Crna15696enc 001

European Commission
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Limit loads of pipe elbows
M. Save,
1
R. J. Jospin,
2
Nguyen-Dang Hung
2
'Facult Polytechnique
Rue du Joncquois
B-7000 Mons
"Universit de Lige
Rue Ernest Solvay 21
B-4000 Lige
Contract No RA1.0134
Final report
This work was performed for the European Commission
under the Working Group 'Codes and standards'
Activity Group 2: 'Structural analysis'
Directorates-General
Science, Research and Development
and
Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection
1995 EUR 15696 EN
Published by the
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Directorate-General XIII
Telecommunications, Information Market and Exploitation of Research
L-2920 Luxembourg
LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of
the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of the
following information
Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1995
ISBN 92-826-9914-5
ECSC-EC-EAEC, Brussels Luxembourg, 1995
Printed in Spain
Summary
It was requested to produce limit loads of elbows subjected to loads normal to the
plane of the axis.
This was achieved for six typical geometries relevant to LMFBR, for a statically
determinate pipe system made of two orthogonal straight circular tubes and a 90 elbow,
loaded at one end by a concentrated (out-of-plane) moment and built-in at the other end.
The COSMOS 7 computer code was used, with elastic-perfectly plastic finite
elements. Limit values were obtained from load-deflection curves. They appear to be of
approximately from 40 to 50% of the fully plastic twisting moment of the cross-section
which gives in this case the limit load with the BERNOULLI beam theory.
Warping and ovalization of the elbow are thus responsible for 50 to 60% of loss of
carrying capacity. Geometrical non-linearity proved to be negligible. Hence, direct limit
analysis by mathematical programming was performed for three geometries, with a specially
adapted beam finite element. Reduction in computer time obtained by this method is
important (approximatively 5 to 1). Some problems of accuracy however remain and should
be investigated before practical use of this computer code.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY
TABLE OF CONTENTS V
LIST OF FIGURES IN TEXT VII
1. DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM 1
2. SOLUTION METHODS 2
2.1 Introduction 2
2.2 Step by step elastic perfectly plastic approach 3
2.2.1 Introduction 3
2.2.2 Benchmark problem 3
2.2.3 Analysis of pipe elbows 3
2.2.3.1 Case of in-plane bending 3
2.2.3.2 Case of out-of-plane shear load 6
2.2.3.3 Problems relevant to sodium cooled nuclear reactor 9
2.3 Mathematical programming approach limit loads of elbows 27
2.3.1 Summary 27
2.3.2 Kinematic finite element of elbows 27
2.3.3 Solution procedure 28
3. COMPARISON OF THE RESULTS OF BOTH APPROACHES-
CONCLUSIONS 29
REFERENCES 31
Appendix 1 33
Appendix 2 35
"LIMIT ANALYSIS OF ELBOWS USING THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
AND MATHEMATICAL PROGRAMMING" 37
V
LIST OF FIGURES IN TEXT
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Results of the elasto-plastic limit load analysis of cylinder subjected to shear
load, 4
Piping structure: geometry, material properties and finite element idealization, 5
Moment-rotation and moment-vertical displacement plots for in-plane bending
of elbow, 7
Load-displacement plot for out-of-plane shear load of elbow DN 400, 8
Model of elbow structure, 10
Elbow # 1 , 11
Elbow # 1 , 12
Elbow #2, 13
Elbow #3, 14
Elbow #4, 15
16
Quarter part of the free-end section, 18
Elbow DN 250, 19
Elbow DN 300, 20
Elbow DN 350, 21
Elbow DN 400, 22
Elbow DN 650, 23
Elbow DN 700, 24
25
26
VII
1 : Definition of the problem.
This work is concerned with the production of limit loads of pipe elbows, the
geometries of which are encountered in sodium cooled nuclear reactors.
In general, the end crosssection of a pipe elbow may be subjected to six generalised
stresses, namely an axial force, two orthogonal shearing forces, two orthogonal bending
moments and a torque. Moreover, the internal pressure induces meridional and circumfe
rential membrane stresses. Even when we decide to consider only failure due to unrestricted
plastic flow (plastic collapse mechanism), neglecting all other phenomena, and accept the
perfectlyplastic model for the material behaviour (with adequately evaluated yield limit),
the problem is quite complicated. As it is well known, the annular crosssections of such an
elbow do not remain plane and unaltered in shape but on the contrary are subjected to
warping and ovalization. Hence, the classical simple beam theory will prove inadequate and
overoptimistic, and may be used only as a very simple rough reference. Also, kinematic
boundary conditions at the end of the elbow are not easily defined. Finally, complete
plastification of the most stresses crosssection or of a narrow region of an elbow will not
necessarily result in collapse of the whole piping structure.
As a first step in the study of the limit loads of elbows, we shall hence consider a
statically determinate pipe system made of two orthogonal straight circular pipes connected
by a 90 elbow. Because the effects of loads acting in the plane of the axis of the elbow are
fairly well known, it was decided to consider loads normal to this plane.
Let us first consider a concentrated force F
x
. If we denote by h
x
and l^ the lengths of
the straight tubes connected to the elbow, assuming that we have builtin conditions at the
end of the first and freeend conditions for the second where the concentrated force is
acting, this statically determinated beam is subjected to the following internal forces and
moments (see fig. 1)
free straight part : linear horizontal bending moment M
z
varying from zero at the
free end to l^ F
x
and constant shear force F
x
builtin straight part : linear bending moment My, from RF
X
at the end of the elbow
to (R + Li) F
x
at the builtin end constant torque (1^ + R) F
x
constant shear force F
x
curved (90) elbow : bending moment M = (1^ cos + R sin ) F
x
torque
M
z
= L2 sin + R (1 cos )~| F
x
constant shear force F
x
.
Within the frame of the beamtheory of rigid perfectly plastic solids, we see that the
builtin end is always the most loaded crosssection and, hence, the limit load F^ corre
sponds to full plastification of this section. We note that both length L
1
and L influence
Fi, one by the bending moment and the other by the torque. Despite of the special behaviour
of'the elbow (warping and ovalization of crosssections) it is thus very unlikely [1] that
collapse of the pipe system will be determined by the strength of the elbow but by that of
the fixedend region. This will be further discussed in Section 2.
Fig. 1
From the discussion above, it was decided to load the pipe structure with a concentrate
bending moment M acting at the freeend in the plane normal to that of the axis of the
system. The freeend section will be assumed to remain plane and annular but allowed to
displace and rotate freely. The other end section will be considered as fully fixed (builtin
section).
2 : Solution methods.
2.1 : Introduction.
The socalled "limit load" (or collapse load) is the value of the load parameter
corresponding to the end of the restricted plastic flow and to the initiation of the unrestric
ted plastic flow (collapse mechanism). Obviously, the study of the (step by step) evolution
of the perfectly plastic structure will give this value. It is the ordinate of a loaddeflection
(P, ) diagram (for a point which is influenced by the collapse mechanism) where the slope
<9P
rF vanishes. Neglecting the postlimit changes of geometry would make this slope to remain
parallel to the axis. Actually, these large displacements will produce either strengthening
or weakening of the structure. If elasticplastic deflection remain small, equilibrium at the
limit load can be expressed in the undeformed geometry. In this case, the fundamental
theorems of limit analysis ([2], [3]) applied in the undeformed geometry give directly the
limit load, within the frame of the structural theory used (beam, shell or continuum). It is
well known that the limit load evaluation of a structure which is discrete or discretized in
finite elements is a mathematical programming problem [4].
2 -
The study at hand will thus be tackled in two manners :
- step by step evolution, up to unrestricted plastic flow, with an immediately available
computer code (COSMOS 7), either with or without taking elastic-plastic changes of
geometry into account
- direct limit load evaluation by mathematical programming, using an especially
constructed elastic-plastic finite element.
Comparison of the results obtained and the efficiencies of the computer codes will
enable to orientate further work.
2.2 : Step by step elastic-perfectly plastic approach.
2.2.1 : Introduction.
The general purpose finite element program COSMOS 7 [5] was used for computation
performed on VAX 11/785 at the Facult Polytechnique of Mons. The analytical model was
formulated for the elastic, perfectly plastic model of material, small and/or large displace-
ments and consisted of COSMOS general multilayer shell element, which are 8 and 9 noded
isoparametric curvilinear side elements. These elements can be used for thin or thick
(including the effect of shear deformation) shell problems. They are 3D finite elements
with the only constraint of a vanishing principal stress in the direction of the normal to the
mid-surface of the shell. The structure being homogeneous, only one layer was used. Five
active degrees of freedom were used to each node, these are three displacement compo-
nents and two in-surface rotation components. A uniform reduce integration rule was
employed with 2x2 Gauss points on the lamina and 4 points over the thickness.
2.2.2 : Benchmark problem.
Before carrying out the main analysis, the code validation exercise (Benchmark
problem) was undertaken which investigated the elasto-plastic behaviour of the thin
cylinder subjected to shear load. Results of this analysis are well documented in [6]. The
load was applied on the upper flange and was normal to the cylinder axis.
The results of the analysis and FE mesh (by symmetry only half the cylinder was
modelled) are shown in fig. 2. It should be pointed out that instead of a piecewise linear
representation of the stress-strain curve allowed in ABAQUS, in COSMOS bilinear ela-
stic-perfectly plastic form was used. Accounting for this difference we can say that results
obtained with COSMOS are in good agreement with those obtained using ABAQUS. The
applied model had 1865 degrees of freedom. The CPU run-time involved in this exercise
was about 10 hours.
2.2.3 : Analysis of pipe elbows.
2.23.1 : Case of in-plane bending.
3-

:

>
CO
c
(
SMALL M P E S F C r i O N IO . t l
ELASTIC PLASTI C
MSH 6 IS
3 0 SMALL ANO U a G t O I S =>L AC MENTS
ABAQU5
COSMOS
EXPERI MENTAL
LAOGf IMPERFECTION COt )
ELASTIC PLASTI C
MESH J 12
LAf l GE DI S PL ACEMENT S
Mesh 6x18
0.5 I.O I--5
Tr ansver se Di s pl ac ement St ( mm)
Fig. 2 Results of the elastoplastic limit load analysis of
cylinder subjected to shear load
Geomet r y

L
,
r
t
h
M
E

- 0.370"
- 72.53-
- 7.808"
- 0.410"
- Rt /r
2
- 0.16 1.
terral ProoertuM
28. 1 1 0
s
pi i
J5. 1 k u

