BASIC HAND TOOLS - SCREWDRIVERS, PLIERS AND

TWEEZERS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. name the types of screwdrivers
2. state what should be the width and thickness of the tip
3. state the effect of improper width and thickness of the tip
4. list the parts of a combination pliers and their uses
5. state the uses of diagonal cutters
6. state the uses of nose pliers and their types
7. state the uses of tweeers and their types.
1
Basic Han t!!"s
!here are innumerable types of hand tools used for different types of work. "ome of the basic
tools which are a must for mechanic electronics are dealing in#
screwdrivers
pliers$ and
!weeers.
Sc#e$#ive#s
% screwdriver is a tool used to tighten or loosen screws. % simple screwdriver and its parts
are shown in &ig 1.
'hen a screwdriver is used to tighten or loosen screws. !he blade a(is of a screwdriver must
be linked up with that of the screw a(is as shown in &ig 2.
2
)f this is not taken care of$ the screwdriver tip*screw head*threads in the hole will get
damaged. )n order not to damage the slot and*or the tip of the screwdriver$ it is very important
that the tip is correctly shaped and matches the sie of the slot as shown in &ig 3.
% flat screwdriver tip should be slightly hollow ground. 'ith such a shape its turning force is
e(erted at the bottom of the slot which keeps the tip in the slot when turning a screw. &ig 4
shows a flat screwdriver tip which is slightly tapered. )ts turning force is e(erted at the top of
the slot causing the tip to be lifted out of the slot. 'hen turning a screw downward pressure
has to be e(erted on the screwdriver in order to keep the tip in the slot.
)t is important that the width and thickness of a flat screwdriver tip correspond to the
dimensions of the slot it is used with. )ts width should be slightly less than the length of the
slot and its thickness should be almost e+ual to the width of the slot as shown in &ig 5.
3
% tip which is too narrow as shown in &ig 6 will e(ert its turning force close to the centre of the
screw$ causing damage to the slot and to the tip.
% tip which is too thin might get twisted when the screw,driver is turned as shown in &ig 7.
% flat tip which is too wide might cause damage to the work piece as shown in &igs -a and
-b.
"crewdrivers with flat tips are specified in sie by the length of their blade and by the width of
their tip as shown in &ig .. !hese dimensions are given in millimeters /mm0.
"crewdrivers are available in many sies$ ranging from blade lengths of 25 mm to 311 mm
and widths of tips ranging from 1$5 mm to 1- mm.
4
Len%t& !' b"ae L an Len%t& !' ti( W
2ormally there is no relationship between the length of the blade and the width of the tip of a
screwdriver. % screwdriver with a 6 mm wide tip can have blade lengths ranging from 25 to
251 mm. )t can also have various forms of handles as shown in &ig 11.
!here are$ however$ screwdrivers which are made to an industrial specification such as 3)2$
)") etc. !hese screw,drivers have fi(ed dimensions and for each sie of screwdriver the width
of its tip and the length of its blade is specified as shown in &ig 11.
&ig 12 shows a 4hillips cross,type screwdriver tip. )t is used to tighten and loosen screws with
a 4hillips cross type recess.
5
&ig 13 shows a 456)37)8 975"" !:4; screw driver tip. )t is an improved type of a cross
type tip. )t has straight wings compared to the slightly tapered wings of the 4hillips type tip.
!he straight wings keep the tip in the recess when turning force is applied to the screwdriver.
St#ai%&t $in%s an Ta(e#e $in%s
!he above cross type screwdriver tips are available in five standard sies$ numbers 1$ 1$ 2$ 3
and 4 as shown in &ig 14. !hese five sies of tips are used for all screws with cross type
recesses from <2 to <12.7.
"crewdrivers with cross type tips are also available with short blades ranging in lengths from
25 to 41 mm and with various forms of handles as shown in &ig 15. !o show the difference
between the screwdrivers with short and long blades a =1= is placed in front of the tip number
of the short version.
6
% few e(amples of other types of screwdriver tips for screw heads with various forms of
recesses are shown in &ig 16.
1. >e(agonal socket head
2. "pline socket head
3. 9lutch socket head
4. "lab socket head
Neve# )se t&e $#!n% t*(e !# si+e !' a
sc#e$#ive# as t&is $i"" a,a%e t&e #ecess !' a
sc#e$ &ea- I' in !)bt, as. *!)# inst#)ct!#/as.
an e0(e#ience (e#s!n t! te"" *!) $&ic& ti(
s&!)" be )se-
Inst#),ent sc#e$#ive#s
&ig 17 shows an )2"!7?<;2!
"97;'37)8;7. )t is used to turn very
small screws as used in instruments$
watches and clocks. )t has a rotating head
which is held by the forefinger$ while the
thumb and the middle finger are used to turn
the screwdriver.
7
)nstrument screwdrivers are available in sets comprising 5 to - screwdrivers with the
dimensions as given in the !able below.
@arge screws can be turned easily by using screwdriver bits that fit into a carpenter brace.
"uch bits are available in different types and sies of tips.
&ig 1- shows a screwdriver with )2!;79>%2A;%B@; !)4". "uch screwdrivers are
available in sets comprising one handle with a universal fitting and an assortment of tips in
various shapes and sies.
I,(act sc#e$#ive#s
&ig 1. shows an )<4%9! "97;'37)8;7. )t is used to tighten screws or loosen very tight
screws. 'hen the end of its handle is struck by a hammer$ a powerful turning force is applied
to the screw.
8
)mpact screwdrivers consist of a metal handle which can be used with a variety of
e(changeable tips to suit different screw heads as shown in &ig 21.
