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CHAPTER 4
Thermodynamics & Heat Engine Cycles

2.0 Introduction:
Thermodynamics is a branch of technology that deals with energy in all its forms and
the laws governing transformation of energy from one form to another. There are
several forms of energy such as mechanical, thermal or heat, chemical, electrical etc.
Thermodynamics deals with the behavior of gases and vapour when subjected to
variations of temperature and pressure and the relationship between heat energy and
mechanical energy. When a substance undergoes a change from one state to another
in a process, energy transformation may occur. Common processes are:
1). Heating or cooling, (2) Expansion or compression in the cylinder with or without
production or supply of mechanical work (3) Chemical reaction and change of phase
may occur in same processes involving liberation or absorption of heat.
2.1 Thermodynamic Medium or Working Substance
Any thermodynamic process or change involves the use of working substance or
thermodynamic medium, Working substances has the ability to receive, store and
give out (or reject) energy as required by the particular process. The medium may be
in any one of the four physical states namely, solid, liquid, vapour and gaseous.
Following are examples of working substances:
1) water vapors ( as used in Steam power generating plant)
2) ammonia or freon ( as used in Refrigerator or ice plant)
Water vapour (steam) is a very suitable medium for power generation process,
because (a) it readily absorbs heat, (b) it flows easily to the engine, (c) it exerts
pressure on the engine piston and (d) it readily expands in engine cylinder.
Ammonia or freon is a suitable medium far an ice plant, because it boils at a
temperature below 0
0
C and at a moderate pressure, and absorbs latent heat from water
for such boiling at low temperature thus making it to freeze into ice.

2.2 Entropy: The term entropy means transformation. Entropy is a thermodynamic
property of a working substance which increases with the addition of heat and
decreases with removal of heat. It is a thermodynamic variable (i.e., it is a parameter
of thermodynamic state like pressure, temperature etc.). It is introduced to facilitate
the study of working fluids (working substances) when they are passing through
reversible cycle (cycle consisting of only reversible operations). The term or property
is used by engineers, as a means of providing quick solution for problems dealing
with Isentropic Operations.
Entropy is usually represented by the symbol .


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The small increase of entropy d of a substance upon addition of heat to it is
defined as the ratio of small addition of heat dQ to the absolute temperature T of
the substances at which the heat is supplied.
Thus, Entropy is a thermodynamic property which is defined as the ratio of heat
supplied or rejected during a reversible process and the absolute mean temperature at
which the heat is supplied or rejected.
i.e. d = dQ/T or dQ = T . d
The source of heat may be external or internal such as a friction. The heating process,
represented on a curve diagram (Fig. 1) having absolute temperature and entropy as
the two co-ordinates is known as T diagram.

Let, a substance be supplied with small amount of heat dQ, during which mean
absolute Temp is T. Then, the area of the shaded strip is given by
T. d = dQ.
Entropy is not a physical property of a substance in the same sense as pressure,
temperature etc. and, therefore, it cannot be measured directly by instruments. It is a
derived thermal property of substance. It depends upon mass of the system and
hence it is an extensive property (i.e., it is not an intrinsic property).
The unit of entropy is heat unit per degree Kelvin per kg of substance i.e. KJ/kg
0
C.
Perhaps the best way to understand entropy as a driving force in nature is to conduct
a simple experiment with a new deck of cards. Open the deck, remove the jokers, and
then turn the deck so that you can read the cards. The top card will be the ace of
spades, followed by the two, three, and four
ENTROPY
dT
1
2
T
E
M
P
E
R
A
T
U
R
E