3CW SS a
0.25
' 2
L
2
D
R
1 9 . M
R.T
. 2
" 0. 369
24. 00
0 . 0 .
24. 00
R/f
16. 02S"
3.07
1
J
L
J
l
1
"1
1
1
1
1
1
!
1
I
~ *
:
1
|
1
-
L-
1
!
\
, _
- j
:' " " " (
_
" i
Fig. 3 Piping structure: geometry, material properties and
finite element idealization
As a first step, and for the sake of comparison with known solved problems, the elbow
structure subjected to an in-plane closing bending moment was analysed first. The details
of the elbow geometries (thickness and length of pipes) and material properties are shown
in fig. 3. This figure shows also a finite element idealization of a geometrically symmetric
pipe bend. The mesh size selection was based upon elastic and inelastic convergence studies
performed by Dhalla [7]. Two types of elements were used in the analysis : 8 and 9 noded
elements. 9 noded elements are recommended in cases when bending takes a leading part
(8 noded elements are too stiff). The model represented in fig. 3 corresponds to 8x20
discretization and has 2685 and 3485 d.o.f. respectively to the element used. One end of the
elbow is fixed and the other end is subjected to an in-plane bending moment. The circular
section at both the loaded-end and the fixed end is assumed to remain plane and circular
before and after loading (no ovalization ). The nonlinear analysis included shell deforma-
tion modes such as warping and continuous ovalization along the length of the elbow.
The results of the analysis are shown in fig. 4, where the moment-deformation curves
are plotted for both types of elements. The rotation was selected because it is conjugate to
the applied moment and the vertical displacement was chosen because it is the largest
deformation component of the structure. The comparison between two types of elements
shows that the differences in limit loads obtained are very small and both elements can be
applied to the problem considered. The effects of including geometric nonlinearities in the
analysis are also shown in fig. 4. It is seen that for the case of an in-plane bending the plastic
buckling occurs much before the limit load. In both cases, with and without geometric
nonlinear effects, the mode of failure consists of an ovalization of the pipe structure. The
ovalization is a maximum at the central cross-section of the elbow.
The CUP run-time for these examples was about 16 hours.
2.2.3.2 : Case of out-of-plane shear load.
The same elbow structure was next subjected to an out-of-plane shear load at the free
end of the model. The free end of the elbow is constrained against any rotation and kept to
remain plane and circular before and after loading.
The model shown in fig. 5 corresponds to 16x20 discretization of 8 noded elements
and has 4960 d.o.f.. The result of the analysis are shown in fig. 5 also, where the shear force
F
x
versus displacements U
x
curve is plotted. This example was also calculated with the large
displacements taken into account and exactly the same curve was obtained. This indicates
that the computed limit load is entirely determined by the nonlinear material behaviour
and that changes of geometry prior to collapse are negligible. The structure reached the
limit load due to the yielding zones developed near the fixed end and at the central part of
the elbow.
- 6 -
120.0 -
M (kNm)
100.0
50.0 -
6C.0
40.0
Geometrie nonlinear effects included
8 nodes elts.
9 nodes elts.
2G.0 1
Theta (deg)
! ;
0.0
I ! i I I I I I I I I , I I | ! . ! ! .
10.0 15.0 20.0
120.0 ,
(kNm)
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
Geometric nonlinear effects included
8 nodes elts.
9 nodes elts.
/1000 (m)
0. 0 ' , I I I ; | : i | \ : : ;
100.0 200.0 300.0
Fig. 4 Momentrotation and momentvertical displacement
plots for inplane bending of elbow
~
ir
\
's
...--
"""" -
""- -
-
"
1
I
4_
-
-
-
"->
.- "
""""
I
.e
. . : '
.- ::^y<
.-;:.'-' .."'"%,-"* ..-'''
.--:S'-C"" -'" '' "" -V"'
...-- -''"-"' >"' .--'"\ .--"' (-'
.,^-C"' ....--""'" ..."' ...'""' ...-'^
1
"'
..>^>< .--""' '.'" .-'V .-"^'
' TO$^$<^^/ 3<5^
\rX '} /' "Vi"Y\-""''"'^""-5
::i
^
"""-'s-."J ' ' ." .'- - - ~~'
r ' "-^'---.' '"'- ~^
S
Z^
:
'''
3 = " ^
1 .
-'-.
. . V' _."}
. ' " " * ' . : " " "
. " . . . < > "
Fx (kN)
400.0
300.0
200.0 -
100.0 -
0.0
Ux (mm)
0.0
i' 1 ! I ~~1 I """ ~ r ~ i 1 I ! ~J ! I
40.0 80.0 120.0
Fig. 5 Load-displacement plot for out-of-plane shear load of
elbow DN400
2.23.3 : Problems relevant to sodium cooled nuclear reactor.
The following table gives the geometries of typical elbows used in sodium-cooled
nuclear reactors.
DN, nominal diameter
(mm)
250
300
350
400
650
700
Exact external diameter Do and
thickness
(mm)
273.0 x 6.3
323.9 x 7.0
355.6 8.0
406.4 8.8
600.4x10.0
711.0x11.0
Elbow radii R
(mm)
381.0
457.0
533.5
609.5
990.5
1067.0
These are 90 elbows, with same thickness as the straight parts.
A : Elbows with nominal diameters 250, 300, 400 and 700 were studied under
"out-of-plane" shear force at the free end.
The results are given here under : the limit loads are obtained on the base of
load-deflection curves (fig. 6 to 11). The remark on the influence of the lengths of the
straight parts, made in section 1, is verified by these applications.
Mo of ^ ^
=
^ 2
Mo of dimu = 220
-N*
. / .:'
_.-_1
-.-" _.r-
' . V ""
';' i " ^
'
-\' ." ".:
r l 6
S&i
ZV

f
,"
I
3
--
s
rt

t
9
:,L
.s''
L-2.
R btwt 5
U - UH^TW erf ^vrt itiÛt
L
t
- il^fk of " ^
5 - r U'WW'IY of f' i"
The forci i i oppUe^ < S6f .ode
U +Vii di'ridi'Ou. Of X >i
S,
The loaded . of CLhOtjr
is conslicuncL a_<xu'v\St lOioJii^C
(
?
3(
Og) and. Ttfiucu'ns
U^di'sioriecL no Oval?cii^)
_ The u^loQ.ded. S^d t s jixeeC
(ho KOLOU. t ail)
Fig. 6
MubrMO0r ^cti Ih. tXtûa^.'
ELEMENT No i :
1 i S t A3 2 5^ SO 3 3
1 .
Fig. 6
Model of elbow st ruct ure
10
Fx (kN)
150.0 -
125.0
100.0
TD

O 75. 0
50.0
25.0 -
0.0
ELBOW #1 ( o u t -o f -p l a n e shear l oad)
DN 250 (Do=273)
L1 = 1400, ' L2 = 400
n J '
1
' ' " I M M | M , , , , , . , , . | , , ,

1
00 20.0 0.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
Di spl acement
Ux (mm)

70.0
Fig. 7 Elbow #1
Fx (kN)
150.0 -
125.0 -
100.0 -
"
O 75.0 -
50.0 -
25.0 -
0.0
Fiz = 0
Fiz 0
/
/
/ ELBOW #1 ( out - of - pl a ne shear load)
DN250 (Do = 273 mmi
L'I = 1400 mm L2 = 400 mm
/ ,
/ /
/
/
/
/
'I
LI (mm)
i n n " " o n
1
r -r
1
^'" "| . ...,, . , , , MM
M
, , , , ,

0 1 0
0
20.0 0.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0
Di spl acement
Fig. 8 Elbow #1
Fx (kN)
200.0
175.0 '-_
150.0 '-_
125.0
:
"O
2 100.0 -
75.0
:
50.0
:
25.0
:
0.0 -'
/
/
y
/
ELBOW #2 ( o u t -o f -p l a n e shear l oad)
DN300 (Dc = 323.9 mm')
L1 = 1500 mm L2 = 500 mm
- . I I ! | | | | | |
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 "
C i 3 c e e n t
U (mm)
80.0 100.0
Fig. 9 Elbow #2
Fx (kN)
300.0
U
O
O
200.0
100.0 -
0.0
ELBOW #o i .Out -of -pl ane shear l oad)
DM400 Do = 406.4mm')
LI =1800 mm. L2=6 00 mm
uri m )
! f ' i I I 1 I I 1 I I I I I I I I I j
30.0 100.0
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0
Di spl acement
Fig. 10 Elbow #3
Fx (kN)
600.0 -,
500.0 -
400.0 -
"
g 300.0
200.0 -
100.0 -
0.0
ELBOW # ^( o u t -o f -p l a n e shear l oad)
DN700 (Do=711 mm)
L1=3500 mm, L2 = 1 100 mm
Ux (mm)
1
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' l ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' i i i i i i | |
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0
Di spl acement
Fig. 11 Elbow #4
O
Fig. 12
: Limit "out-of plane applied moment".
An external coupleM" is applied to the free end of the structure studied (fig. 12). The
free-end straight part is thus subjected to constant bending moment M, the built-in straight
part to constant torque of same value, and the elbow to combined bending and torsion.
The F.E. model used is the same as for applied "out-of-plane" shear force, except for
the fact that L^ = L2 = L for all models, and that the common value L was chosen on the
following basis : as short as possible (to reduce the size of the model) but long enought to
allow for extention of warping and ovalization from the elbow into the straight part, despite
of the presence of a built-in end and of the assumption that the free-end section remains
plane and undeformed.
The result of the computation on a VAX 6200 for the six given geometries are given
hereafter. Only material non-linearity is taken into account. The fact that geometrical
non-linearity due to elastic-plastic deformation is negligible was pointed out for the shear
load case and was verified under applied "out-of-plane" moment for the DN 300.
16
DN
250
300
350
400
650
700
R
(mm)
381
457
533.5
609.5
990.5
1067
r
(mm)
133.35
158.4
173.8
198.8
325.2
350
L
1 =
L
2
(mm)
600
700
700
600
1000
1000
e
(mm)
6.3
7.1
8
8.8
10
11
M
Nm
(N.m)
61.558
93.978
cpu = 2h50 (*)
130.250
cpu = 3h30 (*)
181.535
460.347
cpu = 4h12
578.622
M
l i m /
M
l i m, t orsi on
50.5
48.5
49.53
47.96
40
40.07
(*) CPU on VAX 6200
R = radius of curvature of the axis of the elbow
D
o -
e
r = mean radius of the cross-section
L
x
= L2 = length of straight parts
e = thickness of the tubes
M
Hm
=
^
mi t
applied moment obtained by the step-by-step approach (no geometrical
non-linearity taken into account)
In the free-end section of the model, concentrated loads are applied (in the OY)
direction ) to form a reference applied moment, as shown below. The solution process gives
the scalar multiplier of the couple at the collapse state, which is defined by a vanishing
(smaller than 1%) slope of the load-deflection curve. Due to the symmetry the reference
applied moment is given by (see fig. 13)
8
M
rf
= 4 x r 2 Fjsin (11.25 i)
i=0
with F
0
= 0, F
1
= 1, F
2
= 2 , ...,F
7
= 7 and F
8
= 4
We obtain
M
rf
= r 104,08687
- 17-
For the sake of comparison, the limit value of the applied moment given by the beam
theory was computed. Due to the type of variation of bending and torsion in the elbow and
the shape of the yield condition, (see appendix), this limit value is simply that of the fully
plastic twisting moment of the cross-section. We have
M
lim,torsion =
2 j r r 2 e r
o >
where r
Q
= -S= if we use the Huber-Mises yield condition.
2
Taking a
Q
= 300 N/mm , we obtain
Mn
m
,torsion= 1^08828 r
2
e .
In the last column of the preceding table the ratio Mj
m
/ Mj
m t o r s
o n
shows the very
important reduction of limit loads due to warping and ovalization. Clearly, the beam theory
is highly overoptimistic.
The curves from which the Mj
m
values have been obtained are given hereafter (fig.
14 to 19). The displacement is that of node 769 (in mm) in the direction of the OX axis.
Plastic zones are shown in fig. 20 and 21, for the case of the DN 300 elbow, at 80% of
the limit load. Red regions correspond to full plasticity of the elements (all 16 integration
points at the yield limit).
Fig'. 13 Quarter part of the free-end section
- 18
80000
60000
40000
20000
I ) : !
100 150 200 250 300 350
U(mm)
Fig 14 Elbow DN 2 5 0
100000
o
80000
- 60000
40000
20000
120
U(mm)
Fig. 15 Elbow DN 300
160 200
M
160000
120000
80000
40000
o-.. I I I j r I i 1 t 1 I i I I I I 1 I
0 50 100
I M M I ! ! ! I I I M I I M M I M M I )
150 200
U(mm)
Fig. 16 Elbow DM 3 5 0
250 300
200000
150000

