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www.radmix.com
2009
47
Index
CONTENT PAGE #
Introduction 3
World Leaders in Fibre Reinforcing 4
Structural Synthetic fibres 5
Fibre Reinforcement of Shotcrete 6
Product Range and Performance Characteristics 7- 15
Radmix Box Dowel 16
Concrete Fibre Composite Behaviour 17
Radmix Fibre Reinforced Concrete 18
Radmix Fibre Applications 26
Radmix Pavement Design 28
Precast 33
Shotcrete 34
Toppings 35
Bored Piers 37
References 38
Structural Synthetic Fibre - RAD 45S 5 Fibre Reinforcement of Shot-crete 6
Radmix Fibre Applications Radmix SFRC Applications 3 1 Shot-crete 3 Toppings 3 9
41
Fibres are playing a significant role as the reinforcing medium of choice for concrete
construction. Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) uses have now expanded beyond pavement
applications, into areas where the reinforcing specification has historically been bars or fabric.
With developments in fibre technology, FRC performance characteristics include significant
ductile and structural behaviour and enhanced tensile, shear and flexural strengths.
Compared to conventional reinforced concrete, FRC exhibits greater crack resistance,
durability, fatigue life, resistance to impact and gauging, shrinkage stresses, thermal shock and
seismic ductility characteristics.
Comprehensive research into FRC has placed Radmix in a position as one of the worlds
most efficient and technologically advanced steel and synthetic suppliers and manufacterers.
Focusing on innovation and flexibility in the development of fibres, Radmix is able to provide the
optimum fibre type for a variety of applications.
This technical manual is set out to educate and assist professional design consultants in the
design and construction of structures using FRC.
With over 25 years of experience and training in construction technology, the engineers at
Radmix continue to provide the most appropriate solution to concrete reinforcing.
Introduction
3
World leaders in
bre reinforcing
Radmix International Pty Ltd combines comprehensive research into the latest reinforcing fibre technology
from Australia, Europe, Korea, China and the USA with in-house development of fibre design and production
technology. This investment has placed Radmix as one of the worlds most efficient and technologically
advanced synthetic and steel fibre manufacturers.
As a result, new types of fibres for different applications have been produced from synthetic, wire and slit sheet.
Radmix stands as one of the few companies, world wide, to provide a complete range of fibres and technical
expertise at competitive prices.
Radmixs philosophy of fibre design has at its core the focus of maximum user friendliness in all stages of
construction, including construction technology effects and cost effectiveness.
This focus compliments a fracture mechanics approach to ductility and crack propagation in SFRC in the
recommendation of fibre specification for a particular end use. The Radmix computer-aided design program
provides the interface with Consulting Engineers and also the Design and Construction Industry.
A commitment to, and investment in research has led the expertise developed by Radmix being sort after by
engineers and construction companies around the globe.
Historical developments
of fibres
As the structural use of concrete developed in the second half of the 1800s, interest was focused on
reinforcements to enhance its low tensile capacity. The first patent for steel fibre reinforced concrete was filed in
California by A. Bernard in 1874. A patent by H. Alfsen in France, 1918 was followed by G.C. Martin in
California, 1927 for SFRC pipes and H. Etheridge, 1931 who examined the use of steel rings to address the
anchorage of steel fibres.
The Second World War and later years saw G. Constantinesco taking patents out in England, 1943 and USA,
1954. This was followed by numerous patents, but the widespread use was hindered by high costs, poor
testing facilities and the parallel rapid development of concrete reinforced with steel bar and wire systems. It was
not until the experiments by James Romualdi in 1962 at the Carnegie Institute of Technology that a clearer
understanding of the properties of SFRC emerged.
Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete has been a later extension of this understanding, with the first application being to
stabilise the rock slope of a tunnel portal, Idaho in 1972. The development of SFRC continues and in more recent
years extensive R&D has been focused heavily on structural synthetic fibres. Synthetic fibres now play a major roll
in reinforcing throughout the world in areas such as tunnel lining, underground support, pre-cast and general
concrete pavements. The development of structural synthetic fibres has revolutionised the use of fibres with
increased performance over it's predesessor steel fibres. Extensive research and development throughout the
world continues...
4
The macro structural synthetic fibre has been embraced and readily accepted in the construction industry
as end users recognise the benefits of replacing reo-bar and mesh with synthetic fibre.
Structural synthetic fibre is superior to more conventional reinforcement as it can outperform, give
greater cost savings, is easier to use and safer to handle.
Rad
mix has uniquely packaged the RAD47s, RAD55s & RAD65s fibres in water soluble bio degradable
materials. The entire packaging is placed in the concrete mix which dissolves within seconds, leaving the
fibres to disperse evenly throughout the matrix.
It has been demonstrated in the round determinate
panel (RDP) tests, that by using structural synthetic
fibres at a dosage rate of only 5kg to 9kg per cubic
metre of concrete is required to obtain higher energy
absorption compared to a steel fibre dose rates of
30kg to 50kg, for the application of structural concrete
such as ground slabs, pre-cast and shotcrete.
