Efficient Variable Frequency Drive

Analysis and Design

Session 2010-2014


Supervised by:
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Kamran

Submitted by:
Muhammad Noman Sharif 2010-EE-336
Ahmad Talha Hashim 2010-EE-326
Rizwan Ali 2010-EE-319
Usman Ahmad 2010-EE-329


Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, KSK Campus- Pakistan
June 2014



Efficient Variable Frequency Drive
Analysis and Design
Submitted to the Faculty of the Electrical Engineering Department
of the University of Engineering and Technology Lahore
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science
in
Electrical Engineering




__

Internal Examiner External Examiner




X
Director Undergraduate Studies
X


Director Undergraduate Studies




Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
June 2014


i



Declaration
I/We declare that the work contained in this report is my/our own, except where explicitly stated otherwise. For
any plagiarism, we four students are solely responsible. Advisor is not claimable for any plagiarism. In
addition this work has not been submitted to obtain another degree or professional qualification.


Signed:______ __________________ Signed: __________________
Date: Date:


Signed: __________________ Signed: __________________
Date:_________ Date:



























ii



Acknowledgments
First of all, all praises for Allah Almighty that blessed us with ability, courage and hard work to take up this
project and to see it through to completion.
Secondly, We express our most sincere gratitude, hearty sentiments and thanks to our project advisor Prof.
Dr. Muhammad Kamran for his excellent supervision, encouragement, knowledge delivering. Without his
insightful knowledge and inspirational guidance this project wouldnt have been a success. His
availability and compassion toward us was a constant source of comfort, knowing that we can achieve
our goal of completing the project. He shall forever be held in the highest regards by us.
The acknowledgement will be incomplete without mentioning our Project Advisor Maam Ifrah ,
faculty members of the Department of Electrical Engineering, UET Lahore and our senior Rao Ahmad
Bilal who during the course of four years here, imparted us with knowledge and made us capable of what we
are today.
.



Muhammad Noaman Sharif
Ahmad Talha
Rizwan Ali
Usman Ahmad
13 June, 2014





iii














Dedicated to
Our parents; who have always showered us with unwavering support and love and our teachers; for leading us
into intellectual pursuit and who, inspired us towards the sacred task of learning. They taught us right from
wrong and guided us to the right and successful path.


























Table of Contents
Chapter1: Introduction to Inverter Basics
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... ...2
1.2 Types of inverters ... .......................................................................................................................... ...2
1.3 Applications of inverters ... .................................................................................................................. .3
1.4 Inverter topologies... ............................................................................................................................ ..5
1.5 Single-phase inverter ... ........................................................................................................................ .6
1.5.1 Single-phase half bridge inverter ... .......................................................................................... ...6
1.5.2 Single-phase full bridge inverter: ............................................................................................. ...7
1.6 Three-phase inverter: ... ....................................................................................................................... .9
1.6.1 180 conduction mode ... .......................................................................................................... ..1 0
1.6.2 120 conduction mode ... .......................................................................................................... ..1 2
Chapter 2: Implementation and Analysis of PWM Techniques
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... .15
2.2 Literature review ... .......................................................................................................................... ..1 5
2.3 Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation ... ............................................................................................. ..1 6
2.3.1 Modulation index of sinusoidal PWM ... ............................................................................... ...1 7
2.4 Space vector pulse-width modulation ... .......................................................................................... .18
2.4.1 Principle of space vector PWM ... ............................................................................................ .18
2.4.1.1 Step 1: Determine V
d
, V
q
, V
ref
and angle (: ... ................................................................ ..2 0
2.4.1.2 Step 2: Determine time duration T
1
, T
2
, T
0
... ................................................................... .21
2.4.1.3 Step 3: Determine the switching time of each transistor ... ............................................ ..2 3
2.5 Space vector pulse-width modulation for FSTPI ... ...................................................................... ...2 5
Chapter 3: Invereter-fed Induction Motor Drive
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... .30
3.2 Comparison with DC drive ... .......................................................................................................... ..3 0


vii





3.3 Steady-state operation - Importance of achieving full flux... ....................................................... ...3 1
3.4 Torque-speed characteristics-Constant V/f operation ... ................................................................ ..3 2
3.5 Open-loop V/f speed control ... ...................................................................................................... ...3 4
3.6 Closed-loop V/f speed control ... .................................................................................................... ...3 7
3.7 Vector (Field-oriented) control ....................................................................................................... ..3 9
3.8 RFOC Implementation .................................................................................................................... ..4 1
Chapter 4: Software and Simulation Work
4.1 Using Matlab Simulink ... ................................................................................................................ ..4 5
4.2 Sine PWM in Simulink ... ................................................................................................................ ..4 7
4.3 Space vector pulse width modulation in Simulink ... ...................................................................... .48
4.4 Implementation of four-switch three-phase inverter ... ................................................................... .50
Chapter 5: Implementation on Hardware and Results
5.1 Introduction to hardware requirements ... ....................................................................................... ..5 5
5.2 Measurements using Fluke scope meter and power analyzer ... .................................................. ...5 7
5.3 Working with DSP ... ....................................................................................................................... ..5 7
5.4 PCBs of hardware ... ....................................................................................................................... ...5 9
5.5 Results of different switching techniques ... ................................................................................... ..6 0
5.5.1 180 conduction currents without PWM ... ............................................................................. ..6 0
5.5.2 180 degree conduction with PWM (4 kHz) ... ......................................................................... .61
5.5.3 Sinusoidal PWM... .................................................................................................................... ..6 2
5.5.4 SVPWM with six-switch inverter .......................................................................................... ...6 3
5.5.5 SVPWM with four-switch inverter (unbalanced currents) ... ............................................... ...6 4
5.5.6 SVPWM with four-switch inverter (balanced currents) ... ..................................................... .65
Conclusion and Future Work ... ................................................................................................ ..6 6
References... ........................................................................................................................................ ..6 7



viii



List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Internal circuit of a typical VFD... 1
Figure 1.2 AC Sine wave2
Figure 1.3 VFD basics: Existing Technology.3
Figure 1.4 Output of converter fed to DC bus.4
Figure 1.5 Schematic diagram of a typical VFD.5
Figure 1.6 Output of converter and its comprising sine wave.6
Figure 1.7 Components used in VFD..7
Figure 1.8 Comparison of energy consumption.11
Figure 2.1 Different switching devices types.12
Figure 2.2 Basic structure of a power diode30

Figure 2.3 Forward current and voltage waveform of a power diode.32

Figure 2.4 Reverse recovery characteristics of a power diode.33
Figure 2.5 Basic MOSFET structure35

Figure 2.6 1
st
Quadrant operation of MOSFET....37

Figure 2.7 Basic IGBT structure...38

Figure 2.8 Equivalent IGBT structure..40
Figure 2.9 Current and Voltage Characteristics of IGBT.42
Figure 3.1 Single phase half-wave rectifier..44
Figure 3.2 Single phase center tapped rectifier and output waveform..45
Figure 3.3 Single phase bridge inverter and output waveform..45
Figure 3.4 Three phase half wave rectifier.47
Figure 3.5 Waveforms of three-phase half wave rectifier48
Figure 3.6 Three phase full-wave rectifier49
Figure 3.7 Waveforms of three-phase full wave rectifier...........49
Figure 4.1 Induction motor..............................................................................................................52
Figure 4.2 Single phase bridge inverter54


Figure 4.3 Waveforms single phase bridge inverter..54
Figure 4.4 Three phase inverter.56
Figure 4.5 line-to-line voltage waveform..57
Figure 4.6 line-to-line voltage waveform..58
Figure 4.7 Line-to-line voltage waveform.59
Figure 4.8 Line-to-line voltage waveform59





Figure 4.12: Reference signal generation for four-switch three-phase inverter ... ......................... ...5 0
Figure 4.13: Reference Signals and sector for four-switch inverter ... ............................................... ..5 1
Figure 4.14: a) Stator current b) rotor speed c) torque ... ..................................................................... .52
Figure 4.15: Three-phase current output of a four-switch inverter ... .................................................. .52
ix





