1

Ground-Fault Loop Impedance Calculations in

Single-Phase Systems
Haijun Liu, S.M., IEEE
haijunletap.com
Massimo Mitolo, S.M. IEEE
mitoloieee.org
Jun Qiu, S.M. IEEE
junqetap.com

Abstract - Protection against electric shock in low-voltage
installations by automatic disconnection of the supply must be
provided in compliance with applicable national or
international standards. Such regulations (e.g. National
Electrical Code in the U.S., IEC 60364, BS 7671 in the U.K.,
etc.) take into account the earthing system of the installation,
such as TT, TN-C-S, or IT systems.
To realize the protection against indirect contact, the
disconnection of the supply must occur within a permissible safe
time. To this purpose, the determination of the actual ground
fault-loop impedance (which may, or may not, comprise the
earth) is essential. This impedance, in fact, must not exceed a
maximum value, so that a sufficient ground-fault current can
circulate and operate protective devices within the safe time.
In some instances, explained in this paper, safety might be
achieved, or increased, by converting one earthing system into
another (e.g. from TT to TN, from TN to TT, from TN-C to TN-
S, etc.), by means of single-phase transformers. This conversion
can be promoted by either utilities or users. Other cases of
conversion of grounding type, although not driven by safety
concerns, are also examined, as they can be used to study the
influence of neutral earthing on single-phase short-circuits.
This paper seeks to clarify the circuits to be employed for the
calculation of ground fault-loop impedances when the earthing
type changes across single-phase transformers. The quantitative
analysis of this topic is not present in current technical
standards.

Keywords: earthing type; electric shock; equipment
grounding; fault-loop impedance; maximum disconnection
time; protective conductor; single-phase system; safety.

IEC NOMENCLATURE
PE Protective Conductor
PEN Neutral wire acting also as protective conductor

TT
Solidly Grounded Power System; ECPs directly connected
to ground, independently oI the grounding oI any point oI
the power system
TN-C
Solidly Grounded Power System; ECPs directly connected
to the grounded point oI the power system (e.g. neutral
point)
TN-S
Same deIinition as TN; PE is separate Irom the neutral
conductor
TN-C-S Same deIinition as TN; PE and neutral are combined in a
single conductor in a part oI the system.
IT
Ungrounded, or high resistance grounded, power system.
ECPs are independently grounded oI the power source.
R
s

Ground grid/ground electrode resistance at the supply
source (it is not an intentional resistance).
R
g

Ground electrode resistance at the user (it is not an
intentional resistance).

I. INTRODUCTION
International and national electrical standards and codes
provide Iundamental principles and requirements Ior the
protection oI persons (and livestock) against electric shock
due to direct and indirect contact oI live parts. These
standards give Iundamental principles Ior ground-Iault
protection by taking into account the speciIic earthing
method Ior low-voltage systems (i.e. not exceeding 1 kV)
present in the country, or within Iacilities, oI application.
The diIIerent earthing types (i.e. TN-C, TN-S, TN-C-S,
TT and IT) are based on the system neutral earthing and on
the equipment earthing. ReIerence |1| gives deIinitions oI the
above earthing types.
In the case oI supply Irom public networks, saIety
conditions, external to the customer`s installation, are under
the responsibility oI the network operator and out oI the
control oI the user. II these saIety conditions, distinctive Ior
each earthing type, as later on elaborated, cannot be
maintained, even Ior short periods oI time, saIety oI persons
is at risk.
On this basis, the authors propose the introduction oI
single-phase transIormers (SPT) as saIety devices, with the
purpose oI locally changing the earthing system Ior single-
phase users.
The saIety criteria introduced in |2|, |3| and |4| must be
modiIied to take into account the presence oI such SPTs. In
Iact, |2| only lists shock voltages as a Iunction oI conductor
spacing and grounding conductor size, and no detailed
electric shock calculations are presented. ReIerences |3|, |4|
and |5|, instead, provide a detailed guidance Ior protection
against indirect contact by disconnection oI the supply, but
there is no guideline in the presence oI low-voltage SPTs Ior
Iault-loops calculations.
This paper discusses the potential problems oI the IEC
earthing types, and provides a detailed Iault-loop impedance
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calculation to be used when single-phase transIormers are
employed to change the earthing type.