The beam test show slabs on grade and pre-cast concrete
predominately require a dosage rate of between 20kg to
45kg of steel fibres per cubic metre, in comparison, using
between 3kg to 9kg of structural synthetic fibres per
cubic metre of concrete. Synthetic fibres achieve greater
strength and ductility in applications for pavements, roads
pre-cast and overlays.
, pre-cast and overlays.
Structural Synthetic Fibre:
5
Fibre Reinforcement of Shotcrete
Concrete is essentially a mixture of cement, blended sand and aggregate, water and various property-enhancing
admixtures. Shotcrete can be considered both as a means of placing a concrete type of product and the product
itself, which is equivalent to a concrete with aggregate up to 10mm in size, with a relatively high cement content
and often with additional cementitious components, such as silica fume. Plastic Shotcrete commonly has low
water:cement ratio, which accounts for high compressive strengths in the hardened state, but this can also lead to
a brittle engineering material.
Reinforcement is added to shotcrete in order to give some pseudo-ductility as well as post-crack load-bearing
capacity, especially in high deformation applications, such as those encountered in the mining industry. Welded
wire mesh has been used to reinforce Shotcrete, but stiffness compatibility and placement difficulties has meant
that a continuous metallic reinforcement has been dropped in favour of discreet fibres that cross incipient cracks
to add toughness and ductility.
The round determinate panel test uses an 800mm diameter Shotcrete panel, 75mm thick that has three
supports around the periphery of the panel. The panel is supported horizontally in a frame and loaded vertically
from above. The load/deflection curves are developed as the specimen is loaded, up to first crack and beyond.
Commonly , the centre point deflection is taken to 40mm, although when testing for a prototype where very
high deformation might be expected, deflections of up to 100mm can be used. The resultant load/deflection
curves in Joules can be used to compare different reinforcing elements compared to a non-reinforced control
specimen at different ages, different deflections and different dosages, etc.
It appears that the addition of any fibre does little to enhance the first crack of a shotcrete matrix, but the fibres
start to work as soon as the crack attempts to open. Fibres bridging the crack start to take load and resist flexural
deformation giving added energy absorption capacity. Steel fibres provide beneficial efforts immediately after first
crack but do not maintain their superiority as central deformation proceeds past about 5mm. The post-crack load-
bearing capacity of macro synthetic structural fibres has been found to provide increasing benefit over steel fibres
with further increasing benefit as the Shotcrete matrix ages.
Many studies and construction projects from the 1980s to the end of the 20th century focused on the use of
steel macro fibres to reinforce shotcrete. Geometric variables such as aspect ratio, fibre cross-section shape, as
well as the characteristics of steel stock used to form the fibre and the manufacturing process to shape the fibre
were all evaluated in an attempt to refine and improve upon the engineering character of the hardened product.
Trials using high performance, macro synthetic structural fibres started in 2000, around the same time as the rock
engineering industry was accepting the results of round determinate panel testing under what is now ASTM C1550-
04 Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness of Fibre Reinforced Concrete (Using Centrally Loaded Round
Panel):. It was found that relatively low mass addition rates of the synthetic fibres outperformed the standard steel
energy panels by up to 100%.
For deflection in the order of 40mm, most steel fibres have pulled out of the matrix and there is no further residual
load-bearing capacity. On the contrary, macro synthetic structural fibres have been found to provide increasing
levels of cumulative energy absorption to deflections of up to 100mm.
At Shotcrete: More Engineering Development, the second international conference on engineering development in
shotcrete held in Cairns, Queensland, 2004, papers were presented that showed cumulative energy absorption
values of around 600 Joules for synthetic fibres at a deflection of 40mm and an age of 100 days, compared to
around 300 Joules for steel fibres under identical conditions.
Macro synthetic structural fibres have become the dominant reinforcement in shotcrete projects, especially where
relatively large-scale deformations may be expected, such as in mining engineering environment.
6
1.0 Radmix Fibres
RADMIX RAD47s (STRUCTURAL SYNTHETIC) FIBRE
UCT CODE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
RAD47s Width = 1.2820 Thickness = 0.49333
Length = 47mm
Gives optimum performance in highly corrosive environments. Is ideally
suited in ground slabs and pre-cast products.
PROFILE
RAD45S
RAD25CR
RAD35CR
RAD835UW
RAD1050UW
Product Range and
Performance Characteristics
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Macro Structural Synthetic Polypropylene Fibre, minimum tensile strength 550 MPa.
These fibres show very defined ductile behaviour characteristics.
7
Flexural Toughness and First-Crack Strength of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
REPORT CERTIFICATE - ASTM C 1018
1 of 1
CLIENT : Radmix International Pty Ltd WG JOB NO : 1212-70-1326
PROJECT : Radmix Fibre Trials LOCATION : Welshpool
Sample Id : Concrete Beam, 180408 - 1 Lab No. : 180408 - 1
Casting Date: Date Tested :
Age of Specimens: 30 Specimen Condition : Moulded Sample, Wet
Deflection Method : Third Point-Loading
Details of Specimens :
Widths (b), (mm) : 101
Depths (d), (mm) : 105 Fibre Type : RAD 47 S
Length (l), (mm) : 360
Beam Span, (mm) : 300 Dosage, (kg/m3) : 6
Specimen Dry Mass, gram: 8320
Flexural Toughness and First-Crack Strength
First Crack Load, (N) 12245
Maximum Load, (N) 16144 I
5 -
4.3
First Crack Deflection, (mm) 0.036 Toughness Indices I
10 -
8.4
First Crack Strength, (MPa) 3.33 I
20 -
15.5
Flexural Tensile Strength, (MPa) 4.39
Residual Strength R
5,10 -
82.3
R
10,20 -
71.2
COMMENT: Equivalent Flexural Ratio R
e,3
(%) : 79
(Note: Re,3 additional information is not a requirement of the test method.)