:
100000
50000
0 f I I I I I I I I t
0 100
I I I i I I i I I
200 300
U(mm)
Fig. 17 Elbow D 4 0 0
l i l i l T T
400 500

500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
7
ir
0 f ' ' ' ' ' ' ' I I j M I I I M ! r M I I I I 1 I ] ! r
100 200 300
! M I I I ! ! M I M I M I
-
400 500 600
U(mm)
Fig. 18 Elbow DN 6 5 0
600000
ro
-*
.400000
200000
100 200 300
U(mm)
Fig. 19 Elbow DN 7 0 0
400 500
** riRiLse **
TO
.8+8
5 t d
> c
2.51 5.61 7.51
SffiSO iiinaitmwiMiwHiiiBmi|' a n B
1
'
1.5-1 3.75-1 &.25-01 8.75-1
1 . +
LOAD ORSE : 1
STRESS COMP: 9
ftDPO ST
DTE:
TIME:
24 5EP 98
14: 34: 54
PLOT LIMIT::
1.584E+02
1.584E+82
1.584E+02
1.157+3
.+
1.315+3
AXES
ROT. AXE5: 9.6+1
DIR : 2 1 1
UIEM D i a : 1.+29
SERUICE DE RDM
I.M.fi
Rut lu JoKiC0|Ui
7 MONS
* * MA 11.300 * *
ro

TO'
)
JU
c. . <
0.00+0 2.50-1 5.
'.JUiaitiUiSIHBBRK
t
1.251 3. 750E01
000E01 7. 5001
1.+
6.251 5801
LOAD CASE : 1
STRESS COUP: 9
ftDPO ST
DATE: 245EP9
TIME: 14:53:87
PLOT LIM I T
1.584+2
1.584E+02
1.584E+02
1 . 157E+03
.+
1.315+03
ft XE S
RD T. AXES: 9.0+1
UIEM DIR : 2 1 1
JIEW D15: 1.0+20
SERUICE DE RDM
I . M . A
Ru* <Ju Jo : quo i
78 M0N5
2.3 : Mathematical programming approach to limit loads of elbows.
2.3.1 : Summary.
The kinematic theorem of limit analysis is used, which gives an upper bound to the
limit load. Under the condition of normalized power of applied loads, the load parameter
is given by the total dissipation associated with the collapse mechanism. The kinematic
variables discribing the collapse mechanism must thus be so chosen as to minimize the
associated dissipation. When the structure is discretized, this process is a mathematical
programming problem.
For the structure under consideration, the finite element of the displacement type
developed for elbows by BATHE and ALMEIDA [8] and later improved by MILITIELLO
and HUESPE [9] is used. This is a special beamelement that includes warping and
ovalization.
The mathematical programming solver used is MINOS. Because it uses the gradient
of the objective function, troubles occur when this function happens to be nondifferentia
ble. It is the case for the dissipation function when the strain rate vanishes, as noted by
CASCIARO and CASINI [10]. This difficulty was overcome by a special regularization
process of the dissipation function suggested by DE SAXCE [11]. The yield criterion
adopted is that of HUBERLEVYMISES.
2.3.2 : Kinematic finite element of elbow.
This element was constructed ([8], [9]) in order to reduce the number of degrees of
freedom (d.o.f.) with respect to shell elements and correspondingly reduce the computation
time.
Referring to fig. 20, the geometry of the element is discribed with cartesian coordinates
Xg and vectors V
r
, V^ , v\ which follow the coordinate system r,s,t connected to the
nodes k equally spaced along the axis of the elbow, in the following manner :
4 4
X (r,s,t) = L
k
(r) x\ + t a
k
L
k
(r) X
k = l
&
k = l
where L
k
are the LAGRANGE interpolation functions defined in appendix, a
k
mean
radii of the annular crosssection at points k and X = (r,s,t) the local coordinate system
connected to the axis of the pipe.
The velocity field v
c
of the midsurface of the pipe is formed by superposition of a
velocity field v
b
of a beam satisfying the BERNOULLI assumption of plane sections
remaining plane and normal to the deformed axis and a velocity field v = v
1
, v
2
, v
3
allowing
for ovalization and warping of the crosssection.
- 27
c b ,
= +
Satisfaction of the BERNOULLI assumption for is obtained by
v
h
= l I *( r ) vf + 2 a
k
L
k
( r ) V
k
+
5
a
k
L
k
( r ) V
k
k=l k=l k=l
where V
k
= O
k
V
k
; V
k
= O
k
V
k
, O
k
is a vector representing the rotation of
k
section k with respect to the global coordinate system, and V are the velocities of node k
in the directions of the system X = (,,).
The velocity field allowing for ovalization and warping is developed in FOURIER
serie with respect to the circumferential coordinate as follows :
4
Vj = u =
k=l
Np Np
(u^)
k
l
k
(r) cos m ( i 4)
k
l
k
(r) sin m
m=2 m=2
2
N
P
v
2
= = { ( < H
k
(r) + (4(