"crewdrivers for electrical work have fully insulated plastic or rubber handles. !he handles
are cast around the blades. "crewdrivers for heavy mechanical work often have blades which
e(tend through the handle as shown in &ig 21 b. "uch screwdrivers can be struck by a
hammer in certain circumstances.
9
"crewdrivers for electrical work often have insulated blades in the form of plastic sleeves
which are fitted up to the tip of the blades as shown in &ig 22.
S(ecia" t*(es !' sc#e$#ive#s
&ig 23 shows a flat screwdriver tip with two prongs. )t is used with screws having two
rectangular recesses or with slotted nuts. )t is available in various sies suitable for screws
and nuts ranging from <3 to <12.
&ig 24 shows a flat screwdriver tip with two round pins. )t is used with screws and nuts having
two round recesses which accommodate the pins. )t is also avail,able in a number of sies for
screws and nuts ranging from <3 to <12.
10
1sin% a sc#e$#ive#
!he general procedure for using a screwdriver is given below.
"elect a suitable screwdriver having the re+uired blade length$ width of tip and
thickness of tip.
9heck that the tip of the screwdriver is flat and s+uare.
W!#n !)t ti(s ten t! s"i( !'' $&i"e t)#nin% an ,a* ca)se inj)#*-
<ake sure your hands and the screwdriver handle are dry and free from grease.
>old the screwdriver with the a(is in line with the a(is of the screw.
Auide the blade with one hand as shown in &ig 23. "et the tip of the screwdriver in the
screw slot.
Be sure of the direction in which the screwdriver is to be twisted. !wist the handle
gently and steadily.
D! n!t a(("* t!! ,)c& (#ess)#e in t&e a0ia" i#ecti!n !' t&e sc#e$- T&is ,a* a,a%e
t&e sc#e$ t&#eas-
Neve# t#* t! )se a sc#e$#ive# as a "eve#2 t&is c!)" b#ea. t&e ti( !# ben t&e b"ae an
,a.e t&e sc#e$#ive# )n)sab"e-
PLIERS
4liers are tools which are used for#
holding$ gripping$ pulling and turning small parts and components$
shaping and bending light sheet metal parts$
forming$ bending$ twisting and cutting small diameter wires.
4liers consist basically of a pair of @;A" which are Coined by a 4)85! as shown in &ig 25.
;ach leg consists of a long >%23@; and a short D%'.
11
)f the legs of the pliers are crossed at the pivot$ the Caws will 9@5"; when pressure is applied
to the handles as shown in &ig 25b. )n some pliers the Caws will close when pressure is
applied to the handles as shown in &ig 25c. 4liers have ";77%!;3 or 4@%)2 D%'" as
shown in &ig 26. "urrogated Caws offer a better grip on the work piece. "errated Caws might$
however$ damage the surface of the work piece. )n this case protection sleeves or pliers with
non,serrated Caws as shown in &ig 26b should be used.
4liers are made from high +uality steel. )n many cases pliers are 9>75<)?< 4@%!;3 to
protect them against rust. )n climates with a high degree of humidity it is advisable to use
such pliers as they will last longer and need less maintenance. !o keep pliers in good working
condition$ they should be kept clean$ the metal parts should be wiped with an oily piece of
cloth and$ from time to time$ a drop of oil should be applied to the pivots and Coints.
Dia%!na" c)tte# ("ie#s
&ig 27 shows 3)%A52%@ 9?!!)2A 4@);7" or ")3; 9?!!)2A 4@);7".
12
!hey are used for cutting small diameter wires and cables$ especially when they are close to
terminals as shown in &ig 2-.
!hey are also used to remove the sheath and insulation from cables and cords as shown in
&ig 2..
13
!hey can also be used for other operations such as splitting and removing cotter pins as
shown in &ig 31.
3iagonal cutting pliers are made in the following overall lengths#
111$ 125$ 141$ 161$ 1-1 and 211 mm.
En c)ttin% ("ie#s
&ig 31 shows ;23,9?!!)2A 4@);7" or ;23 2)44;7" and their applications.
14
!hey are used to cut small diameter wires$ pins$ nails and to remove nails from wood.
;nd cutting pliers are made in the following overall lengths#
131$ 161$ 1-1$ 211$ 211 and 241 mm.
3"at n!se ("ie#s
&ig 32 shows a &@%! 25"; 4@);7" and its applications.
!hey are used to form and shape wires and small pieces of metal.
!hey are also used for other operations such as removing the metal sheath from cables$ or
gripping and holding small parts. &lat nose pliers are made in the following overall lengths#
111$ 121$ 141$ 161$ 1-1 and 211 mm.
R!)n n!se ("ie#s
&ig 33 shows 75?23 25"; 4@);7" and its applications.
!hey are used to form curves in wires and light metal strips. !he conical shape of the Caws
makes it possible to form curves and circles of various dimensions. !hey are also used to
form eyelets in wires to fit terminal screws$ and to hold small parts. 7ound nose pliers are
made to the following overall lengths#
111$ 121$ 141$ 161$ 1-1 and 211 mm
15
L!n% n!se ("ie#s
&ig 34 shows a @52A 25"; 4@);7" and its applications. !hese pliers are made with
straight and curved Caws.
16
!hey are used to hold small parts$ especially in confined areas. !hey are also used to adCust
fine wires$ contacts and other parts. @ong nose pliers are made with many differently shaped
Caws as shown in &ig 11. @ong nose pliers are available in the following overall lengths#
161$ 1-1$ 211 and 221 mm.
C!,binati!n ("ie#s
&ig 36 shows a 95<B)2%!)52 4@);7" and its application. % number of operations can be
performed with these pliers. !he &@%! A7)4 can be used to grip and hold parts and
components and to twist wires.