d

FIG. 1 Heating process represented on Temp. - Entropy Diagram
T

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of spades, and so on. Now divide the cards in half, shuffle the deck, and note that the
deck becomes more disordered. The more often the deck is shuffled, the more
disordered it becomes. What makes a deck of cards become more disordered when
shuffled? In 1877 Ludwig Boltzmann provided a basis for answering this question
when he introduced the concept of the entropy of a system as a measure of the
amount of disorder in the system. A deck of cards fresh from the manufacturer is
perfectly ordered and the entropy of this system is zero. When the deck is shuffled, the
entropy of the system increases as the deck becomes more disordered. There are
8.066 x 10
67
different ways of organizing a deck of cards. The probability of obtaining
any particular sequence of cards when the deck is shuffled is therefore 1 part in 8.066
x 10
67
. In theory, it is possible to shuffle a deck of cards until the cards fall into
perfect order. But it isn't very likely! Boltzmann proposed the following equation to
describe the relationship between entropy and the amount of disorder in a system. S
= k ln W
In this equation, S is the entropy of the system, k is a proportionality constant equal to
the ideal gas constant divided by Avogadro's constant, ln represents a logarithm to the
base e, and W is the number of equivalent ways of describing the state of the system.
According to this equation, the entropy of a system increases as the number of
equivalent ways of describing the state of the system increases.
2.3 Zeroth Laws of Thermodynamics: This Law known as Zeroth Law, states that If
two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other. If we take two bodies A and B, one hotter than the
other, and bring them in to contact with each other, the heat energy will be transferred
from body at higher temperature to the body at lower temperature and after some time
when there is no further heat transferred between them, then the bodies are said to be
in thermal equilibrium with each other now if a third body C is brought in contact
with the two bodies (let us take thermometer as a third body). Now suppose there is
no change in mercury level of the thermometer (body C) then we can say that the
bodies A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with the third body C
(thermometer).

2.3.1 First Law of Thermodynamics: This law states that energy can neither be created
nor destroyed, if mass is conserved. The sum total of the energy in the universe is
constant; however, it can be converted from one form into another.
A machine cannot create work from nothing nor it can deliver more work than the
energy it receives.
In a thermal power generating plant, the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into
heat energy in the boiler, which in turn is converted into mechanical energy in the
steam engine or steam turbine. If the turbine is coupled to a generator the mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy. If the generated electrical energy is
supplied to drive electric motor, the electrical energy is again converted into
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mechanical energy. If the electrical energy is supplied to heaters, it is converted to
heat.
It was established by Joule that Heat and mechanical energies are mutually
convertible. Joule established experimentally that there is a numerical relation
between the unit of heat and the unit of work. This relation is known as Joules
equivalent or mechanical equivalent of heat according to this relation
1 kcal = 427 kg m
2.3.2 General Energy Equation: According to the 1
st
Law of Thermodynamic or the Law
of Conservation of Energy, when heat energy is supplied to a body, it is used, (i) As
an increase in internal energy i.e. increase in kinetic energy and potential energy of
gas molecules and (ii) in doing external work.
In stating the above as a general energy equation,
Let, Q = Amount of heat added to a body in kJ,
E = that part of Q that is used in increasing the store of internal energy i.e.
kinetic energy and potential energy of the gas molecules in kJ,
W = that part of Q that is used in doing external work in kJ.
Then we have Q = E + W.
If Q is negative, it would be interpreted as heat rejected by the gas. If Q is positive,
it denotes that heat is absorbed by the gas.
2.3.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics: This law states that It is impossible for self
acting machine, unaided by any external agency, to convey heat from a body at lower
temperature to a body at a higher temperature i.e., heat cannot, by itself, pass from a
colder body to a hotter body. Heat can be forced to pass to a higher temperature as in
the action of a refrigeration machine but only by applying an external agency to drive
the machine.
2.3.4 Reversible and Irreversible Processes: A process of a system, in which reverse or
back movement of system restoring the system as well as surrounding along the same
path is possible, is called a Reversible Process. In a Reversible Process all means of
energy dissipation (due to friction, viscosity, electric resistance, magnetic hysterisis,
plastic deformation etc) are absent. In a reversible process, a system must be in
thermodynamic equilibrium at all states.
Any process that is not reversible is known as an irreversible process. All naturally
occurring i.e. spontaneous process are irreversible
2.4 Heat engine cycle.
A heat engine cycle is a series of thermodynamic process through which a working
fluid or substance (steam in a steam engine) is passing in a certain sequence. At the
completion of the cycle the working fluid returns to its original thermodynamic state
i.e., the working fluid at the end of the cycle has the same pressure, volume,
temperature and internal energy that it had at the beginning of the cycle. Somewhere
during every cycle, heat energy is received by the working fluid. It is then the object
of the heat engine cycle to convert as much of this heat energy as possible into useful
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work. The heat energy, which is thus not converted, is rejected by the working fluid
during some process of cycle.
Any machine designed to carry out a thermodynamic cycle that converts heat energy
supplied to it into mechanical energy, is called Heat Engine. Hence the cycle on
which it operates is known as a Heat Engine Cycle.
Engineers have developed many methods of producing work from heat. Some of
these Heat Engine Cycles are.