) (r)} sin m
k=l m=2
N
p
+ { (v^)
k
H
k
(r) + [ (v
r
f
m
]
k
h
k
(r) } cos m ]
V-2 = W =
m=2
av
S " - " 5
where
r
= , H
k
,h
k
are the HERM11E interpolation functions of order 3 defined
in appendix, u
m
s
, v
m
s
, u
m
a
, v
m
a
are the symmetric and antisymmetric components of
harmonic m. Equation v
3
= w = expresses the inextensibility of the midsurface.
It can be noted that the FOURIER serie begins at m = 2 because terms for m = 0 and
m = 1 are given by the velocities associated with the BERNOULLI hypothesis.
2.3.3 : Solution procedure.
The computer code MINOS is a nonlinear mathematical programming solver which
uses the derivatives of the objective function in its minimiaztion process. If the collapse
mechanism contains rigid regions, as very frequently, the dissipation vanishes but its
derivatives are not defined. Indeed, the specific dissipation, with the MISES criterion, is
proportional to the square root of the sum of the squares of the principal strain rates.
- 2 8 -
It is thus necessary to regularize the dissipation function. The procedure chosen is the
following :
The set of kinematic variables that are the generalized velocities, manipulated by the
programme, are regarded as displacements, from which strains can be computed. The strain
intensity, derived from the MISES stress-intensity by the use of HOOKE's law, is evaluated
and compared to its maximum elastic value. Where it is smaller or equal, an elastic strain
energy is evaluated. Where it is larger, the strain is split into its elastic part and its plastic
part, and an elasto-plasic strain energy is computed. Both energies are integrated over the
structure, furnishing to total elasto-plastic strain energy, as a function of the field of the
total strain. This total elasto-plastic strain energy is then regarded as an approximation of
the total dissipation power of the collapse mechanism described by the field of total
displacements when the latter recover their nature of velocities associated to purely plastic
deformation. The strain energy is accordingly subjected to the minimiaztion process and
the minimum value is taken as the limit value of the load parameter.
This approximation is justified by the fact that, if we let YOUNG's modulus E tend
to infinity, all elastic deformations vanish and the total deformation in every point is either
zero or completely plastic, and the corresponding total strain energy coincides with the
dissipation power when regarding strains as strain rates.
Obviously, the approximation will give acceptable results only for sufficiently high
values of E. Unfortunately, it turns out that very high values of E can give rise to convergency
problems of the code MINOS. Hence, an appropriate choice of E must be done. This was
done by appropriate tests of variation of the total strain-energy when E is varied. The
structure was divided in 3 elements, one for each straight part and one for the elbow. The
number of harmonics in the FOURIER development was 3 and the number of integration
points was 3 12 1. It is seen in table hereafter that the economy in computing time is not
payed very much by an increase of the upper bound limit load except for DN 700 where it
is much more important.
3 : Comparison of the results of both approaches
- Conclusions-.
The results of both the step-by-step approach (sbs) and the mathematical program-
ming approach (mp) are summarized in table hereafter.
29
DN
250
300
350
400
650
700
M
m
(Nm)
sbs
61558
93978
130250
181535
460347
587622
CPU
(min)
170
210
252
M
m
( mpl )
(Nmm)
6 .72x10
4
2.20 x 1 0
5
8.10 x 1 0
5
CPU
(min)
660
660
1200
M
l i m
(mp2)
(Nmm)
6 .70x10
4
2.32 10
5
9.30 x 10
5
CPU
(min)
28
41
56
M
m
(sbs) /
lim.torsion
(%)
50.5
48.5
49.53
47.96
40
40.70
The influence of warping and ovalization of the cross-sections of the elbow is very
important as seen on column 8.
On the other hand, the (sbs) approach which included the elastic-plastic change of
geometry (geometrical non linearities) gave no substantial decrease of the limit load.
Hence, only material non-linearity is needed in this particular loading case.
It is seen that (mp) values of the limit load for DN 250 and DN 400 elbows are quite
close to those of the (sbs), and slightly higher as should be expected from the very nature
of the method. The computer time of the (mp) approach is much smaller when (3x12x1)
d.o.f. are used, even if the difference between the VAX 3600 and the VAX 6200 are not
taken into account.
Detailed information on plastic zones given by the (sbs) approach for the DN 250
elbow are consistent with the collapse mechanisms found in (mp).
We can conclude that the (mp) computer code TUYAU is a very interesting substitute
to a general code as COSMOS 7 when only the collapse load and the collapse mechanism
are required.
On the example of DN 700 elbow, we see that some caution must be exercised in
choosing the number of d.o.f. with the code TUYAU. Obviously, a test must be made after
each result, to verify that increasing the number of d.o.f. does not significantly modify the
limit load. This is especially necessary due to the fact that the code furnishes an upper bound
to the limit load.
Finally, we observe on table above that, the limit value of the "out-of-plane" applied
couple can be acceptably estimated to 50% of the fully plastic twisting moment of the
cross-section, for DN 250 to 400 included and to 40% for DN 650 and DN 700.
30-
References
[1] H. HUBEL, Letter of Oct. 31, 1989,
J.P. DEBAENE, Letter of Nov. 15,1989.
[2] D.C. DRUCKER, W. PRAGER and H.J. GREENBERG, Extended limit design
theorems for continuous media, Quart. Appi. Math, 9, 381, 1952.
[3] M. SAVE and Ch. MASSONNET, Plastic analysis and design of plates, shells and
disks, North-Holland Pub., 1972.
[4] M. SAVE, G. DE SAXCE and A BORKOWSKI, Computation of shake-down
loads : feasibility study, Final report, contract RA1-0100-B
[5] COSMOS7, User's manual, Structural research and analysis corporation, 1983.
[6] BENCHMARK, study of shear buckling of a cylindrical vessel, part 2, EUR 11800,
Commission of the European Communities, Nuclear Science and Technology.
[7] A.K. DHALLA, Collapse characteristic of thin elbow : validation of an analytical
procedure, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Transactions of the ASME,
vol. 109, 394-401, 1987.
[8] K.J. BATHE and C.A. ALMEIDA, A simple and effective pipe elbow element, Li-
near analysis, Journ. Appi. Mech., vol. 47, 93-100, March 1982.
K.J. BATHE and C.A. ALMEIDA, A simple and effective pipe elbow element,
Inter- action effects, Journ. Appi. Mech., vol. 49, 165-171, March 1982.
[9] C. MILITIELLO and A.E. HUESPE, Displacement based pipe elbow element,
Computer & Structure, vol. 29, n2, 339-343, 1988.
[10] R. CASCIARO and L. CASCINI, A mixed formulation and mixed finite elements
for limit analysis, Int. Journ. Num. Meth. in Eng., vol. 18, 211-243, 1982.
[11] G. DE SAXCE, Rsolution du problme elastoplastique incrmental par l-
ments finis et programation mathmatique, Rapport de recherche, Universit
de Technologie de Compigne, mai 1989.
31
Appendix 1
The fully plastic bending moment of a thin tube is
M
bp = "of [de
+
d
e
d + df
(1)
where a
Q
is the yield stress in tension, e the thickness, d
e
and d the external and
internal diameters respectively.
On the other hand, the fully plastic torque of the same section is
M
tp
= .2
2
,
where r is the mean radius. Because d
e
= 2r + e and dj = 2re, relation (1) becomes
1
Compar i ng ( 12r
2
+e
2
) = 4r
2
+ and ^5r
2
< 4 r
2
, we conclude that
M. > M
t
. The interaction yield curve for combined bending and torsion is
/ \
2
M
bp,
+
M
t
M.
tp
(3)
= 1
which is an ellispe with half axes M
b
and M
t
in the (M
b
, M
t
) space.
On the other hand, in any crosssection of the elbow of angle a with respect to the
section in pure bending, we have
M
b
= M cos a, M
t
= M sin a,
where M is the external applied couple.
2 2 2
Hence, in any section M
b
+ M
t
= M (4), equation of a circle, which, for M large
enough, will thouch the ellipse (3) at the point on the smaller axis, that is at point
M
t
= M
tp
, M
b
= 0, for a = 90.
- 3 3 -
APPENDIX 2.
The following appendix is the complete report of the mathematical programming
approach to the given problem, including its own internal appendices
Limit Analysis of Elbows
using the Finite Element Method
and Mathematical Programming
by
Reinaldo Jacques JO SPIN NGUYENDANG Hung
Ph.D. Researcher Associate Professor
LTASFracture Mechanics
University of Liege, Belgium
ÊS\
December 1990 Report MR01/90
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary 41
Symbols 43
1. Introduction 45
2. Levy-Mises kinematic variational principle of displacement velocity of the
material 46
3. Compatible finite pipe element 47
3.1 Isoparametric representation of elbow geometry 47
3.2 Approximation of the displacement field 48
4. Discretization into finite elements 49
5. Mathematical programming 51
6. Numerical results 53
7. Conclusions 64
8. Acknowledgements 64
9. Annexes 65
9.1 Annex A: Elastic-plastic kinematic formulation 65
9.2 Annex B: Lagrange and Hermite isoparametric transformation inter-
polation functions 72
9.3 Annex C: Rotation matrices connected to local and global axis systems ... 73
9.4 Annex D: Definitions of infinitesimal strains of shells 74
9.4 Annex E: The strain-displacement relationship 80
9.6 Annex F: Non-dimensional variables 85
10. Bibliography 87
39
SUMMARY
It was requested to produce limit loads of elbows subjected to loads normal to the
plane of the axis.
determinate pipe system made of two orthogonal straight circular tubes and a 90 elbow,
loaded at one end by a concentrated (out-of-plane) moment and built-in at the other end.
The COSMOS 7 computer code was used, with elastic-perfectly plastic finite
elements. Limit values were obtained from load-deflection curves. They appear to be of
approximately from 40 to 50% of the fully plastic twisting moment of the cross-section
which gives in this case the limit load with the BERNOULLI beam theory.
Warping and ovalization of the elbow are thus responsible for 50 to 60% of loss of
carrying capacity. Geometrical non-linearity proved to be negligible. Hence, direct limit
analysis by mathematical programming was performed for three geometries, with a specially
adapted beam finite element. Reduction in computer time obtained by this method is
important (approximatively 5 to 1). Some problems of accuracy however remain and should
be investigated before practical use of this computer code.
-41 -
SYMBOLS
Geometry :
= (,,) : global axis system.
X^ = (r,t) : axis system connected to the elbow axis.
= (,,) : axis system connected to the elbow surface.
= (,>>,) : rotations of the section along the global axes X.
: circumferential coordinate on the pipe section.
: axial coordinate along the pipe.
a : radius of the straight pipe section.
h : shell thickness.
R : radius of the elbow axis.
Interpolation functions:
Lk : Lagrange interpolation function.
hk : Hermite interpolation function.
Hk : Hermite interpolation function.
Displacements:
u = (u,v,w) : displacements.
u : beam displacement.
u : displacement.
q : generalized displacements.
Forces:
: surface tractions on the contour.
B : volume forces.
g : generalized forces.
Strain :
E : strain tensor.
E
p
: plastic strain tensor.
E
e
: elastic strain tensor.
e : strain deviation tensor.
43
e,n ' spherical component of strains.
/2(e) : second invariant of strain deviator.
E : strains in vector form.
Stress :
: stress tensor.
: stress tensor in vector form.
s : stress deviation tensor.
s
m
' hydrostatic component of stresses.
Work and energy:
If : rate of plastic dissipation.
W^ : plastic dissipation over volume V.
U : energy density of elastic-plastic strain.
: elastic-plastic strain energy.
Material coefficients:
: Hooke's tensor.
E : Young's modulus.
: Poisson coefficient.
Plasticity characreristics:
F, f : plasticity field functions in terms of stresses.
G, g : plasticity field functions in terms of strain rates.
Op : stress elastic limit of material.
e
p
: strain elastic limit rate of material.
kv : shear elastic limit of material.
- 44
1. INTRODUCTION
Many applications such as nuclear reactor installations, offshore structures, petroche-
mical industry installations, etc., require curved or straight pipe structures which can be
subjected to loadings of all kinds and which often operate in plastic conditions.
There are several recent studies on the subject by Boyle [12], Spence [16], Chan, Boyle
and Spence [8], Anderson, Gardner and Hodgkins [22], Mackenzie [23], and Hodgkins [24],
mainly on creep behaviour. Of particular note is the work by Spence, taken up by Calladine
[17], to obtain, from Norton's law for 3 < n < 9, a solution for the limit analysis in the case
of an elbow subject to a moment applied to the ends.
Also of relevance is worked by Bushneil [10], Shaw and Kyriakides [6], and Corona
and Kyriakides [5] on inelastic analysis of cylindrical tubes subjected to cyclic moments,
and that of Watanabe and Ohtsubo [7] on simplified visco-plastic analysis methods.
None of this work uses the direct method, namely using mathematical programming
as a basic tool for solving the non-linear problem. The aim of this work is in fact to obtain
upper bounds for the load multiplier corresponding to the failure of the structure, using a
direct method by discretization into finite elements. As regards the general formulation,
we adopt the one proposed by Nguyen Dang Hung [14, 15]. We show below that direct
calculation offers a considerable time saving in comparison with the conventional step-by-
step method which is more often found in the literature [18].
The finite elbow element used is a displacement model initially proposed by Bathe
and Almeida [2,3], later improved by Militiello and Huespe [1]. This element takes account
of the ovalization and warping of the straight section.
The major numerical difficulty caused by the fact, noted by Casciaro and Cascini [19],
that plastic dissipation cannot be differentiated, is overcame by regularizing the operation
in accordance with a mathematical artifice proposed by de Saxce [4]. It consists of taking a
fictitious elastic-plastic material having a Young's modulus tending towards infinity such
that the fictitious plastic strain energy tends towards the plastic dissipation of the rigid
perfectly plastic material.
As for the criterion of plasticity, that of von Mises is used, calculated at the points
located in the thickness of the shell.
The results are compared with those obtained by Daguerre [18] using a three-dimen-
sional analysis with step-by-step resolution.
45
2.LEVY-MISES KINEMATIC VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLE OF DISPLACEMENT
VELOCITY OF THE MATERIAL
Consider a deformable solid of volume Kand contour subject to surface tractions!
in Tt. Loads b are applied in the volume.
To obtain the upper load bounds of the structure, we use the Markov variational
principle applicable to the rigid perfectly plastic material:
Of the kinematically admissible and incompressible velocity fields u, the tme velocity
field corresponding to the limit state makes the following functional minimal:
() =
v
DP{t) dV a( J^B. dV ^ t u dV
t
)
( 2 1 )
where lf(fL) is the rate of plastic dissipation of the solid.
Providing the loading (b~ ,T) is proportional, the velocity imposed on the contour u is
uniform (u = 0 over T
u
.) and the power of the external loads positive, the theorem of upper
bounds follows naturally and is stated in the following terms:
The exact load multiplier is the smallest of the set of multipliers a corresponding to the
set of kinematically admissible velocity fields u:
ai = min at; at = Vfi/W
2
(2.2)
with W? =
v
lf(E?)dV We = f
K
b. dV + J"
r
?. dVt > 0
(B,T) = a(b
0
, ?) etD(E) = (, E)
1 / 2
The plastic strain function to be minimized (2.2) cannot be differentiated at every
point, especially those where the plastic strain rates are zero (E? = 0).
To regularize this function we use the procedure proposed by de Saxce [4], as briefly
described for our purposes in Annex A. It involves the use of a fictitious elasticplastic
material and then making the Young's modulus tend towards infinity, replacing the plastic
dissipation in the upper bound theorem by the corresponding fictitious elasticplastic strain
energy density. At the limit, this gives the rigid perfectlyplastic conditions.
Under these conditions our problem can be expressed in the form:
46
+
The exact load multiplier is the smallest of the set of multipliers corresponding to the
set of kinematically admissible displacement fields u when E tends to infinity:
. + + W(E)
ai = min ai , ai = ;
We
withW(E) = S
v
U(E)dV
(2.3)
and U(E) = U(e
m
, e) = 3ye/
2
+ 2/2(e)
Vi