17
<any combination pliers also have a 4)4; A7)4 which is used to grip and hold cylindrical
obCects. !hey also have a pair of ")3; 9?!!;7" which are used to cut small diameter wires
and cables. % pair of D5)2! 9?!!;7" is provided for shearing off steel wires.
Ci#c"i( ("ie#s '!# e0te#na" ci#c"i(
&ig 37 shows a 9)79@)4 4@);7 for ;E!;72%@ 9)79@)4". !he prongs of the Caws are
inserted into the holes of the circlip. By applying pressure to the handles of the pliers$ the
Caws will e(pand the circlip which can then be removed or moved onto the work piece.
!hese pliers are available with straight and curved Caws in the following dimensions.
18
Ci#c"i( ("ie#s '!# inte#na" ci#c"i(s
&ig 3- shows 9l79@)44@);7" for )2!;72%@ 9)79@)4". By applying pressure to the
handles of the pliers$ the Caws will compress the circlip which can then be removed from the
work piece.
!hese pliers are also available with straight and curved Caws in the following dimensions.
P"ie#s )se b* e"ect#ician
% number of pliers$ especially diagonal cutting pliers$ combination pliers$ flat nose pliers$
round nose pliers and long nose pliers$ are fre+uently used by electricians.
%s an additional safeguard against electric shock$ these pliers are available with insulated
handles made of high +uality rubber or plastic as shown in &ig 3..
19
Be'!#e *!) $!#. $it& e"ect#ica" insta""ati!ns !# e"ect#ica" a(("iances, t&e* &ave t! be
isc!nnecte '#!, t&e e"ect#ica" s)(("*- W!#.in% $it& "ive (a#ts !' an e"ect#ica"
insta""ati!n !# a(("iance can IN41RE !# 5ILL *!), an it ,i%&t se#i!)s"* a,a%e t&e
Insta""ati!n an e6)i(,ent-
T$ee+e#s
!weeers are used to hold light weight and very small components and very thin
wires*strands. !weeers are classified according to the shape of the tip and are specified by
their length and shape. &ig 41 shows different types of tweeers.
!he thin structure of the tweeers permits easy access to places where fingers cannot reach.
!weeers are very useful during soldering of wires$ components and placing of small screws
in interior places.
20
T*(es !' sc#e$s an sc#e$ &eas
3ifferent types of screws and sies of screws are given in 9hart 1 of this lesson.
21
22
BASIC HAND TOOLS - STEEL R1LE, SCRIBER,
HAC5SAW AND 3ILES
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the different standard sies of steel rules
2. state the limitation in use of steel rules
3. state the application of scribers
4. name the two main types of scribers
5. state the meaning and need for a datum while marking
6. state the different types of hacksaw frames
7. state the different types of hacksaw blades and their application
-. state the meaning of pitch and classification of blades based on the pitch
.. reason out why the cut is broader than the thickness of the blade.
23
3EAT1RES O3 HAC5SAW BLADES AND THEIR 1SES
En%inee#7s stee" #)"e
%n engineer=s steel rule is the basic and most commonly used measuring tool for measuring
and drawing the length of straight lines. % typical engineer=s steel rule is shown in &ig 1.
"teel rules are made of spring steel or stainless steel. !he edges are accurately ground to
form a straight line. !he surfaces of steel rules are satin,chrome finished to re,duce glaring
effect while reading$ and also to prevent rusting.
8#a)ati!n !n en%inee#7s stee" #)"e
!he engineer=s steel rules are generally graduated both in centimetres and inches as can be
seen in &ig 1. )n centimeter graduations$ the smallest graduations are at intervals of 1.5 mm.
)n inch graduations the smallest graduation is of 1*16 of an inch. !hus the ma(imum reading
accuracy of a steel rule is either 1.5 mm or 1*16 of an inch$
Stana# si+es
"teel rules are available in different lengths. !he common sies are 151 mm*6inches$ 311
mm*12 inches and 611 mm*24 inches.
Sc#ibe#
% scriber is a pointed$ sharp tool made of steel or carbon steel as shown in &ig 2. !here are
two types of scribers$ namely$
4lain scribers
3ouble end scribers
24
1ses !' sc#ibe#s
"cribers are used for scribing /marking0 lines on surfaces prior to cutting. "cribers are
generally used for marking on such surfaces on which pencil marking cannot be made or
pencil marking is not clearly visible or pencil marking gets erased while handling or pencil
marking is too thick. &or e(ample pencil marking is not suitable on >ylam or Bakelite sheets.
>ence$ line markings are done on these boards using scribers. %typical way of
marking*scribing using a scriber is shown in &ig 3.
Dat),
!he height of a person is measured from the floor on which he stands. !he floor becomes the
common basis or reference for measurement. !hus it becomes the 3%!?<. 3atum is a
reference surface$ a line or a point and its purpose is to provide a common
position/reference0 from which measurements may be taken. !he datum may be an edge or
centre line depending on the shape of the work. %s can be seen in &igures 4$5 and 6 for
drawing lines or positioning points$ two datum reference are used.
25
E0a,("e: &or marking a rectangle of 111mm ( 51mm on a hylam board of 1 s+ ft$ the
procedure to be followed is#
consider the two edges of the hylam sheet as the datum lines as shown in &ig 7a.
with the horiontal datum as reference$ using a steel rule$ mark a few points at a
distance of 51mm as shown in &ig 7b
with the vertical datum as reference$ using a steel rule$ mark a few points at a distance
of 111mm as shown in &ig 7c.
using a steel rule scribe lines Coining the marked points as shown in &ig 7d.
