ConLrasLlve llngulsLlcs exam quesLlons

1. Language Lypes and language unlversals

!"#$%"$& ()*&+:
,-"++./.0"(.1# 1/ -"#$%"$&+: 1. CeneLlc (deals wlLh common feaLures of language orlgln) 8omanlc,
8alLlc, Slavlc, eLc. languages.
2. Ceographlcal (depends on Lhe Lheory where language orlglnally come lnLo use) e.g. 8alkan,
Afrlcan, eLc. languages.
3. 1ypologlcal (based on slmllarlLles and dlfferences beLween languages) e.g. synLheLlc, analyLlcal,
eLc. languages.

!"#$%"$& %#.2&3+"-+-common feaLures whlch are Lhe same for dlfferenL languages, e.g. vowels
and consonanLs, polysemy of words, a senLence, eLc.

,1441# "#5 5.//&3&#( /&"(%3&+ 1/ -"#$%"$&+:
1he same orlgln, same source (ukralnlan, 8elarusslan, and 8usslan)
6.4.-"3.(.&+-lsomorphlc feaLures,
7.//&3&#0&+-allomorphlc feaLures,
lf ln a parLlcular language Lhere ls A feaLure, 8 should be as well.
7.//&3&#0&: ln Lngllsh, gender ls expressed semanLlcally (by meanlng, pronouns).
ln LlLhuanlan, gender ls expressed grammaLlcally.

2. 1ypes of llngulsLlc research: comparaLlve, hlsLorlcal, areal, conLrasLlve llngulsLlcs.
8.+(13.0"- -.#$%.+(.0+ (dlachronlc) deals wlLh Lhe language change. (8egan aL Lhe 18
Lh
cenLury)
9.4: Lo descrlbe observed changes ln parLlcular languages,
1o reconsLrucL Lhe pre-hlsLory of languages and deLermlne Lhelr relaLlveness,
1o develop general Lheorles abouL how and why language changes,
1o descrlbe Lhe hlsLory of speech communlLles,
1o sLudy Lhe hlsLory of words, e.g. eLymology,

,14*"3"(.2& -.#$%.+(.0+- ls a branch of hlsLorlcal llngulsLlcs LhaL ls concerned wlLh comparlng
languages ln order Lo esLabllsh Lhelr hlsLorlcal relaLedness.
9.4: Lo compare phonologlcal sysLems, morphologlcal sysLems, synLax and lexlcon of Lwo or more
languages,
ln Lhe 20
Lh
cenLury an alLernaLlve meLhod, lexlco-sLaLlsLlcs, was developed, whlch ls malnly
assoclaLed wlLh Morrls Swadesh buL ls based on earller work.

3. 1he hlsLory of language comparlson and Lhe mosL famous sclenLlsLs.
13-18
Lh
cenLurles Luropeans founded LhaL dlfferenL counLrles speak dlfferenL languages. (Lhe
8enalssance, Lhe voyage, lnLernaLlonal Lrade).
16
Lh
cenLury (Lhe beglnnlng of language comparlson): lrench grammarlans compared
lrench wlLh LaLln and Creek.
1he end of 16
Lh
cenLury: Luropeans dlscovered a new language of anclenL lndla, namely
SanskrlL,
19
Lh
cenLury: comparaLlve llngulsLlcs developed lnLo separaLe branch of llngulsLlcs.
1772-1828 lrederlc Schleghel compared morphologlcal forms and classlfled languages lnLo
lnflexlonal and Afflxal.
1767-1843 AugusL Schleghel added one more Lype of languages wlLhouL grammaLlcal
sLrucLure.
19
Lh
cenLury a Cerman sclenLlsL Wllhelm PumboldL dlsLlngulshed language Lypes:
a) lnflecLlonal (lndo-Luropean),
b) AggluLlnaLlve (1urklc, eLc.), afflxes lnsLead of lnflecLlons
c) lsolaLlng (Chlnese, eLc.), do noL have grammaLlcal paradlgms and afflxes, word
order lmporLanL.
d) olysynLheLlc (Amerlcan lndlan, eLc.), complex words
20
Lh
cenLury L. Saplr, l. llnk, Creenberg carrled ouL comparaLlve research.