II. TN EARTHING SYSTEM
TN systems, provided Irom a public supply system, the
neutral point oI the source oI energy is earthed and are in use
in several countries oI the world, among which are:
Australia, Canada, China, Germany, South AIrica, Sweden,
Switzerland, USA, and U.K., whereas the TT-system is
adopted in: Algeria, Belgium, Denmark, Egypt, France,
Greece, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Luxemburg, Morocco, Tunisia,
Spain, Portugal, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, etc. |1|. The
TN system can also be provided Irom supply systems other
than public, e.g. substations in industrial or commercial
Iacilities owned by the customer; in this case, the service is
generally provided at voltages exceeding 1 kV.
TN systems are classiIied according to the presence oI a
dedicated wire, reIerred to as the PE conductor, to return
Iault currents to the source (i.e. TN-S), or to the presence oI
only one conductor, reIerred to as the PEN, which combines
together the PE Iunction and the neutral wire Iunction (i.e.
TN-C); iI neutral and protective Iunctions are combined in a
single conductor (i.e. the PEN) only in a part oI the electrical
system, the system is deIines as TN-C-S.
In the next sections the equivalent circuits oI the
earthing types discussed in this paper are examined.

A. TN-C Earthing Svstem
The TN-C earthing oI a single-phase system is shown in
Fig. 1.


Fig. 1 TN-C earthing oI single-phase systems
The supply Ieeder is composed oI the phase conductor L
and return conductor PEN. The electrical source may be
either three-phase or single-phase.
At the occurrence oI bolted ground-Iaults, the Iault
current returns to the source through the PEN. The total Iault
loop impedance can be calculated as: Z
Loop
Z
s
Z
L
Z
PEN
where Zs is the impedance oI the source, Z
L
is the impedance
oI the line conductor to the point oI Iault, and Z
PEN
is the
impedance oI the PEN.

B. TN-S Earthing Svstem
The TN-S earthing oI a single-phase system is shown in
Fig. 2. The supply Ieeder is composed oI the phase conductor
L, the return conductor N and a separated conductor PE. The
electrical source may be either three-phase or single-phase.


Fig. 2 TN-S earthing oI single-phase systems
At the occurrence oI bolted ground-Iaults, the Iault
current returns to source through the PE. The total Iault loop
impedance can be calculated as: Z
Loop
Z
s
Z
L
Z
PE
where
Zs is the impedance oI the source, Z
L
is the impedance oI the
line conductor to the point oI Iault, and Z
PE
is the impedance
oI the PE.
A government license is generally required to own and
operate a public low-voltage TN system. The distributor in
Iact must guarantee the continuity oI the PEN back to the
source, which may be carried out via overhead lines exposed
to extreme weather conditions; in addition, the PEN should
be Iree oI voltages at the service entrance oI the installation,
to prevent transIer oI potentials to consumers' enclosures. As
a consequence, the connection oI the PEN to consumers` PE
at the service entrance may not be possible Ior reasons oI
saIety.
In addition, earthing means might also not be provided
by utilities Ior certain outdoor installations, such as
temporary construction sites.

III. TT EARTHING SYSTEM
The TT system is generally provided by a public
network operator Ior low-voltage systems (i.e. not exceeding
1 kV) and is adopted in several countries, among which:
Algeria, Belgium, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy,
Japan, Kenya, Luxemburg, Morocco, Tunisia, Spain,
Portugal, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, etc.
The neutral point oI the source oI energy is solidly
earthed, similar to TN systems, but no means Ior the
grounding oI the users` enclosures is provided by the
distributor: users must provide their own independent
connection to earth. Such connection to earth must be a
suitable ground electrode local to the installation.
A TT earthing oI a single-phase system is
diagrammatically shown in Fig. 3.