Certificate No. : 180408 - 1
Approved Signatory : ___________________________ ( T. Mansour ) Date : ______
KalgoorlieLaboratory Port Hedland Laboratory KarrathaLaboratory
Tel (08) 9091 4718 Tel (08) 9172 3135 Tel (08) 9144 0624
Fax (08) 9091 6682 Fax (08) 9172 3135 Fax (08) 9144 2904
18-Apr-08 18-May-08
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
L
o
a
d
(
K
N
)
LOAD DEFLECTION CURVE
Deflection, (mm)
Western Geotechnics Pty Ltd
36 Railway Parade WELSHPOOL WA 6106
(ABN 91 105 324 436) Tel 1300 781 744 Fax (08) 9458 3700
perth@westerngeo comau www westerngeo comau
QMS.Forms.Concrete.WG084.04.A
8
Product Range and
Performance Characteristics
1.2 Radmix Fibres
RADMIX RAD55s (STRUCTURAL SYNTHETIC) FIBRE
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Macro Structural Synthetic Polypropylene Fibre, minimum tensile strength 550 MPa. These fibres show very
defined ductile behaviour characteristics.
PRODUCT CODE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
RAD55s Width = 1.4820 Thickness = 0.4611
Length = 55mm
PROFILE
RAD45S
RAD25CR
RAD35CR
RAD835UW
RAD1050UW
Suitable for all types of concrete reinforcing
RAD55s is an all purpose fibre suited for most applications.
9
Product Range and
Performance Characteristics
RADMIX RAD65s (STRUCTURAL SYNTHETIC) FIBRE
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Macro Structural Synthetic Polypropylene Fibre, minimum tensile strength 550 MPa. These fibres show very
defined ductile behaviour characteristics. Performance levels are excellent in shotcrete.
PRODUCT CODE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
RAD65s Width = 1.6825 Thickness = 0.4822
Length = 65mm
Generates a very high energy absorption rate when used in the concrete mix
for shotcreting, enabling the matrix to provide greater flexural toughness.
PROFILE
RAD45S
RAD25CR
RAD35CR
RAD835UW
RAD1050UW
1.3 Radmix Fibres
10
Page 1 of 1
CLIENT : XXXcrete Australia Pty Ltd JOB No. : 08-01-584
PROJECT : Jetcrete (Radmix) Lab No. : 08-WG-3120
LOCATION : Raleigh Casting Date :
Sample Id : QA 05345 Date Tested :
Type of Fiber : Synthetic RADMIX 65mm Age at Testing :
Specimen Details : Condition of specimen: Excellent
Average Diameter of Panel, mm : 795
Average Thickness of Panel , mm : 76
Standard Deviation of Thickness, mm : 1.3
Number or Radial Cracks : 3
Energy Absorption at the Following Central Deflection:
Direct Absorption
Energy Absorption at 5 mm Deflection, (Joules) = 89
Energy Absorption at 10 mm Deflection, (Joules) = 191
Energy Absorption at 20 mm Deflection, (Joules) = 377
Energy Absorption at 40 mm Deflection, (Joules) = 598
COMMENTS:
1. Sprayed sample supplied by client & delivered to the Laboratory on
2. Sample tested as received.
3. Laboratory Curing Conditions : Standard moist temperate zone (acc. To AS 1012.8.1 cl. 9.3)
Average Fibre Count / 200mm: 38 (Additional information - Not a requirement of the Test Method)
Certificate No. : 08-WG-3120 / C400
Approved Signatory : _________________________________ ( J.Reid ) Date : _____________ SN 2411
373
593
36 Railway Parade Welshpool WA 6106 Phone 1300 781 744 Fax (08) 9458 3700
14/03/2008
13/03/08
Flexural Toughness of Fiber Reinforced Concrete - Round Panel
ASTM C 1550
88
188
10-Feb-08
13-Mar-08
32 Days
Corrected Absorption
LOAD - DEFLECTION CURVE
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Net Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d
(
K
N
)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
E
n
e
r
g
y
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n
,
(
J
o
u
l
e
s
)
Failure Diagram
This document is issued in accordance with NATAs accreditation requirements
Accreditation No. 2418
C400.RDP.cert.06.A
11
Product Range and
Performance Characteristics
1.4 Radmix Fibres
Description
The Radmix RAD12pp are a fine mono-filament polypropylene fibre
that provides crack control while concrete is in it's elastic state. When added
to concrete the fibre will significantly reduce plastic cracking and explosive
spalling during fires.
