Polynesia

This article is about the wider region in the Pacic. For

the French collectivity, see French Polynesia. For other
uses, see Polynesian (disambiguation).
Polynesia (UK: /plnizi/; US: /plni/, from
Polynesia is the largest of three major cultural areas in the Pacic
Ocean. Polynesia is generally dened as the islands within the
Polynesian triangle.
Geographic denition of Polynesia
Greek: poly many + Greek: nsos is-
land) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000
islands scattered over the central and southern Pacic
Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands
of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many
similar traits including language, culture and beliefs.
[1]
Historically, they were experienced sailors and used stars
to navigate during the night.
The term Polynesia was rst used in 1756 by French
writer Charles de Brosses, and originally applied to all the
islands of the Pacic. In 1831, Jules Dumont d'Urville
proposed a restriction on its use during a lecture to the
Geographical Society of Paris. Historically, these islands
have also been referred to as the South Sea Islands.
[2]
1 Geography
1.1 Geology
Polynesia is characterized by a small amount of land
spread over a very large portion of the mid and southern
Pacic Ocean. Most Polynesian islands and archipela-
gos, including the Hawaiian Islands and Samoa, are com-
posed of volcanic islands built by hotspots. NewZealand,
Norfolk Island, and Ouva, the Polynesian outlier near
New Caledonia, are the unsubmerged portions of the
largely sunken continent of Zealandia. Zealandia is be-
lieved to have mostly sunk by 23 m.y.a. and resurfaced
geologically recently due to a change in the movements
of the Pacic Plate in relation to the Indo-Australian
plate, which served to uplift the New Zealand portion. At
rst, the Pacic plate was subducted under the Australian
plate. The Alpine Fault that traverses the South Island
is currently a transform fault while the convergent plate
boundary from the North Island northwards is a subduc-
tion zone called the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone.
The volcanism associated with this subduction zone is the
origin of the Kermadec and Tongan island archipelagos.
Out of about 117,000 or 118,000 square miles of land,
over 103,000 square miles are within New Zealand; the
Hawaiian archipelago comprises about half the remain-
der. The Zealandia continent has approximately 1.4 mil-
lion square miles of continental shelf. The oldest rocks
in the region are found in New Zealand and are believed
to be about 510 million years old. The oldest Polynesian
rocks outside of Zealandia are to be found in the Hawai-
ian Emperor Seamount Chain, and are 80 million years
old.
1.2 Geographic area
Polynesia is generally dened as the islands within the
Polynesian Triangle, although there are some islands that
are inhabited by Polynesian people situated outside the
Polynesian Triangle. Geographically, the Polynesian Tri-
1
2 2 HISTORY OF THE POLYNESIAN PEOPLE
angle is drawn by connecting the points of Hawaii, New
Zealand and Easter Island. The other main island groups
located within the Polynesian Triangle are Samoa, Tonga,
the Cook Islands, Tuvalu, Tokelau, Niue, Wallis and Fu-
tuna and French Polynesia.
There are also small Polynesian settlements in Papua New
Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Caroline Islands, and in
Vanuatu. An island group with strong Polynesian cultural
traits outside of this great triangle is Rotuma, situated
north of Fiji. The people of Rotuma have many com-
mon Polynesian traits but speak a non-Polynesian lan-
guage. Some of the Lau Islands to the southeast of Fiji
have strong historic and cultural links with Tonga.
However, in essence, Polynesia is a cultural term refer-
ring to one of the three parts of Oceania (the others be-
ing Micronesia and Melanesia). DNAstudies suggest that
the indigenous Pacic Islands population migrated from
Taiwan thousands of years ago and dispersed throughout
the region into three distinct cultural groups.
1.3 Island groups
Mokolii Isle near Oahu, Hawaii
Cooks Bay on Moorea, French Polynesia
The following are the islands and island groups, either
nations or overseas territories of former colonial powers,
that are of native Polynesian culture or where archae-
ological evidence indicates Polynesian settlement in the
past.
[3]
Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the
general triangle that geographically denes the region.
1.3.1 Main Polynesia
The Phoenix Islands and Line Islands, most of which are
part of Kiribati, are geographically Polynesian islands,
but they had no permanent settlements until European
colonization.
