According to current understanding, the two alleles encoding each feature, are segregated during

gamete production by a meiotic cell division. This means that each gamete will contain one allele
for each gene. Allowing the maternal and paternal alleles are combined in the offspring, ensuring
variation.

For each characteristic, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent. This means that in
somatic cells, one allele comes from the mother and one from the father. These can be
homozygous or heterozygous.

Mendel got this law by crossing different varieties of heterozygous individuals (diploid with two
allelic variants of the same gene: Aa), and was observed in their experiments with peas got many
features yellow skin and others (less) features green skin, found that the ratio was 3:4 and 1:4
yellow colored green.

It is now clear that hybrid forming seeds having one or the other of the two differential characters,
and of these half again develop hybrid form, while the other half can produce plants that are
constant and receiving the dominant character or recessive in equal numbers.
Segn la interpretacin actual, los dos alelos, que codifican para cada caracterstica, son
segregados durante la produccin de gametos mediante una divisin celular meitica. Esto
significa que cada gameto va a contener un solo alelo para cada gen. Lo cual permite que los alelos
materno y paterno se combinen en el descendiente, asegurando la variacin.

Para cada caracterstica, un organismo hereda dos alelos, uno de cada pariente. Esto significa que
en las clulas somticas, un alelo proviene de la madre y otro del padre. stos pueden ser
homocigotos o heterocigotos.

Mendel obtuvo esta ley al cruzar diferentes variedades de individuos heterocigotos (diploides con
dos variantes allicas del mismo gen: Aa), y pudo observar en sus experimentos que obtena
muchos guisantes con caractersticas de piel amarilla y otros (menos) con caractersticas de piel
verde, comprob que la proporcin era de 3:4 de color amarilla y 1:4 de color verde.

Resulta ahora claro que los hbridos forman semillas que tienen el uno o el otro de los dos
caracteres diferenciales, y de stos la mitad vuelven a desarrollar la forma hbrida, mientras que la
otra mitad produce plantas que permanecen constantes y reciben el carcter dominante o el
recesivo en igual nmero. la progenie de cruces de prueba muestra el resultado de la distribucin
independiente

una segunda forma en la que Mendel prob la hiptesis de la distribucin independiente estaba
llevando a cabo una cruza de prueba con los genotipos f1 que eran heterocigotos para ambos
genes (gg WW). en este cruce prueba, un genotipo de los padres tiene que ser homocigticos
recesivos se multiplican en este caso , gg ww. como se muestra en las dobles heterocigotos
producen cuatro tipos de gametos wg wg, y en proporciones iguales, mientras que las plantas gg
ww slo producen gametos wg. por lo tanto se espera que los fenotipos de la progenie para
consistir en redondo amarillo, verde redonda, arrugada de color amarillo, y el verde arrugada en
una relacin. como en un cruce de prueba de un monohbrida, la proporcin de fenotipos en la
progenie es una demostracin directa de la relacin de los gametos producidos por los padres
heterocigotos, porque no hay alelos dominantes son aportados por el padre homocigoto recesivo
para oscurecer los resultados. en la cruz real, Mendel obtuvo 55 ronda amarillo, 51 grado redonda,
49 amarillo arrugado



Conceptos de Mendel de segregacin y distribucin independiente tanto pueden ser visualizados
en la figura 10.12 anterior. La segregacin se produce debido al hecho de que los cromosomas
homlogos se separan el uno del otro durante la meiosis I. distribucin independiente se produce
al mismo tiempo. Por ejemplo, la notificacin de la figura anterior que los cromosomas homlogos
se alinean de forma aleatoria en la placa metafsica. Como resultado, los cromosomas homlogos
y los alelos que llevan segregan independientemente durante la formacin de gametos. Todas las
posibles combinaciones de cromosomas y alelos se producen e
extbook Reading Assignment: Pages 186 - 188
In addition to simple single trait crosses, Mendel constructed crosses in which he
observed the inheritance of two traits at the same time. He was interested in
determining if the genes for these two traits were inherited together or independently
from one another. Mendels resulting principle of independent assortment suggests
that each pair of genes is distributed independently from every other pair during
gamete formation. Today, we recognize that this principle is explained by the fact that
most traits are located on different chromosomes that assort independently from one
another during meiosis.

