EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT

EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments

MODULE 1
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
General Principle of measurements: Absolute and working standards- in Measurements,
Classification of instruments: Essentials of indicating instruments - moving coil , Moving iron,
dynamometer, Induction, Thermal ,electrostatic and rectifier meter !rinci"les and conce"ts
only#-shunts and multi"liers$
Standards and their classification
A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. It is a piece of equipment
having a known measure of physical quantity. They are used for the measurements of other
physical quantities by comparison methods.
Standards of measurements can be classified in to;
i. International standards
ii. Primary standards
iii. Secondary standards
iv. orking standards
i. International standards
These are defined on the basis of international agreement. They represent the units of
measurements which are closest to the possible accuracy attainable with present day
technological and scientific methods. International standards are checked and evaluated regularly
against absolute measurements in terms of the fundamental units. These standards are maintained
at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and are not available to the ordinary user
of measuring instruments for the purposes of calibration or comparison.
The international unit of length was defined in !"#$ in terms of the wavelength of %rypton&'#.
The metre is equal to !(#)$(*#+.*+ wavelengths in vaccum of the orange&red light radiation of
the %rypton&'# atom in its transition between levels , p!$ and )d).
In !"'+( the metre was redefined. The metre is now( the length travelled by light in vaccum in a
time interval of !-,""*",.)' sec.
ii. rimar! standards "#$solute standards%
The Primary standards are the absolute standards which can be used as the ultimate reference
standards. These standards are maintained by National Standards Laboratories in different parts
of the world. The primary standards which represent the fundamental units are independently
calibrated by absolute measurements at each of the national laboratories. /ne of the main
functions of the primary standards is the verifications and calibration of secondary standards.
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
The primary standards are very few in number. These standards have the highest possible
accuracy and stability.
The primary unit of mass is a prototype kilogramme kept at National Physical Laboratories of
every country. This has an accuracy of ! part in !$
'
.
iii. Secondar! standards
The secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in industrial measurement
laboratories. They are sent periodically to the national standards laboratories for calibration and
comparison against primary standards. The secondary standards are sent back to the industry by
the 0ational laboratories with a certification regarding their measured values in terms of primary
standards.
The secondary standards of mass are kept by industrial laboratories. These standards have
an accuracy of ! ppm and are checked against the primary standards.
i&. 'or(ing standards
These standards are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instrument for their accuracy
and performance.
The working standards of mass and length are available in a wide range of values so that( they
suit any kind of application. The working standards of mass have an accuracy of ) ppm and are
checked against the secondary standards. The working standards of length are usually precision
gauge blocks made up of steel. These blocks have two parallel surfaces and the distance between
the two surfaces is specified. They have an accuracy of ! ppm.
)lassification of Instruments
Instruments can be broadly classified in to
i. Absolute instruments
ii. Secondary instruments
Absolute instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in terms of
physical constants of the instruments.
e.g1& Tangent galvanometer( 2ayleigh3s current balance.
In secondary instruments( the quantity under measurement can only be measured by observing
the output of the instrument. The secondary instruments should be calibrated by comparing with
an absolute instrument or another secondary instrument which has already been calibrated
against an absolute instrument.
e.g1& 4oltmeter( pressure gauge.
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
The secondary instruments are the commonly used instruments compared to the absolute
instruments.
5lectrical measuring instruments may be classified according to their functions as;
"i% Indicating instruments
"ii% Integrating instruments
"iii% *ecording instruments
i. Indicating instruments+,
These instruments directly indicate the value of the electrical quantity at the time when it is being
measured. In these instruments( a pointer moving over a graduated scale directly gives the value
of the electrical quantity being measured.
e.g1& Ammeter( voltmeter( wattmeter.
ii. Integrating instruments
The instruments which measure the total quantity of electricity 6in Ampere hours7 or electrical
energy 6in att hours7 in a given time are called integrating instruments. In such instruments(
there are a set of dials and pointers which register the total quantity of electricity or electrical
energy supplied to the load.
e.g1& Ampere& 8our meter( att&hour meter.
iii. *ecording instruments
2ecording instruments give a continuous record of the variations of the electrical quantity to be
measured. A recording instrument is merely an indicating instrument with a pen attached to its
pointer. The pen rests lightly on a chart wrapped over a drum moving with a slow uniform speed.
The motion of the drum is in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the pointer. The path
traced out by the pen indicates the manner in which the quantity being measured( has varied
during the time of the record.
e.g1& 2ecording voltmeters( 2ecording ammeters in supply stations.