1.3.2 Polynesian outliers
In Melanesia
Anuta (in the Solomon Islands)
Bellona Island (in the Solomon Islands)
Emae (in Vanuatu)
Fiji
Mele (in Vanuatu)
Nuguria (in Papua New Guinea)
Nukumanu (in Papua New Guinea)
Ontong Java (in the Solomon Islands)
Pileni (in the Solomon Islands)
Rennell (in the Solomon Islands)
Sikaiana (in the Solomon Islands)
Takuu (in Papua New Guinea)
Tikopia (in the Solomon Islands)
The United States Minor Outlying Islands
In Micronesia
Kapingamarangi (in the Federated States of Mi-
cronesia)
Nukuoro (in the Federated States of Micronesia)
Subantarctic Islands
Auckland Islands (the most southerly known evi-
dence of Polynesian settlement)
[4][5][6][7]
2.1 Origins and expansion 3
Austronesians expansion map (French)
Moai at Ahu Tongariki on Rapa Nui
2 History of the Polynesian people
2.1 Origins and expansion
The Polynesian people are considered by linguistic, ar-
chaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset of the
sea-faring Austronesian people and tracing Polynesian
languages places their prehistoric origins in Taiwan.
These people, the Taiwanese aborigines, are thought to
have arrived in Taiwan through South China about 8000
years ago. They were a dierent people and linguisti-
cally unrelated to the Han Chinese who now form the
majority of people in China and Taiwan. Taiwan, previ-
ously inhabited mostly by these non-Han aborigines, was
Sinicized via large-scale Han immigration accompanied
with assimilation during the 17th century.
After about 2000 BC speakers of Austronesian lan-
guages began spreading from Taiwan into Island South-
east Asia,.
[8][9][10]
By about 1500 BC they found the western edges of
Micronesia were moving into Melanesia through a route
further south by way of the Birds Head of New Guinea.
There are three theories regarding the spread of humans
across the Pacic to Polynesia. These are outlined well
by Kayser et al. (2000)
[11]
and are as follows:
Express Train model: A recent (c. 30001000
BC) expansion out of Taiwan, via the Philippines
and eastern Indonesia and from the northwest
( extquotedblBirds Head extquotedbl) of New
Guinea, on to Island Melanesia by roughly 1400 BC,
reaching western Polynesian islands right about 900
BC. This theory is supported by the majority of cur-
rent genetic, linguistic, and archaeological data.
Entangled Bank model: Emphasizes the long his-
tory of Austronesian speakers cultural and genetic
interactions with indigenous Island Southeast Asians
and Melanesians along the way to becoming the rst
Polynesians.
SlowBoat model: Similar to the express-train model
but with a longer hiatus in Melanesia along with ad-
mixture, both genetically, culturally and linguisti-
cally with the local population. This is supported
by the Y-chromosome data of Kayser et al. (2000),
which shows that all three haplotypes of Polynesian
Ychromosomes can be traced back to Melanesia.
[12]
In the archaeological record there are well-dened traces
of this expansion which allow the path it took to be
followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought
that by roughly 1400 BC,
[13]
extquotedblLapita Peoples,
so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the
Bismarck Archipelago of northwest Melanesia. This cul-
ture is seen as having adapted and evolved through time
and space since its emergence Out of Taiwan extquot-
edbl. They had given up rice production, for instance, af-
ter encountering and adapting to breadfruit in the Birds
Head area of New Guinea. In the end, the most east-
ern site for Lapita archaeological remains recovered so
far has been through work on the archaeology in Samoa.
The site is at Mulifanua on Upolu. The Mulifanua site,
where 4,288 pottery shards have been found and studied,
has a true age of c. 1000 BC based on C14 dating.
[14]
A 2010 study places the beginning of the human archae-
ological sequences of Polynesia in Tonga at 900 B.C.,
[15]
the small dierences in dates with Samoa being due to
dierences in radiocarbon dating technologies between
1989 and 2010, the Tongan site apparently predating the
Samoan site by some few decades in real time.
Within a mere three or four centuries between about
1300 and 900 BC, the Lapita archaeological culture
spread 6,000 km further to the east from the Bismarck
Archipelago, until it reached as far as Fiji, Tonga, and
Samoa which were rst populated around 3,000 years
ago as mentioned previously.