26
!he re+uired rectangle is now ready for further work. &ig 7e shows the method of marking
points for drilling holes.
Hac.sa$ '#a,e an b"ae
&ig - shows a typical hacksaw frame fitted with a blade. % hacksaw is used to cut metallic
sheets or sections. )t is also used to cut slots and contours.
T*(es !' &ac.sa$ '#a,es
B5@3 &7%<; )n this$ the frame width is fi(ed and cannot be altered. Because of this only a
particular standard length of hacksaw blade can be fitted with these frames.
%3D?"!%B@; &7%<; /&@%!0 in this$ the frame is made of flat metal with provision for
adCusting the width of the frame. >ence$ different standard lengths of blades can be fitted with
this frame.
%3D?"!%B@; &7%<; !?B?@%7 !:4; )n this$ the frame is made of tubular metal with
provision for adCusting the width of the frame. >ence$ different standard lengths of blades can
be fitted with this frame. !his is the most commonly used type of hacksaw frame because this
frame gives better grip and control while sawing.
27
Hac.sa$ b"aes
% hacksaw blade is a thin$ narrow$ steel band with teeth and two pin holes at the ends as
shown in &ig .. !hese blades are made of either low alloy steel /la0 or high speed steel /hs0.
>acksaw blades are available in standard lengths of 251 mm and 311 mm.
28
T*(es !' &ac.sa$ b"aes
%@@,>%73 B@%3;" !he complete width of the blade between the pin holes is hardened all
along the length of the blade. !hese blades are used for making straight cuts.
&@;E)B@; B@%3;" )n these blades$ only the teeth of the blade are hardened. "ince only the
teeth are hardened$ the blade is fle(ible. Because of their fle(ibility$ these blades are useful
for cutting along curved lines.
Pitc& !' &ac.sa$ b"ae
!he pitch of a blade is the distance between two adCacent teeth of the blade as shown in &ig
11.
29
>acksaw blades are classified according to length$ pitch and the type of blade as follows#
Settin% !' t&e sa$
'hile cutting with a saw$ to prevent the saw from binding when penetrating into the material
and to allow free movement of the blade$ the cut is to be broader than the thickness of the
saw blade. !his is achieved by a proper setting of the saw teeth. !his arrangement helps for
free cutting$ and provides for good chip clearance while cutting. Blades for hacksaws are
available with small and large cutting of teeth. 3epending on the type and sie of the material
to be cut the most suitable cut should be chosen. !he sies of the blade teeth is directly
related to the pitch. !his is specified by the number of teeth per 25mm of the cutting edge as
shown in &ig 11.
!he table below indicates the relative advantages of coarse and fine pitch teeth.
30
%voiding damage to blades /&ig 120
2ever allow the teeth to strike a sharp edge. !his causes the teeth to break.
@imit the downward pressure on the blade when there are only a few teeth in contact
with the work. ;(cessive pressure will crack the blade or break off the points of the
teeth
31
Feep correct tension on the blade
Feep the frame upright so that the blades do not tilt in the kerf.
9ut in a straight line so that sideways thrust does not twist the blade.
4ull the blade through the material by the front of the frame in preference to pushing it
through by the handle. "hould the blade Cam in the kerf when pushing the hacksaw$
the thrust from behind causes the blade to buckle or breakG you could lose your
balance and inCure yourself.
!o select the tooth sie of hacksaw blade for cutting different types of materials and sections$
refer pocket table book$ !able 2o. 1.
CA1TION: A"$a*s ins(ect t&e b"ae be'!#e sta#tin% a c)t- Re("ace b"aes t&at a#e $!#n
!)t, c#ac.e !# &ave ,issin% teet&- Da,a%e teet& !# b"ae can ca)se accient $&i"e
$!#.in%-
3i"es
% file is a cutting tool with multiple cutting edges used for filing different materials. &iling in
one of the processes used to cut*remove small +uantities of materials.
PARTS O3 A 3ILE
&ig 13 illustrates the main parts of a typical file.
3i"e s(eci'icati!n
&iles are specified according to their#
length
grade
cut
shape
@ength is the distance from the tip to the heel. )t varies form 111mm to 311mm.
8#ae: 3ifferent grades of files are rough$ bastred$ second cut$ smooth and dead smooth.
7ough file is used for removing more +uantity of metal +uickly.
32
Bastred file is used for ordinary filing purposes. "econd cut file is used for good finishing
purposes.
"mooth file is used for removing less metal and for giving good surface finish.
3ead smooth file is used for high degree finishing.
C)t !' 'i"e
!he rows of teeth on the file surface indicate the cut of a file. &or e(ample$ if there is single
row of teeth on the file surface as shown in &ig 14$ it is called =single cut file.=
T*(es !' c)t
!he different types of cut of files areG
"ingle cut$
3ouble cut$
7asp cut$ and
9urved cut.
Sin%"e c)t: % single cut file has a single row of teeth in one direction on the face of the file at
an angle of 61H. !hese files are used for filing soft materials such as lead$ tin$ aluminum etc.
D!)b"e c)t: % double cut file has rows of teeth in two directions across each other at an
angle of 51H to 61H$ another row at 75H. !hese files are used to file hard materials such as
steel$ brass$ brone$ etc.
Ras( c)t: !his has individual$ sharp$ pointed teeth in a line$ and is useful for filing wood$
leather and other soft materials. !hese files are available in half,round and round shape.
C)#ve c)t: !hese files have deeper cutting action$ and are useful for filing soft materials like
aluminum$ tin$ copper and plastic. !hese are available only in flat shape.