Figure 4.16: Compensated reference signals for four-switch inverter ... ......................................... ..5 3
Figure 4.17: Balanced output currents of four-switch inverter for induction motor ... ................... ..5 3
Figure 5.1: Implementation of inverter circuit in Proteus ... ................................................................ ..5 8
Figure 5.2: Gate driver circuit ... ........................................................................................................... ...5 9
Figure 5.3: Inverter circuit design ... ...................................................................................................... .59
Figure 5.4: Three-phase currents for 180 degree conduction without PWM ... ................................ .60
Figure 5.5: Harmonic analysis of single-phase current for 180 degree non-PWM conduction ....60
Figure 5.6: Harmonic analysis of three-phase currents for 180 degree non-PWM conduction ....60
Figure 5.7: Three-phase currents for 180 degree conduction with PWM ... .................................. ...6 1
Figure 5.8: Harmonic analysis of three-phase currents for 180 degree conduction with PWM ... 61
Figure 5.9: Harmonic analysis of single-phase current for 180 degree conduction with PWM ... 61
Figure 5.10: Three-phase currents for sinusoidal PWM ... ................................................................... .62
Figure 5.11: Harmonic analysis of three phase currents for sinusoidal PWM ... ............................ ..6 2
Figure 5.12: Three-phase currents for SVPWM with six-switch inverter ... ................................... ..6 3
Figure 5.13: Harmonic analysis of three phase currents for SVPWM with six-switch inverter ... 63
Figure 5.14: Unbalanced three-phase currents for SVPWM with four-switch inverter ... ............. ...6 4
Figure 5.15: Harmonic analysis of unbalanced three-phase currents for SVPWM with four-
switch inverter........................................................................................................................................ ...6 4
Figure 5.16: Balanced three-phase currents for SVPWM with four-switch inverter ... .................... .65
Figure 5.17: Harmonic analysis of balanced three-phase currents for SVPWM with four-switch
inverter... ......................................................................................................................................................... ..6 5























x




List of Tables
Table 1: Switching states for single-phase bridge inverter 8
Table 2: Output line to neutral and line to line voltages for SVPWM 19
Table 3: Sectors and their respective switching segments 23
Table 4: Switching time for SVPWM for six-switch three-phase inverter 25
Table 5: Switching and voltage vectors for four-switch three phase inverter 26
Table 6: Switching time for SVPWM for four-switch three-phase inverter 28



































xi






Motivation
What if electrical appliances with different rated voltage and frequency are to be used with our
utility? What if industrial processes demand the speed control of motors? What if we are
generating dc power from renewable sources and we want to use it for our ac appliances? So
here comes the concept of power inverters. Inverters come in all sizes and shapes, from a high
power rating to a very low power rating, from low power functions like powering a car radio to
that of backing up a building in case of power outage. Inverters come in many varieties differing
in power, efficiency, price and purpose. The purpose of an inverter is to change a dc input to ac
output which will be symmetric and will have desired magnitude and frequency.
Inverters have been widely used in industrial applications such as uninterruptible power supplies, static
frequency changers and ac motor drives. Recently, the inverters are also playing important role in renewable
energy applications as they are used to link a photovoltaic or wind system to a power grid. Induction motors are
the most widely used electrical motors due to their reliability, low cost and robustness. However, induction
motors do not inherently have the capability of variable speed operation. Due to this reason, earlier dc
motors were applied in most of the electrical drives. But the recent developments in speed control methods
of the induction motor have led to their large scale use in almost all electrical drives.
The motor drives are revolutionized by the years of research and development in this field. As
the time passes by, the efficiency and cost become the major factors in deciding which topology
is preferable. Six-switch inverter provides balanced output voltage and better efficiency whereas;
four-switch inverter provides reduction in cost and minimization in components. However, the
output of four switch inverter is naturally unbalanced and we have to use some remedy to cure
this.







Abstract
This project deals with the implementation and design of Variable Frequency Drive using four-switch
configurations. Induction motor is a constant speed motor like a dc shunt motor but in many applications we
need variable speed for different industrial operation. Although there are number of methods to control
speed of motors via adjustable speed drive (ASD) or variable speed drive (VSD), here we will discuss only
one of the methods called V/F method that is actually a scalar method of speed control. Speed of induction
motor depends upon the frequency of supply voltage, here we will change the frequency of supply to change
the speed .In this method first we will convert single phase ac voltage (220V AC) into dc voltage (311 dc).
This dc voltage will be given to a dc to dc converter that is used to change the dc voltage level. This dc
voltage is applied to inverter that converts this dc voltage into three phase ac voltage again but the use of it
is such that we can change the voltage level and also the frequency of this voltage that helps us to change
the speed and also to keep the V/F ratio constant.
14






15



16







Chapter 1
Introduction to VFDs
__________________________
17

VFD (Variable Frequency Drives)
The device which uses power electronics to vary the frequency of input power to the motor, thereby
controlling motor speed. This more generic term applies to devices that control the speed of either the
motor or the equipment driven by the motor (fan, pump, compressor, etc.).This are electronic devices.
Variable frequency drive (VFD) usage has increased dramatically in HVAC applications. The VFDs are
now commonly applied to air handlers, pumps, chillers and tower fans. A better understanding of VFDs
will lead to improved application and selection of both equipment and HVAC systems. A typical small
variable frequency drive is shown below and its internal circuit is also shown.



Figure 1.1 Internal Circuit of a typical VFD



VFD Operation:

Understanding the basic principles behind VFD operation requires understanding the three basic sections
of the VFD:
The rectifier
18

Dc bus
Inverter



The voltage on an alternating current (ac) power supply rises and falls in the pattern of a sine
wave (see Figure 1). When the voltage is positive, current flows in one direction; when the voltage is
negative, the current flows in the opposite direction. This type of power system enables large amounts of
energy to be efficiently transmitted over great distances.

Rectifier:

The rectifier in a VFD is used to convert incomingac power into direct current (dc) power. One
rectifierwill allow power to pass through only when thevoltage is positive. A second rectifier will
allowpower to pass through only when the voltage is negative. Two rectifiers are required for each phase
of power. Since most large power supplies are three phase, there will be a minimum of 6 rectifiers used
(see Figure 2). Appropriately, the term 6 pulse is used to describe a drive with 6 rectifiers. A VFD may
have multiple rectifier sections, with 6 rectifiers per section, enabling a VFD to be 12 pulse, 18
pulse, or 24 pulse.Rectifiers may utilize diodes, silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR), or transistors to
19

rectify power. Diodes are the simplest device and allow power to flow any time voltage is of the proper
polarity. Silicon controlled rectifiers include a gate circuit that enables a microprocessor to control when
the power may begin to flow, making this type of rectifier useful for solid-state starters as well.
Transistors include a gate circuit that enables a microprocessor to open or close at any time, making the
transistor the most useful device of the three. A VFD using transistors in the rectifier section is said to
have an active front end.





DC Bus:
After the power flows through the rectifiers it is stored on a dc bus. The dc bus contains capacitors to
accept power from the rectifier, store it, and later deliver that power through the inverter section. The dc
bus may also contain inductors, dc links, chokes, or similar items that add inductance, thereby smoothing
the incoming power supply to the dc bus.

Inverter:

The final section of the VFD is referred to as an inverter. The inverter contains transistors that deliver
power to the motor. The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is a common choice in modern
VFDs. The IGBT can switch on and off several thousand times per second and precisely control the
20

power delivered to the motor. The IGBT uses a method named pulse width modulation (PWM) to
simulate a current sine wave at the desired frequency to the motor
.
How does a Variable Frequency Drive work?

The first stage of a Variable Frequency AC Drive, or VFD, is the Converter. The converter is comprised
of six diodes, which are similar to check valves used in plumbing systems. They allow current to flow in
only one direction; the direction shown by the arrow in the diode symbol. For example, whenever A-
phase voltage (voltage is similar to pressure in plumbing systems) is more positive than B or C phase
voltages, then that diode will open and allow current to flow. When B-phase becomes more positive than
A-phase, then the B-phase diode will open and the A-phase diode will close. The same is true for the 3
diodes on the negative side of the bus. Thus, we get six current pulses as each diode opens and closes.
This is called a six-pulse VFD, which is the standard configuration for current Variable Frequency
Drives.


Let us assume that the drive is operating on a 480V power system. The 480V rating is rms or root-
mean-squared. The peaks on a 480V system are 679V. As you can see, the VFD dc bus has a dc voltage
with an AC ripple. The voltage runs between approximately 580V and 680V.

21

We can get rid of the AC ripple on the DC bus by adding a capacitor. A capacitor operates in a similar
fashion to a reservoir or accumulator in a plumbing system. This capacitor absorbs the ac ripple and
delivers a smooth dc voltage. The AC ripple on the DC bus is typically less than 3 Volts. Thus, the
voltage on the DC bus becomes approximately 650VDC. The actual voltage will depend on the voltage
level of the AC line feeding the drive, the level of voltage unbalance on the power system, the motor load,
the impedance of the power system, and any reactors or harmonic filters on the drive.
The diode bridge converter that converts AC-to-DC, is sometimes just referred to as a converter. The
converter that converts the dc back to ac is also a converter, but to distinguish it from the diode converter,
it is usually referred to as an inverter. It has become common in the industry to refer to any DC-to-AC
converter as an inverter.

