Geographic Information System(GIS)

Introduction
A geographic information system is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze,
manage, and present all types of geographical data. The acronym GIS is sometimes used for
geographical information science or geospatial information studies to refer to the academic
discipline or career of working with geographic information systems. In the simplest terms,
GIS is the merging of cartography, statistical analysis, and database technology.

Definition
In common parlance, a geographic information system or GIS is a configuaration of computer
hardware and software specifically designed for the acquisition, maintainance and use of
cartographic data. C. Dana Tomlin

A geographic information system(GIS) is an information system that is designed to work with data
referenced by spatial or geographic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is botha database system
with specific capabilities for spatially-referenced data, as well as a set of operations for working
data. In a sense, a GIS may be thought of as a higher-order map.
jeffery Star and John Estes

GIS is A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and
displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purpose.
Peter A.Burrough ,1986

GIS is a computer based system that provides for sets of capabilities to handle georeferenced data:
data input, data management(data storage and reteival), manipulation and analysis and data output.
Arnoff, 1989

Finally, we can say, A geographic information system (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and
data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced
information.

Components of GIS

The GIS is constitute of five key components, namely, Hardware, Software, procedure, data and
users. These fiv components need to be in balance to function information system satisfactorily.

Computer Hardware:
The general hardware component of a geographical information system is the computer or central
processing unit. It is linked to a disk drive storage unit, which provides space for storing data and
programs. A digitizer, scanner and other device is used to convert data from maps and documents
into digital form and send them to computer. A digitizer board is a flat board used for vectorisation
of any map object. A plotter or other kind of display device is used to present the result of the data
processing and a tape device is used for storing data or programs on magnetic tape.



Fig: Key components of GIS

Computer Software:
The GIS software includes the programs and the user interface for driving the hardware. GIS
software is essential to generate, store, analyze, manipulate and display geographic information or
data. A good GIS software requires user friendliness, functionalities, compatibilities, updatability,
documentation, cost effectiveness. The following is a list of GIS software producers and their main
products.
Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI): ArcInfo, ArcView.
Autodesk: AutoCAD Map
Clark Labs: IDRISI
International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences: ILWIS
Mapinfo Corporation: Mapinfo.
Bentley Systems: Microstation.
PCI Geomatics: PAMAP
TYDAC Inc. : SPANS
Data:
Data is the most important component of a GIS. Geographic data and related tabular data can be
collected in house, compiled to custom specifications and requirements, or purchased from a
commercial data provider. A GIS can integrate spatial data with other existing data resources, often
stored in a DBMS. The integration of spatial and tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key
functionality afforded by GIS.

People:
GIS technology has limited value without the people who manage and develop plans for applying it
to real world problems. GIS user range from technical specialists who design and maintain the
system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The identification of GIS
specialist's vs. end users is often critical to the proper implementation of GIS technology. This is
what called 'brain ware' which is equally important as the Hardware and software. Brain ware refers
to the purpose and objectives, and provides the reason and justification, for using GIS.

Procedure:
Hardware
Software
Procedure Data
Users
A successful GIS operates according to a well designed implementation plan and business rules,
which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.

For many years, though GIS has been considered to be too difficult, expensive, and proprietary. The
advent of graphical user interface (GUI), powerful and affordable hardware and software, and
public digital data has broadened the range of GIS application and brought GIS to mainstream use.

Principal Functions of GIS
The functions of GIS hardware and software can be divided into several basic groups:




Fig: Principal Functions of GIS
Data Capture:
Data used in GIS often come from many types, and are stored in different ways. A GIS
provides tools and a method for the integration of different data into a format to be compared
and analysed. Data sources are mainly obtained from manual digitization and scanning of
aerial photographs, paper maps, and existing digital data sets. Remote-sensing satellite
imagery and GPS are promising data input sources for GIS.

Database Management and Update:
After data are collected and integrated, the GIS must provide facilities, which can store and
maintain data. Effective data management has many definitions but should include all of the
following aspects: data security, data integrity, data storage and retrieval, and data
maintenance abilities.

Geographic Analysis:
Data integration and conversion are only a part of the input phase of GIS. What is required
next is the ability to interpret and to analyze the collected information quantitatively and
qualitatively. For example, satellite image can assist an agricultural scientist to project crop
yield per hectare for a particular region. For the same region, the scientist also has the rainfall
data for the past six months collected through weather station observations. The scientists
also have a map of the soils for the region which shows fertility and suitability for agriculture.
Data
acquisition,
verification
and editing
Compilati
on
Storage
Manipulation
Updating and
revising
Retrieval
and
output
These point data can be interpolated and what you get is a thematic map showing isohyets or
contour lines of rainfall.

Presenting Results:
One of the most exciting aspects of GIS technology is the variety of different ways in which the
information can be presented once it has been processed by GIS. Traditional methods of
tabulating and graphing data can be supplemented by maps and three dimensional images.
Visual communication is one of the most fascinating aspects of GIS technology and is available
in a diverse range of output options.