!he selection of the type of cut of a file is based on the material to be filed. "ingle cut files are
used for filing soft materials. But certain special files$ for e(ample , those used for sharpening
saws$ are also of single cut.
33
S&a(es !' 'i"es: 8arious shapes of files with their application are shown in &ig 15.
34
35
36
BASIC HAND TOOLS - P1NCHES, DRILLS AND DRILLIN8
9ACHINES
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the uses of a punch
2. name the different types of punches and their application
3. identify the parts of a hammer
4. state the parts of a hand drilling machine
5. state the functions of a drill
6. identify the parts of a drill.
37
P)nc&
% punch is a tool used to make punch marks or light depressions at locations to be drilled or
to position dividers or for making permanent dimensional features. % typical punch is shown
in &ig 1. 4unches are made of hardened steel with a narrow tip on one side.
!he two main types of punches are shown in &ig 2.
Cent#e ()nc&: !hese punches have an angle of .1H at the punch point. !he punch mark
made by this angle will be wide but not very deep. !hese punch marks give a good seating
for the drill bit at the start of drilling as shown in &ig 3c. )f one tries to drill at a point without a
punch mark$ the drill bit will slip away from the point to be drilled and may drill a hole at
unwanted points$ making the Cob a waste.
38
P#ic. ()nc&: !he angle of the prick punch is 31Hor 61Has shown in &ig 2. !he 31H point prick
punch is used for marking light punch marks needed to position dividers. !he divider leg will
get proper seating in this punch mark. !he 61H punch is used for witness marks.
Ha,,e#
%n engineer=s hammer is a hand tool used for striking purposes while punching$ bending$ and
straightening$ chip,ping$ forging$ riveting etc.
Pa#ts !' a &a,,e#
&ig 4 shows a typical hammer with the parts labeled.
!he head is made of drop,forged carbon steel. !he handle is generally made of such
materials which can absorb the shock while striking. 'ood is most popularly used as the
material for the handle.
3ace: !he face of the hammer is that which strikes the obCects. >ence$ this portion is
hardened. "light conve(ity is given to the face to avoid digging of the face edges.
Pein: !he pein is the other end of the head. )t is used for shaping and forming work like
riveting and bending. !he pein can be of different shapes like ball pein$ cross pein and
straight pein as shown in &ig 5. !he pein of a hammer is also hardened is the face.
C&ee.: !he cheek is the middle portion of the hammer,head. !he weight of the hammer is
stamped here. !his portion of the hammer head will be soft.
39
E*e&!"e: !he eyehole is meant for fi(ing the handle. )t is shaped to fit the handle rigidly.
'edges are used to fi( the handle in the eyehole as shown in &ig 6.
S(eci'icati!n !' en%inee#s &a,,e#
;ngineer=s hammers are specified by their weight and the shape of the pein. !heir weight
varies from 125 gms to several kilo grams. Aenerally$ the weight of an engineer=s hammer$
used for marking purposes is 251 gms.
1sin% &a,,e#s
Before using a hammer$
select a hammer with the correct weight suitable for the Cob
make sure the handle is properly fitted
check the head and handle for any cracks
ensure the face of the hammer is free from oil or grease.
D#i""in% an #i""in% ,ac&ines
3rilling is a process of making straight holes in materials. !o drill holes$ a machine tool known
as drilling machine is used. 3rilling machines are used with twist drill bits. !hese drill bits
rotate and penetrate into the material making holes. !he drilling machines can be manually
driven or electrically driven. % drilling machine can be portable*hand held or mounted on a
stand. % typical manually driven$ hand held drilling machine most commonly used in small
electronics work is shown in &ig 7a. &ig 7b illustrates a portable power drilling machine. !he
hand drill is used for drilling holes up to 6.5 mm diameter.
;lectric drilling machines are used where higher drilling speed and fairly constant speed is
re+uired. >oles can be drilled faster and with higher accuracy using electric drilling machines.
4ortable electric drilling machines are available in 6 mm and 12 mm capacity. !hese drilling
machines generally operate on 231 8$ 51 > %9 mains supply
40
T$ist #i""/#i"" bit
!wist drills are used in drilling processes to form round holes in solid materials. 'hen a drill is
rotated and the rotating drill is pressed against the material$ the drill penetrates and cuts
away the material. !he rate at which the drill is pressed through the material is called the
=feed=.
PARTS O3 A DRILL
&ig - shows the different parts of a twist drill.
41
S&an.: "hank is that portion of the drill by which it is held and driven by the drilling machine.
<any different types of shanks are available$ but two of the most common types of shanks
are shown in &ig ..
Ta(e# s&an. #i""s: !hese are available in sies from 12 mm up to 52 mm in diameter. !he
shank has a self, holding taper which fits into a sleever or the taper bore of the drilling
machine.
St#ai%&t s&an. #i""s: !hese types of drills are more commonly used than taper shank drills.
!he shank has the same diameter as the body of the drill. !hese drills are available in sies
from 1.35 mm to 16 mm in diameter.
B!*: !he body e(tends from the shank to the cutting end/point0. Aenerally$ the body shape
of most drills is the same$ but some special shapes may be necessary for special tasks. )t
has two helical grooves called flutes which run along its sides. !he flutes help#
to form the cutting edges
to curl the chips and allow them to come out
to allow the coolant to flow to the cutting edge.
D#i"" (!int: !he conical shape of the cutting edge is ground to suit the material to be cut. %
typical drill point is shown on &ig .. !his is the sharpened end of the drill and has a number of
different parts.
