NUCLEAR

POWER PLANT
Nuclear Power Today
Provides almost 20% of worlds
electricity (8% in U.S.)
69% of U.S. non-carbon electricity
generation
More than 100 plants in U.S.
None built since the 1970s
200+ plants in the Europe
Leader is France
About 80% of its power from nuclear
Origins
After World War II,
development of
civilian nuclear
program
Atlantic Energy Act
of 1946
1954: first
commercial nuclear
power program
The Vision
It is not too much to expect that our
children will enjoy in their homes
[nuclear generated] electrical energy too
cheap to meter.

Lewis Strauss, Chairman of the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission (1954)
Began in 1953 and was designed by
Eisenhower specifically to promote
peaceful, commercial applications of
atomic energy after the Manhattan
Project and atomic bombings on Japan

Public support for nuclear energy grew,
federal nuclear energy programs shifted
their focus to advancing reactor
technologies

With this came the support of utility
companies, which saw nuclear energy as a
cheap and environmentally safe
alternative energy choice
Uranium Mining
There are three main methods

Underground mining

Open pit mining

In Situ Leaching (ISL)
Underground Mining

The Case of the Olympic Dam Mine
Olympic Dam mine is
located in South Australia

Most of the mines profit
actually comes from the
copper that they mine as
well

Tunnels are dug into the
earth, where ore is
extracted

The ore is crushed into a
powder, then soaked in a
lake. The impurities
precipitate and the rest is
dried by heat.
In Situ Leaching
Wells are drilled into aquifers, the water is
removed, and a solvent, such as hydrogen
peroxide, is pumped in

The peroxide dissolves the uranium, and the
solution is pumped back up

An ion exchange system causes the uranium
to precipitate in the form of UO
4
2H
2
O
(uranium peroxide)
In Situ Leaching
From Where Does It Come?
Australia has 30% of the worlds
uranium below its topsoil, and it is all
for export

Canada (mostly
Saskatchewan) is
the next largest
source
The True North,
strong and free,
has 20% of the
worlds supply

Major Problems of Nuclear
Energy
Cost
Safety
Proliferation
Waste Disposal

More expensive than coal and
natural gas, but could be made
cheaper with carbon credits

New nuclear plants could generate
power at $31-$46/MWh

It would take 3-4 new plants to
absorb the early costs of these new
plants

Public remains wary of nuclear
power due to Chernobyl and
three mile island accidents

Nuclear plants vulnerable to
terrorist attacks

Safer, more efficient, and more
secure plants planned for the
future

Yucca mountain

Use breeder reactors
instead

Alternative storage site
The Future of Nuclear Waste
Storage
Current Waste Disposal
At this time, radioactive wastes are being
stored at the Department of Energys
facilities around the country

High level wastes are stored in
underground carbon or stainless steel
tanks

Spent nuclear fuel is put in above-
ground dry storage facilities and in
water-filled pools
Fuel cycles that involve the chemical
reprocessing of spent fuel to separate
weapons-usable plutonium and uranium
enrichment technologies are of obvious
concern

Once-through cycle sends discharged
fuel directly to disposal, thus allowing
the used fuels to be broken down,
leaving no options for proliferation


Nuclear Power Countries
INTRODUCTION
Nuclear power industry has made relatively faster growth
as compared with other forms of power industries.
Energy is released without using oxygen for combustion
(fission).
Breeding of nuclear fuel is possible so that we produce
almost same amount of nuclear fuel spent, without
reduction of power output.
The weight of fuel required for generating a particular
amount of energy is much less than what is required in
conventional method of generation.
During the complete fission of 1 kg U-235, 19 billion
kilocalories are released, i.e. 1 kg uranium-235
corresponds to 2.7 million kg coal equivalent.
Economic Advantages
The energy in one Kg of highly enriched Uranium
is comparable to that of one million gallons of
gasoline.

One million times as much energy in one Kg of
Uranium as in one Kg of coal.

Nuclear energy annually prevents 5.1 million tons
of sulfur 2.4 million tons of nitrogen oxide 164
metric tons of carbon
Structure of Atom
Atoms containing the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons in their nuclei are called isotopes of an element.
Protons and neutrons do not coexist in a nucleus in all
combinations, rather than it appears that only a small range of
neutrons coexist with the protons to form a nucleus.
This means that no. of known isotopes of an element is limited.
The major reason for this is that isotopes of some elements are
unstable and they disintegrate at a fixed rate depending upon the
specific isotope.
The instability is manifested by
The disintegration of parent nucleus into two or more
nuclei, or
The rearrangement of particles within the nucleus which
results in emission of particles or of energy in the form of
rays.
This particles or energy emitted are known as radiation.
Types of Radiations
Alpha particles
Beta radiation
Gamma radiation
Neutrons
Structure of Atom Cont.
Alpha Particles
Consisting of helium nuclei which is a
combination of two neutrons and two
protons.
The alpha particle comes from the nucleus
of an element with specific energy that is
characteristic of the isotopes.