Essentials of Indicating Instruments
An indicating instrument essentially consists of a moving system pivoted in 9ewel bearings. A
pointer is attached to the moving system which indicates the electrical quantity to be measured(
on a graduated scale. In order to ensure the proper operation of the indicating instruments ( the
following three torques are required.
i. :eflecting 6or operating7 torque.
ii. ;ontrolling 6or restoring7 torque.
iii. :amping torque
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
The deflecting torue is produced by utilising the various effects 6magnetic effect( induction
effect( thermal effect( hall effect7 of electric current or voltage( and causes the moving system
and hence the pointer to move from <ero position.
The controlling torue is produced by spring or gravity and opposes the deflecting torque. The
pointer comes to rest at a position( where these two opposing torques are equal.
!amping torue is provided by air friction or eddy currents. It ensures that( the pointer comes to
the final position( without oscillations( thus enabling accurate and quick readings to be taken.
"i% Deflecting tor-ue".d% +,
The deflecting torque causes the moving system to move from <ero position to indicate the value
of the electrical quantity being measured on a graduated scale. The actual method of producing
the deflecting torque depends upon the type of instrument.
"ii% )ontrolling tor-ue".c%+,
If the deflecting torque were acting alone( the pointer will continue to move indefenitely and
would swing over to the ma=imum deflected position irrespective of the magnitude of the
electrical quantity to be measured. This necessitates providing some form of controlling or
opposing torque. This controlling torque should increase with the deflection of the moving
system. The pointer will be brought to rest at a position where the two opposing torques are
equal. ie( Td > Tc .
The controlling torque performs two functions.
a% It increases with the deflection of the moving system so that( the final position of the
pointer on the scale will be according to the magnitude of the electrical quantity to be measured.
$% It brings the pointer back to <ero position( when the deflecting torque is removed. If it were
not provided( the pointer once deflected would not return to <ero position on removing the
deflecting torque.
The controlling torque can be provided(
? by using one or more springs
? by the weight of moving parts.
"iii% Dam/ing tor-ue ".dam/%+,
If the moving system is acted upon by deflecting and controlling torques alone( then due to
inertia( the pointer will oscillate about its final deflected position for some time before coming to
rest. This oscillation makes it difficult to obtain quick and accurate reading. In order to avoid
these oscillations of the pointer and to bring it quickly to its final deflected position( a damping
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
torque is provided in the indicating instruments. The damping do not affect the stationary pointer(
as the damping torque acts only when the pointer is in motion and always opposes the motion.
The damping torque in indicating instruments can be provided by(
#ir, friction
0luid friction
Edd! currents
The behavior of the moving system is decided by the degree of damping. The fig. given below
shows the graph for under damping( over damping( and critical damping.
"nder damped mo#ing system+, The pointer will oscillate about the final position for some time(
before coming to rest.
$#er damped: % The pointer will become slow and lethargic.
&ritically damped' dead beat: % The degree of damping is so that( the pointer comes up to the
correct reading quickly without passing beyond it or oscillating about it
ermanent Magnet Mo&ing )oil Instruments
These instruments are used either as ammeters or voltmeters and are suitable for d.c work only.
P@@; instruments work on the principle that( when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field( a mechanical force acts on the conductor. The current carrying coil( placed in
magnetic field is attached to the moving system. ith the movement of the coil( the pointer
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
moves over the scale to indicate the electrical quantity being measured. This type of movement is
known as :3 Arsenoval movement.
)onstruction
It consists of a light rectangular coil of many turns of fine wire wound on an aluminium former
inside which is an iron core as shown in fig. The coil is delicately pivoted upon 9ewel bearings
and is mounted between the poles of a permanent horse shoe magnet. Two soft&iron pole pieces
are attached to these poles to concentrate the magnetic field. The current is led in to and out of
the coils by means of two control hair& springs( one above and other below the coil( as shown in
fig. These springs also provide the controlling torque. The damping torque is provided by eddy
currents induced in the aluminium former as the coil moves from one position to another.
'or(ing
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
hen the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or voltage( the operating
current flows through the coil. Since the current carrying coil is placed in the magnetic field of
the permanent magnet( a mechanical torque acts on it. As a result of this torque( the pointer
attached to the moving system moves in clockwise direction over the graduated scale to indicate
the value of current or voltage being measured.
This type of instruments can be used to measure direct current only. This is because( since
the direction of the field of permanent magnet is same( the deflecting torque also gets reversed(
when the current in the coil reverses. ;onsequently( the pointer will try to deflect below <ero.
