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= +
2
2
hf E =
Muhammad Nadeem
School of Electrical Engineering &Computer Sciences
muhammad.nadeem@seecs.edu.pk
2
mc E =
t B E = /
ma F =
Physics
20th Century
21st Century
t
i V
x
= +
h h
2
2
2
hf E =
o
/ = E
mv P =
P r L = h P x.
0 = B
t E j B + = /
o o o
P
h
=
h
G
k
o
R
c
Electromagnetic Oscillator
0 = +
c
q
dt
di
L
Consider a LC circuit with no resistance and zero emf applied. By
Kirchhoff's voltage rule,
0
2
= +
q q d
L
C
0
2
= +
Lc dt
The solution of above 2
nd
order homogenous ODE with constant
coefficients will be
) cos( + = t q q
m
LC / 1 =
Where is the maximum charge on capacitor, is the phase
constant and is the angular frequency.
m
q
muhammad.nadeem@seecs.edu.pk
Electric energy stored in LC circuit is
) ( cos
2 2
1
2
2
2
+ = = t
C
q
q
C
U
m
E
1 1
2
dq
Electric energy is stored in the
electric field inside capacitor
Magnetic energy stored in LC circuit is
) ( sin
2
) ( sin
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
+ =
+ =
= =
t
C
q
t q L
dt
dq
L Li U
m
m
B
m
k
=
2
=
=
t
1
) cos( =
s
LC
t
t
t
110
4
4 /
2
1
) cos(
= =
=
=
muhammad.nadeem@seecs.edu.pk
Damped Oscillator
A resistance R is always present in LC circuit. When we take this
resistance into account,
0 = + +
c
q
iR
dt
di
L
0
2
2
= + +
LC
q
dt
dq
R
dt
q d
L
C
R
0
2
= + +
LC dt
R
dt
The solution of above 2
nd
order homogenous ODE with constant
coefficients will be
) cos(
2 /
+
=
t e q q
L Rt
m
2 2
) 2 / ( L R =
Where is the maximum charge on capacitor, is the phase
constant and is the angular frequency.
m
q
muhammad.nadeem@seecs.edu.pk
a: Underdamped Oscillations
When the damping force is small compared with the maximum
restoring forcethat is, when R is small such that
L R/ < 2
Motion is said to be underdamped
) cos(
2 /
+
=
t e q q
L Rt
m
Where
2
2
2
L
R
) cos( +
= t e q q
m
We see that when the retarding force is much smaller than the
restoring force, the oscillatory character of the motion is preserved
but the amplitude decreases in time, with the result that the motion
ultimately ceases.
muhammad.nadeem@seecs.edu.pk
b: Critical Damped Oscillations
When the damping force reaches the maximum restoring force
that is, when R is large enough such that
L R/ = 2
Motion is said to be critical damped
cos
2 / L Rt
m
e q q
=
In this case the system, once
released from rest at some non
equilibrium position, returns to
equilibrium and then stays there.
The graph of charge versus time
for this case is the red curve in
Figure.
cos
m
e q q =
muhammad.nadeem@seecs.edu.pk
c: Overdamped Oscillations
If the damping force is greater than the restoring forcethat is, if,
when R is large such that
t
e q t q
) (
=
L R/ > 2
Motion is said to be overdamped
t
m
e q t q
) (
=
2
2
2 2
=
L
R
L
R
Again, the system does not oscillate but simply returns to its
equilibrium position. As the damping increases, the time it takes the
system to approach equilibrium also increases, as indicated by the
black curve in Figure.
Where
muhammad.nadeem@seecs.edu.pk
Consider RLC circuit having L=12mH, C=1.6F and R=1.5.
After what time t will the amplitude of the charge oscillations
drop to one half of its initial value?
L Rt
e
L Rt
2 ln 2 /
2
1
2 /
=
=
After a sufficiently long period of time, when the energy input per
cycle equals the energy lost per cycle, a steady-state condition is
reached in which the oscillations proceed with constant amplitude. At
this time, when the system is in a steady state, the solution of above
Equation is
) cos( +
= t q q
m
( )
2
2
2 2
/
=
L
R
L
q
m
o
muhammad.nadeem@seecs.edu.pk
Because an external force is driving it, the motion of the forced
R=0; Undamped
Small R
Large R
Because an external force is driving it, the motion of the forced
oscillator is not damped. The external agent provides the necessary
energy to overcome the losses due to the retarding force. Note that
the system oscillates at the angular frequency of the driving force.
For small damping, the amplitude becomes very large when the
frequency of the driving force is near the natural frequency of
oscillation. The dramatic increase in amplitude near the natural
frequency is called resonance, and for this reason is sometimes
called the resonance frequency of the system
muhammad.nadeem@seecs.edu.pk