Note that in a real VFD, the switches shown would actually be transistors.
When we close one of the top switches in the inverter, that phase of the motor is connected to the positive
dc bus and the voltage on that phase becomes positive. When we close one of the bottom switches in the
converter, that phase is connected to the negative dc bus and becomes negative. Thus, we can make any
phase on the motor become positive or negative at will and can thus generate any frequency that we want.
So, we can make any phase be positive, negative, or zero.
22


The blue sine-wave is shown for comparison purposes only. The drive does not
generate this sine wave.
Notice that the output from the VFD is a rectangular wave form. VFDs do not produce a sinusoidal
output. This rectangular waveform would not be a good choice for a general purpose distribution system,
but is perfectly adequate for a motor.
If we want to reduce the motor frequency to 30 Hz, then we simply switch the inverter output transistors
more slowly. But, if we reduce the frequency to 30Hz, then we must also reduce the voltage to 240V in
order to maintain the V/Hz ratio (see the VFD Motor Theory presentation for more on this). How are we
going to reduce the voltage if the only voltage we have is 650VDC?
This is called Pulse Width Modulation or PWM. Imagine that we could control the pressure in a water
line by turning the valve on and off at a high rate of speed. While this would not be practical for plumbing
systems, it works very well for VFDs. Notice that during the first half cycle, the voltage is ON half the
time and OFF half the time. Thus, the average voltage is half of 480V or 240V. By pulsing the output, we
can achieve any average voltage on the output of the VFD.
23




Figure 1.7 Components used in VFD





24



Benefits of VFD:

As VFD usage in HVAC applications has increased, fans, pumps, air handlers, and chillers can benefit
from speed control. Variable frequency drives provide the following advantages:
Energy savings
Low motor starting current
Reduction of thermal and mechanical stresses on motors and belts during starts
Simple installation
High power factor
Lower KVA


Energy savings:

Many fixed-speed motor load applications that are supplied direct from AC line power can save energy
when they are operated at variable-speed, by means of VFD. Such energy cost savings are especially
pronounced in variable-torque centrifugal fan and pump applications, where the loads' torque and power
vary with the square and cube, respectively, of the speed. This change gives a large power reduction
compared to fixed-speed operation for a relatively small reduction in speed. For example, at 63% speed a
motor load consumes only 25% of its full speed power. This is in accordance with affinity laws that
define the relationship between various centrifugal load variables. In the United States, an estimated 60-
65% of electrical energy is used to supply motors, 75% of which are variable torque fan, pump and
compressor loads. Eighteen percent of the energy used in the 40 million motors in the U.S. could be saved
25

by efficient energy improvement technologies such as VFDs. Only about 3% of the total installed base of
AC motors are provided with AC drives However, it is estimated that drive technology is adopted in as
many as 30-40% of all newly installed motors.
VFDs as Starters:

A VFD is the ideal soft starter since it provides thelowest inrush of any starter type as shown in Table.
Unlike all other types of starters, the VFD can use frequency to limit the power and current delivered to
the motor. The VFD will start the motor by delivering power at a low frequency. At this low frequency,
the motor does not require a high level of current. The VFD incrementally increases the frequency and
motor speed until the desired speed is met. The current level of the motor never exceeds the full load amp
rating of the motor at any time during its start or operation. In addition to the benefit of low starting
current, motor designs can now be optimized for high efficiency.



Easy Installation:

Many pieces of equipment are factory shipped with unit mounted VFDs that arrive pre-programmed and
factory wired. Motor leads, control power for auxiliaries,and communication lines are all factory wired.
The VFD cooling lines on unit-mounted chiller VFDs are also factory installed. The installing contractor
needs only to connect the line power supply to the VFD.


High Power Factor:
26


Power converted to motion, heat, sound, etc. is called real power and is measured in kilowatts (kW).
Power that charges capacitors or builds magnetic fields is called reactive power and is measured in
Kilovolts Amps Reactive (kVAR). The vector sum of the kW and the kVAR is the Total Power (energy)
and is measured in Kilovolt Amperes (KVA). Power factor is the ratio of kW/KVA. Typical AC motors
may have a full load power factor ranging from 0.84 to 0.88. As the motor load is reduced, the power
factor becomes lower. Utilities may require site power factor values ranging from 0.85 to 0.95 and impose
penalties to enforce this requirement. Power factor correction capacitors can be added to reduce the
reactive current measured upstream of the capacitors and increase the measured power factor.
The VFDs include capacitors in the DC Bus that perform the same function and maintain high power
factor on the line side of the VFD. This eliminates the need to add power factor correction equipment to
the motor or use expensive capacitor banks. In addition, VFDs often result in higher line side power
factor values than constant speed motors equipped with correction capacitors.

Variable Speed Capability:

Whenever load speeds are varied, there are many considerations which must be taken into account. These
concerns are both electrical and mechanical in nature.The electrical problems associated with electronic
drives generally concern the insulation. Because of the type of output generated by the inverter, there is
great stress placed upon the insulation and the temperature rise of the windings may increase. In other
cases, the motor may be run below its minimum self-cooling speed. The main trouble is that for every 10
degrees C, the insulation life of the windings are reduced by half. If the temperature rise is allowed to
climb too high, the motor will overload and burn-up in a very short time. A VFD provide full speed
control without affecting the torque with help of V/F method.

Power Quality:

Harmonics and electrical noise are potential problems when power electronics are utilized. As more
VFD's are put into use, utilities may force users to install harmonicfiltering from entering their
systems.Harmonic content has attracted quite a bit of attention when discussing powerquality andpower
electronics. Harmonics,created by the load, generally come from feedback intothe line from electronic
power supplies. Voltage and current harmonics tend to create alternate fields within motors and rotors,
cause transformers to overheat, and interferewith other electronic systems. Odd harmonics of
27

thefundamental frequency aregenerally found in power electronic systems VFDs also help in reducing
the harmonic content of output voltage and current.

Comparison of Energy Consumption with VFD used:



Conclusion:
VFDs provide the most energy efficient means of capacity control.
VFDs have the lowest starting current of any starter type.
VFDs reduce thermal and mechanical stresses on motors and belts.
VFD installation is as simple as connecting the power supply to the VFD.
VFDs with AFE technology can meet even the most stringent harmonic standards and reduce backup
generator sizing.
VFDs provide high power factor, eliminating the need for external power factor correction capacitors.
VFDs provide lower KVA, helping alleviate voltage sags and power outages.






28






Chapter 2
Switching Devices
__________________________

29


2.1 Switching Devices
A power semiconductor device is a semiconductor device used as a switch or rectifier in power
electronics; a switch-mode power supply is an example. Such a device is also called a power device or,
when used in an integrated circuit, a power IC.A power semiconductor device is usually used in
"commutation mode" (i.e., it is either on or off), and therefore has a design optimized for such usage.

2.2 Brief History of Switching Devices
The first power semiconductor device appeared in 1952 with the introduction of the
Power Diode by R.N. Hall. It was made of germanium and had a reverse voltage blocking
capability of 200 V and a current rating of 35 A.
The Thyristor appeared in 1957. It is able to withstand very high reverse breakdown voltage and
is also capable of carrying high current. However, one disadvantage of the thyristor in switching
circuits is that once it becomes 'latched-on' in the conducting state; it cannot be turned off by
external control, as the thyristor turn-off is passive, i.e., the power must be disconnected from the
device.
Thyristors which could be turned off, called Gate Turn-off Thyristors (GTO), were introduced
in 1960 These overcome some limitations of the ordinary thyristor, because they can be turned on
or off with an applied signal.The first bipolar transistor device with substantial power handling
capabilities was introduced in the 1960s.
Due to improvements in the MOSFET technology (metal oxide semiconductor technology,
initially developed to produce integrated circuits), the power MOSFET became available in the
late 1970s. International Rectifier introduced a 25 A, 400 V power MOSFET in 1978. This device
allows operation at higher frequencies than a bipolar transistor, but is limited to low voltage
applications.
The Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) was developed in the 1980s, and became
widely available in the 1990s. This component has the power handling capability of the bipolar
transistor and the advantages of the isolated gate drive of the power MOSFET.

30

2.3 Classification
A power device may be classified as one of the following main categories.
A two-terminal device Diode, whose state is completely dependent on the external power circuit
to which it is connected
A three-terminal device Triode, whose state is dependent on not only its external power circuit,
but also the signal on its driving terminal.
A majority carrier device, a Schottky diode, a MOSFET; this uses only one type of charge
carriers.
A minority carrier device ,a thyristor, a bipolar transistor, an IGBT; this uses both majority
and minority carriers.