:eflection in the reverse direction can be prevented by a AstopB spring.
Deflecting tor-ue e-uation
The magnetic field in the air gap is radial due to the presence of soft iron core. Thus( the
conductors of the coil will move at right angles to the field. hen the current is passed through
the coil( forces act on its both sides which produce the deflecting torque.
Cet( D > flu= density( b-m
,
l > length or depth of coil( m
b > breadth of the coil.
0 > no. of turns of the coil.
If a current of EI3 Amperes flows in the coil( then the force acting on each coil side is given by(
Force on each coil side( F > DIl0 0ewtons.
:eflecting torque( Td > Force G perpendicular distance
> 6DIl07 G b
Td > DI0A 0ewton metre.
here( A > l G b( the area of the coil in m
,
.
Thus( Td H I
The instrument is spring controlled so that( Tc H I
The pointer will comes to rest at a position( where Td >Tc
Therefore( I H I
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
Thus( the deflection is directly proportional to the operating current. 8ence( such instruments
have uniform scale.
Ad#antages:%
a% Jniform scale.ie( evenly divided scale.
$% 4ery effective eddy current damping.
c% 8igh efficiency.
d% 2equire little power for their operation.
e% 0o hysteresis loss 6as the magnetic field is constant7.
f% 5=ternal stray fields have little effects on the readings 6as the operating magnetic field is
very strong7.
g% 4ery accurate and reliable.
!isad#antages:%
a% ;annot be used for a.c measurements.
$% @ore e=pensive 6about )$K7 than the moving iron instruments because of their accurate
design.
c% Some errors are caused due to variations 6with time or temperature7 either in the strength
of permanent magnet or in the control spring.
Applications:%
a% In the measurement of direct currents and voltages.
$% In d.c galvanometers to detect small currents.
c% In Dallistic galvanometers used for measuring changes of magnetic flu= linkages.
Mo&ing Iron Instruments
@.I instruments are mainly used for the measurement of alternating currents and voltages(
though it can also be used for d.c measurements.
The general principle of a @.I instrument can be e=plained under;
Cet a plate or vane of soft iron or of high permeability steel forms the moving element of
the system. The iron vane is situated so as( it can move in a magnetic field produced by a
stationary coil. The coil is e=cited by the current or voltage under measurement. hen the coil is
e=cited( it becomes an electromagnet and the iron vane moves in such a way so as to increase the
flu= of the electromagnet. Thus( the vane tries to occupy a position of minimum reluctance.
Thus( the force produced is always in such a direction so as to increase the inductance of the coil.
There are two types of @oving& iron instruments.
i. #ttraction t!/e+,
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
In this type of instrument( a single soft iron vane 6moving iron7 is mounted on the
spindle( and is attracted towards the coil when operating current flows through it.
%eflecting tor&ue e&uation
The force F( pulling the soft &iron piece towards the coil is directly proportional to;
a% Field strength 8( produced by the coil.
$% pole strength Em3 developed in the iron piece.
F H m8
Since( m H 8(
F H 8
,
Instantaneous deflecting torque H 8
,
Also( the field strength 8 > Li
If the permeability6L7 of the iron is assumed constant(
Then( 8 H i
here( i instantaneous coil current( Ampere
Instantaneous deflecting torque H i
,
Average deflecting torque( Td H mean of i
,
over a cycle.
Since the instrument is spring controlled(
Tc H I
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
In the steady position of deflection( Td > Tc
I H mean of i
,
over a cycle
H I
,

Since the deflection is proportional to the square of coil current( the scale of such instruments is
non&uniform 6being crowded in the beginning and spread out near the finishing end of the scale7.
ii. *e/ulsion t!/e+,
In this two soft iron vanes are used; one fi=ed and attached the stationary coil( while the other is
movable 6moving iron7( and mounted on the spindle of the instrument. hen operating current
flows through the coil( the two vanes are magnetised( developing similar polarity at the same
ends. ;onsequently( repulsion takes place between the vanes and the movable vane causes the
pointer to move over the scale.
Two types
i. radial &ane t!/e: % vanes are radial strips of iron.
ii. co,a1ial &ane t!/e:%vanes are sections of coa=ial cylinders.
!eflecting torue:%
The deflecting torque results due to repulsion between the similarly charged soft& iron
pieces or vanes. If the two pieces develop pole strength of m1 and m2 respectively( then;
Instantaneous deflecting torque H m1m2 H 3
2
If the permeability of iron is assumed constant( then; 3 H i( where( i is the coil current
Instantaneous deflecting torque H i
2
Average deflecting torque( .d H mean of i
2
over a cycle.