S(ees !' #i""s
%s shown in &ig 11$ the outer corner of a drill bit is the most hard,worked part of the cutting
lip. &or e(ample$ in one revolution the outer corner cuts through twice as much metal as the
mid,point of the cutting lip.
42
!he cutting speed for a particular material is e(pressed in feet per minute or in meters per
minute. !he recommended speed for a drill is the ideal cutting speed for the outer corners of
its lips. :ou should be able to select the revolutions per minute of the drilling machine that will
give this cutting speed at the circumference of the drill. 7ecommended r.p.m for >"" drills for
drilling different types of materials is given in !able 2 of the 4ocket !able Book.
8ene#a" R)"es
)f you do not have tables of speeds and feeds to guide you$ remember these general rules.
!he smaller the drill$ the higher the r.p.m.
!he softer the metal$ the greater the feed.
!he harder the metal$ the smaller the feed.
!he harder the metal$ the lower the r.p.m.
"oluble oil is a suitable cutting fluid for cooling the drill while drilling for most common
metals,other than cast iron$ which is best drilled dry.
43
44
45
ATO9IC STR1CT1RE, COND1CTORS, INS1LATORS AND WIRES
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. draw the structure of an atom and name its sub,atomic particles
2. identify conductors and insulators from their atomic structure of a given material
3. e(plain the meaning of electrical current
4. e(plain the meaning of electrical resistance
5. list the commonly used conductors$ insulators and semiconductors
6. define a wire
7. distinguish between single strand and multi,strand wires
-. list the advantages of multistrand wires
.. define skinning
11. list the methods and tools used for skinning.
9atte#, at!,ic st#)ct)#e
46
%nything that one can see$ feel$ or use is matter. <atter is anything that has weight and
occupies space. <atter can be in the form of a solid like stone$ wood$ metal or li+uid like
water$ alcohol or gas like o(ygen$ hydrogen$ carbon di,o(ide etc. <atter is made up of tiny
particles called molecules. <olecules are made up of even smaller particles called atoms.
%toms are made up of further smaller particles called protons$ neutrons and electrons as
shown in &ig 1.
At!,ic st#)ct)#e
%lthough an atom cannot be seen through naked eyes$ 2eils Bohr has suggested the
structure of an atom as shown in &ig 2 which is universally accepted.
%s shown in &ig 2$ nucleus is the central part of the atom. 2ucleus is made up of protons
which are positively charged and neutrons which do not have any charge. ;lectrons revolve
around the nucleus and are negatively charged. Aenerally the number of electrons /,ve
47
charge0 in an atom will be e+ual to the number of protons/Ive charge0. !he number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom of one element differs from that of an atom in another
element. !able below gives the number of 4rotons in atoms of some elements.
Because the number of electrons in an atom is e+ual to the number of protons$ an atom will
be electrically neutral when it is not participating in any chemical$ electrical or other activity. )n
other words$ the positive charges of protons will neutralie the negative charges of electrons
resulting in ero net charge of an atom.
%n atom is recognied by the following specificationsG
At!,ic n),be# - number of protons or number of electrons.
At!,ic $ei%&t - total number of protons and neutrons.
)n all atoms$ electrons revolve round the nucleus in different orbits as shown in &ig 3.
!hese orbits are also called shells. "hells are identified by numbers or by letters as shown in
&ig 4.
48
!he ma(imum number of electrons in each orbit is given by 2n2 where n is the orbit number
as shown in &ig 5.
%s the protons in the nucleus are positively charged$ the electrons revolving round the
nucleus will have a force of attraction towards the nucleus /opposite charges attract each
other0. !his force is ma(imum for the electrons in the innermost shell and minimum for the
outermost shell because of its distance from the nucleus /the magnitude of attraction is
inversely proportional to the distance between the charges0. !he outermost orbit of an atom is
called the valence orbit. !he electrons in this orbit are called valence electrons. !hese
valence electrons are loosely bound to the nucleus as they are far from nucleus. 3epending
upon the number of valence electrons in an atom$ the materials can be classified as
conductors$ insulators and semiconductors as shown in &ig 6.
49
COND1CTORS
)n atoms having one or two electrons in its valence orbit$ the electrons can be pulled out of
their orbit and made available as free electrons. "uch materials are called conductors. 'ith
the application of e(ternal force$ these electrons become free to participate in conduction.
;lectricity is defined as the flow of electrons as shown in &ig 7.
9opper atom has one valence electron. >ence$ copper is a very good conductor of electricity.
)n other words the conductivity of copper is very good. Aiven below is a list of metal
conductors$ in the order of their conductivity.
10 "ilver
20 9opper
30 Aold
40 %luminium
50 )ron
&rom the above list$ it is evident that silver is the best conductor followed by copper$ gold and
aluminium. 9op,per and aluminum are available in abundance in nature$ hence the cost of
these metals is cheaper than the other conductors. !herefore copper and aluminum are the
most commonly used for electrical work. Aold is used for special purposes as conductor as
50
this metal has certain special property compared to copper and silver. )f the number of
valence electrons in an atom is 5$ 6$ 7 or - then they tend to bind to the atom. !herefore even
if a large e(ternal energy is applied$ none of the electrons or very few electrons come out of
their orbit and be available as free electrons. >ence such materials which are not good
conductors of electricity are called non,conductors or insulators. "ome common insulators
are listed below$ in the descending order of non,conductivity.
4orcelain
4aper
Alass
%ir
4lastic
'ood
7ubber
SE9ICOND1CTORS
)f the number of valence electrons in an atom is 4$ materials composed of such atoms are
called semiconductors. !hese have the characteristics in,between that of a conductor and an
insulator. !he conductivity of semiconductors also depends upon the temperature in which
they are used. %t low temperatures semiconductors behaves as insulators. %t high
temperatures they behave as fairly good conductors. ;(amples of most used semiconducting
materials are silicon and germanium.