Figure 2.1 Different switching devices types
2.4 Power Diodes
Power semiconductor diode is the power level counter part of the low power signal diodes with
which most of us have some degree of familiarity. These power devices, however, are required to carry up
to several KA of current under forward bias condition and block up to several KV under reverse biased
31

condition. These extreme requirements call for important structural changes in a power diode which
significantly affect their operating characteristics.
These structural modifications are generic in the sense that the same basic modifications are applied to all
other low power semiconductor devices (all of which have one or more p-n junctions) to scale up their
power capabilities. It is, therefore, important to understand the nature and implication of these
modifications in relation to the simplest of the power devices.
Construction
Power Diodes of largest power rating are required to conduct several kilo amps of current in the forward
direction with very little power loss while blocking several kilo volts in the reverse direction. Large
Figure 2.2 Basic structure of a power diode

blocking voltage requires wide depletion layer in order to restrict the maximum electric field strength
below the impact ionization level. Space charge density in the depletion layer should also be low in
order to yield a wide depletion layer for a given maximum Electric fields strength. These two
requirements will be satisfied in a lightly doped p-n junction diode of sufficient width to accommodate
the required depletion layer. Such a construction, however, will result in a device with high resistively in
the forward direction. Consequently, the power loss at the required rated current will be unacceptably
high. On the other hand if forward resistance (and hence power loss) is reduced by increasing the doping
level, reverse break down voltage will reduce. This apparent contradiction in the requirements of a power
32

diode is resolved by introducing a lightly doped drift layer of required thickness between two heavily
doped p and n layers as shown in figure.
To arrive at the structure as shown in figure a lightly doped n
-
epitaxial layer of specified width
(depending on the required break down voltage) and donor atom density (NdD) is grown on a heavily
doped n
+
substrate (NdK donor atoms.Cm
-3
) which acts as the cathode. Finally the p-n junction is formed
by defusing a heavily doped (NaA acceptor atoms.Cm-3) p
+
region into the epitaxial layer. This p type
region acts as the anode. Impurity atom densities in the heavily doped cathode (Ndk .Cm
-3
) and anode
(NaA.Cm
-3
) are approximately of the same order of magnitude (10 19 Cm
-3
) while that of the epitaxial
layer (also called the drift region) is lower by several orders of magnitude (NdD 10 14 Cm
-3
). In a low
power diode this drift region is absent.
Switching Parameters
An ideal diode should have the following characteristics:
When forward-biased, the voltage across the end terminals of the diode should be zero, whatever the
current that flows through it (on-state).
When reverse-biased, the leakage current should be zero, whatever the voltage (off-state).
The transition (or commutation) between the on-state and the off-state should be instantaneous.

Switching Characteristics of Power Diodes
Power Diodes take finite time to make transition from reverse bias to forward bias condition (switch ON)
and vice versa (switch OFF).Behavior of the diode current and voltage during these switching periods are
important due to the following reasons.

1-Severe over voltage / over current may be caused by a diode switching at different points in the circuit
using the diode.
2-Voltage and current exist simultaneously during switching operation of a diode. Therefore, every
switching of the diode is associated with some energy loss. At high switching frequency this may
contribute significantly to the overall power loss in the diode
Observed Turn-On behavior of a Power Diode
33

Diodes are often used in circuits with di/dt limiting inductors. The rate of rise of the forward current
through the diode during Turn ON has significant effect on the forward voltage drop characteristics. It is
observed that the forward diode voltage during turn ON may transiently reach a significantly higher value
Figure 2.3 Forward current and voltage waveform of a power diode

V
fr
compared to the steady slate voltage drop at the steady current IF. In some power converter circuits
(e.g voltage source inverter) where a freewheeling diode is used across an asymmetrical blocking power
switch (i.e GTO) this transient over voltage may be high enough to destroy the main power switch. V
fr

(called forward recovery voltage) is given as a function of the forward di/dt in the manufacturers data
sheet. Typical values lie within the range of 10-30V. Forward recovery time (t
fr
) is typically within 10 us.

Observed Turn-Off behavior of a Power Diode
Figure shows a typical turn off behavior of a power diode assuming controlled rate of decrease of the
forward current. Salient features of these characteristics are:
The diode current does not stop at zero, instead it grows in the negative direction to Irr called
peak reverse recovery current which can be comparable to IF. In many power electronic
circuits (e.g. choppers, inverters) this reverse current flows through the main power switch in
34

addition to the load current. Therefore, this reverse recovery current has to be accounted for
while selecting the main switch.
Voltage drop across the diode does not change appreciably from its steady state value till the
diode current reaches reverse recovery level. In many power electric circuits (choppers,
inverters) this may create an effective short circuit across the supply, current being limited only
by the stray wiring inductance. Also in high frequency switching circuits (e.g, SMPS) if the time
period t4 is comparable to switching cycle qualitative modification to the circuit behavior is
possible.
Towards the end of the reverse recovery period if the reverse current falls too sharply, (low
value of S), stray circuit inductance may cause dangerous over voltage (V
rr
) across the device. It
may be required to protect the diode using an RC snubber.
Figure 2.4 Reverse recovery characteristics of a power diode
During the period t
5
large current and voltage exist simultaneously in the device. At high switching
frequency this may result in considerable increase in the total power loss. Important parameters defining
the turn off characteristics are, peak reverse recovery current (I
rr
),reverse recovery time (t
rr
), reverse
recovery charge (Q
rr
) and the snappiness factor S. Of these parameters, the snappiness factor S depends
mainly on the construction of the diode (e.g. drift region width, doping lever, carrier life time etc.). Other
parameters are interrelated and also depend on S. Manufacturers usually specify these parameters as
35

functions of diF/dt for different values of IF. Both I
rr
and Q
rr
increases with IF and diF/dt while t
rr

increases with IF and decreases with diF/dt.

Power MOSFET
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is a transistor used for amplifying or
switching electronic signals. Although the MOSFET is a four-terminal device with source (S), gate (G),
drain (D), and body (B) terminals,

the body (or substrate) of the MOSFET is often connected to the source
terminal, making it a three-terminal device like other field-effect transistors. Because these two terminals
are normally connected to each other (short-circuited) internally, only three terminals appear in electrical
diagrams. The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits, though
the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common.
In enhancement mode MOSFETs, a voltage drop across the oxide induces a conducting channel between
the source and drain contacts via the field effect. The term "enhancement mode" refers to the increase of
conductivity with increase in oxide field that adds carriers to the channel, also referred to as the inversion
layer. The channel can contain electrons (called an n-MOSFET or n-MOS), or holes (called a p-MOSFET
or p-MOS), opposite in type to the substrate, so n-MOS is made with a p-type substrate, and p-MOS with
an n-type substrate. In the less common depletion mode MOSFET, the channel consists of carriers in a
surface impurity layer of opposite type to the substrate, and conductivity is decreased by application of a
field that depletes carriers from this surface layer.
Basic Device Structure
Power MOSFETs (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect transistor) are the most commonly used
power devices due to their low gate drive power, fast switching speed and superior paralleling capability.
Most power MOSFETs feature a vertical structure with Source and Drain on opposite sides of the wafer
in order to support higher current and voltage. The traditional metaloxidesemiconductor (MOS)
structure is obtained by growing a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO
2
) on top of a silicon substrate and
depositing a layer of metal or polycrystalline silicon (the latter is commonly used). As the silicon dioxide
is a dielectric material, its structure is equivalent to a planar capacitor, with one of the electrodes replaced
by a semiconductor. When a voltage is applied across a MOS structure, it modifies the distribution of
charges in the semiconductor. If we consider a p-type semiconductor (with the density
of acceptors, p the density of holes; p = N
A
in neutral bulk), a positive voltage, , from gate to body
(see figure) creates a depletion layer by forcing the positively charged holes away from the gate-in
36

Figure 2.5 Basic MOSFET structure

insulator/semiconductor interface, leaving exposed a carrier-free region of immobile, negatively charged
acceptor ions (see doping (semiconductor)). If is high enough, a high concentration of negative
charge carriers forms in an inversion layer located in a thin layer next to the interface between the
semiconductor and the insulator. Unlike the MOSFET, where the inversion layer electrons are supplied
rapidly from the source/drain electrodes, in the MOS capacitor they are produced much more slowly by
thermal generation through carrier generation and recombination centers in the depletion region.
Conventionally, the gate voltage at which the volume density of electrons in the inversion layer is the
same as the volume density of holes in the body is called the threshold voltage. When the voltage between
transistor gate and source (V
GS
) exceeds the threshold voltage (V
th
), it is known as overdrive voltage.
A metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is based on the modulation of charge
concentration by a MOS capacitance between a body electrode and a gate electrode located above the
body and insulated from all other device regions by a gate dielectric layer which in the case of a
MOSFET is an oxide, such as silicon dioxide. If dielectrics other than an oxide such as silicon dioxide
(often referred to as oxide) are employed the device may be referred to as a metalinsulator
semiconductor FET (MISFET). Compared to the MOS capacitor, the MOSFET includes two additional
terminals (source and drain), each connected to individual highly doped regions that are separated by the
body region. These regions can be either p or n type, but they must both be of the same type, and of
opposite type to the body region. The source and drain (unlike the body) are highly doped as signified by
a '+' sign after the type of doping.
37

If the MOSFET is an n-channel or NMOS FET, then the source and drain are 'n+' regions and the body is
a 'p' region. If the MOSFET is a p-channel or PMOS FET, then the source and drain are 'p+' regions and
the body is a 'n' region. The source is so named because it is the source of the charge carriers (electrons
for n-channel, holes for p-channel) that low through the channel; similarly, the drain is where the charge
carriers leave the channel.