Since the instrument is spring controlled( .c H 4
In the steady position of deflection( .d 5 .c
4 H mean of i
2
over a cycle.
H I
2
Thus( the deflection is proportional to the square of the coil current. The scale of the instrument
is non& uniform; being crowded in the beginning and spread out near the finish end of the scale.
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
8owever( the non& linearity of the scale can be corrected to some e=tent by the accurate shaping
and positioning of the iron vanes in relation to the operating coil.
D!namometer .!/e Instruments
The electrodynamometer type instrument is a transfer instrument. A transfer instrument is one
which is calibrated with a d.c. source and used without any modifications for a.c. measurements.
Such a transfer instrument has same accuracy for a.c. and d.c. measurements. The
electrodynamometer type instruments are often used in accurate a.c. voltmeters and ammeters(
not only at the power line frequency but also in the lower audio frequency range. ith some little
modifications( it can be used as a wattmeter for the power measurements.
)onstruction
0i1ed )oils
The necessary field required for the operation of the instrument is produced by the fi=ed coils. A
uniform field is obtained near the center of coil due to division of coil in two sections. These
coils are air cored. Fi=ed coils are wound with fine wire for using as voltmeter( while for
ammeters and wattmeters it is wound with heavy wire. The coils are usually varnished. They are
clamped in place against the coil supports. This makes the construction rigid. ;eramic is usually
used for mounting supports. If metal parts would have been used then it would weaken the field
of the fi=ed coil.
Mo&ing )oil
The moving coil is wound either as a self&sustaining coil or else on a non&metallic former. If
metallic former is used( then it would induce eddy currents in it. The construction of moving coil
is made light as well as rigid. It is air cored.
)ontrolling
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
The controlling torque is provided by springs. These springs act as leads to the moving coil.
Mo&ing S!stem
The moving coil is mounted on an aluminium spindle. It consists of counter weights and pointer.
Sometimes a suspension may be used( in case a high accuracy is desired.
Dam/ing
The damping torque is provided by air friction( by a pair of aluminium vanes which are attached
to the spindle at the bottom. They move in sector shaped chambers. As operating field would be
distorted by eddy current damping( it is not employed.
Shielding
The field produced by these instruments is very weak. 5ven earthMs magnetic field considerably
affects the reading. So shielding is done to protect it from stray magnetic fields. It is done by
enclosing in a casing high permeability alloy.
.or-ue E-uation
Cet i
1
> Instantaneous value of current in fi=ed coil
i
2
> Instantaneous value of current in moving coil
C
1
> Self&inductance of fi=ed coil
C
2
> Self&inductance of moving coil
@ > @utual inductance between fi=ed and moving coils
The electrodynamometer instrument can be represented by an equivalent circuit as shown in
the Fig.,.
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
From the principle of conversation of energy(
5nergy input > 5nergy stored N @echanical energy
.
.
. @echanical energy > 5nergy input & 5nergy stored
Substraction 6,7 from equation 6!7(
The self&inductance C! and C, are constant and hence dC! and dC, are <ero.
@echanical energy > i! i, d@
If Ti is the instantaneous deflecting torque and dI is the change in the deflection then
@echanical energy > @echanical work done
> Ti dI
i! i, d @ > Ti dI
This is the e=pression for the instantaneous deflection torque.
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
#d&antages of Electrod!namometer Instruments
!7 As the coils are air cored( these instruments are free from hysteresis and eddy current
losses.
,7 They have a precision grade security.
+7 These instruments can be used on both a.c. and d.c. They are also used as a transfer
instruments.
.7 5lectrodynamometer voltmeters are very useful where accurate r.m.s values of voltage(
irrespective of waveforms( are required.
)7 Free from hysteresis errors.
#7 Cow power ;onsumption.
*7 Cight in weight.
Disad&antages of Electrod!namometer Instruments
!7 These instruments have a low sensitivity due to a low torque to weight ratio. Also it
introduces increased frictional losses. To get accurate results( these errors must be
minimi<ed.
,7 They are more e=pensive than other type of instruments.
+7 These instruments are sensitive to overload and mechanical impacts. Therefore can must
be taken while handling them.
.7 They have a non&uniform scale.
)7 The operation current of these instruments is large due to the fact that they have weak
magnetic field.
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EE 010 304 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments Dept of EEE GISAT
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