[16]
A cultural divide began
to develop between Fiji to the west, and the distinctive
Polynesian language and culture emerging on Tonga and
Samoa to the east. Where there was once faint evidence
of uniquely shared developments in Fijian and Polyne-
sian speech, most of this is now called borrowing and
is thought to have occurred in those and later years more
than as a result of continuing unity of their earliest di-
alects on those far ung lands. Contacts were mediated
4 2 HISTORY OF THE POLYNESIAN PEOPLE
especially through the eastern Lau Islands of Fiji and this
is where most Fijian-Polynesian linguistic interaction oc-
curred.
Grinding stones discovered from archaeology in Samoa
Tiny populations seem to have been involved at rst.
[15]
2.2 Culture
They were matrilineal and matrilocal peoples upon ar-
rival to Fiji, Tonga and Samoa and had been through
at least some goodly portion of their time in the Bis-
marck Archipelago. The modern Polynesians, in their
profound isolation from the world beyond, still show
the human genetic results of a culture, when their an-
cestors were still in Melanesia, that allowed indigenous
men, but not women, to marry in useful evidence for
matrilocality.
[8][9][17][18]
Matrilocality and matrilineality went by-the-bye at some
early time but Polynesians and most other Austronesian
speakers in the Pacic Islands were/are still highly matri-
centric in their traditional jurisprudence.
[17]
The Lapita
pottery for which the general archaeological complex of
the earliest Oceanic Austronesian speakers in the Pa-
cic Islands are named also went by-the-bye in West-
ern Polynesia and language, social life and material cul-
ture were very distinctly Polynesian by the time Eastern
Polynesia began to be settled after a pause of 1000
years or perhaps well more in Western Polynesia.
The dating of the settlement of Eastern Polynesia includ-
ing Hawai'i, Easter Island, and NewZealand is not agreed
upon in every instance. Most recently a 2010 study us-
ing meta-analysis of the most reliable radiocarbon dates
available suggested that the colonization of Eastern Poly-
nesia (including Hawaii and New Zealand) proceeded in
two short episodes: in the Society Islands from 1025
1120 AD and further aeld from 11901290 AD,
[19]
with Easter Island being settled around 1200.
[20][21]
Other
archeological models developed in recent decades, which
are challenged by that recent set of radiocarbon dating in-
terpretations, have pointed to dates of between 300 and
500 AD, or alternatively 800 AD (as supported by Jared
Diamond) for the settlement of Easter Island, and simi-
larly, a date of 500 AD has been suggested for Hawaii.
Linguistically, there is a very distinct East Polynesian
subgroup with many shared innovations not seen in other
Polynesian languages. The Marquesas dialects are per-
haps the source of the oldest Hawaiian speech which
is overlaid by Tahitian variety speech, as Hawaiian oral
histories would suggest. The earliest varieties of New
Zealand Maori speech may have had multiple sources
from around central Eastern Polynesia as Maori oral his-
tories would suggest.
2.3 Political history of Polynesia
Perhaps the oldest extensive political entity was that of
the Samoa-based Tu'i Manu'a Confederacy, ruled by the
holders of the Tu'i Manu'a title, which may well be the
oldest chieftain title in Polynesia. This confederacy likely
included much of Western Polynesia and some outliers
at the height of its power in the 10th and 11th centuries;
most notably: the Samoa, Tonga, Lau Islands and perhaps
the main islands of Fiji. The Tongans revolted around
1000 years ago and formed their own Tu'i Tonga empire
that came to dominate Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji, with an
inuence stretching fromNauru in the Northwest, to Niue
in the East. The empire ruled for much of the Medieval
period, until the Samoan revolt and subsequent rise of
the Malietoa dynasties in Samoa, and ended with their
capitulation to the Tongan Tu'i Ha'atakalaua dynasty in
the 15th century.
2.3.1 Tonga 1500spresent
After a bloody civil war, political power in Tonga even-
tually fell under the Tu'i Kanokupolu dynasty in the 16th
century.
In 1845 the ambitious young warrior, strategist, and or-
ator Tufahau united Tonga into more Western-style
kingdom. He held the chiey title of Tui Kanokupolu,
but had been baptised with the name Jiaoji (George)
in 1831. In 1875, with the help of missionary Shirley
Waldemar Baker, he declared Tonga a constitutional
monarchy, formally adopted the western royal style,
emancipated the serfs, enshrined a code of law, land
tenure, and freedom of the press, and limited the power
of the chiefs.