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Fig. 3 TT earthing oI single-phase system
R
S
is the resistance oI the earth electrode oI the source,
whereas R
g
is the sum oI the resistance oI the local earth
electrode and oI the resistance oI the protective conductor.
The service entrance Ieeder is composed oI a phase
conductor L and a return conductor N; the utility source may
be either three-phase or single- phase.
At the occurrence oI bolted ground-Iaults, the Iault
current returns to the source through the user grounding
electrode R
g
, and the utility grounding electrode R
s
. The total
Iault loop impedance can be calculated as: Z
Loop
Z
s
Z
L

R
g
R
s
, where Z
s
is the impedance oI the source and Z
L
is
the impedance oI the line conductor to the point oI Iault.
The TT system becomes the preIerred alternative to the
TN iI the distributor cannot guarantee the continuity oI the
PEN and the absence oI dangerous potentials over it at the
service entrance.
A saIe TT system must generally employ Residual
Current Devices (RCDs), capable oI disconnecting the
supply within the saIe time required by |3|, |4| and |5| at the
occurrence oI ground-Iaults. The saIety condition against
electric shock, per |3|, |4| and |5|, is that TT systems must
be in compliance with the Iollowing:

R
g
I
An
_ 50 V (1)

where I
An
is the rated residual operating current oI the
RCD (e.g. 30 mA). Equation (1) assures that:

1. iI the ground Iault current I
g
~ I
An
, the supply will be
promptly disconnected, preventing the persistence oI
prospective touch voltages in excess oI 50 V at Iaulty
enclosures;
2. iI I
g
_ I
An
, the RCD may not intervene, but the
prospective touch voltage would be less than the
maximum permissible limit oI 50 V, which is considered
a harmless value in standard conditions.

However, the persistence oI perspective touch voltages
on enclosures, even iI less than 50 V, is an abnormal
condition, and should be detected and cleared. The prompt
disconnection oI Iaulty circuits in TT systems is possible iI
the earth current exceeds I
An
. In Iormulae:

n
g S
Line
I
R R
J

(2)

R
S
is not under the control and responsibility oI the user.
Hence:

n
Line
g
n
Line
s
I
J
R
I
J
R

50
(3)

II (3) is not IulIilled, the ground-Iault will not be cleared
and the grounding system becomes de Iacto an IT, without
having the saIety requirements characteristic oI this system,
as detailed in the next section.
The technical issue expressed by (3) Ior TT systems has
been recently acknowledged by |6|, which establishes that R
S

must be less than 170 O; this value guarantees the correct
operation oI RCDs with residual rating up to 1 A. II low-
voltage electrical utilities cannot comply with this
requirement, the TT system is unsaIe.

IV. IT EARTHING SYSTEM
The IT system, as provided Irom a public low-voltage
supply system, is only in use in Norway, Albania and Peru.
The IT system can also be provided Irom supply systems
other than public, in Iacilities where the continuity oI the
service is crucial (e.g. hospitals, pharmaceutical plants, etc.).
In IT systems, the neutral point oI the source oI energy
is ungrounded, or Ior protection against overvoltages, is
connected to earth through a spark gap
1
, also reIerred to as a
disneuter; equipment can be earthed singularly, in groups or
collectively |7| (Fig. 4).


Fig. 4 IT earthing oI single-phase system

Thus, in the event oI a Iirst ground-Iault the current is
low, and the disconnection oI the supply is not imperative iI
the prospective touch voltage does not exceed 50 V in ac
systems.

1
A spark gap consists oI two conducting electrodes separated by a
gap, usually Iilled with a gas, such as air, designed to allow an electric spark
to pass between the conductors. When the voltage diIIerence between the
conductors exceeds the gap's breakdown capacity, a spark Iorms, and the gas
ionizes and drastically reduces its electrical resistance.