Plastic Shrinkage Cracking.
While concrete is in it's elastic state a significant amount of stress is present due
to rapid evaporation of the water content within the mix. While the concrete is
curing, it's ability to adhere to bar or mesh type reinforcing is impaired causing
the matrix to slip over the reinforcing, thus significantly increasing the risk of
cracking. The RAD12pp are distributed evenly throughout the mix and
aids in binding the concrete together in the early curing stages maximising crack control.
Description of Spalling.
The heating of a concrete structure as a result of fire is a serious concern, as any retained moisture within the
concrete causes expansion resulting in smaller pieces of concrete to explode from the surface. This process
repeats itself during the fire causing significant damage to the structure. During a fire the Spalling process
can start within the first 15 minutes with a surface temperature of just 200 degrees Celsius.
What benefit do the fibres add in the case of a fire?
At 160 degrees Celsius the fibres melt creating a vast number of voids allowing
the retained moisture to escape in a non destructive manner, significantly reducing
any increase in pressure within the concrete structure. Adding 1 kg of RAD12pp
to a cubic metre of concrete is a very cost effective method of fire protection for
concrete structures.
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION : Fibre Length = 12mm
RAD12pp
12
RADMIX FW (FLATTENED WIRE) FIBRE DESCRIPTION
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Flattened hard-drawn wire fibres, conforming to the provisions of ASTM A820 Type 1 (Drawn Wire),
minimum tensile strength 900 MPa.
Flattened Wire Fibres, due to the positive mechanical anchorage characteristics of the undulation and
high tensile strength are specially suited to applications where the risk of stresses on the concrete
exceeding its tensile strength is clearly defined. That is, post-crack performance (toughness) is excellent.
PRODUCT CODE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
RAD40FW
Diameter 0.9 x length 40mm; Aspect Ratio = 44.44
Excellent fibre for ground slabs and pre-cast.
Other sizes available on order.
1.5 Radmix Fibres
PROFILE
RAD45S
RAD25CR
RAD35CR
RAD835UW
RAD1050UW
Product Range and
Performance Characteristics
13
RADMIX HW (HOOKED
WIRE) FIBRE
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Hooked end hard-drawn wire fibres, conforming to the provisions of ASTM A820 Type 1 (Drawn Wire).
1.6 Radmix Fibres
RAD45S
RAD25CR
RAD35CR
RAD835UW
RAD1050UW
PROFILE
RAD45S
RAD25CR
RAD35CR
RAD835UW
RAD1050UW
RAD45S
RAD25CR
RAD35CR
RAD835UW
RAD1050UW
Product Range and
Performance Characteristics
PRODUCT CODE RAD6535HW
PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
Glued Hooked End Fibre,
Diameter 0.5mm x length 37mm
Aspect Ratio = 74
Tensile Strength = 1300 MPa.
Ideal for shotcrete.
PROFILE
PRODUCT CODE RAD7535HW
PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
Diameter 0.75 x length 35mm
Aspect Ratio = 46.6
Tensile Strength = 1100 MPa.
General purpose fibre also suited for shot-crete.
PROFILE
PRODUCT CODE RAD6560HW
PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
Glued Hooked End Fibre
Diameter 0.9mm x length 60mm
Aspect Ratio = 66.66
TTensile Strength; 1 ensile Strength; 1100 MPa 100 MPa
Ideal for ground slabs, giving a high Re3 value.
PROFILE
PRODUCT CODE RAD8060HW
Glued Hooked End Fibre
PERFORMANCE
Diameter 0.75 x length 60mm
CHARACTERISTICS
Aspect Ratio = 80
TTensile Strength; 1 ensile Strength; 1100 MPa 100 MPa
Ideal for concrete slabs under constant loads.
PROFILE
PRODUCT CODE RADPAVE 35
.
PERFORMANCE Diameter 0.85
x Length 30mm Aspect Ratio = 35
CHARACTERISTICS
Tensile Strength = 1100
Ideal for medium and heavy industrial pavements with large bay sizes and high
post loading conditions.
PROFILE
14
RADMIX UW (UNDULATED WIRE) FIBRE
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Undulated hard-drawn wire fibres, conforming to the provisions of ASTM A820 Type 1 (Drawn Wire),
minimum tensile strength 1000 MPa.
1.7 Radmix Fibres
Available on order.
PRODUCT CODE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
RAD835UW
Diameter 0.8 x length 35mm
aspect ratio = 43.75
A robust fibre that suits most applications.
RAD1050UW
Diameter 1.0 x length 50mm
aspect ratio = 50
Ideal for medium and heavy industrial
pavements with large bay sizes and high
post loading conditions.
PROFILE
RAD45S
RAD25CR
RAD35CR
RAD835UW
RAD1050UW
PROFILE
RAD45S
RAD25CR
RAD35CR
RAD835UW
RAD1050UW
Product Range and
Performance Characteristics
15
Radmix Box Dowel
Radmix has revolutionised the dowel joint with a
simple and effective system that provides greater load
transfer at control and construction joints in concrete
slabs.