Tonga became a British-protected state under a Treaty of
Friendship on 18 May 1900, when European settlers and
rival Tongan chiefs tried to oust the second king. Within
the British Empire, which posted no higher permanent
representative on Tonga than a British Consul (1901
2.3 Political history of Polynesia 5
1970), Tonga formed part of the British Western Pacic
Territories (under a colonial High Commissioner, resid-
ing on Fiji) from 1901 until 1952. Despite being under
the protectorate, Tonga retained its monarchy without in-
terruption.
On June 4, 1970 the Kingdom of Tonga received inde-
pendence from the British protectorate.
2.3.2 Samoa Malietoapresent
Samoa remained under Malietoa chieftains until its East-
West division by Tripartite Convention (1899) subse-
quent annexation by the German Empire and the United
States. The German-controlled Western portion of
Samoa (the consisting of the bulk of Samoan territory)
was occupied by NewZealand in WWI, and administered
by it under a Class C League of Nations Mandate until
receiving independence on January 1, 1962. The new In-
dependent State of Samoa was not a monarchy, though
the Malietoa title-holder remained very inuential. It of-
cially ended, however with the death of Malietoa Tanu-
mali II on May 11, 2007.
2.3.3 Tahiti
See: Pomare Dynasty
2.3.4 Hawaii
See: Kingdom of Hawaii
Outrigger canoes at Waikiki beach, late 1800s
2.3.5 New Zealand Maori
On October 28, 1835 members of the Ng Puhi and sur-
rounding iwi issued a declaration of independence, as
a confederation of tribes to resist potential French col-
onization eorts and to prevent the ships and cargo of
Maori merchants frombeing seized at foreign ports. They
received recognition from the British monarch in 1836.
(See United Tribes of New Zealand, New Zealand Dec-
laration of Independence, James Busby.)
Using the Treaty of Waitangi and right of discovery as
a basis, the United Kingdom annexed New Zealand as a
part of New South Wales in 1840.
In response to the actions of the colonial government,
Maori looked to form monarchy inclusive of all Maori
tribes in order to reduce vulnerability to the British
divide-and-conquer strategy. Ptatau Te Wherowhero
high priest and chief of the Ngti Mahuta tribe of the
Waikato iwi was crowned as the Maori king in 1858. The
kings territory consisted primarily of the lands in the cen-
ter of the North Island, and the iwi constituted from the
most powerful non-signatories of the Treaty of Waitangi,
with Te Wherowhero also never having signed it.
[22]
(See
Kingitanga.)
All tribes were incorporated into rule under the colonial
government by the late 19th century. Although Maori
were given the privilege of being legally enfranchised sub-
jects of the British Empire under the Treaty, Maori cul-
ture and language were actively suppressed by the colonial
government and by economic and social pressures from
the Pakeha society until eorts were made to preserve in-
digenous culture starting in the late 1950s and culminat-
ing in the Waitangi Tribunal's interpretation of language
and culture being included in the treasures set to be pre-
served under the Treaty of Waitangi. Moving from a low
point of 15,000 speakers in the 1970s, there are now over
157,000 people who have some prociency in the stan-
dard Mori language according to the 2006 census
[23]
in
NewZealand, due in large part to government recognition
and promotion of the language.
Maori are very much integrated into New Zealand soci-
ety, and many are of mixed Maori and European, Asian,
or Pacic Islander heritage. The New Zealand Defence
forces are over half Maori, and the New Zealand Special
Forces are 2/3 Maori. Jerry Mateparae, the former chief
of the armed forces, now serves as Governor-General of
New Zealand. However, despite major achievements to-
wards equality, Maori are still under-represented in many
elds.
2.3.6 Fiji
(See: History of Fiji, Seru Epenisa Cakobau, Fiji during
the time of Cakobau.)
The Lau islands had after the Tu'i Mana'u dynasty were
subject to periods of Tongan and then Fijian control un-
til their eventual conquest by Seru Epenisa Cakobau of
the Kingdom of Fiji by 1871. In around 1855 a Tongan
prince, Enele Ma'afu, proclaimed the Lau islands as his
kingdom, and took the title Tui Lau.
