The endocrine system refers to the collection of glands of an organism that secrete hormones

directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards a distant target organ. The major
endocrine glands include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid
gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus, gastrointestinal tract and adrenal glands. The endocrine
system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its hormones using ducts. Examples
of exocrine glands include the sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands, and liver. The
endocrine system is an information signal system like the nervous system, yet its effects and
mechanism are classifiably different. The endocrine system's effects are slow to initiate, and
prolonged in their response, lasting from a few hours up to weeks. The nervous system sends
information very quickly, and responses are generally short lived. In vertebrates, the
hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The field of study dealing
with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine.
Special features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and
commonly the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In
contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the
gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen.
In addition to the specialised endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part
of other body systems, such as the kidney, liver, heart and gonads, have secondary endocrine
functions. For example the kidney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin.
A number of glands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis, for
example, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
As opposed to endocrine factors that travel considerably longer distances via the circulatory
system, other signaling molecules, such as paracrine factors involved in paracrine signalling
diffuse over a relatively short distance.
The word endocrine derives from the Greek words - endo- "inside, within," and
krinein "to separate, distinguish".

Endocrine glands in the human head and neck and their hormones
Hypothalamus
Secreted hormone Abbreviation Produced by Effect
Thyrotropin-
releasing hormone
TRH
Parvocellular
neurosecretory
neurons
Stimulate thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) release from anterior pituitary
(primarily)
Dopamine
(Prolactin-
inhibiting
hormone)
DA or PIH
Dopamine
neurons of the
arcuate nucleus
Inhibit prolactin released from anterior
pituitary
Growth hormone-
releasing hormone
GHRH
Neuroendocrine
neurons of the
Arcuate
nucleus
Stimulate Growth hormone (GH) release
from anterior pituitary
Somatostatin
(growth hormone-
inhibiting
hormone)
SS, GHIH, or
SRIF
Neuroendocrine
cells of the
Periventricular
nucleus
Inhibit Growth hormone (GH) release from
anterior pituitary
Inhibit thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
release from anterior pituitary
Gonadotropin-
releasing hormone
GnRH or
LHRH
Neuroendocrine
cells of the
Preoptic area
Stimulate follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) release from anterior pituitary
Stimulate luteinizing hormone (LH) release
from anterior pituitary
Corticotropin-
releasing hormone
CRH or CRF
Parvocellular
neurosecretory
neurons of the
Paraventricular
Nucleus
Stimulate adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) release from anterior pituitary
Vasopressin
(antidiuretic
hormone)
ADH or AVP
or VP
Parvocellular
neurosecretory
neurons,
Magnocellular
neurosecretory
neurons of the
Paraventricular
nucleus and
Supraoptic
nucleus
Increases water permeability in the distal
convoluted tubule and collecting duct of
nephrons, thus promoting water
reabsorption and increasing blood volume
Pineal body (epiphysis)
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Melatonin Pinealocytes Antioxidant
Monitors the circadian rhythm including
induction of drowsiness and lowering of the
core body temperature
Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 5
grams (0.18 oz) in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of
the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma
sellae). The pituitary is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via
a small tube called the infundibular stem or pituitary stalk. The pituitary fossa, in which the
pituitary gland sits, is situated in the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial fossa at the base of the
brain. The pituitary gland secretes nine hormones that regulate homeostasis and the secretion of
other hormones.
[citation needed]

Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Growth hormone
(somatotropin)
GH Somatotrophs
Stimulates growth and cell reproduction
Stimulates Insulin-like growth factor 1
release from liver
Thyroid-stimulating
hormone
(thyrotropin)
TSH Thyrotrophs
Stimulates thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3) synthesis and release
from thyroid gland
Stimulates iodine absorption by thyroid
gland
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone
(corticotropin)
ACTH Corticotrophs
Stimulates corticosteroid (glucocorticoid
and mineralcorticoid) and androgen
synthesis and release from adrenocortical
cells
Beta-endorphin Corticotrophs Inhibits perception of pain
Follicle-stimulating
hormone
FSH Gonadotrophs
In females: Stimulates maturation of
ovarian follicles in ovary
In males: Stimulates maturation of
seminiferous tubules
In males: Stimulates spermatogenesis
In males: Stimulates production of
androgen-binding protein from Sertoli
cells of the testes
Luteinizing hormone LH Gonadotrophs
In females: Stimulates ovulation
In females: Stimulates formation of corpus
luteum
In males: Stimulates testosterone synthesis
from Leydig cells (interstitial cells)
Prolactin PRL Lactotrophs
Stimulates milk synthesis and release from
mammary glands
Mediates sexual gratification
Melanocyte-
stimulating hormone
MSH
Melanotropes
in the Pars
intermedia of
the Anterior
Pituitary
Stimulates melanin synthesis and release
from skin/hair melanocytes
Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Oxytocin

Magnocellular
neurosecretory
cells
In females: uterine contraction during
birthing, lactation (letdown reflex) when
nursing
Vasopressin
(antidiuretic
hormone)
ADH or AVP
Parvocellular
neurosecretory
neurons
Increases water permeability in the distal
convoluted tubule and collecting duct of
nephrons, thus promoting water reabsorption
and increasing blood volume
Endocrine system
The endocrine system includes all of the glands of the body and the hormones produced by
those glands. The glands are controlled directly by stimulation from the nervous system as well as by
chemical receptors in the blood and hormones produced by other glands. By regulating the functions of
organs in the body, these glands help to maintain the bodys homeostasis. Cellular metabolism,
reproduction, sexual development, sugar and mineral homeostasis, heart rate, and digestion are among
the many processes regulated by the actions of hormones.
Anatomy of the Endocrine System
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain located superior and anterior to the brain stem and
inferior to the thalamus. It serves many different functions in the nervous system, and is also
responsible for the direct control of the endocrine system through the pituitary gland. The
hypothalamus contains special cells called neurosecretory cellsneurons that secrete hormones:
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
All of the releasing and inhibiting hormones affect the function of the anterior pituitary gland.
TRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone. GHRH and
GHIH work to regulate the release of growth hormoneGHRH stimulates growth hormone
release, GHIH inhibits its release. GnRH stimulates the release of follicle stimulating hormone
and luteinizing hormone while CRH stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone. The
last two hormonesoxytocin and antidiuretic hormoneare produced by the hypothalamus and
transported to the posterior pituitary, where they are stored and later released.

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis, is a small pea-sized lump of tissue
connected to the inferior portion of the hypothalamus of the brain. Many blood vessels surround
the pituitary gland to carry the hormones it releases throughout the body. Situated in a small
depression in the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica, the pituitary gland is actually made of 2
completely separate structures: the posterior and anterior pituitary glands.
1. Posterior Pituitary: The posterior pituitary gland is actually not glandular tissue at all, but
nervous tissue instead. The posterior pituitary is a small extension of the hypothalamus
through which the axons of some of the neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus extend.
These neurosecretory cells create 2 hormones in the hypothalamus that are stored and
released by the posterior pituitary:

o Oxytocin triggers uterine contractions during childbirth and the release of milk
during breastfeeding.
o Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents water loss in the body by increasing the re-
uptake of water in the kidneys and reducing blood flow to sweat glands.
2. Anterior Pituitary: The anterior pituitary gland is the true glandular part of the pituitary
gland. The function of the anterior pituitary gland is controlled by the releasing and
inhibiting hormones of the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary produces 6 important
hormones:
o Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), as its name suggests, is a tropic hormone
responsible for the stimulation of the thyroid gland.
o Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex, the outer
part of the adrenal gland, to produce its hormones.
o Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the follicle cells of the gonads to
produce gametesova in females and sperm in males.
o Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the gonads to produce the sex hormones
estrogens in females and testosterone in males.
o Human growth hormone (HGH) affects many target cells throughout the body by
stimulating their growth, repair, and reproduction.
o Prolactin (PRL) has many effects on the body, chief of which is that it stimulates
the mammary glands of the breast to produce milk.