Negative Feedback

It is because of this negative feedback that we are able to achieve control over the load
voltage.
A circuit that operates on the above principle is shown in fig. 4. R
3
, R
4
, and R
5
make up
the sampling network. The current through the sampling network must be sufficiently large
that, whatever current the base of Q
2
draws, the loading on the voltage divider is negligible
and V
O
remains an accurate sample to V
O
.

Fig. 4
It is possible to simply eliminate R
3
and R
5
and leave only R
4
, but there is the danger that
in setting the potentiometer one will go to either extreme, in which case the transistor may
be damaged. None of the transistor is critical; R
4
is variable to allow setting of the output
voltage.
The sample voltage V
s
is applied to the base of Q
2
, while the reference voltage V
r
, which is
provided by Zener diode D
1
, is applied to the emitter. R
2
sets the Zener current; in addition
to ensuring that the Zener operates in the breakdown region, the Zener's temperature
coefficient, which is both voltage- and current-dependent, may be controlled by an
appropriate selection of current through R
2
. This way the Zener's temperature coefficient
(usually positive) may be used to cancel the transistor's V
BE
temperature dependence
(usually negative).
The error voltage is V
s
-V
r
, or simply V
BE
. Q
2
yields an output current (I
C2
) which is
proportional to this error. At junction A the following expression may be written
I
C2
+ I
B1
= I
1

If I
1
is constant, changes in I
C2
yield equal but opposite changes in I
B1
; that is, if I
C2
rises,
I
B1
drops. Changes in I
B1
are amplified by Q
1
to yield corresponding changes in I
E1
and I
O
.
As the current through it changes, Q
1
appears as a variable resistor whose resistance
depends on the control current I
B1
. If I
B1
drops, the resistance of Q
1
increases, allowing
less current to flow through the load.
It is important to note that is type of corrective action is effective only as long as I
1
remains
reasonably constant. This is to ensure that I
B1
changes mainly in response to variations in
I
C2
(which are due to the error signal). If I
1
is not constant, it is possible for I
B1
(and hence
I
O
and V
O
) to change in response to I
1
variations which do not reflect conditions in the load
circuit.


Figure 2 Voltage Regulator
The circuit shown in Figure 2 is a practical form of voltage regulator. A common-emitter is
employed as a comparison element and short-circuit overload protection is provided by Q3
in conjunction with R
S
. A fraction of the output voltage V
o
is compared with the Zener
reference voltage and the error voltage is amplified by Q2. Whenever the input voltage
V
in
increases the change in output voltage is amplified by Q2 and its collector voltage
drops. Hence most of the input variation will appear across R
3
and since the base-emitter
voltage of Q1 is small, the output variation is negligible and V
o
is essentially constant.

Simple Power Supply with 2 transistors
Power Supply in this post is using a regulator which is composed of 2 pieces of
NPN transistor. A transistor acts as a power regulator and a transistor again
serves as a controller output voltage. Power Supply has an adjustable output with
a range of 6-12 VDC. The part that serves as a power regulator is Q1 TIP31.
Then the controller output voltage is a voltage divider composed of R3, R4, VR1
and R2 provide bias to the base of Q2 to control the power regulator Q1. In a
series of power supply is mounted 5.1 V zener diode which serves to make the
minimum limit the output voltage with Q2.

Power Supply With transistor circuit is quite simple and can be made with the
PCB holes, so for those who want to try to directly mempraktikannya. May the
power supply circuit can be useful for readers, especially for friends who need a
power supply circuit with the regulator transistor.
Posted by Wahyu Eko at 4:20 PM

Optimizing Zener Diode Stability - The Band Gap Connection
written by: Swagatam edited by: KennethSleight updated: 8/12/2010
In the influence of an increase in ambient temperature few electrons in the valence band
acquire sufficient energy and escape to the conduction band. The gap between this
valence band and highest energy band (conduction band) is termed as band gap. We will
find ways to control this.
Introduction
In this series we have been talking a lot about rectifier diodes, tunnel diodes and also the
concept of half and full wave rectification. Now we will learn something about zener
diodes.
A frequent problem encountered with zener diodes is the effect of ambient temperature
and supply voltage variations. This problem usually gets serious if the circuit involves
critical comparison between zener reference voltage and an unknown value.
In this article we will find out how a zener diode can be "reinforced" with additional
electronic parts to countermand the changes in ambient temperature and other factors. But
it will be first interesting to know regarding band gap.
What is Band Gap
The basic configuration of a semiconductor atom (zener diode in this case) shows two
distinct energy bands of four outer electrons. Conduction of electrons begins in the highest
energy band with increase in temperature. The electrons are agitated due to increasing
heat to an extent that they free themselves from the valence band and "jump" into the
conduction band. This gap between the valence and the conduction band is termed as
band gap. The phenomenon leads to a change in the value of the zener diode and
ultimately a circuit malfunction.
Following are two ways to cancel out the above effect in a zener diode.
Using a Zener-Transistor Combination

Referring to the figure at left, if there's an significant increase in the ambient temperature,
the zener diode starts conducting more and thus lowering its value. Due to this forced
conduction, the potential difference across R2 rises. When it reaches above 0.6 volts T1
conducts to reduce the base current of T2, so that its emitter is unable to provide enough
current to the zener.This inhibits the excess flow of current through the zener and its value
is corrected. This circuit is almost a perfect regulator of zener diode reference voltage.
Using Current Mirror Transistors
Another very precise voltage reference can be created using two current mirror transistors.
A constant current source is generated by these transistors. The resistor at one of the
transistors emitter is dimensioned to produce the required reference voltage. Another
resistor which is connected in series with the supply voltage is also selected such that a
potential difference of precise1.2 volts is formed across it, this is called the band gap
reference voltage.
Any variation in the ambient temperature causes the potential across the emitter resistor of
the current mirror transistor to change. This difference of voltage is sensed by the third
transistor which compensates by pulling down any rise in current through the current
mirror transistor and thus nullifying the external effects of temperature or voltage
variations.
How to Test a Zener Diode?

Wondering how to test a zener diode? Well, a zener diode can be very easily tested
through the following explained simple procedure:
Take a resistor of any value between 1K and 10 K.
Connect it to the cathode (the lead on the banded side) of the zener diode, either by
twisting or soldering.
Now, apply a voltage across the resistor's free end and the zener anode terminal.
The applied voltage should be greater than the zener rated voltage by at least 1 volt,
i.e. if the zener voltage is 3, then the minimum applied voltage should be at least 4
volts or more.
Now, using a digital multi meter, measure the voltage across the zener terminals.
The reading should be almost (+/- 2%) equal to the rated zener voltage.
Any other value indicates a faulty diode.