Fiji itself had been ruled by numerous divided chieftains
until Cakobau unied the landmass. The Lapita culture,
the ancestors of the Polynesians, existed in Fiji from3500
6 3 CULTURES OF POLYNESIA
BCE until they were displaced by the Melanesians about a
thousand years later. (Interestingly, Samoans and subse-
quent Polynesian cultures adopted Melanesian face paint-
ing methods.)
In 1873, Cakobau ceded a Fiji heavily indebted to foreign
creditors to the United Kingdom. It became indepen-
dent on 10 October 1970 and a republic on 28 September
1987.
2.3.7 Cook Islands
See: Kingdom of Rarotonga.
2.3.8 Tuvalu
See: History of Tuvalu.
Canoe carving on Nanumea atoll, Tuvalu
The reef islands and atolls of Tuvalu are identied as be-
ing part of West Polynesia. The pattern of settlement that
is believed to have occurred is that the Polynesians spread
out from the Samoan Islands into the Tuvaluan atolls,
with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into
the Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia and
Micronesia.
[24][25][26]
The stories as to the ancestors of the Tuvaluans vary
from island to island. On Niutao,
[27]
Funafuti and
Vaitupu the founding ancestor is described as being from
Samoa;
[28][29]
whereas on Nanumea the founding ances-
tor is described as being from Tonga.
[28]
These stories
can be linked to what is known about the Samoa-based
Tu'i Manu'a Confederacy, ruled by the holders of the Tu'i
Manu'a title, which confederacy likely included much of
Western Polynesia and some outliers at the height of its
power in the 10th and 11th centuries.
The extent of inuence of the Tui Tonga line of Tongan
kings, which originated in the 10th century is understood
to have extended to some of the islands of Tuvalu in the
mid-13th century.
[29]
However the existence of the Tui
Tonga Empire is disputed.
The oral history of Niutao recalls that in the 15th century
Tongan warriors were defeated in a battle on the reef of
Niutao, Tongan warriors also invaded Niutao later in the
15th century and again were repelled. A third and fourth
Tongan invasion of Niutao occurred in the late 16th cen-
tury, again with the Tongans being defeated.
[27]
Fishing was the primary source of protein, with the
cuisine of Tuvalu reecting the food that could be grown
on low-lying atolls. Navigation between the islands of
Tuvalu was carried out using outrigger canoes. The pop-
ulation levels of the low-lying islands of Tuvalu had to be
managed because of the eects of periodic droughts and
the risk of severe famine if the gardens were poisoned by
the salt from the storm-surge of a tropical cyclone.
2.4 Polynesian links to the Americas
See also: Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Possi-
ble Polynesian trans-oceanic contact
The sweet potato, called kmara in Mori, which is na-
tive to the Americas, was widespread in Polynesia when
Europeans rst reached the Pacic. Remains of the plant
have been radiocarbon-dated in the Cook Islands to 1000
AD, and current thinking is that it was brought to central
Polynesia circa 700 AD and spread across Polynesia from
there, possibly by Polynesians who had traveled to South
America and back.
[30]
Thor Heyerdahl proposed in the mid-20th century that
the Polynesians had migrated from South America on
balsa-log boats.
[31][32]
Many anthropologists have criti-
cised Heyerdahls theory, including Wade Davis in his
book The Waynders. Davis says that Heyerdahl ig-
nored the overwhelming body of linguistic, ethnographic,
and ethnobotanical evidence, augmented today by genetic
and archaeological data, indicating that he was patently
wrong.
[33]
3 Cultures of Polynesia
Main article: Polynesian culture
Polynesia divides into two distinct cultural groups, East
7
Painting of Tahitian Women on the Beach by Paul Gauguin
Muse d'Orsay
Polynesia and West Polynesia. The culture of West Poly-
nesia is conditioned to high populations. It has strong in-
stitutions of marriage and well-developed judicial, mon-
etary and trading traditions. It comprises the groups of
Tonga, Niue, Samoa and extended to the atolls of Tu-
valu to the north. The pattern of settlement that is be-
lieved to have occurred is that the Polynesians spread
out from the Samoan Islands into the Tuvaluan atolls,
with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into
the Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia and
Micronesia.
