THEROOTSOFRACISM

I.Ancientattitudestowardcolor

Prejudiceagainstpeoplewholookdifferentgoesbacktothebeginningof
recordedhistory.Althoughthecolorblackwasassociatedbytheancient
GreeksandearlyChristianswiththeunderworldanddemons,scholarssuchas
FrankSnowden,Jr.maintainthattherewasonthewholeafavorableviewof
Africanpeopleinantiquity,ascanbeseeninthepoemsofHomerandthe
practicesoftheearlyChristianChurchwhichdeclaredthatGodhadcreatedall
peoplealike.
1

TheoldestimagesofBlackAfricansinancientEgyptshowthemwell
integratedintosociety.BlackasacolorisvaluedpositivelyinEgyptianculture,
asthecoloroffertility(darkasthesiltoftheNile),writesJanNederveen
PieterseinhisbookWhiteonBlack:ImagesofAfricaandBlacksinWesternPopular
Culture.

AfterthedownfalloftheancientRomanEmpire,themainriftdividing
Europeansandotherpeopleswasnotrace,butreligion.Withinafewcenturies,
IslambecamethenewimperialforceandthemainenemyofChristianEurope.
BythetimeoftheCrusades,theArabicspeakingworldofIslamwasdemonized
byEuropeansasbarbaric,degenerate,andintrinsicallydifferentfromthe
ChristianWest.

II.TheMoorishcivilizingmission

ThetermsMoorishandMoorsreferredtopeoplewhooriginatedin
Morocco.Butitwasusedinaveryimprecisesenseandcoveredawidevariety
ofpeoples,white,brownandblack,fromNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast.They
hadbeenconvertedtothereligionofIslamintheseventhandeighthcenturies.
TheysoonmovedintoAfrica,ChinaandIndia,andspreadacrosstheMiddle
EastandEuropeintotheIberianPeninsula(currentdaySpainandPortugal).
TheyevencrossedthePyreneesintoFrance.TheselargelyArabicspeaking
peoplearrivedinEuropeintheearlymedievalperiod,whatusedtobecalledthe
DarkAges.Theywoulddominatepartsofthecontinentfor800years.

ArabscholarstooktheleadintranslatingtheworksoftheclassicalGreeks,
andbuildinguponthelearningoftheEgyptians,Phoenicians,Jews,Chinese
Persians,IndiansandAfricans.Theyintroducedthiswisdomofthepastand
theirownscientificandmathematicalachievementsintoEurope.Asearlyasthe
ninthcentury,Arabastronomersassumedthattheworldwasround,and
calculateditsdiameterandcircumferencewithconsiderableaccuracy.They
developedthecompass,quadrantandastrolabe,withoutwhichtheEuropean
voyagesofdiscoverycouldnothavetakenplace.InSpain,theMoors
improvedagriculture,publichealthandsanitation,establishedlibrariesandbuilt
irrigationsystemsandbeautifulcitieslikeSevilleandGrenada.

Forhundredsofyears,then,theArabicEmpirecivilizedalargepartofthe
globe.SocietieswerecreatedinwhichMuslims,JewsandChristianscoexistedin
amannerthatwasrarelyequaledinsubsequentyears.ManyJewsalsospoke
Arabicandfullyparticipatedintheintellectualfloweringoftheperiod.Some
liketheTalmudicscholarRabbiMosesMaimonidesofCordoba(Spain)were
valuedadviserstoMuslimrulers.

III.SlaverybeforeColumbus

InoneimportantrespectEuropebeforetheperiodofcolonialexpansion
initiatedbyColumbusvoyagesresembledwhatcameafter.Itheavilydepended
onslavelabor.

ThefiguresforthenumbersofpeopleenslavedinancientGreeceare
astonishingperhapsthreeorfourslavesforeachfreehousehold,accordingto
historianDavidStannard.
2
Stannardestimatesthatbetweenthefirstandsecond
centuriesA.D.,nearlyhalfthepopulationofItalywereslaves,mostlycaptives
takeninRomeswars.Peopleofallethnicitieswereenslaved,withthemajority
beingwhite.