The Box Dowel provides a system (Ribflex) which
while maintaining a level slab surface over joints,
allows movement sideways plus back and forth when
expansion and contraction occurs in the concrete.
Curling is a significant problem in concrete slabs.
The Box Dowel helps in restraining slab curling by
restricting vertical movement, thus maintaining a level
slab.
The Radmix Box Dowel is a cost effective system
allowing for a greater load transfer over slab joints.
This gives the client a better system at a lower cost.
Specifying a Box Dowel is specifying a dowel joint
with the reassurance of exact dowel placement.
The Radmix Box Dowel is available in two sizes
(16mm & 20mm) to compliment the load transfer at
slab joints in pavements ranging from thinner (light
duty) to thick (heavy duty) concrete slabs.
Each Radmix Box Dowel system is supplied with one
box and bars.
BENEFITS:
Greater load carrying capacity over slab joints
Ease of movement between slabs
Reduction of slab curling
Fast installation
Wider spacing between dowels
Cost saving
DOWEL TYPE 125 150 175 200 225 250 Plus
BD16 650 650 550 450 350 N/A
BD20 N/A N/A 600 600 450 400
SLAB THICKNESS (mm)
Box Dowel spacing for ground slabs
Installation
Step One:
Nail the Dowel Box
on the inside of the
formwork at a height
that is central to the
slab thickness.
Step Two:
The concrete is then
poured between
formwork, encasing the
dowel boxes.
Step Three:
Formwork is then stripped,
leaving the front of the
Dowel Box exposed,
ready for the insertion
of the dowel bars.
Step Four:
Dowel bars are placed
into the holes provided
by the Dowel Box
previously cast into the
slab. Concrete is then
poured for the new slab,
incasing the protruding
ends of the dowel bars.
Box Dowel
Formwork Formwork
Box Dowel
Dowel Bar
Box Dowel
Concrete
Dowel Box
Concrete
Dowel Bar
RIBFLEX
Concrete
16
2. Concrete Fibre
Composite Behaviour
2.1 Mechanism of concrete - bre interaction
Plain concrete is a non-homogeneous mixture of cement, water, coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and
admixtures. The hydration reaction between the cement and water results in a net shrinkage in the hardened
cement paste. The function of the coarse aggregate is a duality of economically reducing the volume of the
cement paste, and to provide a restraint mechanism against the autogenous (hydration) shrinkage.
Hsu, Slate, Sturman & Winter in their paper "Microcracking of Plain Concrete and the Shape of the Stress- Strain
Curve" [Journal of the ACI Feb 1963 pp209] showed that there are incipient microcracks at the surface of the
larger coarse aggregate particles. These cracks exist in a zero load condition.
As concrete is stressed due to various loading conditions, including fatigue, the microcracks are propagated along
the faces of the aggregate and under appropriate conditions propagate through the concrete matrix to adjacent
coarse aggregate particles. These cracks exist in a zero load condition.
As the matrix consists of cement paste and the finer aggregate, it is the matrix into which the steel fibres are
mixed and are randomly aligned, though modified by the relative positioning of the larger aggregate.
The matrix thus becomes a composite mixture, reinforced by the fibres. The fibres change the tensile stress level
required for a crack to initiate through it, depending on the number and effectiveness of the fibres in the crack tip
zone.
2.2 Advantages of bres in concrete
As the crack tip progresses through the matrix, as discussed above, the width of the propagating crack
increases. For fibres passing through and resisting the microcrack widening, the development of the required
stress in the fibre is provided by both;
Surface bond effects between the cement paste and the fibre; and
Mechanical anchorage mechanisms due to fibre shape, which enhance the effect of surface bond or act as an
alternative should stress levels in the matrix exceed the surface bond effects, which have been estimated to be
in the order of 3 MPa.
For straight fibres, the length of fibre required to provide sufficient surface area for bond to develop the
tensile strength of the fibre results in fibre length being excessive, in terms of adversely affecting the plastic state
properties of the concrete. This can result in undesirable balling of fibres and / or difficulties in placing,
compacting and finishing of the concrete.
Fibre manufacturers have addressed the challenges presented by straight fibres through providing various
mechanical anchorages in the fibre shape. These can be classified into two distinct types: continuously deformed
and end-anchored.
Continuously deformed fibres provide a defined mechanical anchorage mechanism close to the position of any
propagating crack, leading to greater restraint and stress redistribution into the surrounding matrix.
A number of fibre manufactures have elected to provide mechanical anchorage effects by the end anchorage
technique through providing deformed ends.
These fibres, under the developing stress from the propagating microcrack, progressively loose surface bond
dependant on the effectiveness of the end anchorage. They then bridge the developed crack over the length of
the debonded fibre. The published literature by the purveyors of this type of fibre shows diagrams of the bridged
crack with the stressed fibre.
17
2.2 Advantages of bres in concrete (continued)
When the stress in the concrete exceeds this balanced macro crack condition the end anchorage is lost and the
deformed ends either slide through the void cast into the cement paste in a straightening mode, or alternatively
slip by local crushing the matrix as the end pulls through. The purveyors of these end anchorage fibres define
that this is a preferred failure mechanism. The fibre stress at which fibre pull-out occurs, relative to the tensile
capacity of the fibre is not defined.