[24][25][26]
Eastern Polynesian cultures are highly adapted to smaller
islands and atolls, principally the Cook Islands, Tahiti, the
Tuamotus, the Marquesas, Hawaii, Rapa Nui and smaller
central-pacic groups. The large islands of New Zealand
were rst settled by Eastern Polynesians who adapted
their culture to a non-tropical environment.
Unlike in Melanesia, leaders were chosen in Polynesia
based on their hereditary bloodline. Samoa however, had
another system of government that combines elements of
heredity and real-world skills to choose leaders. This sys-
tem is called Fa'amatai.
[34]
According to Ben R. Finney
and Eric M. Jones, On Tahiti, for example, the 35,000
Polynesians living there at the time of European discovery
were divided between high-status persons with full access
to food and other resources, and low-status persons with
limited access.
[35]
Religion, farming, shing, weather prediction, out-rigger
canoe (similar to modern catamarans) construction and
navigation were highly developed skills because the pop-
ulation of an entire island depended on them. Trading
of both luxuries and mundane items was important to all
groups. Periodic droughts and subsequent famines often
led to war.
[35]
Many low-lying islands could suer severe
famine if their gardens were poisoned by the salt fromthe
storm-surge of a tropical cyclone. In these cases shing,
the primary source of protein, would not ease loss of food
energy. Navigators, in particular, were highly respected
and each island maintained a house of navigation with a
Carving from the ridgepole of a Mori house, ca 1840
canoe-building area.
Settlements by the Polynesians were of two categories:
the hamlet and the village. Size of the island inhabited
determined whether or a not a hamlet would be built.
The larger volcanic islands usually had hamlets because
of the many zones that could be divided across the island.
Food and resources were more plentiful and so these set-
tlements of four to ve houses (usually with gardens) were
established so that there would be no overlap between
the zones. Villages, on the other hand, were built on the
coasts of smaller islands and consisted of thirty or more
housesin the case of atolls, on only one of the group
so that food cultivation was on the others. Usually these
villages were fortied with walls and palisades made of
stone and wood.
[36]
However, New Zealand demonstrates the opposite: large
volcanic islands with fortied villages.
As well as being great navigators these people were artists
and artisans of great skill. Simple objects, such as sh-
hooks would be manufactured to exacting standards for
dierent catches and decorated even when the decoration
was not part of the function. Stone and wooden weapons
were considered to be more powerful the better they were
made and decorated. In some island groups weaving was
a strong part of the culture and gifting woven articles an
ingrained practice. Dwellings were imbued with charac-
8 7 POLYNESIAN NAVIGATION
ter by the skill of their building. Body decoration and
jewellery is of international standard to this day.
The religious attributes of Polynesians were common
over the whole Pacic region. While there are some dif-
ferences in their spoken languages they largely have the
same explanation for the creation of the earth and sky,
for the gods that rule aspects of life and for the religious
practices of everyday life. People travelled thousands of
miles to celebrations that they all owned communally.
Beginning in the 1820s large numbers of missionar-
ies worked in the islands, converting many groups to
Christianity. Polynesia, argues Ian Breward, is now
one of the most strongly Christian regions in the
world....Christianity was rapidly and successfully in-
corporated into Polynesian culture. War and slavery
disappeared.
[37]
4 Polynesian languages
Main article: Polynesian languages
Polynesian languages are all members of the family of
Oceanic languages, a sub-branch of the Austronesian lan-
guage family. Polynesian languages show a consider-
able degree of similarity. The vowels are generally the
samea, e, i, o, and u, pronounced as in Italian, Spanish,
and Germanand the consonants are always followed by
a vowel. The languages of various island groups show
changes in consonants. R and v are used in central and
eastern Polynesia whereas l and v are used in western
Polynesia. The glottal stop is increasingly represented
by an inverted comma or 'okina. In the Society Islands,
the original Proto-Polynesian *k and *ng have merged
as glottal stop; so the name for the ancestral homeland,
deriving from Proto-Nuclear Polynesian *sawaiki,
[38]
be-
comes Havai'i. In New Zealand, where the original *w
is used instead of v, the ancient home is Hawaiki. In the
Cook Islands, where the glottal stop replaces the original
*s (with a likely intermediate stage of *h), it is Avaiki.