Name of ideal cycle Use Fuel
Carnot Concept (Ideal) Any
Stirling Research Any
Otto Cycle Petrol engines Petrol
Diesel Cycle Diesel Engine Diesel (DERV)
Brayton Cycle Jet Engines Kerosene
Brayton Cycle Gas turbines Gas/Oil
Rankine Cycle Coal power station Coal
Rankine Cycle Nuclear power station Radioactive material

2.4.1 Available Energy: The amount of heat energy, which is converted into mechanical
energy, by a heat engine, is known as available energy.
The available energy can be calculated by subtracting the heat rejected during the
cycle from the total heat produced by the combustion of the fuel during the cycle.
Let Q
1
= Total heat produced by the combustion of the fuel per cycle and
Q
2
= Heat rejected during the cycle.
Then available energy = Q
1
Q
2

2.4.2 Thermal Efficiency:
The ratio of work done to the heat supplied during the cycle is known as Thermal
Efficiency of cycle.
The work done during the cycle can be calculated by subtracting the heat rejected
from the total heat supplied during the cycle.
That is, Work done during the Cycle = Heat Supplied Heat rejected.
W = Q
1
- Q
2

W = Work done during the cycle
Q
1
= Heat supplied during the cycle
Q
2
= Heat rejected during the cycle
Therefore Thermal efficiency = (Q
1
Q
2
)/ Q
1

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This thermal efficiency does not take into consideration the actual or practical losses
during cycle of operation. Therefore, this is known as thermal efficiency of the cycle.


2.5 Carnot Cycle
Air as Working Medium:
Carnot Cycle consists of Four Operations, Two Isothermal and Two frictionless
Adiabatic as shown in Fig. 2 & Fig. 3 on T- & P-V diagram respectively.
Heat is supplied at constant Temperature T
1
(Operation ab) & Rejected at constant
temperature T
2
(Operation cd). Frictionless Adiabatic Expansion is carried out during
operation bc and Frictionless Adiabatic compression is carried out during operation
da.
Heat Supplied = T
1
(
b

a
)
Heat Rejected = T
2
(
c

d
) = T
2
(
b

a
)
Work Done = Heat Supplied Heat Rejected = T
1
(
b

a
) - T
2
(
b

a
).
= (T
1
T
2
) (
b

a
)
Efficiency = Work Done/Heat Supplied = (T
1
T
2
) (
b

a
) / T
1
(
b

a
)
= (T
1
T
2
) / T
1

Thus efficiency of the Carnot Cycle depends on two temperatures T
1
& T
2
. For higher
efficiency T
1
should be highest possible and T
2
should be minimum possible.


The Carnot cycle gives highest possible efficiency but practically no Engine is
constructed operating on it as Isothermal process needs very slow speed of the Piston

T
T
2
a b
d c
T
1
Entropy
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

Fig. 2 T- Diagram
Isothermal Compression
P
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

a
d
V
c
b
Volume
Isothermal Expansion
Adiabatic Compression
Adiabatic Expansion
Fig. 3 P-V Diagram
Carnot Cycle Working Fluid is Air
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where as Isentropic process needs very fast Piston speed. Moreover it is clear from P-
V diagram that cycle is very narrow as compared to its length. That means very small
amount of useful Work is obtained which increases size of the Plant for the required
output. Therefore Carnot Cycle remains a theoretical cycle and serves as a yard stick
for the comparison purpose.