Switching Parameters
The operation of a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes, depending on the voltages at the
terminals. For an enhancement-mode, n-channel MOSFET, the three operational modes are:
Cutoff,
Sub threshold
weak-inversion mode
On-State Characteristics
We consider here power MOSFET under two different modes of operations:
The first quadrant operation
The third quadrant operation.
Figure 2.6 1
st
Quadrant operation of MOSFET
First-Quadrant Operation
38

For an n-channel MOSFET, the device operates in the first quadrant when a positive voltage is applied to
the drain, as shown in figure. As the gate voltage (VG) increases above the threshold voltage (VTH), the
MOSFET channel begins to conduct current. The amount of current it conducts depends on the on-
resistance of the MOSFET, as defined by
R
SON
=V
D
/I
D
For sufficiently large gate overdrive (VG >> VTH), the ID-VD curve appears linear because the
MOSFET channel is fully turned on. Under low gate overdrive, the drain current reaches a saturation
point when VD > (VG-VTH) due to a pinch-off effect of the channel.

Third-Quadrant Operation
Third-quadrant operation for power MOSFET is common in DC-DC buck converters, where current
conduction occurs under relatively low current, the on-state characteristics for sufficient large current, and
therefore sufficient large V
DON
. When V
DON
approaches the forward drop voltage of the body diode, the
body diode starts to conduct. As a result, the current increases and no current saturation behavior is
observed. under at V
DS
(for an n-channel MOSFET). Current flows in the reverse direction compared to
first-quadrant operation. The same RDSON components apply. The third-quadrant operation is symmetric
to that of the first quadrant operation. We may assume the same R
DSON
for both types of operation.

Power IGBT
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is a minority-carrier device with high input impedance and
large bipolar current-carrying capability. Many designers view IGBT as a device with MOS input
characteristics and bipolar output characteristic that is a voltage-controlled bipolar device. To make use of
the advantages of both Power .MOSFET and BJT, the IGBT has been introduced. Its a functional
integration of Power MOSFET and BJT devices in monolithic form. It combines the best attributes of
both to achieve optimal device characteristics. The IGBT is suitable for many applications in power
electronics, especially in Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) servo and three-phase drives requiring high
dynamic range control and low noise. It also can be used in Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS),
Switched-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS), and other power circuits requiring high switch repetition rates.
IGBT improves dynamic performance and efficiency and reduced the level of audible noise. It is equally
suitable in resonant-mode converter circuits. Optimized IGBT is available for both low conduction loss
and low switching loss.
39

Basic Structure
The basic schematic of a typical N-channel IGBT based upon the DMOS process is shown in Figure. This
is one of several structures possible for this device. It is evident that the silicon cross-section of an IGBT
is almost identical to that of a vertical Power MOSFET except for the P
+
injecting layer. It shares similar
MOS gate structure and P wells with N
+
source regions. The N
+
layer at the top is the source or emitter
and the P
+
layer at the bottom is the drain or collector. It is also feasible to make P-channel IGBTs and for
which the doping profile in each layer will be reversed. IGBT has a parasitic thyristor comprising the
four-layer NPNP structure. Turn-on of this thyristor is undesirable.
Figure 2.7 Basic IGBT structure
Some IGBTs, manufactured without the N
+
buffer layer, are called non-punch through (NPT) IGBTs
whereas those with this layer are called punch-through (PT)
IGBTs.The presence of this buffer layer can significantly improve the performance of the device if the
doping level and thickness of this layer are chosen appropriately. Despite physical similarities, the
operation of an IGBT is closer to that of a power BJT than a power MOSFET. It is due to the P
+
drain
layer (injecting layer) which is responsible for the minority carrier injection into the N
-
-drift region and
the resulting conductivity modulation.

40

Based on the structure, a simple equivalent circuit model of an IGBT can be drawn as shown in Figure . It
contains MOSFET, JFET, NPN and PNP transistors. The collector of the PNP is connected to the base of
the NPN and the collector of the NPN is connected to the base of the PNP through the JFET. The NPN
and PNP transistors represent the parasitic thyristor which constitutes a regenerative feedback loop. The
resistor RB represents the shorting of the base-emitter of the NPN transistor to ensure that the thyristor
does not latch up, which will lead to the IGBT latch-up. The JFET represents the constriction of current
between any two neighboring IGBT cells.
Figure 2.8 Equivalent IGBT structure

Operation Modes
Forward-Blocking and Conduction Modes
When a positive voltage is applied across the collector-to-emitter terminal with gate shorted to emitter
shown in Figure, the device enters into forward blocking mode with junctions J1 and J3 are forward-
biased and junction J2 is reverse-biased. A depletion layer extends on both-sides of junction J2 partly into
P-base and N-drift region.
An IGBT in the forward-blocking state can be transferred to the forward conducting state by removing
the gate-emitter shorting and applying a positive voltage of sufficient level to invert the Si below gate in
the P base region. This forms a conducting channel which connects the N
+
emitter to the N
-
-drift region.
Through this channel, electrons are transported from the N
+
emitter to the N
-
-drift. This flow of electrons
into the N
-
-drift lowers the potential of the N
-
-drift region whereby the P
+
collector/ N
-
-drift becomes
forward-biased. Under this forward-biased condition, a high density of minority carrier holes is injected
into the N
-
-drift from the P
+
collector. When the injected carrier concentration is very much larger the
41

background concentration, a condition defined as a plasma of holes builds up in the N
-
-drift region. This
plasma of holes attracts electrons from the emitter contact to maintain local charge neutrality. In this
manner, approximately equal excess concentrations of holes and electrons are gathered in the N
-
-drift
region. This excess electron and hole concentrations drastically enhance the conductivity of N
-
-drift
region. This mechanism in rise in conductivity is referred to as the conductivity modulation of the N
-
-drift
region.
Reverse-Blocking Mode
When a negative voltage is applied across the collector-to-emitter terminal shown in Figure, the junction
J1 becomes reverse-biased and its depletion layer extends into the N
-
-drift region. The break down
voltage during the reverse-blocking is determined by an open-base BJT formed by the P
+
collector/ N
-
-
drift/P-base regions. The device is prone to punch-through if the N
-
-drift region is very lightly-doped. The
desired reverse voltage capability can be obtained by optimizing the resistivity and thickness of the N
-
-
drift region.
Switching Characteristics
The Figure shows a test circuit for switching characteristics and the Figure shows the corresponding
current and voltage turn-on and turn-off waveforms. IXYS IGBTs are tested with a gate voltage switched
from +15V to 0V. To reduce switching losses, it is recommended to switch off the gate with a negative
voltage (-15V). The turn-off speed of an IGBT is limited by the lifetime of the stored charge or minority
carriers in the N--drift region which is the base of the parasitic PNP transistor. The base is not accessible
physically thus the external means cannot be applied to sweep out the stored charge from the Ndrift
region to improve the switching time. The only way the stored charge can be removed is by
recombination within the IGBT. Traditional lifetime killing
techniques or an N+ buffer layer to collect the minority charges at turn-off are commonly used to speed-
up recombination time.
The turn-on energy Eon is defined as the integral of IC .V
CE
within the limit of 10% I
CE
rise to 90% V
CE

fall. The amount of turn on energy depends on the reverse recovery behavior of the freewheeling diode,
so special attention must be paid if there is a freewheeling diode within the package of the IGBT . The
turn-off energy E
off
is defined as the integral of I
C
.V
CE
within the limit of 10% V
CE
rise to 90% IC fall.
E
off
plays the major part of total switching losses in IGBT.