Radmix Pty Ltd has taken the philosophy that it is more appropriate to restrain the propagating crack and
disperse the stress into the surrounding matrix by a combination of surface bond and closely spaced mechanical
anchorages along the length of the continuously deformed fibre.
2.3 Fracture Mechanics vs. Crack Management.
The approach by Radmix Pty Ltd to the dispersion of propagating cracks in the matrix as
described above, leads to a fundamental differing of philosophy of SFRC behaviour relative to some other fibre
purveyors. It is more appropriate to adopt the fracture mechanics approach of the fibre matrix, acting as a
composite material, being able to withstand higher tensile stresses before gross crack initiation, rather than one
which relies on bridged macro cracks (crack management).
This crack management approach has as its basis that the developed stress in the unbonded fibre allows the
concrete element to continue to take load at high deflection. This approach includes the consideration of the
global performance in the constant deflection rate flexural beam or toughness test up to 3mm deflection over a
450mm span, irrespective of the formation of cracks which may be more than the durability limiting crack width of
0.1mm.
3. Properties of Radmix Fibre
Reinforced Concrete
Radmix fibres provide concrete with exceptional material properties. Concrete is considered a brittle material
primarily due to its low tensile strength and low tensile strain capacity prior to fracture. In many applications, poor
tensile performance of the concrete is compensated for by the inclusion of steel reinforcing bars in the tensile
zones of the concrete structure to carry tensile stresses. Concrete can be modified to perform in a more ductile
manner by adding a random distribution of Radmix fibres in the concrete.
This results in a composite or two-phase system of brittle concrete and fibres to form an elastic-plastic system.
The primary advantage of this system is the development of a pre-crack and post-crack load carrying capacity in
concrete members rather than a catastrophic failure following the initiation of the first crack.
In the majority of pavements, shotcrete and pre-cast applications, stresses in the concrete are randomly
distributed and influenced by the dynamic loading conditions. It is, therefore, almost impossible to determine a
true stress pattern and place one or two layers of reinforcement at fixed locations while stresses vary from the
top to the bottom of the element. Loading conditions such as cyclic loading, thermal shock, shear, impact and
shrinkage develop random stress distributions in the concrete.
The random distribution of Radmix fibre reinforcement in the concrete ensures that the stress is redistributed
throughout the concrete matrix. Micro-cracks that increase in size through normal stress development are
subjected to a fibre barrier in all parts of the composite system. Thus small cracks are intercepted before
propagating further into larger cracks that might impair the structure.
It should be understood however, that the design of the fibre is an important factor. Radmix fibres are a crucial
factor to the success of the concrete structures design.
The capacity of Radmix fibres to uniformly transfer loads throughout a matrix is a representation of the ductility
that can be achieved with SFRC compared to plain concrete. The brittleness of plain concrete is therefore
eliminated.
Depending on the specification of the concrete and the dosage rate of Radmix fibres, the various physical
properties of concrete may be modified by the following degree, as shown in Table 3.1.
18
TABLE 3.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES MODIFIED BY RADMIX FIBRES.
PHYSICAL PROPERTY BENEFICIAL EFFECT
Modulus of Rupture 1 to 2 x plain concrete
Shear Strength 1.25 to 2 x plain concrete
Torsional Strength 1.25 to 2 x plain concrete
Impact Energy Absorption 2 to 15 x plain concrete
Fatigue Resistance 1.2 to 2 x plain concrete
Cavitation & Erosion Resistance 1 to 1.4 x plain concrete
Restrained Shrinkage Cracks Reduced Crack Widths
Corrosion Resistance No Cathodic Corrosion Observed
The average values of concrete Compressive Strength ( Fc ) and Static Modulus of Elasticity ( Ec ) for different
concretes with varying percentages of fibre are shown in Table 3.2.
The compressive strength of plain concrete was for a characteristic strength of 48.5 MPa, whereas for the
fibrous concrete with 0.5% and 1.0% by volume fibre contents, the compressive strength decreased slightly.
For higher quantities of fibres (1.5% and 2.0% by volume) there was an appreciable reduction in compressive
strength.
The decrease in strength is due to the increase in yield with a consequent reduction in cement factor and an
increase in water demand associated with increased wetted surface area of the added fibres. If optimum mix
proportions are maintained the compressive strengths can be maintained.
It is also interesting to note the level of ductility produced during failure under compression induced stresses.
A compression test cylinder, instead of exhibiting a characteristic brittle failure of plain concrete, yields and
then progressively crushes. This ductility, which is seen graphically in the load deflection curve of toughness
testing, can be induced at low volume addition levels of 0.25% by volume or 20 kg/m3.
3.1 Compressive Strength and Static Modulus of Elasticity
TABLE 3.2 - COMPARISON OF SFRC PROPERTIES FOR INCREASING FIBRE CONTENT
FIBRE CONTENT Fc Ec Pulse Velocity Fr
% of volume Dosage (MPa) (kPa) (m/s) (MPa)
kg per cu. m
Plain Concrete 0 48.5 24.55 4,462 4.27
0.5% 40 47.1 24.41 4,426 5.34
1.0% 80 41.9 23.30 4,302 5.65
1.5% 120 38.8 20.13 4,195 7.34
2.0% 160 38.1 21.02 4,231 7.72
Legend: Fc -Characteristic Compressive Strength at 28 days
Ec -Static Modulus of Elasticity at 28 days
Fr -Modulus of Rupture [Static Flexural Strength] for controlled deflection rate at 28 days.