IntheearlyMiddleAges,manyslavesweretakenfromthecentralEuropean
landsoftheSlavs.WilliamtheConquerorspopulationsurveyknownasthe
DomesdayBookrevealsthatintheeleventhcentury,oneoutofeverytenpeople
inBritainwasenslaved.TheChristianChurchgraduallycametoopposethe
enslavementofChristians,andconversiontoChristianitybecameapossible
routeoutofslavery.

AnyonewhohasvisitedthemagnificentMesquita(mosque)intheSpanish
cityofCordoba,andseenevidencethattheslaveswhowerebuildingitwere
chainedtothecolumnsatnight,knowsthatslaveryshouldnotbeidealizedin
theyearsbeforeColumbus.Yetitdiddifferfundamentallyfromthekindof
slaveryintroducedinthewakeofEuropeanexpansion.Slavesmighthavebeen
regardedasinfidels,orbarbarians,whocouldbetreatedwithgreatcruelty,but
theywerenotseenasaclassofessentiallyinferiorbeings.

Neitherwasslaverynecessarilydefinedassomethingwhichwouldlast
foreverandbehandeddownfromonegenerationtothenext.Prisonersofwar
whowereenslavedwereoftenmadetoperformdomesticserviceforasetperiod
oftime.Oftenconsideredmembersoffamilieswithwhomtheylived,such
captivescouldeventuallygetalltherightsoffreemenandeveninheritfamily
wealth.Inshort,slaveswerenotregardedautomaticallyaschattelsor
commodities.Theywerenotoutcastsfromthehumanrace.

IV.1492:DefeatoftheMoors

In1492,threemomentouseventsoccurredinSpainwhichallcontributedto
theriseofracism.TheMoorsweredefeatedbytheChristiansatGrenada,the
JewswereexpelledfromSpainandColumbusreachedthelandsthatweretobe
namedtheCaribbeanaftertheCaribs,thefirstgroupofpeopleintheNew
Worldtobedemonizedascannibals,reducedtoslaveryanddestroyed.

Aggression,terrorandsocialinsecuritywereallmagnifiedinthecentury
following1348,whenthebubonicplagueeliminatedathirdofthepopulationof
Europe,andfamineandtheHundredYearsWartookaheavytollofthe
survivors.Europeansocietywasinchaoticupheaval.

AswhatwascalledtheChristianReconquistaslowlytookSpainbackfrom
theMoors,theIslamiccontrolofsignificantportionsofEuropewasnearingits
end.ChristiansfromEuropewithPortugaltakingtheleadweremeanwhile
establishingdirecttradinganddiplomaticcontactswithAfrica.Bythemiddleof
thefifteenthcentury,AfricanswerebeingsenttoPortugal,firstasgiftstothe
ruler,PrinceHenry,andthenasslaves.TheimageofAfricainEuropewould
soonbetransformed.

InJanuary1492,theChristianrulersKingFerdinandandQueenIsabella
defeatedtheMoorsatGrenada,theirlaststronghold.Atfirst,theChristian
monarchspromisedthatMoorishcultureandinstitutionswouldbeprotected.
Butin1502,theKingandQueenorderedtheexpulsionoftheMoorsfromthe
IberianPeninsula.TheycouldonlystayiftheyconvertedtoChristianity.Many
ofthosewhodidconvertwerelaterchargedwithsecretlyremainingfaithfulto
Islam.Overthenextcentury,morethanamillionpeoplewhotracedtheir
ancestrytoNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEastwereforcedoutofSpain.

V.1492:ExpulsionoftheJews

WhattheKingandQueenofCastilledidtotheMoorshadalreadybeendone
totheJews.OnMarch31,1492theChristianrulersdecreedthatJewswho
refusedtoconverttoChristianityshouldbeexpelledfromSpain.Asmanyas
200,000peoplerefusedtoconvertandwereorderedtoleavebyAugust2
nd
,the
daybeforeColumbusfirstvoyage.ThevoyagesofColumbuswerelargely
financedbypropertyconfiscatedfromSpainsJewishpopulation.