In the Hawaiian islands, where the glottal stop replaces
the original k, the largest island of the group is named
Hawaii. In Samoa, where the original s is used instead of
h, v replaces w, and the glottal stop replaces the original
k, the largest island is called Savai'i.
[1]
5 Economy
With the exception of New Zealand, the majority of in-
dependent Polynesian islands derive much of their in-
come from foreign aid and remittances from those who
live in other countries. Some encourage their young peo-
ple to go where they can earn good money to remit to
their stay-at-home relatives. Many Polynesian locations,
such as Easter Island, supplement this with tourism in-
come. Some have more unusual sources of income, such
as Tuvalu which marketed its '.tv' internet top-level do-
main name or the Cooks that relied on stamp sales.
Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, Prime Minister of Samoa, who ini-
tiated the Polynesian Leaders Group in late 2011.
6 Political union
After several years of discussing a potential regional
grouping, three sovereign states (Samoa, Tonga and Tu-
valu) and ve self-governing but non-sovereign territories
formally launched, in November 2011, the Polynesian
Leaders Group, intended to cooperate on a variety of
issues including culture and language, education, re-
sponses to climate change, and trade and investment.
It does not, however, constitute a political or monetary
union.
[39][40][41]
7 Polynesian navigation
Main article: Polynesian navigation
Polynesia comprised islands diused throughout a trian-
gular area with sides of four thousand miles. The area
from the Hawaiian Islands in the north, to Easter Island
in the east and to New Zealand in the south were all set-
tled by Polynesians.
Navigators traveled to small inhabited islands using only
their own senses and knowledge passed by oral tradition
from navigator to apprentice. In order to locate direc-
tions at various times of day and year, navigators in East-
ern Polynesia memorized important facts: the motion of
specic stars, and where they would rise on the horizon
of the ocean; weather; times of travel; wildlife species
(which congregate at particular positions); directions of
swells on the ocean, and how the crew would feel their
motion; colors of the sea and sky, especially how clouds
would cluster at the locations of some islands; and angles
for approaching harbors.
These waynding techniques, along with outrigger canoe
9
Polynesian (Hawaiian) navigators sailing multi-hulled canoe, ca
1781
A common shing canoe va'a with outrigger in Savai'i island,
Samoa, 2009
construction methods, were kept as guild secrets. Gen-
erally each island maintained a guild of navigators who
had very high status; in times of famine or diculty these
navigators could trade for aid or evacuate people to neigh-
boring islands. On his rst voyage of Pacic exploration
Cook had the services of a Polynesian navigator, Tupaia,
who drewa hand-drawn Chart of the islands within 2,000
miles (3,200 km) radius (to the north and west) of his
home island of Ra'iatea. Tupaia had knowledge of 130
islands and named 74 on his Chart.
[42]
Tupaia had nav-
igated from Ra'iatea in short voyages to 13 islands. He
had not visited western Polynesia, as since his grandfa-
thers time the extent of voyaging by Raiateans has di-
minished to the islands of eastern Polynesia. His grand-
father and father had passed to Tupaia the knowledge as
to the location of the major islands of western Polyne-
sia and the navigation information necessary to voyage
to Fiji, Samoa and Tonga.
[43]
As the Admiralty orders
directed Cook to search for the Great Southern Con-
tinent, Cook ignored Tupaias Chart and his skills as a
navigator. To this day, original traditional methods of
Polynesian Navigation are still taught in the Polynesian
outlier of Taumako Island in the Solomon Islands.
From a single chicken bone recovered from the archae-
ological site of El Arenal-1, on the Arauco Peninsula,
Chile, a 2007 research report looking at radiocarbon dat-
ing and an ancient DNA sequence indicate that Polyne-
sian navigators may have reached the Americas at least
100 years before Columbus (who arrived 1492 AD), in-
troducing chickens to South America.
[44][45]
A later re-
port looking at the same specimens concluded:
A published, apparently pre-Columbian,
Chilean specimen and six pre-European Poly-
nesian specimens also cluster with the same
European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast
Asian sequences, providing no support for a
Polynesian introduction of chickens to South
America. In contrast, sequences from two ar-
chaeological sites on Easter Island group with
an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia,
Japan, and China and may represent a genetic
signature of an early Polynesian dispersal.