2.6 Carnot Cycle
Steam as Working Medium:
When Steam is used as a Working medium the P-V & T- diagram of the Carnot
cycle are as shown in the fig. 4 and Fig. 5. Here heat is supplied at constant
temperature T
1
and constant pressure P
1
and rejected at constant temperature T
2
and
constant pressure P
2
.
Expansion and Compression of Steam are carried out isentropically. Referring to T-
diagram Fig. 4 Heat Supplied = T
1
(
b

a
)
Heat Rejected = T
2
(
c

d
) = T
2
(
b

a
)
Work Done = Heat Supplied Heat Rejected = T
1
(
b

a
) - T
2
(
b

a
).
= (T
1
T
2
) (
b

a
)
Efficiency = Work Done/Heat Supplied = (T
1
T
2
) (
b

a
) / T
1
(
b

a
)
= (T
1
T
2
) / T
1


It is also difficult to operate on this Cycle due to followings:
1. Heat rejection must be stopped at state d so that subsequent Compression
restores the fluid to its original State a. This is difficult.
2. If Superheated Steam is used, Cycle would be still more difficult owing to
supplying the steam at constant temperature.
These operations were modified by the Rankine to realize practical steam cycles. Heat
rejection continues till all the vapour is converted to water. Addition and Rejection of
Heat is carried out at constant pressure instead of constant temperature.
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b
a
1

c
a
p
v
e
f
d
Volume V
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Fig. 6 P-V Diagram
Entropy
a
a
1
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

b
d
c
Fig. 7 T- Diagram
T

Rankine Cycle
Carnot Cycle- Working Fluid is Steam
Saturated
water line
a b
c
T
2
Entropy
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e


a,d b, c
T
1
d
Saturated
steam line
Fig. 4 T- Diagram
e
f
T

Volume
P
b
c
a
d
V
a
V
b
V
c
V
d
P
1
P
2
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Fig. 5 P-V Diagram
V
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2.7 Rankine Cycle:
In steam plant, the supply of heat and rejection of heat is more easily performed at
constant pressure than at constant temperature. Therefore in Rankine Cycle heat
supply and rejection is carried out at constant pressures and the rejection of heat is
continued till the vapour is totally converted to water..
Hence Rankine cycle is a modified Carnot cycle.
Rankine cycle is represented by the closed figure abcd on P-V and T- diagrams
in FIG. 6 and Fig. 7. The FIG. 8 shows the schematic diagram of a steam engine or
turbine plant. The various processes of the Rankine cycle are as follows.
aa: The point a represents the water at condenser pressure and feed Pump, raises its
pressure to boiler pressure by adiabatic compression aa. During this process there is
slight rise in temperature.
ab and bc: Heat is supplied to the boiler at constant pressure and the point b is
reached, which is the saturation temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure. In
p-v diagram point b nearly coincide with a as increase in volume is negligible.
Further addition of heat evaporates the water and the process is represented by bc.
The final condition of steam may be wet, dry or superheated depending upon the
quantity of heat supplied.
cd: The steam is now expanded adiabatically to do work in a steam engine or a
turbine.
Condensate
Extraction Pump
Boiler
Cooling
Water
Feed Pump
Engin
e
Or
Fig. 8
Schematic Diagram of Steam Engine or Turbine Plant
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da: The exhaust from steam engine or the turbine is led into a condenser, where the
Latent heat of the exhaust steam is removed by circulating water at constant pressure.
The process is represented by da.
In the P-V diagram, work done by the pump in increasing to pressure of water from
condenser pressure to boiler, is represented by the area aafe. This is however, very
small at Low pressure and is, therefore, generally neglected.
The modified P-V and T-S diagrams representing the Rankine cycle neglecting feed
pump work are shown in FIG-6.10
Let hf
2
= enthalpy of water at point a,
h
1
= enthalpy of Steam at point c,
h
2
= enthalpy of Steam at point d,
Heat supplied during the process ab and bc =h
1
hf
2

Heat rejected during the process = h
2
- hf
2

Work done = h
1
h
2
(h
1
h
2
) is known as heat drop in engine / Turbine

Efficiency of the Rankine cycle = (Work done)/(Heat supplied)
= (h
1
-h
2
) (h
1
-h
f
)
From the T - diagram it can be seen that with superheating, the amount of increase
of work done is comparatively greater than the amount of increase of heat supplied.
Therefore, the efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases with superheating.