JewshadlivedintheIberianPeninsulafor1000years.Theywereamongthe
oldestpermanentsettlersintheregion.ButinChristianpartsofthePeninsula
theywereconsideredinfidels,andwerenotpermittedtoholdland,toengage
socalledChristiantradeslikemasonryorcarpentry,orjointhetradeguilds.
Instead,theyservedthekingsofCastilleastaxcollectorsandmoneylenders.

Inordertofitintolifemorefully,thousandsofJewsconvertedtoChristianity
(theywerecalledconversos)inthecenturiesbefore1492.Theconversos
includedthefamilyofBartolomedeLasCasas,wholaterbecameaCatholic
priestandthechampionoftheindigenouspeoplesorIndiansintheWest
Indies(asthelandsColumbusdiscoveredwerecalled).Aparticularlyzealous
conversobecametheheadoftheSpanishInquisitioninSeville.TheInquisition
wasauthorizedbythePopein1478toactagainsthereticswhowerebelievedto
beunderminingthefaith.Over8,000people,mostofthemconversoswho
werethoughttobeinsincereintheirembraceofChristianity,wereburnedto
deathbytheInquisitionbythedawnofthenextcentury

TheantiSemitism(hatredofJews)whichledtotheexpulsionoftheJews
fromSpainandtheirtortureandkillingbytheInquisitionwasonthesurfacea
matterofreligiouspersecution.Buttherewerealsoeconomicreasonsforanti
SemiticoutburststhatoccurredfromtimetotimearoundEurope.Akeyto
understandingantiSemitismandhowitwasmanipulatedinfeudalEuropeis
theworldusury.

Usuryreferstothepracticeoflendingmoneyforinterest,somethingwhich
wetakeforgrantedtoday.Butduringthemedievalfeudalperiodbeforethe
economicsystemofcapitalismemergedthemedievalChristianchurch
maintainedthatusurywasasin.BecauseJewsdidnotseeitassuch,theycame
toplayacentralroleinmedievalEuropeasmerchants,financialadvisersand
moneylenderstokingsandemperors.

Inthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,withthedevelopmentofcapitalism,
privateindividualsbeganproducinggoodsforthemarketinordertogeta
profit.Theyneededcapitaltoinvest.Astheeconomychanged,thebanon
usurywasfinallyabandonedbytheCatholicChurch,andtheuniqueeconomic
functionthatJewshadperformedinEuropewasbroughttoanend.Anew
Christianbourgeoisie(tradersandbusinessmenwholivedinthetowns)came
toseeJewsastheirleadingeconomicrivals.AntiSemitismwascultivatedin
ordertoeliminateeconomiccompetitors.Overtheyears,Jewishbusinessmen
werereducedtothestatusofsmallmoneylendersorpawnbrokers.Intheseroles
theycouldeasilybemadethescapegoatsforpopulardiscontentandblamedfor
allsocialproblems.Meanwhile,therecordsofwhoowedthemmoneycouldbe
convenientlywipedoutinriotsandviciouspogroms.

Withthegrowthofcapitalism,antiSemitismemergesasaparticularformof
racisminEurope.ThereisnosuchthingasaJewishrace,oranyotherpure
raceforthatmatter.ButracialstereotypesspreadwithpopularantiSemitism.
TheydrewuponthefolkmemoryconnectingJewswithusuryandcommercial
dominance,andstokedfearsofJewishconspiracyandfinancialpower.

TheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturysawtheexpansioninEuropeof
industrialcapitalism.Manypeopleweredrivenfromthelandandforcedto
workinfactoriesintowns.AntiSemitismwasusedtoshifttheblamefrom
thosewhowereactuallyprofitingfromtheirsuffering.Fascistregimesinthe
twentiethcenturyusedantiSemitismtounitetheingroup(us)againsttheout
group(them),blamingbadJewishcapitalandaninternationalconspiracyfor
homegrowneconomicproblems.

AntiSemitismandthesortofantiBlackracismthatdevelopedintheeraof
Columbusbothrelyfortheirpoweronprejudice,onstereotypesandthefanning
ofhostilityandfears.Butthetwodonotserveidenticalfunctions.AntiSemitism
islargelyascapegoatingdeviceusedagainstapeopleregardedformorethana
thousandyearsasoutsiders,whileracismdehumanizesapeopleinorderto
renderthempowerlessandjustifytheirexploitation.