Eg: + 4.20 Mev
Thorium in turn is radioactive and emits
Beta and Gamma radiation
Beta - Radiation
Beta radiation consisting of electrons.
Electrons emitting beta radiation are
emitted over a range of energies, in
contrast to alpha particles which emit from
a radioactive material at one or more
discrete values of kinetic energy.


n denotes for neutrino and Q the energy released
Gamma Radiation
This radiation is electromagnetic in nature
and is considered to be high energy
radiation.
This has high penetrating power and is
hazardous to health.
Gamma radiation is discontinuous and
comes out from the nucleus in the form of
small packets of electro magnetic energy
known as photons.
NUCLEAR FUEL
Energy from disintegrating atomic nuclei has a tremendous
potential to do good for the people of the world. We routinely use
X-rays to examine for fractures, treat cancer with radiation and
diagnose disease with the use or radioactive isotopes.
About 17% of the energy in the world comes from nuclear power
plants.
Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive
nuclear energy. The most common type of nuclear fuel is fissile
elements that can be made to undergo nuclear fission chain
reactions in a nuclear reactor
The most common nuclear fuels are 235U and 239Pu. Not all
nuclear fuels are used in fission chain reactions
2. Uranium-235
Fission of U-235 splits nucleus
in two pieces
releases neutrons for chain
reaction
Nuclear fission chain
reaction releases energy in
the form of heat
The fuel used in
nuclear power
plants is an
isotope of the
radioactive
element uranium
http://www.ecolo.org/photos/uranium/uranium-black.jpg
92
U
Uranium
Nuclear Fuel: Uranium
Collision
Neutron: Neutron on colliding with an atom does
not ionise the atom but it interacts with the
nucleus and produce one of the following effect
Elastic Collision: The neutron collision displace
the nucleus, which may alter the structure
sensitive properties of material significantly an
slow down of neutron in a reactor.
Inelastic Collision
Absorption
Fission: Fission is special case of absorption.


NUCLEAR FISSION
When a neutron strikes an atom of uranium, the uranium splits
into two lighter atoms and releases heat simultaneously.
Fission of heavy elements is an exothermic reaction which can
release large amounts of energy both as electromagnetic radiation
and as kinetic energy of the fragments
U235 + n fission Ba137 + Kr97 + 2or3 n + 200 MeV

NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS
A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released in fission
produce an additional fission in at least one further nucleus. This nucleus in
turn produces neutrons, and the process repeats. If the process is
controlled it is used for nuclear power or if uncontrolled it is used for
nuclear weapons
CHAIN REACTION

If each neutron releases two more neutrons, then
the number of fissions doubles each generation. In
that case, in 10 generations there are 1,024 fissions
and in 80 generations about 6 x 10 23 (a mole)
fissions.

Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear reactions deal with interactions between
the nuclei of atoms including of nuclear fission
and nuclear fusion
Both fission and fusion processes deal with
matter and energy
Fission is the process of splitting of a nucleus into
two "daughter" nuclei leading to energy being
released
Fusion is the process of two "parent" nuclei fuse
into one daughter nucleus leading to energy
being released
Fusion Reactions
A classic example of a fusion reaction is that of
deuterium (heavy hydrogen) and tritium which is
converted to Helium and release energy.
p + p He + n + 0.42 MeV
Location of Nuclear Power Plant
Proximity to load centre
Availability of cooling water
Radioactive Waste disposal
Accessibility


NUCLEAR REACTOR

A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear chain

reactions are initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady
rate, as opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which the chain
reaction occurs in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled
causing an explosion.
Nuclear Reactors
Nuclear Reactor device built to
sustain a controlled nuclear fission
chain reaction
www.pbase.com/pbrakke/image/44279993
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Crocus-p1020491.jpg
Main Components of Nuclear
Reactor:
- reactor vessel
- tubes of uranium
- control rods
- containment structure
control rods control
radioactivity, absorbs
neutrons
Containment structure
contains the reaction
in at least 3 feet of
concrete!


Reactor Core
The core consisting of a number of fuel rods made of
fissile material.
The material used for cladding the nuclear fuel should be
resistant to abrasion, should have a low neutron cross
section, bond well to uranium and should be cheaply
available.
The materials used are aluminum, stainless steel and
zirconium.
It is desirable to use reactor core as cubical or cylindrical
in shape rather than spherical.
Moderator
The moderator is used to slow down the neutrons, by
absorbing some of the kinetic energy of neutrons by
direct collision, there by increasing the chances of
fission.
The materials used is graphite, ordinary water and heavy
water.
Graphite is simple to fabricate and handle and does not
pose any containment problem.
Heavy water is costlier per unit weight, as compared to
graphite or ordinary water.

Reflector
A neutron reflector is placed around the core and used to
avoid the leakage of neutrons from the core.
Used for conversion of non-fissionable materials to
fissionable materials, there by improving the efficiency of
the reactor.
The materials used is a high purity or reactor grade
graphite.
Reflector also helps in uniform distribution of heat
production in the core.