Mendels concepts of segregation and independent assortment can both be visualized
in Figure 10.12 above. Segregation occurs due to the fact that homologous
chromosomes separate from one another during Meiosis I. Independent assortment
occurs at the same time. For example, notice from the figure above that the
homologous chromosomes line up randomly at the metaphase plate. As a result,
homologous chromosomes and the alleles they carry segregate independently during
gamete formation. All possible combinations of chromosomes and alleles occur in the
gametes.
In order to better comprehend this idea, lets use the example of the two-trait cross
provided for us on page 187 of the text. In this cross, we are dealing with two genes
seed shape (either round or wrinkled) and seed color (either yellow or green). The
legend for the cross is presented below:
R = round
r = wrinkled
Y = yellow
y = green
Since plants are diploid organisms, any one plant will have two copies of each gene. In
other words, a single individual will have two Rs and two Ys (remember, one came
from each parent). Notice that in this cross one parent is RRYY(round, yellow) and the
other is rryy (wrinkled, green).
Notice from Figure 10.11 on page 187 that the F1 genertion receive one gene for each
trait from each parent (one parent gives the offspring RY and the other parent gives
the offspring ry). As a result, the genotype of the F1 is RrYy. This genotype is termed
a dihybrid because the individual is heterozygous for both traits: seed shape and seed
color.

Each F1 individual with the genotype RrYy generates four separate types of gametes.
Why is this the case?
Refer again to Figure 10.11. Notice that the F2 generation receives one gene for seed
shape and one gene for seed color from each F1 individual. If you take a look at the
genotype of the F1 you will find it to be RrYy. Since this individual will pass one gene
for each trait on to the offspring, you must look at all possible combinations of alleles
when constructing the gametes.
For example, in the case of RrYy, each gamete will have one gene for seed shape and
one gene for seed color(remember, gametes are haploid). With this in mind, what are
all possible combinations?
RY, Ry, rY and ry
In other words, each F1 parent can make 4 different types of gametes. This is what
independent assortment meansjust because the R goes into one gamete, that does
not mean that the Ymust follow. In other words, the R may travel into the gamete with
either the Y or the y.
Since each parent can generate four different gametes, the Punnett square is a 4 x 4
box. Once all the squares are filled in one finds the following ratios in the F2:
9/16 round, yellow
3/16 round, green
3/16 wrinkled, yellow
1/16 wrinkled, green
Your book discusses the use of the product rule in solving dihybrid problems: this is a
shortcut and should only be used once you completely understand how to solve the
problem the "long way". Since we will never deal with the inheritance of 3 or more
genes, I'd suggest skipping the section on the use of the product rule.

Discussion Question 4
Use the following information to examine a genetic cross involving two traits:
P = purple flowers, p = white flowers, T = tall plant, t = short plant
Use a Punnett square and determine the phenotypic ratios of the following crosses:
PPTt x PpTt
PpTt x PpTt

Chapter Concept 10.3: How Gene Can Appear to Alter Mendelian Ratios
Sometimes Mendel's laws do not seem to be operating because expected
ratios of progeny classes do not occur. Allele interactions and effects of other
genes and the environment can alter phenotypes, but the laws still operate.
Textbook Reading Assignment: Pages 188 - 194
O.K--Let's simplify a bit. This section gets a bit too detailed for our purposes in this
course. Don't worry about the following:
Penetrance and Expressivity
Pleiotropy
Epistasis
Environmental Influences (phenocopies)
Genetic Heterogeneity
What you do need to know about are:
1) lethal alleles
2) multiple alleles
3) codominance
4) incomplete dominance
Let's spend some time briefly reviewing these 4 concepts:
1. Lethal alleles- Lethal alleles cause death early in development when in the
homozygous condition. Since death occurs so rapidly, homozygous offspring are never
seen in the next generation.
For example, in cross 1 below (Figure 10.14), homozygous individuals die early in
development. As a result, the ratios seen in the F1 generation are not 3:1, but
2/3:1/3. Whenever you see results in a 2:1 ratio such as this it indicates the presence
of lethal alleles.

2. Multiple alleles and codominace can be covered together. In addition to the above
departure from Mendelian Genetics, differences in the number of alleles associated
with a particular gene exist as well. In the classic dominant-recessive interaction, there
are only two alleles which can occupy a given locus within a chromosome. However, in
the case of the ABO human blood group, more than 2 standard alleles exist in the
determination of blood type within the population. In other words, any single individual
can only have two alleles for blood type (since we are diploid), however, three alleles
exist within the human population.

Two of these alleles are codominant to each other (A and B) and one (o) is recessive
to both A and B. Codominant alleles are both expressed in the phenotype. Note the
table above (Figure 10.19) comparing genotypes to phenotypes. Note that the only
way an individual can have type AB blood is to have both an A allele as well as a B
allele. However, a person with type A blood can have one of two genotypes: AA or AO.
In this case, since O is recessive, it is not expressed in the heterozygous condition
(AO). Likewise, the type B person can have one of two genotypes: BB or BO. Again,
since O is recessive, it is not expressed in the heterozygous condition. Also note from
the same figure that the only way to have type O blood is to have two O alleles (OO).
Even though type O blood is determined by two recessive alleles, it is the most
common blood type in the world (expressed in almost 50% of the worlds population).
3) The final variation on classical Mendelian Genetics is incomplete dominance.
Under such a dominance condition, one allele does not completely mask the expression
of another.