4. rocedural orlenLaLlon ln conLrasLlve llngulsLlcs.
,-"++./.0"(.1# 1/ ()*&+ 1/ -.#$%.+(.0 &#(&3*3.+&: 1. 1here are Lwo broad approaches Lo llngulsLlc, Lhe
generallsL and Lhe parLlcularlsL (conLrasLlve llngulsLlcs) arLlcularlsL wlll Lend Lo be anLhropologlsLs
or phllosophers, whlle Lhe generallsLs are llkely Lo have phllosophlcal lnLeresL.
2. Along a second dlmenslon llngulsLs are dlvlded lnLo Lhose who sLudy one, or each, language ln
lsolaLlon, and Lhose whose amblLlons and meLhods are comparaLlve.
3. lerdlnand de Saussure dlsLlngulshes Lwo sclences.
,1#(3"+(.2& -.#$%.+(.0+-hybrld llngulsLlcs Laklng dlfferenL approaches,
,1#(3"+(.2& -.#$%.+(.0+ compare languages usually wlLh Lhe alm of asslsLlng language learnlng by
flndlng dlfferences beLween learner's naLlve language and LargeL languages. lL deals wlLh presenL
day languages.

3. sychologlcal basls of conLrasLlve analysls.
8ehavlourlsL Lheory ls based on sLlmulus and response. lL ls based on avlov's experlmenL. 1he
observaLlon LhaL prlor learnlng effecLs subsequenL (furLher) learnlng leads Lo Lhe hypoLhesls of
Lransfer.
Accordlng Lo Lhe behavlourlsL, Lheorles prevalllng aL Lhe Llme, language learnlng was a quesLlon of
hablL formaLlon, and Lhls could be relnforced or lmpeded on a language.
newmark and 8elbel 1he adulL can wanL Lo say whaL she/he doesn'L yeL know Lo say and he/she
uses whaLever means he/she has aL hls/her dlsposal."
Corder suggesLs LhaL 'applled llngulsLlcs' ls noL a sclence ln lLs own rlghL, buL merely a Lechnology
based on 'pure' llngulsLlcs.
!ames Lakes Lhe opposlLe vlew, and agrees LhaL Lhere ls a sclence of applled llngulsLlcs, glvlng
Melmberg's sLaLemenL.

6. honologlcal sysLems ln Lngllsh and LlLhuanlan.
,-"++./.0"(.1# 1/ 21:&-+ .+ 5.//&3&#(:
Accordlng Lo Lhe poslLlon of Longue, vowels, ln LlLhuanlan are dlvlded lnLo fronL and back.
Lngllsh vowels are dlvlded lnLo back, cenLral, fronL.
Accordlng Lo Lhe ralsed parL of Lhe Longue ( or Lhe verLlcal movemenL of Lhe Longue) vowels
ln LlLhuanlan are dlvlded lnLo close (u, u, q, j, y), mld-open (o,e) and open (a, e).
Lngllsh are dlvlded lnLo seml-close, mld, mld-open, and open.
,-"++./.0"(.1# 1/ 01#+1#"#(+:
Accordlng Lo Lhe work of vocal cords, consonanLs are dlvlded lnLo volced and volceless.
ln conLrasL Lo Lngllsh, LlLhuanlan p, L, k, are noL asplred
uenLal consonanLs are noL common ln LlLhuanlan.
CloLLal sLops are common for easL London dlalecL.
LlLhuanlan consonanLs can be used ln Lwo varleLles as palaLallzed (sofL) and as
unpalaLallzed (hard).
L ln Lngllsh ls noL palaLallzed.
LlLhuanlan flnal consonanLs may be sub[ecLed Lo asslmllaLlon.
6(3&++-ls a relaLlve force wlLh whlch a syllable uLLered.
6(3&++ .# !.(;%"#."#: 1) Lhe sLress ls flxed ln all forms of a paradlgm.
2) lL may change poslLlon, lL may fall on dlfferenL syllables of Lhe same word ln Lhe
course of lnflecLlon.
<# =#$-.+; sLress ls flxed.
ln boLh languages we have dlphLhongs.
ln Lngllsh we have LrlphLhongs (falr)