42

Figure 2.9 Current and Voltage Characteristics of IGBT

The main advantages of IGBT over a Power MOSFET and a BJT are:
It has a very low on-state voltage drop due to conductivity modulation and has superior on-state
current density. So smaller chip size is possible and the cost can be reduced.
Low driving power and a simple drive circuit due to the input MOS gate structure. It can be
easily controlled as compared to current controlled devices (thyristor, BJT) in high voltage and
high current applications.
Wide SOA. It has superior current conduction capability compared with the bipolar transistor. It
also has excellent forward and reverse blocking capabilities.

The main drawbacks are:
Switching speed is inferior to that of a Power MOSFET and superior to that of a BJT.
There is a possibility of latch up due to the internal PNPN thyristor structure.
Difference between IGBT and MOSFET:
Although both IGBT and MOSFET are voltage controlled devices, IGBT has a BJT like
conduction characteristics.
Terminals of IGBT are known as emitter, collector, and gate, whereas MOSFET is made of gate,
source, and drain.
43

IGBTs are better in power handling than MOSFETS.
IGBT has PN junctions, and MOSFETs doesnt have them.
IGBT has a lower forward voltage drop compared to MOSFET.
MOSFET has a long history compared to IGBT.























44









Chapter 3
Introduction to Rectifiers










45



3.1Rectifiers
Generally, the Conversion of AC signal to DC is called rectification. The word rectification is used
because these circuits produce DC output and current flows in one direction. There are two types of AC-
DC converters. They are uncontrolled and controlled rectifiers. The input of these converters can be
single phase or three phase. Uncontrolled rectifiers are called diodes while controlled rectifiers are
thyristors, we can control the conduction of thyristors by controlling firing angle through its gate.

3.2Single Phase Half-wave Rectifier

The basic diagram of single phase half-wave rectifier is shown fig. (2.1). It contains power supply, diode
and load. Its operation is during the first half cycle the diode is forward biased and then input voltage
appears across the load since diode is forward biased. During the negative half cycle the diode is reverse
biased and no voltage is fed to the load. The output voltage waveform and the schematic diagram of
single phase half wave rectifier is as shown below.

Figure 3.1 Single phase half-wave rectifier

3.3Single Phase Full-Wave Rectifier

The main reason is to obtain DC output like that in half-wave but single phase full-wave has extra
advantage since it conducts both cycles. There are two ways to make single phase full-wave rectifier and
they are bridge wave and center tapped transformer rectifier and they are shown in figure 3.2 and figure
3.3 . In center tapped transformer rectifier during the positive cycle the upper diode conducts since it is
46

forward biased and during the negative half cycle the lower diode conducts as now its forward biased.
And output waveform containing consecutive half lobes is obtained.

The bridge wave rectifier is slightly different then the center tapped transformer rectifier and is shown
figure 3.3. It uses four diodes during the positive half cycle; one upper and one lower diodes are forward
biased simultaneously and during the negative half cycle the other two diodes are forward biased which
conducts. Hence with this circuitry also, a full wave rectification is done.

Figure 3.2 Single phase center tapped rectifier and output waveform

Figure 3.3 Single phase bridge inverter and output waveform

47


3.4Three Phase Half-wave Rectifier

Three phase bridge rectifier is shown in figure (2.4). At a time, at least one diode is conducting. It is the
diode connected to the phase having the highest instantaneous voltage. The average output voltage is:

Similarly, the rms value of the output voltage can be found as:


The rectifier has a three pulse characteristics, and load current is of less ripple contents in relative to
single-phase rectifiers, which is characterized by two pulse output. The ripple frequency is of3f (where f
is input frequency) and requiring smoothing reactor at the load side is of smaller size.

Figure 3.4 Three phase half wave rectifier
48


Figure 3.5 Waveforms of three-phase half wave rectifier
3.5 Three Phase Full-wave Rectifier
Three phase full-wave rectifier is commonly used in high power applications and it is shown in figure
(2.6). Ithas six pulse ripples on the output voltage. There are total of six diodes and they conduct in order
of sequence and each one conducts for 120 degree. The current and voltage waveforms are shown in
figure (2.7). The line voltage is 1.73 times phase voltage of three phase delta connected source. Average
output voltage is

The rms value of the output voltage can be found as:
49



Figure 3.6 Three phase full-wave rectifier

Figure 3.7 Waveforms of three-phase full wave rectifier
50









Chapter 4
Introduction to Inverters






51

4.1Introduction to Inverters
Inverters are DC to AC converters. The function of inverter is to convert DC input to symmetric AC
output. Ideally inverter is intended to produce a sinusoidal AC output but in practice most of the inverter
produces multi step square waves that can replace the AC sine waves. Even though AC sine wave is the
ideal requirement, the cost and design constrain limits developer to multistep square wave that can run
most of the AC devices.
The real sinusoidal output can also be obtained by recently developed techniques that will be discussed in
the following chapter. Inverters can be single phase or three phase inverters. Moreover according to the
type of semiconductor devices used in inverter it can also be categorized into BJTS, MOSFETS, IJBTS,
MCTS, and GTOS etc.
An inverter is called voltage fed inverter if its input voltage is constant and the inverter is called as current
fed inverter if the input current is constant. In our project we have worked on voltage fed inverter. The
output of inverter can be controlled in two ways, either we can vary the input DC voltage and maintain
the gain of inverter constant or by varying the gain of inverter which is normally accomplished by PWM .

4.2 Industrial Applications
Today the rising demand of electricity in every field has made the inverters the more important device in
power electronics. The energy crisis has also triggered the excessive use of inverter modules that convert
DC into AC supply using the energy stored in batteries. Many field uses inverter as an inseparable core
such as UPS, DC power source utilization, Induction heating, HVDC power transmission, Variable
frequency drives, and modern electric vehicles. This project focuses the inverter with its usability for
driving three phase induction motors. However the designed inverter can also be used for any kind of
linear loads. Also, modified form of the design can also be implemented in UPS or can be used for
driving nonlinear loads.

4.3 Introduction to AC motors
An Induction ac motor is the simplest and most rugged electric motor and consists of two basic electrical
assemblies: the wound stator and the rotor assembly. In induction ac motors current following secondary
member (rotor) that are induced by alternating currents flowing in the primary member (stator).
The combined electromagnetic effects of the stator and rotor currents produce the force to create rotation.
Mainly induction motors are of two types. They are:
52

i) Squirrel cage induction motor
ii) Slip ring induction motor

Figure 4.1 Induction motor
Mostly in industries squirrel cage induction motors are used because it is cheaper. AC motors typically
feature rotors, which consist of a laminated, cylindrical iron core with slots for receiving the conductors.
The most common type of rotor has cast-aluminum conductors and short-circuiting end rings. This ac
motor "squirrel cage" rotates when the moving magnetic field induces a current in the shorted conductors.
The speed at which the ac motor magnetic field rotates is the synchronous speed of the ac motor and is
determined by the number of poles in the stator and the frequency of the power supply:

Where n
s
is synchronous speed f is frequency, and pis the number of poles. Synchronous speed is the
absolute upper limit of ac motor speed. If the ac motor's rotor turns exactly as fast as the rotating
magnetic field, then no lines of force are cut by the rotor conductors, and torque is zero. When ac motors
are running, the rotor always rotates slower than the magnetic field. The ac motor's rotor speed is just
slow enough to cause the proper amount of rotor current to flow, so that the resulting torque is sufficient
to overcome windageand friction losses, and drive the load. The speed difference between the ac motor's
rotor and magnetic field, called slip, is normally referred to as a percentage of synchronous speed.
,
Wheresis slipn
s
is synchronous speed, and n
a
is actual speed. For locked rotor, the rotor frequency will be
same as stator [2]
53

4.4 Speed control of an induction motor

When power is supplied to an induction motor the motor runs at rated speed but many applications need
other thanthe rated speed for example fans, washing machines and pumps need different speed for desired
output task. Synchronous rotational speed of the rotor is controlled by controlling number of poles or
bycontrolling the frequency of the supply voltage. However, for a loaded rotor, for any given drive
frequency and current and mechanical load, synchronous motors should be run in the 'operating zone' for
that particular induction motor. This is the shaft rotation speed range above the peak torque. In this zone
slightly increasing the slip speed increases the torque, and decreasing the slip decreases the torque. Hence
in this zone the motor will tend to run at constant speed. Below the operating zone, the run speed tends to
be unstable and may stall out or run at reduced shaft speed, depending on the nature of the mechanical
load.
Before the development of economical semiconductor power electronics, it was difficult to vary the
frequency of the motor and induction motors were mainly used in fixed speed applications. [3]

4.5 Variable speed drives
Variable speed drives are combination of electronic devices which help motor to meet its requirement at
load. VSD rectify input voltage to DC and again invert this voltage to AC at a different voltages and
frequency. The benefit of variable speed drives is the reduction of energy consumed and to provide
quality to the end products ofpumps, fans and conveyers. Electric motors and coupling combinations used
for altering the speed will behave as either a Speed Source or a Torque Source. The Speed Source is when
the driven load is driven at a constant speed. Torque Source is when the driven load is driven by a
constant torque, and the speed alters to the point where the torque of the driven load equals the torque
delivered by the motor.