2/2(e)
1/2
e
p
where = 0 if
= lif
2/2(e)
1/2
e
p
2/2(e)
x/2
e
p
<0.
>0. (A.35)
^
=
72>
3. COMPATIBLE FINITE PIPE ELEMENT
Here we use the element developed earlier by Bathe [2,3] and subsequently improved
by Militiello [1]. This element allows the use of fewer degrees of freedom, an essential
factor in reducing the computation time in nonlinear mathematical programming.
3.1 Isoparametric representation of elbow geometry:
The elbow geometry is represented approximately using Cartesian coordinates
and unit vectors (V?, V?, ), defining the coordinate system X^ = (r,t), linked to the
nodes k by the relation:
4 4 4
XvV,0 = L*(r)X* + aicLkirfvf + s2 akLk(.r)^
k=l k = l k = l (3.1)
where Lk are the Lagrange interpolation functions defined in Annex B, ak the radii of the
straight pipe section at points k and X^ = (r,t) the local coordinate system connected to
the pipe axis (see figure 3.1).
47
- ^
Figure 3.1: Elbow geometry and axis systems.
3.2 Approximation of the displacement field
The displacement field u of the elbow surface is composed of a displacement field
u due to the velocity field of a beam satisfying the Bernoulli hypothesis, plus a displacement
field u
c
= (u
c
,v
c
,w
c
) which takes account of the ovalization and distortion of the straight
section.
b , c
u = u + u (3.2)
The Bernoulli hypothesis can be verified by means of the displacement field u using
the relation:
u
b
= Lk(f)V
k
+ akLk(r)(
k
x V )
k=l k = l k = l (3.3)
withv = * M ;V? = * x V
and where is a vector representing the rotation of the section k about the global axes
and U the displacements of the nodes k in the directions of axis system X = (,,).
The displacement field u
c
representing the ovalization and distortion of the straight
section is developed around the circumferential direction by a Fourier series of the type:
4 N( N
g
u
c
= [ (un) Lk(r)cosn<p + () Lk(r)cosn<p ],
k=l n2 7i=2 (3.4)
2 N
p
C V r V r/ S\k, . 5 i * i
M,
S\k, .sJc,
v
c
= [ [{vnfHkir) + [(v^fA*(r)]cosp + [(vnfL
k
(r) + [(Vf)?ifhk(r)]sinn<p]
k=l i = l m=l (3.5)
48-
with n = 2m and vr = ,
dr
c
w
+ wh
dv
c
3
dw
c
with: vvu = [(wo) Hk(r) + (w
r
)bhk(r) ], w,
r
*=i
d r
(3.6)
where , /zfc are the third-order Hermite interpolation functions defined in Annex B.
Moreover, u
n
, v
s
n
, uf
t
, vfi aie the symmetrical and antisymmetrical parts of thedisplace-
ment components of the harmonic n. Note that equation (3.6) expresses the hypothesis of
the inextensibility of the mid-surface.
As can be seen, the Fourier series begins with harmonics = 2 since the terms 0 and
1 are accounted for by the displacements of the beam, assuming that the section remains
plane.
4. DISCRETIZATION INTO FINITE ELEMENTS
Basing on the hypothesis of infinitesimal strain, the strain tensor E can be considered
as the resultat of the strains due respectively to the displacement fields u and u :
E = E
b
+ E
c
(4.1)
To obtain the strain rates in axis system X we use the following relations:
[V
X
.n
b
] = [V
X
.X
o
] [Vx .u
b
] (4.2)
Ex
Z7
= [Vx.u
&
] (4.3)
where [V
x
.u
b
],y = ^L, [V
x
.X]
iy
= ^ and
dXf
dX
J
.bi 1
[Vx.u
]=i[[Vx.u
fe
]4[v5.u
b
]]
( 4 4 )
Strains defined in axis system = (,,) are obtained using rotation matrices T and
with the relation:
E
b
=
(xO
T
)r
Ex
fc
T
0
T
y ^
49
and where and are as defined in Annex C.
The infinitesimal strains E
c
due to the displacements u
c
are obtained using the
relations presented by Novozhilov [25]:
E
c
= \ [L(u
c
) + L
r
(u
c
)] + [K(u
c
) + K
r
(u
c
)]
(4.6)
where L(u
c
) and K(u
c
) are as defined in Annex D and the coordinate normal to the
midsurface of the shell. Its limits of variation are: < < .
The straindisplacement relation can be expressed in matrix form as:
= E
C
+ e
b
(4.7)
= Bk
k=l
6
=
k=l
where k is the chosen points on the mean line of the elbow. All these quantities are detailed
in Annex E.
If q is the global displacement, the problem of the upper bounds in discretized form
can be presented as follows:
+ + W(E)
ai = mm a , a = .
We
(4.8)
with
and where
We = g' q = 1
W(q) = S
V
2/2(q) dV if 272(e)
1
* ep <0.
W(q) = S
V
(2J
2
(q)f
2
epe} dV if 272(e)
1
* e
p >0.
- 50
and
g= fN
T
bdV+ ; N
7
? C7 T
v v
are generalized forces.
5. MATHEMATICAL PROGRAMMING (Minos version 5.1)
To solve problem (4.8) we use the Minos calculation software developed by the
University of Stanford [13] which is designed to solve general optimization problems in the
form:

min F(x) + c + d y
with the conditions:
x,y (5.1)
/(x) + Ai y=bi (5.2)
A2X + A
3
y = b2 (5.3)
1 <
(5.4)
where c, d, bi, b2, Ii and u are vectors, Ai, A2 and A3 are matrices of constants, the m
non-linear variables, y the n2 linear variables, F(x) a continuous, differentiable scalar
function, and f(x) a function vector also continuous and differentiable. Ideally, the first
derivatives of the functions F(x) andf(x) should be well defined by the user.
The mi equations (5.2) are called the non-linear equalities while the m2 equations
(5.3) are the linear equalities.
Thenumberofvariablesisn = m + n2 and the number of stresses is m = mi + m2.
The upper and lower limit for the stresses can also be defined in the form:
I l </ ( x) +Ai y<ui (5.6)
I2 < A2X + A3y < U2 (5.7)
Problem (4.8) is a special case in which the objective function is non-linear:

F(x) = W(q) = 0 and the restrictions are linear: A2X = g q = 1.
51
Since the mathematical programming software is numerically very sensitive, conver
gence problems could arise unless we work in nondimensional variables. Moreover, the
user manual expressly recommends this. This is why in the Tuyau program developed for
this study we use two reference units: length L and the generalized forces go given
previously (see Annex F) so that any geometric data has Lo as a reference and any
mechanical data has go as a reference. This being the case, the dimensions of the problem
have no influence on the convergence of the solution.
Using as a basis the theorem of upper bounds in the form (2.2), the first derivatives
of F(x) may be indefinite close to the nondeformed state since the gradient G(x) of F(x)
is given by:
>T
G(q) *^&kdV
V
2/2(q)
1/2
1
-
with Up as defined in Annex A. It then appears that at the points at which the strain rate
is zero (Ji(q) = 0) the vector of the gradient is indeed indeterminate. Under these
conditions one can expect convergence problems with the Minos software. This is one of
the main difficulties with kinematic formulation which has to be overcome.
It can be done using the theorem of upper bounds in the form (2.3) where the gradient
G(x) given by the relations (A.35) is correctly defined whatever the strain rate.
To adapt to the data structure required by the Minos software we have to generate
the following tables before any resolution process:
G ( 0 ^ = nWh
7
<
1
I
ifcCO = y*fBL
c
(.)
*
/
/
"()
,S'CO
0
- 1
1
C(.) =

= 1
Figure 5.1: Arrangement of data and variables by the Minos software
where the hatched area is reserved for gradient G(q) in order to save memory.
- 5 2 -
6. NUMERICAL RESULTS
The drawback always happen for the problem (2.3) is that the fictitious Young
modulus E (figure 6.1) must be chosen beforhard. The use of too large Young's modulus
with lead to a poor convergence of the optimization software. On the other hand, this
situation is closer to the rigid perfectly plastic case. Conversely, too small a modulus does
not cause convergence problems but a good solution is unlikely since it will be too far from
the perfectly plastic case.
Df(E)
1.4
=100
viscoplastic dissipation
Figure 6.1: Regularization of plastic dissipation
To illustrate the difficulties described above we examine a series of numerical tests
of the calculation of the limit load of an elbow fitted with rigid flanges at the ends and
subjected to an in-plane bending moment (figure 6.2).
//////////////,
Figure 6.2: Elbow geometry and modelling
53-
Figure 6.3 shows that varying the limit load calculated by the Tuyau program on the
basis of the Young's modulus in the range 2.1x10 E 2.1x10 tends towards zero when the
rate of strain energy calculated at the initial step tends towards a stable value.
Vari at i on of pl asti c moment and el asti cpl asti c energy
IN FUNCTIO N O F LO G(E)
PLASTIC MO MENT
ENERGY
Figure 6.3>:Variation of initial elasticplastic energy and limit load in function of Young's
modulus.
To avoid having to carry out these tests for each new problem, we have adopted a
method which consists of using an interactive process to calculate the variation in the strain
energy rate as a function of the Young's modulus at the start of each optimization process.
The method can be summarized as below:
Ef
l
= l
E?
l+i
= E?
l
xlO
+ 1
AU
_ U{
l+l
)U{
l
)
U(
l+l
)
AU < tol * E =
l
EP=
i +l
Once a suitable modulus has been obtained the number of integration points must
be decided. This choice is most important for limiting the computation time and for the
accuracy of the results. Indeed, it is clear that the greater the number of integration points,
the longer the calculation takes. It is also true that too few integration points could fail
accurately to represent the continuous medium and so give an unreliable numerical
solution. Moreover, the type of loading and shell thickness can influence this choice.
Indeed, in-plane loadings require fewer points than out-of-plane loadings. In the case of
thicker shells, more points are needed in the thickness of the shell.
The first numerical example is the elbow described in figure 6.2 for which Spence [16]
and Calladine [17] have given an approximate solution for the limit load:
M
p
= 19\
26
Rh
where = y is the form factor of the pipe: 0.1<A<0.5.
a
Table 6.1 gives the results obtained by the Tuyau program using two elements, three
symmetrical harmonics for the Fourier series and a variable number of integration points.
It also gives the results of the tests on the limit conditions: with and without rigid flanges
at the ends of the elbow.
-55
Table 6.l:Comparv>on of plastic limit loads of an elbow subject to in/plane bending
Calladine
Tuyau
Nature of
solution:
lower
bound
upper
bound
Number
of integral
points:
Number
of l -
ment:
Number
of sym-
t r i e har-
monics:
Analytical solution
(3, 8, 3)
(3, 12, 3)
(3, 12, 3)
(3, 12, 3)
2
2
2
3
0
1
3
3
Mip
235.923
206.271
206.598
M*p
442.798
382.626
381.752
360.046
M;
245.000
440.318
256.566
Legends:
M\
p
: with rigid flange at both ends (E = l.xl05)
M\
p
: no rigid flanges at ends (E = l.xl05)
M\p : Moment Limite avec des prolongations droites chaque extrmit.
These results show that increasing the number of integration points does not always
make a great difference to the limit load. This applies mainly in the case of thin shells
characterized by the ratios h/a and a/R. This example does indeed concern a thin shell: h/a
= 0.067 and a/R = 0.15.
Similarly, if another thin shell is used (h/a = 0.04 and a/r = 0.36) but with an
out-of-plane moment we still observe, in table 6.2, that the deviations are not large enough
to justify the use of a large number of integration points which make for a fairly time-consu-
ming calculation.
-56
Table 6.2:Comparison of limit loads on an elbow subject to out of plane bending
n
s
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
n
a
1
1
1
3
3
3
1
1
1
3
3
3
pn
(3, 8, 1)
(3, 8, 2)
(3, 8, 3)
(3, 8, 1)
(3, 8, 2)
(3, 8, 3)
(3, 12, 1)
(3,12,2)
(3,12,3)
(3, 12, 1)
(3, 12, 2)
(3,12,3)
a
+
6.424
6.976
6.651
2.453
6.203
6.011
6.677
7.131
6.865
5.849
6.788
6.387
CPU (min)
4
8
11
22
22
34
6
10
12
12
20
80
E (fict.)
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
210
210
210
Key:
ns : number of symmetrical harmonics,
na : number of antisymmetrical harmonics,
pn : number of integration points.
CPU : time on a VAX-3600 computer.
- 57-
In the light of these numerical tests it can now be stated that for two elements and
three harmonics, with 3x12x1 integration points (1 point in the direction of the thickness)
a good upper bound is obtained after only four minutes of computer time on a VAX-3600
(table 6.1).
We shall see that a judicious choice here considerably reduces the computing time
while offering a reliable solution to practical problems.
Table 6.4 gives the results of the numerical tests and the comparison of the limit load
calculation obtained using the Tuyau program (direct calculation) and using Cosmos7
(step-by-step calculation) obtained by Daguerre [18]. This author uses a three-dimensional
shell element and an incremental resolution method with the advantage of being able to
monitor the evolution of plastification and geometrical non-linearity over time.
The examples in question are assemblies of straight and curved pipes (figure 6.4).
The various geometric dimensions DN are given in table 6.3.
Y//////////////,
.w
Figure 6.4: Geometry and modelling of a piping system
- 5 8 -
Table 6.3: Pipe geometry
DN
250
400
700
2a h (mmx mm)
273 6.3
406.4 8.8
711x11
R (mm)
381
609.5
1067
Li (mm)
600
600
1000
Li (mm)
600
600
1000
As regards the fixings it is assumed that the end sections, one loaded and the other
fixed, remain plane and circular before and after loading (u = = w = 0, / 0).
Examining table 6.4 it is possible to compare the values of the limit moment obtained
by the sets of integration points (3,12,3) and only three finite elements (one for each pipe
section).
Table 6.4: Comparison of plastic limit moments - out-of-plane loading
Geometry
DN-250*
DN-250
DN-400
DN-700
Mtp (Nxm)
1.138X10
5
0.708 xl O
5
2.283 xl O
5
8.372X10
5
CPU
(min)
11
66
66
120
Mpi
+
(Nxm)
0.615X10
5
1.815X10
5
5.876 xl O
5
CPU
(min)