7. Lexlcal sysLems ln Lngllsh and LlLhuanlan.
6&4"#(.0 .#0-%+.1#-ls a phenomenon when one word corresponds Lo Lwo or more words ln Lhe
oLher language.
>3"44"(.?"(.1#- phenomenon when some words loose lexlcal meanlng and acqulre only
grammaLlcal meanlng,
e.g. l'm golng Lo wrlLe a leLLer-expresses fuLurlLy, losL semanLlc meanlng.
ln LlLhuanlan we do noL have CrammaLlzaLlon.
Some comblnaLlons of words, ln LlLhuanlan, may be expressed by one word.
e.g. Lo go by car-vazluoLl, Lo go by plane-skrlsLl,

8. 1he caLegory of gender of Lhe noun ln Lngllsh and LlLhuanlan.
LlLhuanlan uses grammaLlcal caLegory Lo express gender. e.g. mergalLe, bernlukas,
Lngllsh expresses gender semanLlcally-by meanlng of Lhe word.
ln LlLhuanlan and Lngllsh we have words LhaL express dual gender.
ln LlLhuanlan dual gender words have negaLlve connoLaLlons and usually Lhey end ln leLLer -a.
e.g. plevesa, nakLlbalda, aklplesa, eLc.
ln LlLhuanlan we can speclfy gender by ad[ecLlve. e.g. grazl malka,
ln LlLhuanlan Lhere ls no neuLer gender.

9. 1he caLegory of number of Lhe noun ln Lngllsh and LlLhuanlan.
!.(;%"#."# :135+ (;"( "3& 1#-) .# *-%3"- @"--1413*;.0A: 1) lesLlvals and ceremonles-vesLuves,
kaledos, velykos, laldoLuves, eLc.
2) AcLlvlLles-rlnklmal, kauLynes, lmLynes, eLc.
3) MaLerlals-dazal, du[os, kll[al, laslnlal, eLc.
4) lnsLrumenLs-zlrkles, kopeclos, eLc.
3) erlods of Llme-pusryclal, pleLus, lsvakares, eLc.
6) Some organs of human body-kepenys, smegenys, lnksLal, eLc.
!.(;%"#."# "#5 =#$-.+; 1#-) .# +.#$%-"3: 1) MaLerlals-arbaLa-Lea, auksas-gold, deguonls-oxygen,
2) AbsLracLlons-happlness, lygybe, ramybe, shame, love, eLc.
3) CollecLlve nouns-komanda-a Leam, broll[a-broLherhood, profesura, eLc.
4) names of deseases-grlpas-flue, vezys-cancer,
ln Lngllsh we have regular and lrregular plurals whlle ln LlLhuanlan we have only regular plurals.
uependlng on number of Lhe noun words can change meanlngs ln boLh languages.
e.g. paper- maLerlal or newspaper, ledas-ledal,
ln LlLhuanlan Lhere ls agreemenL beLween nouns and numerals. e.g. dvl gaLves, du vyral,
lor luralla LanLum nouns ln LlLhuanlan we use plural numerals. e.g. dve[l varLal, penkerl meLal,

10. 1he caLegory of Case of Lhe noun ln Lngllsh and LlLhuanlan.
!.(;%"#."# ;"+ B $3"44"(.0"- 0"+&+: nomlnaLlve, CenlLlve, uaLlve, AccusaLlve, lnsLrumenLal,
LocaLlve, and vocaLlve.
=#$-.+;: nomlnaLlve CenlLlve.
ln Lngllsh cases depend on anlmaLe or lnanlmaLe noun whlle ln LlLhuanlan lL doesn'L maLLer.
Lngllsh has developed sysLem of preposlLlons, buL LlLhuanlan has loLs of preposlLlons as well.
Cnly ln LlLhuanlan Lhere ls coordlnaLlon wlLh oLher noun.
>&#.(.2& 0"+&: ln boLh languages lL shows possesslon.
ln Lngllsh lL can be expressed by 's or preposlLlon of.
ln LlLhuanlan CenlLlve case ls used for possesslon, lL can also express Lhe purpose. e.g. nue[au j
parduoLuv pleno.
ln LlLhuanlan CenlLlve case can be used wlLh Adverbs of quallLy. e.g. daug zmonlq.
SomeLlmes ln LlLhuanlan CenlLlve case requlres preposlLlon. e.g. sedzlu be darbo.
7"(.2& 0"+&: ln LlLhuanlan expresses lndlrecL Cb[ecL. e.g. [l duoda draugul knyg.
uaLlve case ln LlLhuanlan can express Lhe purpose. e.g. nuplrkau mesos vakarlenel.
<#+(3%4&#("- 0"+&: expresses Lhe means or lnfluences. e.g. rasau plesLuku.
ln Lngllsh we use dlfferenL preposlLlons: wlLh, by, eLc.
ln LlLhuanlan lnsLrumenLal case may express place. e.g. [ls vazluo[a gaLve.
lL ls used Lo express professlon. e.g. dlrbu mokyLo[u.
!10"(.2& 0"+&: lndlcaLes place where sLh happens, occurs, ls performed.
ln Lngllsh we use preposlLlons ln or aL. e.g. aL Lhe alrporL.
ln LlLhuanlan lL may also express Llme. e.g. vakare, senove[e, dabarLy[e.
C10"(.2& 0"+&: ln LlLhuanlan has a speclal grammaLlcal form whlch ls noL used ln Lngllsh. lL ls used
Lo address sLh. e.g. mokyLo[au!
ln LlLhuanlan we have 3 declenged (llnksnluoLes) whlle ln Lngllsh we have cases and no declenged.