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In public IT systems, the utility generally delivers the PE
to low-voltage dwelling units in urban areas, where it is
connected to a local earthing electrode that the user must
make available. Outside the city centers and in rural areas,
the PE is generally not distributed and user`s equipment is
solely grounded trough their local earthing electrode.
II the PE is distributed to users, two dwelling units, each
one aIIected by a one single-pole earth Iault, would cause a
current high enough to trip the overcurrent protective devices
in at least one oI the units; the system would in Iact become a
TN. However, without the distributed PE, the Iault current is
limited by the resistance to earth oI the ground electrodes oI
the units, which would likely cause a Iault current not high
enough to allow overcurrent devices to operate.
II the proper maintenance oI the spark gaps, to prevent
their short circuiting to ground, cannot be guaranteed, the IT
system becomes problematic. It could, in Iact, turn either into
a TN or a TT system, without necessarily having the
particular saIety requirements oI these earthing types, with
great risk oI electric shock Ior consumers. Utilities are
thereIore mandated to accordingly protect users against
indirect contact by implementing alternative solutions such
as changing earthing type |8|.

V. FAULT-LOOP IMPEDANCE CALCULATION FOR
EARTHING TYPE CONVERSIONS
Single-phase transIormers, as separate derived systems,
may allow conversions between earthing types.
In this section, loop-impedance calculations across
single-phase transIormers are discussed. The cases examined
are based on the Iollowing assumptions:

1) R
g
the sum oI the resistance oI the local earth electrode
and oI the resistance oI the protective conductor;
2) PE indicates the actual protective conductor oI the main
cable, but also any additional PE, as well as metal
layers oI cables (e.g. armors, sheaths) connected in
parallel to return ground-Iault currents;
3) L
P
and L
S
respectively indicate primary and secondary
line conductors, and there could be multiple set oI
cables in parallel; their corresponding impedance is
Z
LP
and Z
LS
;
4) Z
t
is the impedance and k is the ratio oI single-phase
transIormers.

A. TN-C to TN-S/TN-C-S
Figure 5 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TN-C
earthing system into a TN-S earthing system.



Fig. 5 TN-C to TN-S


The Iault-loop impedance is given by:

Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
PEN
)/k
2
Z
LS
Z
PE
(4)

C. TN-C to TT
Figure 6 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TN-C
earthing system into a TT earthing system.


Fig. 6 TN-C to TT


The Iault-loop impedance is given by:
Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
PEN
)/k
2
Z
LS
R
g
R
s
. (5)

D. TN-S to TN-C/TN-C-S
Figure 7 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TN-S
earthing system into a TN-C/TN-C-S earthing system.


Fig. 7 TN-S to TN-C

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The Iault-loop impedance is given by:

Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
N
)/k
2
Z
LS
Z
PEN
(6)
where Z
N
is the primary neutral conductor impedance.

E. TN-S to TT
Figure 8 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TN-S/TN-
C-S earthing system into a TT earthing system.



Fig. 8 TN-S to TT

The Iault-loop impedance is given by:

Z
loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
NP
)/k
2
Z
LS
R
g
R
s
(7)

where Z
NP
is the primary neutral conductor impedance.

F. TT to TN-S
Figure 9 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TT
earthing system into a TN-S earthing system.


Fig. 9 TT to TN-S

The Iault-loop impedance at the occurrence oI the 2
nd

Iault is given by:

Z
loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
NP
)/k
2
Z
LS
Z
PE
(8)

where Z
PE
is the impedance oI the PE at the secondary
side.

G. IT to TN-S
Figure 10 shows the case oI the conversion oI an IT
earthing system into a TN-S earthing system.



Fig. 10 IT to TN-S


The Iault-loop impedance is given by:

Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
NP
)/k
2
Z
L1s
Z
PE
(9)


H. TT (TN) to IT (with equipment earthed individuallv or in
groups)
Figure 11 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TT/TN
earthing system into an IT earthing system (with equipment
earthed individually or in groups.