2.7.1 Modified Rankine Cycle:
In steam engines the expansion is not continued up to the point of d, as the work
obtained is very small at the tail end as can be seen from FIG. 10 In fact it is not even
sufficient to overcome the work lost in friction in tail end part of the stroke.
Therefore, in actual practice, release is allowed to take place before the expansion is
complete at some point e by opening the exhaust port.
This causes a sudden pressure drop ef at constant volume due to steam
communicating with the outside atmosphere. This considerably reduces the stroke
length without any appreciable change in the work done. The cycle is then known as
modified Rankine cycle.
Work done in modified Rankine cycle = Area gbce + Area gefa




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2.7.2 Effect of pressure and Temperature on Rankine cycle

2.7.2.1 Effect of exhaust pressure and Temperature: Let the exhaust pressure be lowered
from P
2
to P
2
. The temperature at which the heat is rejected is also correspondingly
lowered. From the T- diagram shown in FIG. 10 it is clear that the net increase in
work is represented by area ecce. At the same time the heat transferred to steam is
also increased by area eegf. As these two areas are approximately equal, therefore
the efficiency of the Rankine cycle is increased. It should be noted that although the
efficiency of the cycle increases with decreases in exhaust pressure and temperature,
the moisture content in the exhaust steam increases, which is not desirable


T
P
2 P
2
a
b
c
c
1
e
e
1
f g h

Entropy
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e


Fig. 10: EFFECT OF EXHAUST PRESSURE & TEMP. ON RANKINE CYCLE
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Volume
V
a
P
b
c
d
g
e
j
1
2
3
Entropy
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

Work Lost
Constant volume
Work Lost
b
T
a
c
d
e
f

Fig. 9 The Modified Rankine Cycle
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2.7.2.2 Effect of supply pressure and temperature: Let the supply pressure be increased
from P
1
to P
1
with the corresponding increase in the temperature (saturation
temperature). The temperature of the superheated steam is kept constant. (Fig. 11).
Figure shows that increase in Pressure increases Work by an area abea, but
decreases in Work by an area ebcc. These two areas are approximately equals.
Therefore there is no effect on the work output on the Cycle. However increase in
Pressure causes reduction in heat rejection by an area cchg. Hence the efficiency of
the Rankine Cycle increases with increase in supply pressure. But the increase in
supply pressure increases moisture content in the exhaust steam. This causes erosion
of the later stages of the Turbine blades.













a
1

b
1

e
d

b
g h

Entropy
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e


Fig-11: EFFECT OF SUPPLY PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE
a
T
1

T
1

Ts
T
c
c
1

Condense
Boiler
Cooli
ng
Feed
water
C.W
IN
C.W
OUT
h
3
(1-M kg)
2
2
1
1
3
h
2
M kg
1 kg
hf
2

hf
3
4
1 kg h
3

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
(1-
1 kg
(1-M)
Mkg
2
4
3
2
1
Entropy
T

Fig. 12 Actual Regenerative Cycle

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2.8 Regenerative Cycle:
The efficiency of Rankine cycle is less than Carnot cycle because in the Rankine
cycle all the heat is not added at highest temperature. The temperature is raised by
reversible interchange of heat before water enters the Boiler. This is shown in Fig. 12.
The feed water is heated by bleeding small amount of steam from the Turbine.
The cycle in which an infinite number of such bleedings are assumed to take place
between the points where the steam becomes dry saturated and it is finally exhausted
to the condenser, is known as Regenerative cycle.
[Bleeding is extraction of steam from any section of the turbine, before it has
completely expanded to the final temperature, for heating feed water.]

2.9 Ideal Regenerative Cycle:
The layout and the T- diagram of an Ideal regenerating cycle is shown in FIG. 13
The steam enters the turbine, dry saturated, at temperature T
1
and expands
adiabatically to temperature T
2
. The condensate from the condenser is pumped back
through an annular space in the turbine casing and the feed water is heated by the
steam in a reversible manner, the temperature of steam and feed water being same at
any section.