840
900
1320

0.08
0.07
0.1
Key:
M\p : plastic limit moment obtained by Tuyau
Mp\ : plastic limit moment obtained by Dagucrrc [18]
r
t
: time ratio between Tuyau and classical method
* : without ovalization.
-59
Note in the last column in table 6.4 the considerable reduction in the direct calculation
of the limit load in relation to the step-by-step computation of Cosmos7. The computation
time of this result represents less than 10 per cent of the step-by-step computation time.
It is also important to note that ovalization and warping have a very significant
influence on the value of the limit load. Without these effects, the results bear little relation
to reality (see the results of the case without ovalization of example DN-250 in table 6.4).
This is a well known situation in the literature for elastic calculation of the deflections of
curved tubes using the von Karmann flexibility coefficient.
Figures 6.5 to 6.10 give all the results for the DN-250 piping.
The failure mechanism is illustrated in figure 6.5, showing the variation curves of the
displacement rate field U and the rotations rate <py, along the pipe. Nodes 1 to 4 and 7
to 10 correspond to the straight extensions of the elbow and nodes 4 to 7 the actual elbow.
Note that the velocities rise very rapidly in the elbow region (4 to 7) where there is very
considerable ovalization of the straight section. On the straight section where the load is
applied the rotation speeds stabilize while the velocity U continues to rise.
Figure 6.6 shows the warping mechanisms of the section for each harmonic as a
function of the nodes defined on the pipe axis. Note the importance of the first harmonic
in obtaining the failure mechanism.
Figure 6.7 shows the ovalization and warping mechanisms of the section connected
to node 7 as a function of the circumferential direction.
Figure 6.8 shows the evolution of the von Mises equivalent stress along the pipe,
calculated on the external surface at = 90%. Two sections clearly attain plastification:
the straight extension where the load is applied and the boundary between the elbow and
the straight section, an area particularly prone to plastification.
Figure 6.9 shows the variation of the von Mises equivalent stress along the circumfe-
rential direction on the inside surface of the sections defined by the three integration points
of element three (straight extension where the load is applied). It can be clearly seen that
the plastification zone grows very quickly as one approaches the loaded end.
Figure 6.10 shows the distribution of axial, circumferential and shear stresses,
,
and
, along the pipes. It is clear that the stresses are concentrated right in the middle
of the elbow and on the edge where the load is applied.
The graphs of the results for DN-400 and DN-700 pipes are very similar to those
obtained for DN-250 pipe and are omitted from this report.
60-
900
Beam failure mechanism
DN-250 pipe system
D
Deflexion rate u
Number of nodes on pipe axis
Rotation Rate y>
y
8 10
notation Rate
2
Figure 6.5: Failure mechanism of the deflection rate and rotations rate along the pipe axis
Shell failure mechanism
DN-250 pipe system
o Displacement rate u1a
Number of nodes on pipe axis
+ Displacement rate u2a
Displacement rate U3a
Figure 6.6:Warping failure mechanism for the three antisymmetrical harmonics along the
pipe
61 -
Ovalisation of the section at node 4
-140 -100 -60 -20
INTRADOS
20 60
EXTRADOS
100 140
Figure 6.7: Ovalization of the section at node 4
VON-MISES's equivalent stress
DN-250 pipe system
Integration point on pipe axis
Figure 6.8: Von Mises equivalent stress along the pipe on the outside rurface at = 90
62
VON-MISES's equivalent stress
DN-250 pipe system
Stress at = -1
-150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60
Circumferential direction in degrees
+ Stress at = 0
120 150 180
o Stress at = + 1
Figure 6.9: Von Mises equivalent stress on the inside surface, along the circumferential di-
rection of the sections containing the integration points of element 3
400
300
200
100
-100
-200 -
Stress components
DN-250 pipe system
D
Axial stress
3 5
Integration point on pipe axis
+ Circumferential stress o Shear stress
Figure 6.10: Axial, circumferential and shear stress along pipes and on the outside surface
at = 90
63
7. CONCLUSIONS:
We believe that this kinematic method and the elbow element used can produce good
results as the comparisons show, either with simplified methods or with more complex
numerical analyses. The calculation cost is also much lower in comparison with the
Cosmos7 program used by Daguerre.
A lower-bound estimate using a hybrid finite element can be considered and is the
subject of future work.
In the short term the programme also offers a means of calculating plastic adaptation
under variable load conditions.
Finally, it can be asserted that direct limit analysis via mathematical programming is
a low-cost, reliable alternative, indispensable for problems of estimating the failure load
of piping structures.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank professor Save for his comments which were of great value
for the drafting of this report and Mr Gry de Saxce for his many and fruitful theoretical
discussions. We are also grateful to the Brazilian organizations CNPq and CNEN/IEN for
their financial contributions to the studies of the first author of this report.
64-
9. ANNEXES
9.1 Annex A
Kinematic formulation of limite analysis
Al. Elastic-plastic material under proportionel loading
First it is assumed that strain can be broken down into an elastic and a plastic
component:
E = E
l
' + E
/
' (A.l)
The elastic-plastic strain energy can then be expressed as follows (see figure A. l):
Figure A.l: Elastic-plastic strain energy
V{E) = \S
V
E:DE - E^DE'' dV
where D is the Hooke's elasticity tensor defined by the relation:
(A.2)
D = 2//II + ()
with: =
2(1+)
and

( 1+) ( 1- 2)
(.3)
The elastic stress-strain relation is then put into the form:
= 2 E
e
+ X(trE
e
) I (A.4)
-65
The deviation tensors of the stresses and strains are defined by the relations:
s = ev(T) = T | r ( T ) I => T = s + sml,
(A5)
e
= dev(E) = Etr(E)l > E = e + .
( A 6 )
Assuming that the deviation tensor of the strains and its spherical component can be
broken down into an elastic part and a plastic part this will give:
e = e
e
+ e? (A.7)
ei = efn + e?n (A.8)
E
e
=3 e
e
+ e
e
ml (A.9)
Purely plastic strains take place with no change of volume; this hypothesis is repre
sented by the relation:
eft = 0 (A. 10)
Substituting relations (A.5) and (A.9) into (A.4) gives:
, Sni
Sm = k
c
e
m
=> em =J. /
kc (A.12)
where kc is the bulk modulus:
_ (3 + 2) _ E
c
3 3( l 2v)
Choosing the von Mises criterion to establish the plasticity threshold gives:
F ( s ) = / ( s ) l , (A. 13)
where
1 ! 1
/(s) = [/2(s)]2 , /2(S)=^(S.S)
and
66-
*
=
$
On the assumption that plastic strains derive from a convex plastic potential, using
the normality rule we can write:
ds
2kl
If we further assume that loading is proportional, giving the relation:
(A.14)
s = () s
c
(A. 15)
where a is an increasing function of A, we obtain:
dS = di%4
1
*f = cal
ds
ds
iS
Integrating the previous relation gives the relation:
(A. 16)
s
0
s
2kl Ik (A. 17)
where
Using (A. 11) an (A.14) we obtain the following relations:
s = 2 (e - eP) = 2//e - 2 ^
kv
It appears that under proportional loading one has: s =
2
1 +
r
2
kv (. 18)
Replacing (. 18) in (. 13) one may express the yield condition in term of total strain:
m
2iL
kv
1 +
kv
/2(e)
Vi
- 1 < 0
( A 19)
- 67
By imposing F(s) = 0 we obtain the plastic intensity:
*-*[ -]*
(A.20)
which is in fact the plasticity criterion in dual variables, i.e., as functions of the invariants
of the strain deviator tensor:
G( e ) = g ( e ) - 1 , (A.21)
with
e
p
and
e
P
=
2fi
Substituting the expression in (A.20) into (A.8) one obtains:
k
v
/2(e)
1/2
(A.22)
Now replacing and s respectively by (A.20) and (A. 18) one may deduce the plastic
strains in term of total strain:
e? =
~72*
2ki
/2(e)
1/2
e
P
/2(e)
1/2
(A.23)
It is not difficult to see also that:
(eP, eP) = (e, e) +
1 kv 2k
v
2
2