For example, flower color in Snapdragons is determined by alleles that are
incompletely dominant to one another (refer to Figure 10.18 above). Notice that the
symbols used for the alleles are R and R and not R and r. Using R and r would be
misleading since it would imply that R is dominant to r. So, whenever you work a
genetic cross dealing with incompletely dominant alleles, use capital letters and a to
distinguish between the two alleles.
Notice from the figure above (Figure 10.18) that three phenotypes are possible: red,
pink and white. In other words, incompletely dominant alleles generate intermediate
phenotypes (in this case the intermediate phenotype of pink flower color is caused by
the interaction of a red gene and a white gene).
Chapter Concept 10.4: Polygenic and Multifactorial Traits
Many traits do not adhere to Mendel's laws because they are determined by
more than one gene and also sometimes by the environment.
Textbook Reading Assignment: Pages 194 - 197
You are in luck! We are going to skip almost this entire section (way tooooooooo
detailed). The only portion of this section you are responsible for is the concept of
polygenic inheritance.
Most traits are polygenic, indicating that they are influenced by more than one gene.
For example, fur color in mice, skin color in humans and human height depend upon
the interaction of many independent genes.

The result of many genes acting upon the phenotype of an individual is a continuous
variation of phenotypes. In other words, if a single gene determined height, individuals
would either be tall (T) or short (t) such as in Mendels pea plants. However, since
many genes independently affect human height, a variety of phenotypes are apparent.
This phenotypic distribution resembles the bell-shaped curve demonstrated above
(Figure 10.22).
Self-Test Questions
1. The ___________ of an individual encompasses both its physical and behavioral
characteristics.
a) phenotype
b) genotype
c) haplotype
d) gene
2. _________ cells contain two copies of each chromosome.
a) haploid
b) diploid
c) aneuploid
d) homologous
3. A ___________ individual has two different alleles of a particular gene.
a) heterozygous
b) homozygous
c) hemizygous
d) perizygous
4. Mendels ____________________ suggests that each sexually reproducing
organism has two genes for each characteristic which separate from one another
during gamete formation.
a) principle of inheritance
b) principle of independent assortment
c) principle of genetics
d) principle of segregation
5. Which of the following is an example of an autosomal dominant disorder?
a. PKU
b. Huntingtons Disease
c. Tay-Sachs Disease
d. Cystic Fibrosis
6. How many traits (genes) are involved in a monohybrid cross?
a. one
b. two
c. three
d. none
7. A heterozygous individual has
a. two dominant alleles
b. one dominant and one recessive allele
c. two recessive alleles
d. no phenotype
8. How many copies of a particular gene is/are found in a gamete?
a. one
b. two
c. three
d. four
9. A _______________ occurs when an individual with the dominant phenotype is
crossed with an individual having the recessive phenotype.
a. dihybrid cross
b. independent assortment
c. testcross
d. lateral cross
10. ____________ inheritance occurs when one trait is governed by the interaction of
two or more sets of alleles.
a. Monohybrid
b. Dihybrid
c. Polygenic
d. Sex-linked
Answers to Self-Test Questions
1. a
2. b
3. a
4. d
5. b
6. a
7. b
8. a
9. c
10. c
Answers/Insight to Discussion Questions
1. You are directly observing their phenotype.
2. All offspring will be tall.. Half of the offspring will be TT and the other half Tt.
3. a: All Pp
b: Pp, pp
c: PP, Pp, pp
4. a: 6/8 Purple Tall; 2/8 Purple Short
b: 9/16 Purple Tall; 3/16 Purple Short; 3/16 White Tall; 1/16 White Short

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n los gametos.

















1. Draw a table of columns by five rows
2. In the gray horizontals boxes, write the male gametes
3. In the gray vertical boxes, write the alleles of the females gametes
4. White boxes correspond to the zygotes resulting from the fusion of a
male gamete with a female gamete.
5. From every 16 resulting plans , 9 of them have yellow smooth seeds 3
have green smooth seeds ,3 have yellow rough seeds and 1 has green
rough seeds, representing a phenotypic ratio of 9:3.3:1
6. Homozygote: an individual who for a given gene in each chromosome
has the same type homologous allele. It is also known as "pure race" for
that gene.
7. Heterozygous Individual for a given gene in each homologous
chromosome has a different allele. Also is the hybrid name for that
character.
8 Genotype: the set of genes containing an inherited their parent
organisms. Half of the father and mother.
9 For example, the human race has two eyes (general inheritance); man's
eyes may be brown, black, blue; Fold without folding; large, normal, small;
sighted with blindness, etc. (especially inheritance).
10 The study of the transmission of hereditary characteristics allowed
understand why girls and boys at birth or because unwanted
characteristics are passed as inherited diseases or genetic disorders.

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