The water enters the boiler in a saturated condition at 4. The heat gained by feed
water during 3-4, (area 3 4 b a), is equal to the heat given by the steam during 1 2,

S
Boiler
Condenser
Pump
Turbine
1 2
3
4
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

Entropy
a
b
T
2

T
1
4
3
3
1
c
d
2
2
1

1
T
Fig. 13 Ideal Regenerative Cycle
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(area 1d c2). It can be shown that the efficiency of this ideal regenerative cycle is
equal to that of cannot cycle.
Heat Supplied = area under 41 = 41 d b
Heat rejected = area under 2
1
d b 3
1
The above expressions are same as in Carnot cycle.
The advantage of regeneration is explained by the fact that in Rankine cycle more
Latent heat is thrown in condenser than in regenerative cycle.
The ideal regenerative cycle cannot be followed in actual practice. Even if we could
practically approach it, it would not be used because of the Low dryness fraction of
the steam in the latter stages of the turbine. Therefore in actual Practice advantage is
taken of the principle of regeneration by bleeding a part of the steam flowing at
certain stages of expansion for feed water heating so that the dryness fraction of the
remaining part is not greatly reduced.
The Fig. 12 shows the actual regenerative cycle.


2.10 Reheat Cycle:
The efficiency of the ordinary Ranking cycle can be improved by increasing the
pressure and Temperature of the steam entering into the turbine.
As the initial pressure increases, the expansion ratio in the turbine also increases and
the steam becomes quite wet at the end of expansion. This is not desirable because the
increased moisture contents of the steam causes corrosion & erosion of the turbine
blades and increases the losses. This reduces the nozzle and blade efficiency.
In reheat cycle, the steam is extracted from a suitable point in the turbine and is
heated with the help of gases in the boiler furnace as shown in Fig. 14 & Fig. 15
shows Reheat cycle on H- & T- diagram.












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The dryness fraction of steam coming out of turbine should not fall below 0.88.
By using the reheat cycle, the specific steam consumption decreases and thermal
efficiency also increases.
Boiler
3
Superheater

2
2
ND
Stage
Turbine
1
st
Stage
Turbine
1
4
5
Condenser

Reheater
Pump
E
n
t
h
a
l
p
y

P
2
= P
3
P
3
P
4
2
1
4
3
Entropy
H

P
4
2
P
1
T

P
2
1

3

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

4
Entropy

Fig. 14 Reheat Cycle
Fig. 15 Reheat Cycle on H- & T- Diagram
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The increase in thermal efficiency due to reheat depends upon the ratio of reheat
pressure to original pressure of steam ( i.e. P
2
/P
1
)
The reheat pressure is generally kept within 20% of the initial pressure of the
steam.
In reheater, the steam is generally heated to its initial temp. of steam.
The efficiency of the reheat cycle may be less than the Rankine efficiency if the
reheat is used at low pressures.
The reheat cycle is only preferred for high capacity plants (above 50 MW and
when pressure of steam is as high as 100 kg/cm
2
ab)
It is not preferred for low capacity plants as the cost of the reheater is not
justified.

2.10.1 Advantages of Reheat cycle:
1. There is a limit to the degree of superheat due to metallurgical conditions;
therefore, it is not possible to get all superheat in one stage. The inevitable effect
of use of higher pressure in modern power plants is that, the saturation line is
reached earlier during isentropic. Expansion as shown in Fig. 15, T- dia. H-
diagram. Therefore most of the turbine stages operate in saturated steam region
which is highly undesirable. There is heavy blade erosion due to the impact of
water particles carried with the steam. Therefore, the reheating is essential in high
pressure Modern power plants to increases the life of the plant.
2. The reheating reduces 4 to 5% fuel consumption with a corresponding reduction
in fuel handling.
3. The reheat cycle reduces the steam flow of 15 to 17% which corresponding
reduction in boiler, turbine and feed heating equipments capacities. This also
reduces the pumping power in that proportion.
4. The wetness of the exhaust steam with reheat cycle is reduced to 50% of Rankine
cycle with a corresponding reduction in exhaust blade erosion.
5. Lower steam pressure and temperature and less costly material can be used to
obtain the required thermal performance.
6. A reduction in steam volume and heat to the condenser is reduced by 7 to 8%.
Therefore, the condenser size and cooling water requirement are also reduced by
the same percentages.
7. The size of the LP turbine blades is reduced because specific volume is reduced
by 7 to 8%.
8. The advantages claimed for the reheat cycle are higher thermal efficiency,
reduced feed pump power, smaller condenser, smaller boiler, long life of turbine
and less handling of fuel and firing equipment.
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2.10.2 Disadvantages of Reheat cycle:
1) The cost of extra pipes and equipments and controls makes this cycle more
expensive than ordinary Rankine cycle. There fore, the minimum capacity of the
plant must be 50 MW for the adoption of reheat cycle.
2) The greater floor space is required to accommodate the larger turbine
(multicylinder) and reheat piping.
3) The complexity of operation and control increases with the adoption of reheat
cycle.