19
20
A more economic way to achieve high characteristic static flexural strength values is by improving the concrete
mix design, typically by increasing the cement content or by lowering the water/cement ratio. The beneficial
effect of fibres on static flexural strength is of a marginal improvement.
Increases in concrete Static Flexural Strength Fr values are typically quite small at economic fibre dosage rates
less than 1% by volume. Table 3.3 illustrates the dosages and the effect on Static Flexural Strength. To benefit
from the use of fibres, it is necessary to take into account the strength after cracking, above the stress levels of
elastic behaviour on the load-deflection graph and examine the ramifications of utilising the plastic or hinge
forming behaviour. With redistribution of stresses, this is defined as the toughness of Radmix SFRC.
3.2 Static Flexural Strength (Modulus of Rupture)
Table 3.3 - Static Flexural Strength and Compressive ratios.
Fibre Content Fr Fr+Fc Ffc
Ffc+Fc %
of volume
Dosage (MPa) (MPa) kg per cu. m
0.5% 40 5.34 9.38 5.17 9.08
1.0% 80 5.65 10.41 5.14 9.56
1.5% 120 7.34 14.19 6.07 11.73
2.0% 160 7.72 15.06 6.14 12.51
Legend: Fr - Modulus of rupture
Fc- Characteristic Compressive strength
Ffc- Flexural strength at first crack
A significant difference in the performance of concrete with and without Radmix Fibre is seen in the load
deflection curves, first crack strengths and toughness indices. Load deflection curves are a standardised
method of quantifying the energy a beam absorbs during its load induced flexural deflection. The area under the
curve represents the energy absorbed by the beam and is often referred to as the toughness.
Toughness is calculated according to ASTM C1018 and JSCE4, using load deflection data taken from third point
loading as applied to beams in the static flexural test. Deflection is measured at the mid-point using
electronic dial gauges. The test is deflection controlled and a plot of both the elastic and plastic regions of
failure recorded. The test rig is shown in Figure A, with a JSCE Japanese yoke.
Unlike plain concrete, Radmix fibre reinforced concrete does not fail in a brittle catastrophic manner at the
formation of the first crack with a clearly identifiable maximum load. This ductile behaviour is illustrated in the
load-deflection curve in figure B, reference ASTM C1019-97. Well before signs of significant material distress are
visible, the load deflection curve becomes non-linear, and microscopic examination of the specimen reveals fine
cracks. An increase in the fibre concentration correlates with a slight increase on the first crack strength.
Compared to plain concrete, the reduction in the value of flexural rigidity with increased deflection is not as
severe when using fibre reinforced concrete. In other words, the rate of degeneration of moment of inertia is
slowed down as the fibres resist the propagation of crack growth.
3.3 Load Deflection Behaviour (Toughness)
FIG A. C-1018 TEST APPARATUS WITH JAPANESE YOKE
LOAD CELL
ACTUATOR
LVDT
Spherical Seating
Steel Beam
Specimen
6
6 6 6
Steel Beam
Roller Seating
FIG B. IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LOAD DEFLECTION CURVE
The toughness index, I(x) determined by ASTM C1018 is a dimensionless parameter which defines or
fingerprints the shape of the load-deflection curve. Indices have been defined on the basis of service levels,
identified as multiples of the first crack deflection. This index is computed by dividing the total area under the
load deflection curve (up to the given service level deflection) by the area under the same curve, (up to the first
crack deflection).
Based on the ideal shape for a perfectly elastic material, the toughness index I5 is calculated for a deflection of
3 times the first crack deflection. Likewise, I10 and I30 are the indices up to 5.5 and 15.5 times the first crack
deflection respectively. The toughness index for plain concrete is equal to 1.0 because all the plain concrete
beams fail immediately after first crack. The toughness indices for fibre concrete vary greatly depending on the
type of fibre, aspect ratio, volume fraction and the distribution of fibres.
3.4 Toughness Indicies
TABLE 3.4 - TOUGHNESS INDICES FOR 50MM CORRUGATED STEEL FIBRE.
Fibre Content I
5
I
10
I
30
I
10
I
5
I
30
I
10
% of volume Dosage
kg per cu. m
Plain Concrete 0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5% 40 4.46 8.05 15.62 1.82 1.87
1.0% 80 4.83 8.22 16.03 1.70 1.95
1.5% 120 5.48 9.39 17.28 1.73 1.85
2.0% 160 5.37 9.59 21.62 1.78 2.14
Legend: Fr - Modulus of rupture
Fc- Characteristic Compressive strength
Ffc- Flexural strength at first crack
21
This can be expressed in many different forms, an example would be the endurance limit expressed as a
percentage modulus of rupture of plain concrete. The endurance limit, EL, is defined as the maximum flexural
fatigue stress at which a beam could with stand 2 million cycles of non-reversed fatigue loading, as a percentage
of the modulus of rupture of plain concrete.