ELECTRIC C1RRENT 3LOW
!he motion of electrons is called electric conduction or electric current. 'hen no e(ternal
energy is supplied$ the free electrons in a conductor move from atom to atom within the
conductor. But this motion is at random$ without any organised flow through the conductor.
>ence when the conductor is considered as a whole$ from one end to other end$ the current
is ero. >owever when an e(ternal force is given to these random moving free electrons$ then
the motion of electrons will be organised$ resulting in the movement of electrons in a
particular direction through the wire. !his is called flow of electric current.
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
'hen the electrons of the conductor are made to move$ there will be an opposition to this
organised movement. !he free electrons will have to cross several atoms and some other
forms of opposition on its way. !his opposition limits the amount of current that can pass
through the conductor. !his opposition to the free flow of electrons is called electrical
resistance. 3ue to this opposition to the free flow of electrons$ some amount of energy
possessed by the electrons is liberated in the form of heat in the body of the conductor. !he
amount of heat so generated depends on how good or how bad is the conductors. !his
property of liberating heat is made use of in electrical appliances like ;lectrical iron bo($
water heaters$ soldering irons etc.
Wi#es
%ny metallic conductor drawn /a process of pulling0 in the form of a thin solid cylindrical
string$ is called an electrical wire. 'ires are used as a medium for carrying current from one
point to another point in an electrical*electronic circuit as shown in &ig -a.
51
%ll wires have at least one metal strand which is able to conduct electricity. !his is known as
the conductor. !his conductor is generally surrounded by a material which does not conduct
electricity as shown in &ig -b. 9onductors used in wires are invariably made of good to very
good conductor materials like aluminum$ copper. !his is because electrical wires are intended
to carry current with minimum opposition or resistance.
Sin%"e St#an Wi#es
)f the conductor of a wire is a single strand of metal$ as shown in &ig -b$ then the wire is
known as a single strand wire$ commonly called hook,up wire. !hese wires are commonly
used for Cumpering$ e(perimental circuit wiring of electronic circuits.
9)"tist#an $i#es
)f the wire consists of several strands of metal as shown in &ig .$ then the wire is known as
<ulti,strand wire.
"ome of the advantages of multistrand wires over single strand wire are listed belowG
1. <ore fle(ible and hence can be routed in any direction more easily.
2. <ore rugged and hence are less likely to cut when bend.
3. 9an carry more current when compared to a single strand conductor of same
dimension.
4. <ore suitable for high fre+uency application due to reduce skin effect /discussed later0
52
5. Better cooling due to air gap between strands.
6. 9ancellation of the effect of magnetic field.
Because of the above advantages$ multistrand wires are used e(tensively in electronic circuit
connections.
S.innin% !' $i#e
!o use wires in constructing electrical or electronic circuits$ a small portion of insulation at the
ends of the wire is to be removed. !he process of removing a re+uired length of wire end
insulation is called "F)22)2A of wires. !here are several methods and tools to do skinning.
!he simplest of all these methods is skinning using a knife. "kinning of wires using a knife is
most suitable for single strand wires or multi strand wires with thick strands and thick
insulation. !his method is not advised to be used for skinning multi,strand wires with thin
strands as the strands may get cut while skinning. "pecial skinning tools are available for
skinning fle(ible multi,stand wires. !he most common of them is the manual wire stripper as
shown in &ig 11a. % manual wire stripper is the cheapest of the stripping tools and does good
stripping work if one practices with it. % few other types of wire strippers are shown in &ig 11b.
53
BATTERIES AND CELLS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the difference between battery and other power sources
2. list the two main classifications of batteries
3. name the basic unit of a battery
4. list a few popular shapes and sies of commercially available cells
5. state the difference between dry and wet cells
6. state the difference between primary and secondary cells
7. state the need for mechanical ero setting of the meter
-. state the precautions to be taken while measuring the output of cells
.. reason$ why$ not all types of batteries are suitable for all applications.
54
POWER SO1RCES
3evices that produce electricity are generally termed as 4ower sources. !hese power
sources produce electricity by converting some form of energy into electrical energy. %s
shown in &ig 1$ all power sources must first be supplied with e(ternal energy such as heat$
light or mechanical energy before they can produce electricity with an e(ception in the case
of cell*battery. Batteries are different from the other types of power sources because$ energy
is self,contained in batteries. !herefore$ no energy need be supplied from outside for the
battery to produce electricity. >ence batteries are one of the most important power sources.
)n a battery$ electrical energy is produced by the chemicals contained within the battery. 9ells
are the basic units of a battery. "everal cells forms to make a battery. Batteries are classified
mainly under two categories
P#i,a#* Batte#ies - 9onverts chemical energy to electrical energy. !his uses the chemicals
within it to start the action of energy conversion. !he most common types of primary cells and
batteries are shown in &ig 2.
55
Sec!na#* batte#ies - !hese batteries must be first charged with electrical energy. 5nce the
battery is fully charged$ it will then convert chemical energy to electrical energy. "econdary
batteries first stores electrical energy supplied to it and then supply electrical energy as and
when re+uired. >ence secondary batteries are commonly called storage batteries. % typical
secondary storage battery is shown in &ig 3.
% battery may consist of two or more number of cells. !he battery shown in &ig 3 has si( cells
of 28 each. !hese cells are connected in series to give 128 at battery terminals.
THE CELL
% cell consists of a pair of metal strips called electrodes and dipped in a chemical solution
called electrolyte as shown in &ig 4.