Conversion of DC to AC is called inversion. The function of an inverter is to change a DC input voltage
to an AC output voltage of desired magnitude and frequency .the output voltage can be variable or fixed.
Variable output voltage is obtained by two ways:
i. Varying input dc voltage and keeping thegain of an inverter constant
ii. Keeping input dc voltage constant but varying the gain of the inverter which uses the
advantage of pulse width modulation (PWM)
An inverter is called voltage fed invert (VFI) if input voltage is kept constant and current fed inverter
(CFI) if input current is kept constant[4]. Inverters can be single phase or three phase.
54

4.6 Single Phase Bridge Inverter
A single phase bridge inverter is shown in figure (2.8). It consists of four choppers. When transistor T1
and T4 are turned on simultaneously the input voltage Vdc appears across load. And when transistors T3
and T2 are turned on simultaneously input voltage appears across load but now the voltage is reversed i.e.
-Vdc. There are four diodes used in parallel to transistor in head to tail fashion and they acts to feed
energy back to the source and they are known as feed-back diodes.

Figure 4.2 Single phase bridge inverter
The output voltage waveform is shown in figure(3.3). When transistors T1 and T4 are conducting, input
voltage Vdc appears across the load and inversely when transistors T3 and T2 are conducting the input
voltage appears across the load but now voltage changes its polarity i.e. -Vdc is obtained in the output.

Figure 4.3 Waveforms single phase bridge inverter
55


The following table 2.1 shows how the switching of the transistors is being obtained and how individual
switch state output voltage is being delivered. When S1,S4 are conducting and S2,S3 are off we name it
switch state 10 and output voltage is Vdc.
Table (3) Switch state for single phase bridge inverter
State State no. Switch state Va0 Vb0 V0 Components
Conducting
S1,s4 on
S3,s4 off
1 10 Vdc -Vdc Vs S1 ,s2 if I0>0
D1,D2 if I0<0
S3,s2 on
S1,S2 off
2 01 -Vdc Vdc -Vs D3,D4 if I0>0
S3,S4 if i0<0
S1,S3 on
S4,S2 off
3 11 Vdc Vdc 0 S1,D3 if I0>0
D1,S3 if i0<0
S2,s4 on
S3,s1 off
4 00 -Vdc -Vdc 0 D4,S2 if I0>0
D2,S4 if I0<0
All are off 5 off -Vdc
Vdc
Vdc
-Vdc
-Vs
Vs
D3,D4 if i0>0
D2,D1 if i0<0


4.7 Three Phase Inverter
Single phase inverter covers low range power applications. Meanwhile, 3-phase inverters are usually used
for a high-power application. The 3-phase inverters generally are used for supplying 3-phase load
especially in AC motor drives and uninterruptible AC power supplies. A 3-phase output can be obtained
from a configuration of six transistors as shown in Figure (2.10). Three phase inverter consists of six
transistors and six diodes and its operation is such that three transistors are ON simultaneously. The
diodes are put parallel to each transistor to feed-back energy to the source. No two transistor connected to
same leg will be switched ON at same time since this causes short circuit across the DC line between
them. In order to get balanced three-phase output voltage we either use 180 degree conduction or 120
degree conduction.

56

For connected load the phase currents can be obtained directly from line-to-line voltages. Once the
phase currents are known, the line currents can be determined. For Y-connected load, the line to neutral
voltages must be determined to find line currents .There are three modes of operation in a half cycle and
equivalent are shown in figure.[5]



Figure 4.4 Three phase inverter

The three modes of operation are as follows and associated waveforms of the phase-to-phase voltages are
also shown

57



Figure 4.5 line-to-line voltage waveform




58





Figure 4.6 line-to-line voltage waveform




59



Figure 4.7 Line-to-line voltage waveform

The line to line voltages is shown in figure 3.8

Figure 4.8 Line-to-line voltage waveform
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4.8 Output Voltage Control
A power electronic inverter is essentially a device for creating a variable AC frequency output from a DC
input. The frequency of the output voltage or current is readily established by simply switching for equal
time periods to the positive and the negative DC bus and appropriately adjusting the half-cycle period.
However, the variable frequency ability is nearly always accompanied by a corresponding need to adjust
the amplitude of the fundamental component of the output waveform as the frequency changes, i.e.,
voltage control.
4.9 Volts/Hertz Criterion
In applications involving AC motors, the load can be characterized as being essentially inductive. Since
the time rate of change of flux linkages X in an inductive load is equal to the applied voltage, then

If one is only concerned with the fundamental component, then, if a phase voltage is of the form
the corresponding flux linkage is

suggesting that the fundamental component of voltage must be varied in proportion to the frequency if the
amplitude of the flux in the inductive load is to remain sensibly constant.








61




Chapter 5
Pulse Width Modulation and its
Techniques









62


To obtain a near sinusoidal output waveform and to eliminate certain harmonics from the output different
types of modulation techniques are used. In many industrial applications to control the output voltage of
inverters variations with input dc voltages are made, to regulate voltage of inverters and satisfy the
constant volts and frequency control requirement. There are various techniques to vary the inverter gain.
The most efficient method of controlling the output voltage is to incorporate PWM control within the
inverters. The commonly used techniques are:
Single pulse width modulation
Multiple-pulse width modulation
Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
Modified sinusoidal pulse width modulation
Third harmonic pulse width modulation
60
0
pulse width modulation
Space vector pulse width modulation

5.1 Single Pulse Width Modulation

In single pulse width modulation control, there is only one pulse per half-cycle and the width of the pulse
is verified to control the inverter output voltage. The gating signals are generated by comparing a
rectangular reference signal of amplitude Ar with rectangular carrier signal Ac. The frequency of the
reference signal determines the the fundamental frequency of output voltage. The instantaneous output
voltage is The ratio of Ar to ac is the control variable and defined as the amplitude
modulation index. The amplitude modulation index M is given as:


The rms output voltage can be found from


By varying Ar from 0 to Ac, the pulse width can be modified from 0
0
to180
0
and the rms output voltage
Vo from 0 to Vs [6]. The Fourier series of output voltage is obtained by:
Vo (t) =

.
63

Due to the symmetry of output voltage along the x axis, the even harmonics are absent.

Figure 5.1 waveform single PWM

5.2 Multiple Pulse Width Modulation
In multiple pulse width modulation technology, waveforms that contain a number of narrow pulses are
used. The frequency of these narrow pulses is called switching or carrier frequency. The MPWM
technology is used in inverters driving variable frequency motor control systems. This allows wide range
of output voltages and frequency adjustments. Moreover the MPWM technology overall improves the
quality of the waveforms. The harmonic content can be reduced by using several pulses in each half cycle
of output voltage. These types of modulation are also known as multiple pulse width modulation or
uniform pulse width modulation. The control signal to turn on and off switches is obtained by comparing
a reference signal with a triangular carrier signal. The number of pulses per half cycle is given by



Where is defined as the frequency modulation ratio. When the modulation index M is
varied from 0 to 1, the pulse width varies from 0 to and the output voltage magnitude varies from 0
to V.For example, in the half bridge inverter Q1 is turned on and off P number of times in each positive
cycle to cause P number of equal width output voltage pulses. Similarly, Q2 is controlled to cause P
number of pulses of same width in each negative cycle. If the pulse width is ,then the rms voltage is
given by
64


Figure5.2 Waveform MPWM

*

The general form of a Fourier series for instantaneous output voltage is:

The coefficient Bn in equation can determined by considering a pair of pulses such that the positive pulse
of duration starts at and the negative one of the same width startsat . The effect of
all pulses can be combined together to obtain the effective output voltage.
i.e.