CONTROL RODS
Control rods made of a material that absorbs neutrons are
inserted into the bundle using a mechanism that can rise or
lower the control rods.
The control rods essentially contain neutron absorbers
like, boron, cadmium or indium.
Different control rods Safety rods
- Shim rods
- Regulating rods



COOLANT PUMP
The coolant pump pressurizes the coolant to pressures of the order of
155 bar.
The pressure of the coolant loop is maintained almost constant with the
help of the pump and a pressurized unit.
Liquid metal like sodium or sodium potassium alloy is being used in
USA as a coolant, sodium has contamination problem accidentally released
in atmosphere lead t health hazards.
High pressure carbon dioxide is used as coolant in UK.
Shielding
Shielding is provided around a reactor to minimize the
possible dosage of radiation acquired by personal living
nearby the reactor.

Types of Reactors
Thermal Reactors are those in which the neutrons
are slowed down with a material called moderator, to a
velocity of about 200 m/s before they collide with the
nucleus of the fissioning fuel.

Fast Reactors are those in which moderator is not
in used and the neutrons, as they are released from
fission, are used directly for producing fission of
additional fuel, without slow down.

Nuclear Reactors
A Pressurized Water Reactor
(PWR) keeps water under
pressure so that it heats up but
doesnt boil. Water from the
reactor and water that is turned
into steam are in separate pipes
A Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
uses the heat from fission to
heat water until it boils. The
water from the reactor and
that water that is turned into
steam are the same
There are two different types of
nuclear reactors
http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/reactors.html
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
Light water both as coolant and moderator and uses
enriched uranium as a nuclear fuel.
Which circulates the water at high pressure to heat
exchanger 100 to 130 atm
Electric heater in the tank circuit boils the water to
generate steam.
Reactor is compact in size
No. of control rods required is low, 60 rods/1000 MW
Thermodynamic efficiency is low about 20%
Boiling Water Reactor (BWM)
As the pressure is low, cost of vessel is low
Since here the reactor does not require boiler,
pressuriser and circulating pump the cost is further
reduced.
Thermal efficiency is 30%
Steam leaving reactor is radioactive and hence shielding
of turbine and piping circulating is essential.
Power density of this reactor is nearly 50% of PWR and
hence the size of the vessel for the same capacity of
plant is more.
Liquid Metal Cooled Reactor
The fuel used is slightly enriched uranium
The moderator and coolant used are graphite and
sodium respectively.
High thermal efficiency can be obtained as higher
temperatures are possible
The reactor size is comparatively small
Pressure in the vessel is low as sodium need not to
pressurized.
In case of leakage of sodium it may result in health
hazard
Primary and secondary cooling circuits should be
shielded as sodium becomes more radioactive
Canadian Deuterium Uranium
(Candu) Reactor
Natural uranium can be used
No control rods are required
The moderator can be kept at low temperature there by
its effectiveness in slowing down the neutron is
increased.
The plant can be constructed in a relatively shorter time
as compared with BWR and PWR.
The cost of heavy water is high
Size of reactor is large
Design, manufacturing and maintenance of plant are
complex.
Fast Breeder Reactor


STEAM GENERATORS
Steam generators are heat exchangers used to convert
water into steam from heat produced in a nuclear reactor
core.

Either ordinary water or heavy water is used as the
coolant.


STEAM TURBINE
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy
from pressurized steam, and converts it into useful mechanical

Various high-performance alloys and superalloys have been used for
steam generator tubing.


FEED PUMP
Steam coming out of the turbine, flows through the
condenser for condensation and recirculated for the next cycle
of operation.
The feed pump circulates the condensed water in the
working fluid loop.



CONDENSER
Condenser is a device or unit which is used to condense vapor into
liquid.
The objective of the condenser are to reduce the turbine exhaust
pressure to increase the efficiency and to recover high quality feed water
in the form of condensate & feed back it to the steam generator without
any further treatment.



COOLING TOWER
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process
waste heat to the atmosphere.
Water circulating through the condenser is taken to the cooling tower
for cooling and reuse

The Nuclear Power Plant
Fission occurs
in the reactor
vessel. Heat is
produced.
The heat is used
to heat water to
create steam
The steam is
used to turn the
turbine in the
generator to
produce
electricity
The steam is
cooled in the
condenser to
return to the
liquid phase.
Nuclear power plant
consists of all the
parts needed to create
electricity by using
nuclear energy


ADVANTAGES
Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of carbon
dioxide (CO2). The emissions of green house gases and therefore the
contribution of nuclear power plants to global warming is therefore
relatively little.
This technology is readily available, it does not have to be developed
first.
It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one
single plant



DISADVANTAGES
The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one.
High risks: It is technically impossible to build a plant with 100%
security.
The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce
resource, its supply is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years
depending on the actual demand.



DISADVANTAGES
Nuclear power plants as well as nuclear waste could be preferred
targets for terrorist attacks..

During the operation of nuclear power plants, radioactive waste is
produced, which in turn can be used for the production of nuclear
weapons.