V.1492:Columbuspursuitofmerchandise

OnApril17,1492,lessthanamonthaftertheSpanisheditexpellingtheJews
fromSpain,Columbus(orDonCristobalashewasknowninSpain)signeda
businessdealwiththeKingandQueenwhichdetailedthepayhewouldreceive
forhisvoyage.Thedealincludedthefollowingprovision:

Item,thatofallandeverykindofmerchandise,whetherpearls,precious
stones,gold,silver,spices,andotherobjectsandmerchandisewhatsoever,of
whateverkind,nameandsort,whichmaybebought,bartered,discovered,
acquiredandobtainedwithinthelimitsofthesaidAdmiralty,YourHighnesses
grantfromnowhenceforthtothesaidDonCristobal,andwillthathemayhave
andtakeforhimself,thetenthpartofthewhole,afterdeductingalltheexpenses
whichmaybeincurredtherein,sothatofwhatshallremainclearandfreehe
mayhaveandtakethetenthpartforhimself,andmaydotherewithashe
pleases,theotherninepartsbeingreservedforYourHighnesses....
3

Inotherwords,Columbuswouldgettokeeponetenthofeverythinghe
discoveredoracquired.Withthisagreement,theinhabitantsofthelands
Columbusbumpedintowereasgoodasdoomed.

Inthemidtolatefifteenthcentury,aschronicwarfare,disease,famineand
socialunrestcombinedtokeepthepopulationofallofEuropeatnomorethan
seventymillion,scholarsestimatethatthepopulationinNorthandSouth
Americawasonehundredmillionormore.Betweeneightandtwelvemillion
peoplewhowouldsoonbecalledIndianswerebelievedtolivenorthof
presentdayMexico.TheAzteccapitalofTenochtitlan,containing350,000
people,hadfivetimesthepopulationofeitherLondonorSeville.

TheislandwhichtodayisdividedbetweenHaitiandtheDominicanRepublic
hadanestimatedeightmillionpeoplewhenColumbuslandedthereandcalledit
Hispaniola.By1518,fewerthan20,000ofthenativeinhabitantswereleftalive,
andvirtuallynoonewasleftby1535.

WhenColumbusfirstsawagroupoftheindigenousinhabitantscalledTainos
(orLukayos)onOctober12,1492,hereachedinawaythatgavenohintofwhat
wastocome.Hewroteinhisjournalthattheyimpressedhimasavery
handsomerace...theireyeswerelargeandverybeautiful,notblack,butthecolor
oftheinhabitantsoftheCanaries....theywerestraightlimbedwithoutexception.

ColumbuslaterwastowritetoQueenIsabellaintheseterms:

Theyareaverylovingraceandwithoutcovetousnessandsuitabletoany
useandIdeclaretoyourHighnessesthatthereisnotabettercountrynora
betterpeopleintheworld.Theylovetheirneighborsastheydothemselvesand
theirspeechisthesoftestintheworldbeingalwaysaccompaniedbysmiles.
4

Theywere,hereported,ripeforconversiontoChristianity,havingnoreligion
themselves.

Howcanweunderstandtheimminentexterminationofthislovingraceof
potentialChristians?DuringhissecondtriptotheNewWorldIn1495,hemade
twodecisionsthatwouldleadtogenocide.Hisgreedforgoldledhimtoorder
thateachTaino14yearsofageorolderhadtoproduceahawksbellfullof
goldeverythreemonths.Thosewhofailedtomeetthisquotainalandwhere
therewasinfactlittlegoldtobefoundhadtheirlimbscutoffandbledtodeath
orweretornapartbytrainedattackdogs.Methodsofovertterrorwere
employedtoconvincetheTainosthattheSpanishmeantbusiness.