11. 1he caLegory of deflnlLeness and lndeflnlLeness of Lhe noun ln Lngllsh and LlLhuanlan.
ln Lngllsh expressed by deflnlLe or lndeflnlLe arLlcles.
ln LlLhuanlan: 1) pronouns e.g. kazkoks, kazkokla, some women, slLas, slLa (deflnlLeness)
2) numerals e.g. vlena boba man pasake, a woman
3) conLexL e.g. Len gale kambarlo sLove[o moLerls.

12. Word bulldlng ln Lngllsh and LlLhuanlan.
9//.D"(.1#- used ln boLh languages. Adds afflxes Lo Lhe base. e.g. vlollnlsL, sachLlnlnkas.
8ase can be compound or slmple. e.g. [onazollnls, honeymoon.
ln LlLhuanlan preflxes may change Lhe lnflexlon of Lhe noun. e.g. kaklas-apykakle, galas-anLgalls,
ln boLh languages preflxes and sufflxes modlfy lexlcal meanlng of Lhe word.
ln LlLhuanlan we have loLs of dlmlnuLlve sufflxes. e.g. bernells, bernuzells,
ln LlLhuanlan we have flexlonal derlvaLlon (wlLh Lhe help of lnflexlon we bulld words ln LlLhuanlan)
e.g. grelLas-grelLls (dlfferenL meanlngs)
,14*1%#5.#$ (common for boLh languages when Lwo bases are [olned LogeLher) e.g. posLman,
lalskanesys.
ln Lngllsh bases can be free or bound whlle ln LlLhuanlan bases are only bound. e.g. classroom,
geraslrdls, peckurys,
ln Lngllsh compounds may be moLlvaLed and non-moLlvaLed whlle ln LlLhuanlan more nouns are
moLlvaLed. e.g. ve[avalkls (non-moLlvaLed), geraslrdls (moLlvaLed), dumLraukls (moLlvaLed),
Wallflower-a glrl noL asked Lo dance.
Compoundlng ls more popular ln Lngllsh because lL ls easy way of word bulldlng.
,1#2&3+.1# (when one parL of speech becomes anoLher) e.g. dusL-Lo dusL
ln LlLhuanlan Lhere ls no converslon, we use dlfferenL rooLs.
6%E+("#(.2.?"(.1# (from Ad[ecLlves we bulld nouns)
ln LlLhuanlan we have pronomlnal (jvardzluoLlnlal) ad[ecLlves whlch can be correspondlng Lo
subsLanLlvlzaLlon. e.g. balLle[l uzpuole 8usl[os dalj.
Ad[ecLlve-good, noun-Lhe good,
6;13(&#.#$+: 1) AbbrevlaLlons read as separaLe words. e.g. LkL
2) Acronyms read as regular words and are more popular ln Lngllsh. e.g. nA1C
3) Cllpplng shorLened words. ln Lngllsh neuLral words-Lelephone-phone, laboraLory-lab (lnformal)
4) 8lendlng e.g. smog- fog + smoke, moLel- moLo + hoLel,
ln LlLhuanlan cllpped words are lnformal. e.g. maLke, Lellkas,
ln LlLhuanlan blendlng ls very rare. e.g. sodra- soclallnls + draudlmas,