Fig. 11 TT (TN) to IT (individual or groups)

The Iault-loop impedance at the occurrence oI the 2
nd

Iault is given by:

Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
Lp
Z
t
Z
Np
)/k
2
Z
L1s
2R
g
(10)

Equation (10) is based on the assumption that the second
ground-Iault occurs at a 'virtual piece oI equipment, whose
ground electrode has the same earth-resistance R
g
as the Iirst-
Iaulted equipment`s.

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I. TT (TN) to IT (collectivelv earthed)
Figure 12 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TT/TN
earthing system into an IT earthing system (with equipment
collectively earthed).



Fig. 12 TT to IT (collective)

The Iault-loop impedance is given by:

Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
Lp
Z
t
Z
Np
)/k
2
Z
L1s
Z
PE
(11)

Equation (11) is based on the assumption that the 2
nd

ground-Iault occurs in the vicinity oI the ungrounded source
(i.e. the single-phase transIormer) and the 1
st
ground-Iault
occurs at the 'electrically Iarthest load within the system
(i.e. by considering both length and cross sectional areas oI
cables).
Protection against electric shock is achieved iI the
calculated Z
loop
is less than the maximum permissible Iault-
loop impedance calculated as per |3|.

VI. EXEMPLARY CALCULATION OF EARTHING TYPE
CONVERSION TN-S SYSTEM TO IT-COLLECTIVE

A simpliIied example oI earthing type conversion TN-S
system to IT-collective in a single-phase system is shown in
Fig. 13.


Fig. 13 A simpliIied single-phase system

A 600/230V, 50 kVA transIormer T-1 is Ied by a
network Feeder and supplies power to a 35 kVA Lump Load.
The earthing type is changed Irom TN-S system to IT-
collective thanks to the transIormer T-1(as shown in Fig. 12).
Cable-1 on the primary side oI T-1 is 500 m long and has a
wire size equal to 240 mm
2
, with a PE oI same size; line
conductor and PE impedances are equal to Z
Lp
/k
2
Z
Np
/k
2

(0.0055j0.0121) on a 230 V base;
Cable-2 is 20 m long and wire size 240 mm
2
, with both
line and protective conductor impedances equal to Z
L1s
Z
PE

0.0018j0.0023 on a 230 V base. TransIormer T-1
impedance as seen Irom the secondary side is Z
t
/k
2
(0.0140
j0.0237) ;
The impedance oI the single-phase network Feeder is
Z
s
/k
2
0.0105 j0.1053 converted to 230 V base.
At the occurrence oI a 2
nd
line-to-ground Iault at the end
oI Cable-2, the IT - collective system evolves into a TN
system (we conservatively assume a 1
st
Iault involving the
other phase at the terminal oI the secondary oI the
transIormer).
The total Iault-loop impedance Z
Loop
is calculated with
(11); In numbers:
Z
Loop
(0.0140 j0.0237) (0.0105 j0.1053) 2 x
(0.0055 j0.0121) 2 x (0.0018 j0.0023) (0.0391
j0.1578). The magnitude oI Z
Loop
is 0.163 .
From |3|, the maximum permissible disconnection time
Ior a TN system with an operating voltage oI 230 V is 0.4 s.
By examining the time-current characteristic oI Fuse-2, we
can determine that 0.4 s corresponds to a current I
a
equal to
66 A. The maximum permissible Iault-loop impedance Z
M
is
given by |3|:

O 1.742
2I
V
Z
a
LL
M

(12)