Duringthesameyear,increasinglyfrustratedbyhisfailuretofindlarge
quantitiesofgold,Columbusroundedupmorethanathousandpeacefuland
unarmedTainosandsent500ofthemtobesoldinSpainasslaves.Hecalled
themamostprofitablemerchandiseandwrotetotheQueenin1496thatwe
cansendfromhereinthenameoftheHolyTrinityalltheslavesandBrazilwood
whichcouldbesold.Wecansell4,000slaveswhowillbeworth,atleast20
million.
5

HehopedtoovercomeQueenIsabellasreligiousscruplesagainstenslaving
humanbeingsbyarguingthatthesavageandcannibalisticCaribsshouldbe
exchangedasslavesagainstlivestock,etc.,tobeprovidedbymerchantsin
Spain.ByenslavingCaribs,hewrote,Spaincouldsavetheirsoulsandsavethe
gentleTainosfrombeingpreyedonbythesefierceneighbors.

Thereareseveralproblemswiththisrationale.Columbushadactually
shippedTainosknownasLukayostoSpainforsaleasslaves,notthosepeoplehe
calledCaribs.Furthermore,therewasinfactongreatdistinctionbetweenthe
neighborsscholarshavewrittenthattheywereindistinguishablefromeach
other.ButbecausetheCaribs,unliketheLukayos,foughtbackwhenthey
encounteredColumbusduringhisfirstvoyagebyshootingarrowsathisships,
theyweredemonizedassavagecannibals.

ThereisinfactnofirmevidencethattheCaribsdidpracticecannibalism.
ButattributingcannibalismtotheCaribsservedColumbuspurpose.Itopened
thewayforaformofmassslaverywhichcouldbeprofitablehewaslooking
forawaytoenlargehistenpercentshareoftheplunderandjustifiedonthe
groundsthatenslavementcouldbenefitboththecolonizersandthosewhowere
notfullyhuman.

VI.TheAfricanslavetrade

FiftyyearsbeforeColumbusconquest,Africancaptivesseizedbythe
Portuguesewerealreadybeingsoldatauction.Shortlybeforehecrossedthe
Atlantic,ColumbussailedonaPortugueseshiptotheAfricancoastofGuinea,
wherehesawgoldandenslavedAfricanswaitingtobeloadedonboard.

By1510,asindigenousIndiansweredyingout,KingFerdinandpasseda
decreepermittingashipmentof250AfricanstobesenttotheNewWorld.
BartolomedeLasCasashadatfirstwelcomedtheAfricanslavetrade.Hisfather
andunclehadaccompaniedColumbusonhissecondvoyage,andhehadgoneto
theWestIndiesin1502asasettlertoshareinthespoils.In1510,hebecamethe
firstpriesttobeordainedintheNewWorld.Appalledatthecrueltyhesaw
aroundhim,hesoonbecamethedefenderoftheindigenouspeople.Hethought
theAfricanslavetradewouldbeawayofsavingtheTainosfromextinction.

ButhesoonrealizedthatenslavingAfricanswasasevilasenslavingTainos,
andheraisedhisvoiceagainstthepractice.Bythenitwastoolate.TheNew
WorldplantationsystemhadbecomewhollydependentonAfricanslavelabor.
Africanslaveswhotoiledinthesugarcanefieldswereseenasmerecommodities
tobeboughtandsold.Aracistideologywasrapidlyevolvingwhichjustified
theirenslavementonthegroundsthattheywereheathens(notChristians),and
thatthecoloroftheirskinwasabadgeofnaturalinferiority.

Inthecenturiestocome,peopleofEuropeandescentwouldinventthe
doctrineofwhitesupremacy,justifyitwiththediscoveriesofscience,and
reapricheconomicrewards.

1
FrankM.Snowden,Jr.,BeforeColorPrejudice:theAncientViewofBlacks(Harvard
UniversityPress,1983).

2
DavidStannard,AmericanHolocaust:ColumbusandtheConquestoftheNewWorld
(OxfordUniversityPress,1992),p.180.
3
JohnNobleWilford,TheMysteriousHistoryofColumbus(AlfredA.Knopf,
1991),p.96.
4
ColumbuswritingsarequotedinJanCarew,Columbusandtheoriginsof
racismintheAmericas:PartOne,Race&Class,Spring1988.
5
QuotedinJanCrew,ColumbusandtheoriginsofracismintheAmericas,Part
Two,Race&Class,JulySeptember1988,p.49.

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