1/2
2,)
A2. Fictitions elastic-plastic material and Levy-Von Mises material
Now one may state the following proposition.
The total density of strain energy of a fictitions elastic-plastic material under propor-
tionnel loading is equivalent to the density dissipation of a Levy-Von Mises material when
the fictitions Young modulus E tend to infinite.
-68
In fact, if we remind that thetotal density of an elastic incompressible material is:
/ (e
e
)=Me
e
, e
e
) = 2/2(e
e
)
we may see according to figure Al and formule (A.2) that the elasticplastic strain energy
of the incompressible material is:
17(e) = (e, e) (e*, e
b
)
Under proportionnai loading (e^, e
ft
) is given by (A.22) so that:
/7(e) = 2kv (e, e)
ni / 2 2
1 ky
2
(A.24)
When E* < ,
following limite:
00 and the elasticplastic density of strain energy reachs the
_lim/(e) 2kv
E - * <
2
( e
'
e )
1/2
2k
v
/ 2( e)
1/2
(A.25)
On the other hand under proportionnai loading the increments of stresses is given by
As = s At
Acoording to (A.22) one has also:
Using (A.24);
Ae = At
AU= U(Ae) = 2kv
2
( e
'
4 )
1/2
At
One obtains:
At At
(4,4)
1/2
Dp(*)
In direct analysis only a step is performed:
= Ae, At = 1
69
Finally:
/() =*> p() (A.25)
where D
p
(k) is the well known density of dissipation of the LevyVon Mises material
otherwise rigid perfectly plastic material.
In short, basing on (A.20), (A.21) and (A.24) one way write:
1/2
U(e) = 2 /2(e) if /2 (e)l < e
p
(A.26)
7(e) = 2 2 [/2
1/2
] e
p
e
2
] if [/2 (e)]
1 / 2
> e
p
_limt/(e)= Dp(k)
E - oo
A3. Incompressible condition of strain in KirchoffLove Shell
Using the hypothesis proposed by KirchoffLove, that the tension normal to the
surface of a thin shell is negligible, we can write:
7 ^ 0
From the constitutive equation of the material we then obtain the relation:
e
m
= tr(E}') + El = ^ ( 7 + ).
Taking account in addition of the incompressibility of the plastic strain velocity tensor,
gives:
e?n = tr(E?) + En = {E^ + E% + ) = 0.
hence the strain component in can be expressed as:
(A.27)
= + = ^(E
v
rj+E) {
+\).
Assuming that the material tends towards incompressible behaviour:
e, ^0 , tr(E
v
)^0 , > 0.5
this implies that:
(A.28)
(A29)
=( +
).
(A.30)
70
In this case the deviation tensor of the strain velocities is given by the relation:
e = E - -ktrE)! = E
2
M
M
2
F
M
0
0 -(+)
2
M
(A.31)
and the second invariant by:
1 1
/2(e) = - ( e, e) = -
(E:E)
1 2
3
em
-(E:E)
(A.32)
/2(e) =
^
+
^
+

+

A.5 Discretization
If we now use the matrix form of the strain-displacement relation established in (4.7)
by discretization into finite elements, we can write:
= Bq
.
2/
2
(e) = e
J
H
/7
e =
q
r
B
7
Hp Bq (.33)
1
0
0
2
0
vi
0
0
0
0
1/4
0
w
0
0
1
with \\p = 2
We can finally establish the criterion of plastic flow as a function of elastic-plastic
strain by the relations:
W(q) = 2 S
v
VdVe if J2(ef
2
- e
p
< 0
(A.34)
and
W(q) =
v
Vp dVe if J2(ef
2
- e
p
>0.
(A.35)
and calculate the elastic-plastic strain gradient required by the mathematical programming
software using the relations:
71 -
G(q) = S
v
2/**) Dp
B
* dV
e
if
J2(ef
2
- ep <0,
(A.36)
and
^) = kvi
(BLg^DgBjg
Ke
[ (Bq
e
)
7
DpBq
e
]
V
dVe if /2(e)
2
- e
p
>0.
(A.37)
We see that at any times, we can get a value of the gradient vector. The situation is
so called regularized.
9.2 Annex
Lagrange and hermite isoparametric transformation interpolation functions
For a discrete representation of the geometry X (3.1) and axial displacements u (3.4)
we use the class C Lagrange cubic interpolation functions given by:
L l =
l o "
(
~
9
^
+ 9
^
- 1 )
^
2
= ^(9
3
+9
2
--1)
L-i = -^(2
3
-9
2
-2+9)
L
4
= ^ (-27
3
-9
2
+27+9)
while for the circumferential (3.5) and radial w (3.6) displacements and their respective
derivatives we use the class C Hermite interpolation functions:
Hi = \{\-r)\2 + r)
H
2
= \{l+r)\l-r)
hl = \(l-r
2
){\-r)
fe = ^ ( - l +r
2
) ( l +r )
- 72-
9.3 Annex C
Rotation matrices connected to the local and global axis systems
Using the rotation matrices , being defined at point k by figure CI :
,o
= T
o
e
avec: [T],y = (e?.ej) = cos(e?,e/)
we obtain:
e' = e avec: [ ] = (e/'.e,) = cos(e/',e
;
)
= TT
Figure Cl : Local and global axis systems
T =
V
k
n V
k
n
V%
V
k
sx
V
k
2
V
k
3
vi v
2
vi
T =
1 o o
0 sin^ cos^>
0 cosco
-73
9.4 Annex D
Definitions of infinitesimal strains of shells
For the infinitesimal strain field E
c
, Novozhilov [25] proposes for shells, a decoupled
relation between membrane and bending effects:
E
c
= E'" + Ef = \ [L(u) + L
r
(u) + K(u) + K
r
(u)]
where describes the shell thickness (h/2 < < h/2) and the differentiation operators
L(u) and K(u) are defined by the following relations:
, ,
N
1 du dA\ , w
Ln(u)
Li 2(u)
L2i (u)
Ai dai AiAi dai fa
1 du V dA2
^ 2 d 2 ~ A i A i l
1 dv u d
dai \2
da2
.

_ _1_ dv U A2 w
L22W
tei
+
Aî tel
+

r ,
s
1 W U
L3l(u)
Ai dai fa
r r \ !
dw v
L32
^=A
2
te2R
r \ ^ 32(u) dv4i
K
^
=
^T^
L
31(U)) ^ ^
fr / \ !

/ r / NN , ^32(u) dA2
f / N 1 . . , .. L3i (u) A\
z^ / 1 ,_ , .. L3l (u) /l 2
u, v, w are the three components of the displacement vector of a point on the mid
surface of the shell.
-74
Curved element case
The curvilinear coordinates , are illustrated in figure D.l:
Figure D.l : Elbow geometry
The shell surface position vector is defined, in the X system, by the following relations:
{, ) = -(R - cos<p)sin#ei - (R acos(p)cos9ei + ?, (D.2)
The directions of the coordinate system are defined by the directions tangential to
the mid-surface of the shell:
ae = -lux = (R acoso)cos$ ei + (R acos^)sin e2 / Q , \
d\
= 3r = asin^sin ei asirvpcosO e2 + acosso e3
and the components of the metric tensor g are:
gee = ae.ae = (R acos^)
2
(D.4)
_ 2
gip<p &<.&
ge<p =g<p6 = . = 0
The unit vectors of system = (,,) (vectors intrinsic to the elbow surface) are
defined by the relations:
V =
ae
= costei + sin0e2
(D.5)
- 75-
ap
sin^sin ei sinycos e2 + cosy e3
= = sinycos ei sinysin e2 + siny e3
The components of the curvature tensor b of the shells are obtained from (D.3):
d
2
\
aoo = 7 = (R acosy)sin ei + (R acosy)cos# e2
dd
(D.6)
z
2
\r
a<p<p = = cosysin ei acosycos e2 asiny e3
1
a^p = g^37j = asinycos ei + asinysini? e2 = a2i
and the classic definitions of the curvatures:
bee = . = (R - acos<p)s _ 1
The components of the metric tensor A are then:
Ae = Vgee = (R-acoscp) (D.9)
= * ^g<p (D.10)
76
rJ 1 .du , d w . , 1 , dH\ .
(Racowf
d0
d
2
(Racos<p)a
K
'
*--&+*
%

2
^ d<p
2
"
r f l t 1 , 1 f dv . .
<V R-,
1
^T4 1 / , dw .
N
, 1 .du dv d w .
k =
(tf-acosy)
2 (
"
Smi PC0S
^
+
W ^
+
{R-acos<p)a
(
" ^
C
^
+
W ' W
}
'
If we accept the hypothesis that the mid-surface is not extendible, we obtain the
relations:
^
l =
^
+ w) = 0 namely W =
~W
According to the expressions defined in (D. 10) the strain field E may be broken down
into two fields: one, E , obtained from a beam theory using the Bernoulli hypothesis
(straight section unaffected) and the other, E
c
, which takes account of the ovalization and
warping of the straight section:
with the components:
E = E
D
+E
C
jb 1 du
(Racos<p) ~S6>
r> w
c
siny
* ~ a d<p Racos(p
- 77
Case of the straight element
In this case the curved coordinate system became cylindriscalt: , illusrated in figure
D.2:
Figure D.2: Cylinder geometry
X (</v) = acosy ei acosy e2 + e3
Using the conventional definitions we obtain systematically:
ax
a
=
T~
= e 3
dz
dx
2up = = asiny ei acosy e2
gzz = a
z
.a
z
= 1 => A
z
= gzz = 1
2
g ^ = . a => yyj = fy;? =
gzp =g<pz = a
z
.ap
-
: = .azz =
= .
=
_bzz
=
gzz
b(p<p
g<P<P
= &pZ
0

= 0
_ 1

The strain tensor of the straight pipe is given by the following relations:

4 =
du
~~ dz'
d\
d(pdz
2
dv c
- (rz + w ) = wo ,(inextensibility)
_ f 1 . d
3
v dv
^ = 2 ( 7 3 + y ) '
d<p
r
2
^~9
+
dz'
2
/
=

(2
1^
+
^
d<p
2
dz
dz
79
9.5 Annex E
Strain - displacement relation
Using the discretization of the displacement field u of ovalization of the pipe section
in the components of the strain tensor defined in Annex D, we obtain:
N
n
N
a
= { (y
s
a)(yn)
k
+ (yn)nl(yy)n]
k
+ 2 ( vA) ( vg) * + ( vA) [ ( v, ) ?] *},
k = l m = l ml
with: = 2m , N
p
and Nq are the respectively number of the cosin and sin terms of the
Fourier's serieused for the displacement.
ML
(y
S
n)r = ~ (sin2mysiny + 2mcos2m(pcos(p) +
+
acos(p
H
k/r
4
~ 2mco.s2my + 7_
(Racos<p)
2

2
(Racos<p)a
(sin2mysiny 4ra sin2mysiny)
(,) =
+
Hk
(cos2/nysiny 2msin2m<pcos<p) +
Hk/r 4
2msin2m<p +
(Racos<p)
2

2
(Racos<p)a
(cos2mysiny Am cos2mysiny)
<y
s
n%
/a\k
+
hk
(sin2mysiny f 2mcos2m<pcos(p) +
hk
Racos<p
r 2mcos2m<p +
2 .
(Racos(pf '
(Racos(p)a
(sin2mysiny Am sin2mysiny)
hk
Racoscp
hk/r 4
(cos2mysiny 2mtt2mycosy) +
hk
~ 2msin2mi)
k
+(yn)[(V/)%]%
k=l /?i = l m = l
with: = 2m and:
Hk
( ) = ~ y ( 2m 8m )cos2m(p
a
(n) \ = j (8m
3
2m>m2my

80
hk
(y ) (2m8/n ) cos2m} = { (v) fe ( ) * + (v ?,) fe [(v , ) ] * + ( %) fe (v ,1) * + (v ) fe [(v , ) ,1] *}
A: = l /?i = l
w = l
with: = 2m and:
Hk,
2 ~B 2mcos2m<psintp +
Hkj
(Racosp)
r~a\k^ Hk/ 2
(Racos<p)a
~(lAm )sin2m<p

acosf
(R^)
2
^
2,nCOS2,n
'
PSn<P +
{Rfcos
(
p)a'^^
4m2)c0s2}n(p
,=s^k^ hk/ 2 .
(
V
"^ = R^pe
2m
<P
1M
2mcos2m<psm<p + , * '