For beams reinforced with 0.5% and 1.0% by volume corrugated fibre there is an appreciable increase in the
endurance limit expressed as a percentage of the Modulus Of Rupture of plain concrete. The endurance limit is
71% for the mix with a 0.5% by volume fibre concentration (Figure C) and is 86% for the mix with 1.0% by volume
fibre content, whereas the endurance limit for plain concrete was 65%.
All beams which had withstood 2 million cycles were further tested for an additional 2 million cycles at the same
load range as previously used. With the exception of one beam containing 1.0% by volume of steel fibre, all the
beams withstood 4 million cycles without showing any signs of additional distress or cracking. In other words,
when a beam is subjected to a stress lower than its fatigue stress, then the beam may never fail in fatigue.
This means Radmix fibres can be added to concrete in high fatigue components such as ground slabs, to give
extended life or a reduced section thickness.
3.5 Fatigue / Endurance Limit
250 750 1250 1750 2250 2750 3250 3750
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
1.000
0.950
0.900
0.850
0.800
0.750
0.700
0.650
0.600
0.550
0.500
FIG C. RATIO OF FATIGUE STRESS TO FLEXURAL STRESS VS THE NUMBER OF LOAD CYCLES
No Failure
Source: V.Ramakrishnan, Transportatiion Research Board, January 22-26, 1989, Washington, D.C..
Number of Loads Cycles (in thousands)
ffmax/fr
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Steel Fiber
Reinforced Concrete
Maximum
Fatigue Stress
Static
Cracking Stress
Number of Loads Cycles to Failure
Steel fibres
PCA Airport
Pavement Design
Curve
FIG E. FATIGUE STRESS VS.
LOADING CYCLES TO FAILURE
FIG D. 50MM STEEL FIBRE
FATIGUE DESIGN DATA
26 34 42 50 58 66 74 82 90 98 106 114 120 126
.95
.90
.85
.80
.75
.70
.65
.60
S
t
r
e
s
s
R
a
t
i
o
Quantity of 50mm Steel Fibre per cubic metre of concrete
22
When concrete is subjected to a drying environment, shrinkage occurs and can be followed by cracking.
The extent of shrinkage depends on many factors. These include the properties of the concrete material,
temperature and humidity of the environment, the age when concrete is subjected to the drying environment,
and the size of the structure. If the concrete is restrained from shrinkage, tensile stresses that exceed the tensile
strength of the concrete may develop and the concrete will crack. The addition of Radmix fibres has proven to
considerably reduce the widths of cracks resulting from restrained shrinkage.
Tests have been conducted using a ring type specimen to simulate restrained shrinkage cracking (figure F).
Concrete was cast around a steel mandrel and observations made as the sample shrank, crack widths and
times were recorded. Using the specimen the effects of steel fibres 0.25% to 1.5% by volume were studied to
determine the fibres effect on restrained shrinkage cracks
3.6 Shrinkage Cracking
Source: Shrinkage Cracking
of Fibre Reinforced Concrete,
ACI Materials Journal,
March-April, 1990.
FIG F. TEST SET UP TO MEASURE CRACK WIDTH WITH MICROSCOPE
In figure G one can observe that a quantity of 0.25% by volume ( 20 kg/m3) of steel fibres reduces the largest
crack width in the specimen by over 70%. This concentration represents 0.15% cross-sectional area of steel and
is most commonly specified to replace shrinkage wire mesh.
With Radmix SFRC, the fibres bridging the crack will provide resistance to crack widening, which will provide
tensile stress to the un-cracked portion of the concrete. As a result, the measured strain values exhibit a reversal
in trend as indicated in figure I, which plots the results for a specimen reinforced with 0.25% steel fibres.
If these additional tensile stresses exceed the current concrete tensile strength, another crack may form. As the
concentration of fibre is increased, the largest crack width the microscope can detect is dramatically reduced.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.2 1.4 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
C
r
a
c
k
W
i
d
t
h
(
m
m
)
Steel Fibre Volume (%)
Source: Shrinkage Crack Width Vs. Steel Fibre Volume, ACI, Mar-Apr 90.
Theoretical Analysis Experimental Results
FIG G. AVERAGE CRACK WIDTH VS. STEEL FIBRE VOLUME (RESTRAINED SHRINKAGE)
23
Fibres have the ability, even at moderate addition levels, to improve punch and shear. Table is a summary of the
results from punch and shear tests of flat plates measuring 150mm thick x 3 metres wide x 3 metres long, and
subjected to centre point loading (Figure J). The tests have been done to compare punch and shear behaviour
of plain, polypropylene, mill cut, 2 layers of welded wire mesh and high tensile deformed steel fibres.
It can be observed that the values of punch and shear are improved by the addition of relatively small quantities
of fibres.
3.7 Punch and Shear
FIG K. COMPARATIVE SLAB TESTS
Plate1 Plate 2 Plate 3 Plate 4 Plate 5 Plate 6
100
80
60
40
20
0
Load at First Crack & Failure
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