Modeling of the potential marine carbon
contribution to the Chilean archaeological
specimen casts further doubt on claims for
pre-Columbian chickens, and denitive proof
will require further analyses of ancient DNA
sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope
data from archaeological excavations within
both Chile and Polynesia.
[46]
Knowledge of the traditional Polynesian methods of nav-
igation were largely lost after contact with and coloniza-
tion by Europeans. This left the problem of accounting
for the presence of the Polynesians in such isolated and
scattered parts of the Pacic. By the late 19th century to
the early 20th century a more generous view of Polyne-
sian navigation had come into favor, perhaps creating a
romantic picture of their canoes, seamanship and naviga-
tional expertise.
In the mid to late 1960s, scholars began testing sailing
and paddling experiments related to Polynesian naviga-
tion: David Lewis sailed his catamaran from Tahiti to
New Zealand using stellar navigation without instruments
and Ben Finney built a 40-foot replica of a Hawaiian dou-
ble canoe Nalehia and tested it in Hawaii.
[47]
Mean-
while, Micronesian ethnographic research in the Caroline
Islands revealed that traditional stellar navigational meth-
ods were still in every day use. Recent re-creations of
Polynesian voyaging have used methods based largely on
Micronesian methods and the teachings of a Micronesian
navigator, Mau Piailug.
It is probable that the Polynesian navigators employed a
whole range of techniques including use of the stars, the
movement of ocean currents and wave patterns, the air
and sea interference patterns caused by islands and atolls,
the ight of birds, the winds and the weather. Scientists
think that long-distance Polynesian voyaging followed the
seasonal paths of birds. There are some references in
their oral traditions to the ight of birds and some say that
there were range marks onshore pointing to distant islands
10 9 REFERENCES
in line with these yways. One theory is that they would
have taken a frigatebird with them. These birds refuse
to land on the water as their feathers will become water-
logged making it impossible to y. When the voyagers
thought they were close to land they may have released
the bird, which would either y towards land or else re-
turn to the canoe. It is likely that the Polynesians also used
wave and swell formations to navigate. It is thought that
the Polynesian navigators may have measured the time it
took to sail between islands in canoe-days or a similar
type of expression.
Also, people of the Marshall Islands used special de-
vices called stick charts, showing the places and direc-
tions of swells and wave-breaks, with tiny seashells af-
xed to them to mark the positions of islands along the
way. Materials for these maps were readily available on
beaches, and their making was simple; however, their ef-
fective use needed years and years of study.
[48]
8 See also
List of Polynesians
Polynesian mythology
Polynesian Society
Polynesian Voyaging Society
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[43] Druett, Joan (1987). Tupaia The Remarkable Story of
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[44] Wilford, John Noble (June 5, 2007). First Chickens
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17556540.
[46] Gongora, Jaime; Rawlence, Nicolas J.; Mobegi, Vic-
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[47] Lewis, David. A Return Voyage Between Puluwat and
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10 Further reading
Gatty, Harold (1999). Finding Your Ways Without
Map or Compass. Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN
0-486-40613-X.
11 External links
History of Easter Island illustrated by stamps
Interview with David Lewis
Lewis commenting on Spirits of the Voyage
PhotogalleryFrench Polynesia (Tahiti, Moorea,
Motu Tiahura)
12 11 EXTERNAL LINKS
Useful introduction to Maori society, including ca-
noe voyages
Obituary: David Henry Lewisincluding how he
came to rediscover Pacic Ocean navigation meth-
ods
13
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ton, Hongthay, Baemoana, Der Golem, Razimantv, AirdishStraus, Luvedthemost, Pras, Thisglad, Jusdafax, Peter L Marsh, Lartoven,
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Avoided, ZooFari, Spiridon MANOLIU, Addbot, DOI bot, AkhtaBot, TutterMouse, Fieldday-sunday, Aboctok, Ccacsmss, Omnipedian,
Blaylockjam10, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Jarble, Peko, Megaman en m, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Cm001, Newportm, Ojay123, KamikazeBot,
Backtothemacman32, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Quangbao, Jim1138, Galoubet, JackieBot, Dinesh smita, Materialscientist, Citation bot,
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dream of horses, Tamariki, HRoestBot, TobeBot, Jonkerz, FrederickYocum, Andrew Revender, RjwilmsiBot, Chipmunkdavis, Emaus-
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