[ ]

We can write computer program to calculate the harmonics in the output voltage using the above
equation. Lower order harmonics are reduced by multiple pulse width modulation. But, the increased
switching in each half cycle increase the magnitude of higher order harmonics and the switching power
losses in the switches. However, higher order harmonics can be filtered easily.[6]

65

5.3 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
The SPWM technique is the most common traditional one and it is used in practical inverters due to its
low harmonic profile in the inverter output voltage. In sinusoidal pulse-width-modulation technique
(SPWM), the width of each pulse is varied by generating a sinusoidal reference signal instead of a
rectangular reference signal. This sinusoidal pulse width- modulation technique gives a harmonic profile
of lower distortion factor compared to that of multiple pulse-width modulation and single pulse width
modulation techniques.


Figure 5.3: Waveform SPWM

The sinusoidal reference signal (Vr) at required frequency is compared with a triangular carrier signal
(Vc) to produce the switching control signals. These signals control the ON-state and OFF-state of the
switching device the triangular carrier signal is utilized to generate multiple pulses per output cycle, and
varied pulse widths are obtained due to applying the sinusoidal reference signal. The amplitude ratio of
the reference signal (Ar) to the carrier signal (Ac) controls the modulation index (M) and then the inverter
output voltage. In the SPWM, there are variable pulse widths and the width of each pulse (k) depends on
its order (k). Therefore the effective value of the inverter output voltage is given in terms of (k).

66

The rms output voltage can be varied by varying the modulation index ( ). It can be observed
that the area of each pulse corresponds approximately to the area under the sine wave between the
adjacent midpoints of OFF periods on the gating signals. If m is the width of m
th
pulse, the rms output
voltage is given by
(

[ ]
For n = 1,3,5


The output voltage of an inverter contains harmonics. The PWM pushes the harmonics into a high-
frequency range i.e. the switching frequency fc and its multiples. That is around harmonics mf, 2mf, 3mf,
and so on. The frequencies at which the voltage harmonics occur can be related by:
fn = (jmfk)fc
where the nth harmonic equals the kth sideband of jth sideband of jth times the frequency to modulation
ratio mf.
n = jmfk
= 2jpk for j = 1,2,3..and k = 1,3,5..
The peak fundamental output voltage for PWM and SPWM control can be found approximately from
Vm1 = dVs . for 0d1.0
If d = 1 gives maximum peak amplitude of the fundamental output voltage. The operation beyond (d = 1)
is called over modulation.[7]

5.4 Sinusoidal PWM for Three Phase Inverter

For three phase inverters there are three sinusoidal reference waves (Vra,Vrb,Vrc) each shifted by 120
0
. A
carrier wave is compared with reference signal corresponding to a phase to generate the gating signals for
that phase. Comparing the carrier signal Vcr with reference phases Vra,Vrband Vrc produces g1,g3 and
g5 respectively. The instantaneous line to line output voltage is . The ouput voltage
is generated by eliminating the condition that two switching devices in the same arm cannot conduct at
the same time.

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The normalized carrier frequency should be odd multiples of three. Thus, all phase-voltage are
identical, but 120
0
out of phase without even harmonics. Moreover, harmonics at frequencies multiple of
three are identical in amplitude and phase in all phases. For instance, if the ninth harmonic voltage is in
phase a


The corresponding ninth harmonic in phase b will be,



Thus, the ac output line voltage does not contain the ninth harmonic. Therefore, for
odd multiples of three times the normalized carrier frequency , the harmonics in the AC output voltage
appear at normalized frequencies centered around and its multiplies, specially at
n = jmfk

where j = 1,3,5.for k = 2,4,6.;and j = 2,4,.for k = 1,5,7..such that n is not a multiple of three.
For nearly sinusoidal AC load current, the harmonics in the DC link current are at frequencies given by:



where j = 0,2,4.for k = 1,5,7and j = 1,3,5for k = 2,4,6,such that is positive and
not a multiple of three. Because the maximum amplitude of the fundamental phase voltage in the linear
region (M 1) is , the maximum amplitude of the fundamental ac output line voltage is
. Therefore, one can write the peak amplitude as:

For 0 <M< 1
To further increase the amplitude of the load voltage, the amplitude of the modulating signal can be made
higher than the amplitude of the carrier signal, which leads to over modulation.

5.5 Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

In sinusoidal pulse width modulation, the width of the pulses nearer the peak of the sine wave does not
change significantly when modulation index is varied. This is because of characteristic of the sine wave.
In modified sinusoidal pulse width modulation the carrier wave is applied during the first and last 60
0

68

intervals in each half cycle. This modification increases the magnitude of the fundamental component of
output voltage and also further reduces the harmonics. It also reduces the number of switching of power
semiconductors in each half cycle and thereby reduces the switching power loss.

5.6 Third Harmonic Pulse Width Modulation
The third harmonic PWM is similar to the selected injection method, and it is implemented in the same
manner as sinusoidal PWM. The difference is that the reference ac waveform is not sinusoidal but
consists of both a fundamental component and a third harmonic component. As a result, the peak to peak
amplitude of the resulting reference function does not exceed the DC supply voltage,but the
fundamental component is higher than the available supply. The presence of exactly the same third
harmonic component in each phase results in an effective cancellation of of the third harmonic component
in the neutral terminal, and the line to neutral phase voltages (Van, Vbn and Vcn) are all sinusoidal with
peak amplitude of
.
The fundamental component is the same peak amplitude and the peak line volatage
is . This is approximately 15.5% higher in amplitude than that
achieved by the sinusoidal PWM. Therefore, the third harmonic PWM provides better utilization of the dc
supply voltage than the sinusoidal PWM does.



5.7 60 Pulse Width Modulations
The 60 PWM is similar to the modified PWM. The idea behind 60 PWM is to flat top the waveform
from 60 to 120 and 240 to 300. The power devices are held ON for one third of the cycle (when at full
voltage) and have reduced switching losses. All triple harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th, 21st, 27th, etc.) are
absent in the three phase voltages. The 60PWM creates a larger fundamental (2/) and utilizes more of
the available DC voltage (phased voltage and line voltage ) than does
sinusoidal PWM. The output waveform can be approximated by the fundamental and the first few terms.

5.8 Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation
69

Space vector modulation (SVM) is quite different from the PWM methods. With PWMs, the inverter can
be thought of as three separate push pull drives stages, which create each phase waveform
independently. SVM, however, treats the inverter as a single unit, especially; the inverter can be driven to
eight unique states. Modulation is accomplished by switching the state of the inverter. The control
strategies are implemented in digital systems. SVM is a digital modulating technique where the objective
to generate PWM load line voltages that are in average equal to a given (or reference) load line voltages.
This is done in each sampling period by properly selecting the switch states of the inverter and the
calculation of the appropriate time period for each state. The selection of the states and their time period
are accomplished by the space vector transformation.




Figure 5.4 SVM line to neutral voltage


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Table 4 Switch State for SVM

5.9 180 Degree Conduction

In 180 conduction each transistor conducts 180. Generally there are six modes of operation in a cycle
and the duration of each mode is 60. The gating signals shown in fig are shifted from each other by 60
to obtain three phase balanced voltages. The transistors are numbered in a sequence of gating (e.g. 231,
234, 345, 561, and 612).

In order to avoid undefined states in the VSI, and undefined AC output line voltages, switches between
upper leg and lower leg of the inverter cannot be switched off simultaneously as this will result in
voltages that will depend upon respective line current polarity. In addition, it is also would result in a
short circuit across the DC link voltage supply which will damage the inverter system if the switches is
switching on simultaneously.

There are six modes of operating the switches, where in a cycle the phase shift of each mode is 60. In
order to generate a desired voltage waveform, the transistor conduction moves from one state to another.
The gating signals shown in Figure (3.5) are shifted from each other by 60 to obtain 3-phase balanced
(fundamental) voltages. The load can be connected in wye or delta connection. The line current is
determined when the phase current are known. For a wye connected load, the line to neutral voltages must
be determined to find the phase current.
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Figure 5.5 Waveforms gating signal 180 PWM

State State no Switch state Vab Vbc Vca
S1,s2,s6 on
S4,s5,s3 off
1 100 Vdc 0 -Vs
S2,s3,s1 on
S5,s6,s4 off
2 110 0 Vdc -Vdc
S3,s4,s2 on
S6,s1,s5 off
3 010 -Vdc Vdc 0
S4,s5,s3 on
S1,s2,s6 off
4 011 -Vdc 0 Vdc
S5,s6,s4 on
S2,s3 ,s1 off
5 001 0 -Vdc Vdc
S6,s1,s5 on
S3,s4,s2 off
6 101 Vdc -Vdc 0
S1,s3,s5 on
S4,s6,s2
7 111 0 0 0
S4,s6,s2 on
S1,s3,s5 off
8 000 0 0 0

Table 5 Switch states for 180 PWM
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