+le of +eing stimulated to +ecome one of
any
type of cell.
Cells are stimulated using differentiation factors to +ecome the type of cell required for therapy.
Cells are then transferred to the patient.
Note! these cells have the same immune system identity as the patient therefore there is not immune
reKection pro+lem.
I&tr&at!#&a-!"0
Gtem cell research has depended on the wor, of teams of scientists in many countries who share results and so
speed up the rate of progress. #owever, ethical concerns a+out the procedures have led to restrictions on
research in some countries. National governments are influenced +y local, cultural and religious traditions, which
vary greatly and these therefore have an impact on the wor, of scientists.
T#K
Assues!
1. Therapeutic cloning has many ris,s ' some stem cells develop into tumours ' should therapeutic cloning
still +e allowed to continueF
2. Ghould the scientific community convey information a+out its wor, to the wider community so that
informed decisions a+out research can +e madeF
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