M (l 4m
2
)si n2my
{Racos<p)
(Racos<p)a
r~a\k
u
hk/ 2
(R
JZs<p)
2

2mCOs2m(pSn(p +
(Ras<p)a M (l 4m
2
)cos2my

Substituting the displacement field u which expresses the effect of the warping of the
elbow section in the components of the strain tensor defined in Annex D gives:
2 W
f
N,
= {^ (')( + (
a
n
)
k
{u
n
)
k
},
k=l / i =2 /i=2
with: = m and:
,* Lai. 2_
{
Un)J
~ Racos^
1 *1 sinn<p
L R acos(p]
81
(-
_2_ r _ . cosy
R - acosy

# L i? - acos<p\
2 Wf iV
^ = { (5) + (M)fe()*}
/c=l /i =2 /i =2
Wl ith: = 7 and:
,
Ss
k r \n sinnmvp , .
v
' '^ \a R acosf
,a^k . cosri(psm<p
y
(u ) = Lk \ sinntp =
E
^ +
.swmysinycosy _ 2ncosn<pcos<p
(i? acasp)
2
(
~ cosy)a
caynysinycosy _ 2/ts//2/?ycosy
(/? acosy)
2
(
aP)a
The straindisplacement relation in matrix form may be expressed as:
=
c
=
e
= Bq
with:
|
7

=
1
4
q
T
= {qi q2 q3 q4 },
B
k
= B
of = {<$ q}

k =1,4.
<*
q = {( * JJA ^ ^ |
vv%vvMvl{v/)\ (y/$ (v/t (y/ji Mi Ml 11&1A uMu%wh(w/)h)
t = T(B)jt,
r
*
B =
J D > n j
D
a T, 5
B
s
" H
5
H" H
5
" T
5

V Dv &V/ Dv/ Du Du Dw D
w/
The matrices is detailed in the following where one has to take 1 = s or 1 = a at the
point k.
82
B
!
v =

/
B l
( V 2 ) J (v4)J (?#
(V2)f e ( v
4
) f e (v'
6
)f e
0 0 0
( 2)| (
Z
4)| (VI
(?2) <p4 ( ^
(^)fe ( vi & (^)fe
0 0 0
(^2)| ( v^f (c5)|
()$ ( $ (W
(2)fe (3)fe (4)fe
0 0 0
(2)f (3)| (4)|
/ = ,
,l = s,a
,1 s,a
Biv
(>)^
0
()
Bw/
(w)
0
( wu)^
The matrix corresponding to part E of the total strain E
c
is obtained from the
beam displacement field which satisfies the Bernouli hypothesis.
Bx
dLk
5^1
0
0
dLk
dXi
0
dLk
dX
3
0
dLk
dXi
0
dLk
dXi
dLk
dX
3
dLk
dXi
0
0
dLk
dX
3
0
dLk
dXi
0
(Gi)\i
(Gi)i
(Gi%
(Gijh + (Gifci
(Gi)z + (Gl)2
(Gi)3 + (Gi)i
( G
2
)!i
(Gl)\l
(Gl%
(G)i + (Giti
(Gl)3 + (G2)2
(G
2
)3 + (Gi%
mi
(G3)2
(G3%
(G
3
)i + (G
3
)i
(G3J3 + (G3)%2
(G3)3 + (G3)l
with:
(G
m
)n = (JrTl ()mi)h
k
/ + t (g*)m/ + t (g*)
* = a*( W
83
g* = f '
= s(
k
)+t(s
k
)
*
0
% - %
Q
k
vh 0 Ml
^2 "Ml 0
" o % -
0
F 4
- % 0 %
% - % o
The Jacobian of the transformation of the X coordinates into X is defined by:
BXi
dr
dXi
ds
dXi
at
dX
2
dr
dXi
ds
dXi
dt
dX3
dr
dX3
ds
dX
3
dt
The strain rate field E in relation to the axis system (, , ) is given by the relations:
E
b
x = T
T
(
(>
r)
T
E
b
x(
(>
r)T
with and T as defined in Annex C.
Using matrix notation the following relations can be established:
with:
= \

q
b
=[(q Y(q Y(q
b
)
3
(q ^
q={v
k
V* W* $};k=l,4
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
sin y
0 0
0 smy
0 cosy
cos y 0
9.6 Annex F
0
0
0
cosysiny
0
cos<p
sin<p
0
Nondimensional variables
The definition of the nondimensional variables is based on the reference units given
earlier. The Tuyau program uses references Lo for geometrical data and gD go for mecha
nical data. The normalized geometric quantities are then expressed by the relations:

X = (coordinates)
= (radius of the section)
Lo
h
li = (shell thickness)
= (displacements)
= (rotations)
E = E (strain)
while the normalized mechanical quantities are:
g = (generalized forces)
m = (generalized moments)
= (Young's modulus)
L
>
T
f*
= (stresses)
go
For the rigidplastic case the load multiplier is a nondimensional variable, while the
plastic dissipation gradient is not:
85
G = -r = g if it is a force,
<?q
G = = m if it is a moment.
a
q
The normalization of the gradient is then given by the relations:
Q
G = if it is a force,
go
Q
G = if it is a moment,
go Lo
86
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. MILITIELLO, C ; HUESPE, A.E. ; 'Displacement based pipe elbow element',
Computer & Structure, vol.29, N2, pp 339343,1988.
2. BATHE, K.J. ; ALMEIDA, C.A. ; 'A simple and effective pipe elbow element Linear
analysis', Journal of Applied Mechanics, vol.47, pp 93100, March 1980.
3. BATHE, K.J. ; ALMEIDA, C.A. ; 'A simple and effective pipe elbow element
Iteraction effects', Journal of Applied Mechanics, vol.49, pp 165171, March 1982.
4. DE SAXCE, G. ; 'Rsolution du problme elastoplastique incremental par lments
finis etprogramation mathmatique''', Rapport de recherche Universit de Technologie de
Compigne, Mai 1989.
5. CORONA, E. ; KYRIAKIDES, S. ; 'On the collapse of tubes under combined
bending and pressure', Int.J.Solids Structures, vol.24, n5, pp 505535, 1988.
6. SHAW, P.K. ; KYRIAKIDES, S. ; 'Inelastic analysis of thin walled tubes under cyclic
bending', Int.J.Solids Structures, vol.21, ni l , pp 10731100, 1985.
7. WAT , O. ; OHTSUBO, . ; 'A simplified analysis methods for complexe
piping systems in elasticplasticcreep range', Journal of Pressure Vessels Technology,
vol.107, pp 148156, May 1985.
8. CHAN, K.L.C. ; BOYLE, J.T. ; SPENCE, J. ;' In plane bending behaviour of pipe
bends with end constraints under steadystate creep', Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology,
vol.106, pp 330335, November 1984.
9. LARSON, L.D. ; STOKEY, W.F. ; FRANZEN, W.E. ; 'An aproxmate model for
an elasticplastic pipe element under combined loading', Journal of Pressure Vessel Techno
logy, pp 2228, February 1985.
10. BUSHNELL, D. ; 'Elastic plastic bending and buckling of pipe and elbows',
Computer & Structure, vol.13, pp 241248,1981.
11. SUZUKY, N. ; NAZU, M. ; 'Nonlinear analysis of welded elbows subject to inplane
bending', Computer & Structure, vol.32, n3/4, pp 871881,1989.
12. BOYLEJ.T. ; 'The finite bending of curved pipes', Int.J.Solids Structures, vol. ,n
,pp 515529,198.
87
13. MURTAGH, . . ; SAUNDERS, . . ; ' MINOS 5.1 User's Guide, Technical
Report SOL 8320R, December 1983, Stanford University.
14. NGUYEN DANG, H. ; 'Direct limit analysis via rigidplastic finite element compu
ter methods in applied mechanics and engineering',vo\.8, pp 81116, 1976.
15. NGUYEN DANG, H. ; 'Sur la plasticit et le calcul des tats limitespar lments
finis',Thse de Doctorat Spcial l'Universit de Lige, Collection des publications 98,
1985.
16. SPENCE, J. ; 'An upper bound analysis for the deformation ofsmothpipe bends in
creep', Creep in Structures 1970, Ed. Hult 1972, pp 234246,Springer Verlag, Berlin.
17. CALLADINE, CR. ; 'Limit analysis of curved tubes', Jour.Mech.Eng.Science, Vol.
16, pp.8587, 1974
18. DAGUERRE, J.R. ; 'Calcul du chargement limite d'un tuyau coude (comparaison
de deux mthodes) ', Rapport de stage de DEA, Facult Polytechnique de Mons, Juin 1990.
19. CASCIARO, R.; CASCINI, L. ; 'A mixed formulation and mixed finite elements
for limit analysis', Int.Journ.Num.Meth.in Eng., vol.18, pp.211243, 1982.
20. CASCIARO, R. ; DICARLO, A. ; 'Mixed F.E. models in limit analysis', Compu
tational Methods in Nonlinear Mechanics (J.T.ODEN et al, Eds.), Proc. 1st TICOM Com
0
.,
austin, Texas, 1974.
21. SPENCE, J. ; FINDLAY, G.E. ; 'Limit loads for pipe bends under in plane
bending',Fvoc2nd Int.Conf. on Pressure Vessel Technology, vol.1 ASME, pp. 393399,
1973.
22. ANDERSON, R.G. ; GARDNER, L.R.T. ; HODGKINS, W.R. ; 'Deformation of
uniformly loaded beams obeying coplex creep laws', J.Mech.Engng.Sci., pp. 238244, 1963.
23. MACKENZIE, A.C. ; 'On the use of single uniaxial test to estimate deformation
rates in some structures undergoing creep', Int.J.Mech.Sci, vol.10, pp.441453.
24. HODGKINS, W.R. ; 'Bound on the rate of energy dissipation in bodies deforming
by secondary creep', J.Mech.Engng.Sci., vol.7, pp.306311,1965.
25. NOVOZHILOV, V.V. ; 'The theory of thin shells', P.NOORDHOFF, GRONIN
GEN, 1959.
88
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European Commi ssi on
EUR 15696 Limit loads of pipe elbows
M. Save, R. J. Jospin, Nguyen-Dang Hung
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communi ti es
1995 V, 88 pp., fi g. 21.0 29.7 cm
Nuclear science and technology series
ISBN 92-826-9914-5
Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: ECU 11.50
A request was made to produce limit loads of elbows subjected to loads normal to
the plane of the axis.
determinate pipe system made of two orthogonal straight circular tubes and a 90
elbow, loaded at one end by a concentrated (out-of-plane) moment and built-in at
the other end.
The Cosmos 7 computer code was used, with elastic-perfectly plastic finite
elements. Limit values were obtained from load-deflection curves. They appear to
be approximately 40 to 50% of the fully plastic twisting moment of the cross-section
which in this case gives the limit load of the Bernoulli beam theory.
Warping and ovalization of the elbow are thus responsible for a 50 to 60% loss of
carrying capacity. Geometrical non-linearity proved to be negligible. Hence, direct
limit analysis by mathematical programming was performed for three geometries,
with a specially adapted beam finite element. Reduction in computer time obtained
by this method is important (approximately 5 to 1). Some problems of accuracy,
however, remain and should be investigated before practical use of this computer
code.
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