Data Capture an Introduction:
The functionality of GIS relies on the quality of data available, which, in most developing
countries, is either redundant or inaccurate. Although GIS are being used widely, effective and
efficient means of data collection have yet to be systematically established. The true value of
GIS can only be realized if the proper tools to collect spatial data and integrate them with
attribute data are available.

Manual Digitization:
Manual Digitizing still is the most common method for entering maps into GIS. The map to be
digitized is affixed to a digitizing table, and a pointing device (called the digitizing cursor or
mouse) is used to trace the features of the map. These features can be boundary lines between
mapping units, other linear features (rivers, roads, etc.) or point features (sampling points,
rainfall stations, etc.) The digitizing table electronically encodes the position of the cursor
with the precision of a fraction of a millimeter. The most common digitizing table uses a fine
grid of wires, embedded in the table. The vertical wires will record the Y-coordinates, and the
horizontal ones, the X-coordinates.

The range of digitized coordinates depends upon the density of the wires (called digitizing
resolution) and the settings of the digitizing software. A digitizing table is normally a
rectangular area in the middle, separated from the outer boundary of the table by a small rim.
Outside of this so-called active area of the digitizing table, no coordinates are recorded. The
lower left corner of the active area will have the coordinates x = 0 and y = 0. Therefore, make
sure that the (part of the) map that you want to digitize is always fixed within the active area.

Scanning System:
The second method of obtaining vector data is with the use of scanners. Scanning (or scan
digitizing) provides a quicker means of data entry than manual digitizing. In scanning, a
digital image of the map is produced by moving an electronic detector across the map surface.
The output of a scanner is a digital raster image, consisting of a large number of individual
cells ordered in rows and columns. For the Conversion to vector format, two types of raster
image can be used.
In the case of Chloropleth maps or thematic maps, such as geological maps, the
individual mapping units can be separated by the scanner according to their different
colours or grey tones. The resulting images will be in colours or grey tone images.
In the case of scanned line maps, such as topographic maps, the result is a black-and-
white image. Black lines are converted to a value of 1, and the white areas in between
lines will obtain a value of 0 in the scanned image. These images, with only two
possibilities (1 or 0) are also called binary images.
The raster image is processed by a computer to improve the image quality and is then edited
and checked by an operator. It is then converted into vector format by special computer
programmes, which are different for colour/grey tone images and binary images.

Geodatabase Management
The geodatabase is the common data storage and management framework for ArcGIS. It
combines "geo" (spatial data) with "database" (data repository) to create a central data
repository for spatial data storage and management. It can be leveraged in desktop, server, or
mobile environments and allows you to store GIS data in a central location for easy access and
management.
The geodatabase offers you the ability to
Store a rich collection of spatial data in a centralized location.
Apply sophisticated rules and relationships to the data.
Define advanced geospatial relational models (e.g., topologies, networks).
Maintain integrity of spatial data with a consistent, accurate database.
Work within a multiuser access and editing environment.
Integrate spatial data with other IT databases.
Easily scale your storage solution.
Support custom features and behavior.
Leverage your spatial data to its full potential.

The geographical data management system can be shown by following figure:



Fig: geographical data management system






Training &
maintainance
Reporting &
maintainance
Data
management
Data
collection


Methods of integration of spatial data models into GIS

A few scenarios can be established to integrate various data models into the GIS. The basic
level is represented by the standalone software application for simulation of models, which is
accompanied by data inputs and outputs .


Fig. The standalone simulation of data models with extended pre/post processing software


All data can be used independently by other software systems . The individual programs form
heterogeneous data structures that require the conversion of data into various data formats.
Fig. 1 illustrates an example of steps carried out during the simulation of data models that
have been acquired from various sources of data.On the other side, a number of software
applications have been developedto integrate specific functions of the GIS, modeling and
graphic systems. Mostly,they are determined to perform operations on data without links to
other softwareapplications. The GIS based software applications are mostly based on
spatialsoftware libraries. The missing functions (modeling, visualization tools) can
becomplemented through the dynamiclink libraries. The integrated specific data analysis
systems, which offer alternative ways of using the specific data models together with
selected functionality of the GISs, are described by . A number of software applications are
focused on design of geodatabases and their interconnection with standard modelling
systems

MANIPULATION AND TRANSFORMATION OF SPATIAL DATA

The maintenance and transformation of spatial data concerns the ability to input, manipulate,
and transform data once it has been created. While many different interpretations exist with
respect to what constitutes these capabilities some specific functions can be identified. These
are reviewed below.

Sources of
data
Preprocessing
of
input data
Simulation
System
Postprocessing
of output data
Display
Coordinate Thinning

Coordinate thinning involves the weeding or reduction of coordinate pairs, e.g. X and Y, from
arcs. This function is often required when data has been captured with too many vertices for
the linear features. This can result in redundant data and large data volumes. The weeding of
coordinates is required to reduce this redundancy.
The thinning of coordinates is also required in the map generalization process of linear
simplification. Linear simplification is one component of generalization that is required when
data from one scale, e.g. 1:20,000, is to be used and integrated with data from another scale,
e.g. 1:100,000. Coordinate thinning is often done on features such as contours, hydrography,
and forest stand boundaries.