where V
LL
is the nominal ac voltage between the line
conductors.
As the actual loop impedance Z
Loop
Z
P
, the system is
considered protected against electric shock by |3|.
As above detailed, the primary network impedance on a
230 V base oI the system oI Fig. 13 is: (0.0150 j 0.1053)
2 x (0.0055 j0.0121) (0.026 j0.1295) , with a
magnitude oI 0.132 ; this value corresponds to the 81 oI
the total loop impedance Z
Loop
, thereIore should not be
omitted in the calculation.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
The authors have illustrated the major saIety issues oI
the IEC earthing types and substantiated that utilities, or even
consumers, may be required to convert their earthing types in
order to increase, or restore, the protection against electric
shock. This conversion can be carried out by using single-
phase transIormers. The major parameter Ior the protection
against electric shock is the Iault-loop impedance, which
allows the calculation oI touch voltages. This paper provides
equations and equivalent circuits to detail earthing type
changes across transIormers, as well as an exemplary electric
shock calculation Irom an actual single-phase system.
It has been proved that such calculation must take into
account the impedances oI such transIormers, as well as oI
their upstream networks. From the example, it appears clear,
in Iact, that neglecting these quantities may greatly aIIect the
Iault-loop calculation, by providing a lower impedance
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value. Systems, thereIore, would not be protected against the
risk oI electric shock.

REFERENCES
|1| M. Mitolo, M. Tartaglia, and S. Panetta, "Of International
Terminologv and Wiring Methods Used in the Matter of Bonding and
Earthing of Low-Joltage Power Svstems, IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, Vol. 46, No. 3, 2010, pp. 1089-1095.
|2| IEEE Std 142, "IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of
Industrial and Commercial Power Svstems", 2007.
|3| IEC 60364-4-41, "Low-Joltage Electrical Installations - Protection for
Safetv - Protection against Electric Shock", 2005-12.
|4| Italian standard CEI 64-8 'Low-voltage electrical installations, 2012-
11.
|5| BS 7671 Requirements for electrical installations`, 2008-01
|6| Italian Standard CEI 0-21 'Reference technical rules for the
connection of active and passive users to the LJ electrical Utilities:
2012-06.
|7| M. Mitolo, 'Electrical Safetv of Low-Joltage Svstems, Pub. McGraw-
Hill ProIessional, 2009.
|8| NEK 400 'Electrical low voltage installations`, 2010.


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank ProI. EiliI H. Hansen
with the Department oI Electrical Power Engineering oI the
Norwegian University oI Science and Technology Ior
providing technical inIormation regarding the Norwegian
electrical distribution system.

BIOGRAPHIES
Haijun Liu (IEEE SM`01) received the
Doctoral Degree in electrical engineering Irom
University oI Wisconsin - Milwaukee. He is
currently a Principal Electrical Engineer and Vice
President oI Operation Technology, Inc., in Irvine,
CA. His Iields oI research include electric power
system modeling, simulation and soItware
development. One oI his current Iocuses is low-
voltage system studies. Dr. Haijun Liu received both his Bachelor and
Master degree in Electrical Engineering Irom Chongqing University, P. R.
China. He was with Thomason Edison Technical Center oI Cooper Power
Systems as a Senior Power Engineer beIore joined Operation Technology,
Inc. He is a registered ProIessional Engineer in CaliIornia, USA.

Massimo Mitolo (IEEE SM `03), educated in
Italy, received the Doctoral Degree in Electrical
Engineering Irom University oI Naples "Federico II".
His Iield oI research is the Analysis and Grounding
oI Power Systems.
He is a registered ProIessional Engineer in Italy
and is currently working as a senior principle
electrical engineer at ETAP/OTI in Irvine, CA. He
has authored over sixty journal papers, as well as the book 'Electrical SaIety
oI Low-voltage Systems. He is the recipient oI the IEEE 2012 Outstanding
Engineer Award, awarded by the Orange County Power
Engineering/Industry Application Society Ior the development oI new
technical concepts Ior the advancement oI the electrical saIety engineering
oI low-voltage systems.
Dr. Mitolo is active within the IEEE IAS Industrial & Commercial
Power Systems Department, where he is currently the Chair oI the Power
Systems Engineering (PSE) Committee, the Chair oI the Power Systems
Analysis Subcommittee and the Chair oI the Grounding Subcommittee. He
also serves as an Associate Editor oI the IEEE Power Systems Engineering
and Energy Systems Committees with ScholarOne Manuscript.
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