Other Heat Engine Gas Cycles:

2.11 Otto Cycle- Internal Combustion Engine:
Otto cycle is the prototype of the actual cycle used in engines with spark ignition i.e.
automobiles, aircraft etc.
















Process Nature of process Heat input Work outpu

1 2


2 3



3 4



4 1

Compression Stroke. Adiabatic compression of gas fuel
mixture in the cylinder.

Ignition of gas fuel mixture. Take place rapidly at top of th
compression stroke while the volume is essentially constan

Expansion Stroke. Adiabatic, isentropic expansion of gase
in the cylinder after fuel mixture is ignited. This is the par
of the cycle that does positive work

Exhaust of the spent gases and the intake of a new fuel
mixture into the cylinder. The volume is the same at
beginning and ending of the exhaust and intake stroke.


0


C
v
(T
3
-T
2
)



0



C
v
(T
1
-T
4
)


- C
v
(T
2
-T
1
)


0



- C
v
(T
4
-T
3
)



0
T
V

P
1
2
3
4
V=0
1
2
3
4
V=0
=0
=0
Otto Cycle Fig. 16
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Efficiency =


2.12 Diesel Cycle:
In Diesel cycle heat is added at constant pressure. This cycle (Fig. 17) is typical of
heavy fuel engines referred to as diesel engines.



















Process Nature of process Heat input Work outpu

1 2


2 3



3 4



4 1

Compression Stroke. Adiabatic compression of gas fuel
mixture in the cylinder.

Ignition of gas fuel mixture. Fuel is ignited by high
temperature due to a large compression. Burning takes
places while the pressure is essentially constant.

Expansion Stroke. Adiabatic, isentropic expansion of gase
This is the part of the cycle that does positive work.

Exhaust of the spent gases and the intake of a new fuel
mixture into the cylinder. The volume is the same at
beginning and ending of the exhaust and intake stroke.


0


C
p
(T
3
-T
2
)



0



C
v
(T
1
-T
4
)


- C
p
(T
2
-T
1
)


0



- C
p
(T
4
-T
3
)



0

Efficiency =




(T
4
T
1
)
(T
3
T
2
)
1
(T
4
T
1
)
(T
3
T
2
)
1
C
v

C
p

(T
4
T
1
)
(T
3
T
2
)
1
1

=

P
1
2
3
4
1
4
=0
2 3
P=0
T
V
=0
V=0
Diesel Cycle Fig. 17
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2.13 Brayton cycle:
This cycle is used in gas turbine. Here the various processes take place in separate
steady flow machines such as compressor, turbine, heater and cooler. The working
media medium may be air or some other gas






















Process Nature of process Heat input Work outpu

1 2


2 3


3 4


4 1

Isentropic-compression of the intake air into the combusti
section of the engine.

Constant-pressure combustion of fuel injected into
combustion chamber.

Isentropic-expansion through the turbine section. This is th
part of the cycle that does positive work.

Constant-pressure heat is exhausting into the air.

0


C
p
(T
3
-T
2
)


0


- C
p
(T
4
-T
1
)


- C
v
(T
2
-T
1
)


R(T
3
-T
2
)


- C
v
(T
4
-T
3
)


R(T
1
-T
4
)

Efficiency

Let r
p
be the pressure ratio as the process of compression and expansion are adiabatic, then


Efficiency = 1 -
2 3
4
1
2
1
3
4

P
T
V
Adiabatic
P=0
P=0
Brayton cycle Fig. 18
1
2
3
4
Heater
Cooler
Turbine Compressor
Flow diagram Fig. 19
1
r
p

( )
-1

(T
4
T
1
)
(T
3
T
2
)
1
=