Geometric Transformations

This function is concerned with the registering of a data layer to a common coordinate
scheme. This usually involves registering selected data layers to a standard data layer already
registered. The term rubber sheeting is often used to describe this function. Rubber sheeting
involves stretching one data layer to meet another based on predefined control points of
known locations. Two other functions may be categorized under geometric transformations.
These involve warping a data layer stored in one data model, either raster or vector, to
another data layer stored in the opposite data model. For example, often classified satellite
imagery may require warping to fit an existing forest inventory layer, or a poor quality vector
layer may require warping to match a more accurate raster layer.

Map Projection Transformations

This functionality concerns the transformation of data in geographic coordinates for an
existing map projection to another map projection. Most GIS software requires that data
layers must be in the same map projection for analysis. Accordingly, if data is acquired in a
different projection than the other data layers it must be transformed. Typically 20 or more
different map projections are supported in a GIS software offering.

Conflation - Sliver Removal

Conflation is formally defined as the procedure of reconciling the positions of corresponding
features in different data layers. More commonly this is referred to as sliver removal. Often
two layers that contain the same feature, e.g. soils and forest stands both with a specific lake,
do not have exactly the same boundaries for that feature, e.g. the lake. This may be caused by
a lack of coordination or data prioritization during digitizing or by a number of different
manipulation and analysis techniques. When the two layers are combined, e.g. normally in
polygon overlay, they will not match precisely and small sliver polygons will be created.
Conflation is concerned with the process for removing these slivers and reconciling the
common boundary.
There are several approaches for sliver removal. Perhaps the most common is allowing the
user to define a priority for data layers in combination with a tolerance value. Considering the
soils and forest stand example the user could define a layer that takes precedence, e.g. forest
stands, and a size tolerance for slivers. After polygon overlay if a polygon is below the size
tolerance it is classified a sliver. To reconcile the situation the arcs of the data layer that has
higher priority will be retained and the arcs of the other data layer will be deleted. Another
approach is to simply divide the sliver down the centre and collapse the arcs making up the
boundary. The important point is that all GIS software must have the capability to resolve
slivers. Remember that it is generally much less expensive to reconcile maps manually in the
map preparation and digitizing stage than afterwards.


Edge Matching

Edge matching is simply the procedure to adjust the position of features that extend across
typical map sheet boundaries. Theoretically data from adjacent map sheets should meet
precisely at map edges. However, in practice this rarely occurs. Misalignment of features can
be caused by several factors including digitizing error, paper shrinkage of source maps, and
errors in the original mapping. Edge matching always requires some interactive editing.
Accordingly, GIS software differs considerably in the degree of automation provided.

Interactive Graphic Editing

Interactive graphic editing functions involve the addition, deletion, moving, and changing of
the geographic position of features. Editing should be possible at any time. Most graphic
editing occurs during the data compilation phase of any project. Remember typically 60 to 70
% of the time required to complete any project involves data compilation. Accordingly, the
level of sophistication and ease of use of this capability is vitally important and should be
rated highly by those evaluating GIS software. Many of the editing that is undertaken involves
the cleaning up of topological errors identified earlier. The capability to snap to existing
elements, e.g. nodes and arcs, is critical.
The functionality of graphic editing does not differ greatly across GIS software offerings.
However, the user interface and ease of use of the editing functions usually does. Editing
within a GIS software package should be as easy as using a CAD system. A cumbersome or
incomplete graphic editing capability will lead to much frustration by the users of the
software.

Conclusion
The term GIS describes any information system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares,
and displays geographic information for informing decision making. GIS is a relatively broad
term that can refer to a number of technologies and processes, so it is attached to many
operations, in engineering, planning, management, and analysis.
Nowadays, GIS technologies have been applied to diverse fields to assist experts and
professionals in analyzing various types of geospatial data and dealing with complex
situations. No matter in ecology, agriculture, public health, tourism, or transportations, GIS
plays an essential role to help people collect, analyze the related spatial data and display data
in different formats.












An assignment on
Essential elements of Geographic information system
(GIS)





Submitted to
Iqbal Sarwar
Assistant professor,
Dept. of Geography & Environmental Studies,
University of Chittagong.

Submitted by
Zarraf Tajwar Adib
Id no:08603032
4th year,Bsc(Hons)
Session: 2007-08
Dept. of Geography & Environmental Studies
University of Chittagong.


Submission date: 19 May, 2012




References:

Longey,P.A;Goodchild,M.F and Maguire,D.J,(2005) Geographic information
system and Science,Chichester, Wily
Chandra, A.M & Ghosh, S.K (2009) Remote sensing and Geographic
Information System, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, PP.144-148.
Bhatta,B.(2008) Remote sensing and GIS, Oxford university press, New Delhi.
Internet