D#* an Wet ce""s
!he electrolyte can be in li+uid form or a paste form. 9ells with paste form electrolyte are
known as 37: cells. 9ells with li+uid form of electrolyte are called ';! cells.
P#i,a#* an Sec!na#* ce""s
4rimary cells are those which once fully used has to be thrown,out or destroyed. !his is
because the electrodes and electrolyte used in this type of cells cannot be reused. >ence$
56
primary cells are non,rechargeable cells. Aenerally$ the electrolyte used in primary cells is of
paste form.
"econdary cells are those which once used can be reused by charging them. >ence$
secondary cells are rechargeable cells. Aenerally$ the electrolyte used in secondary cells is in
li+uid form. >owever$ there are rechargeable cells with paste form electrolyte also.
)n this lesson the commercial aspects of primary cells are discussed. "econdary cells are
discussed in further lessons.
D#* ce""s an batte#ies
%s the electrolyte used in dry cells is in paste form$ it does not spill or leak. >ence$ dry cells
are used e(tensively in portable electrical and electronic gadgets. % typical constructional
detail of a inc,carbon during cell is shown in &ig 5. !he two electrodes of dry cells are
brought out and are available as Ive and ,ve terminals of the cell. ?sually the metallic cell
container serves as the ,ve of the cell as shown in &ig 5. !he voltage that appears across the
terminals depends upon the electrodes and the chemicals used in the cell. !he voltage of a
cell is so made as to suit the commercial re+uirement. Aenerally the voltage across the
terminals of a dry cell range between 1.2 to 1.5 volts.
3ry cells and batteries are available in several shapes and sies to suit commercial
re+uirements. "ome popular shapes of dry cells were shown in &ig 2. !echnically$ any
particular type of cell is defined by the materials used as electrodes and electrolytes in that
cell. % dry cell with inc as the ,ve electrode$ carbon as the Ive electrode with inc chloride as
the electrolyte is referred to as inc,carbon cell or inc chloride cell. "imilarly a dry cell which
uses an alkaline solution as electrolyte is called an %lkaline cells. % 9hart on !ypes of
cells*batteries given at the end of this lesson lists some popular dry cells along with the
names of the materials used for the Ive$,ve electrodes$ the electrolyte used$ the available
sies$ the rated output voltage and their applications. !he use of different materials for their
57
electrodes and electrolytes results in different voltage$ current rating discharge characteristics
and the shelf life /life of the battery if kept unused0.
NOTE: 2ot all types of cells are suitable for all applications. !his is because some appliances
draw high initial current or current in pulses which may not suit the discharge characteristics
of the cell.
Wea., ea ce""
3ry cells are used in various gadgets like flash lights$ tape recorders etc$ the cells convert the
chemical energy built into them into electrical energy. )n doing so$ the dry cell slowly gets
consumed. !his means$ the voltage across the cell terminals decreases and the current it can
supply to the connected load becomes less and less. % stage will reach when the dry cell is
no more capable of supplying sufficient voltage*current through the connected load . !hen the
cell is said to have become weak or dead. %s a thumb rule$ dry cell can be declared unfit for
use if$ the voltage across its terminals is less than 75J of its rated output voltage.
E0a,("e: % used inc chloride dry cell with a rated voltage of 1.5 volts has 1.1 volts across
its terminals. &ind whether the cell is usable or not.
7ated o*p voltage of the cell is 1.58.
<easured output of the cell is 1.18.
J <easured output with respect to rated output is
1.1*1.5( 111 K 73.3 J
%s the output is less than 75J of the rated output$ the dry cell is unfit for use or can be
treated as a 'eak cell.
9eas)#in% ce"" v!"ta%e
!o measure the voltage of a dry cell$ a voltmeter having a full scale deflection value greater
than$ but close to the rated output of the dry cell$ should be used. %lso the meter=s minimum
measurable voltage /value of one small scale div0 should be as small as possible /at least 1.2
volts0. %s most of the cells have voltages less than 2 volts$ the meters used to measure cell
voltage should be free from errors. 5ne of the most common errors in meters is the
<echanical 6ero error. !his error is caused due to the mechanical movements involved in the
meters. !his error in meters is correctable. !he steps involved to correct this error is called
<echanical ero setting of meters. %ll meters will have a screw on it as shown in &ig 6.
Feeping the terminals of the meter open$ the screw is turned slowly to bring the pointer
e(actly to 1 positions on the meter scale. !his means$ with no voltage applied$ the meter is
made to show e(actly ero volts.
58
9are has to be taken while turning this screw as this screw is directly connected with the
sensitive and delicate meter movement. !urning the screw in large amounts or in Cerks may
damage the meter movement permanently making the meter unusable. Before using a meter
for measurements$ it is necessary to check if the meter needle is moving freely over the
graduated scale. !here are possibilities that the meter movement may be sticky due to dust
collection on the meter movement or due to the bent pointer needle. % simple way to check
sticky pointer*meter movement is to hold the meter in hand and tilt the meter back and forth
gently$ checking for the free movement of the pointer. )f the pointer is not moving freely$ it is
advised not to use that meter for making measurements. 8oltmeters used for measuring 39
voltage=s will have their input terminals marks Ive and ,ve. &or making voltage measurement$
the Ive terminal of the meter must be connected to the Ive terminal of the battery and the ,
ve terminal of the meter to the ,ve terminal of battery. )f the terminals are reversed$ the meter
deflects below ero. !his may cause temporary or sometimes permanent damage to the
meter movement.
!he following precautions should always be taken while making voltage measurement of cells
or other voltage sourcesG
9heck if the right type and range of meter is being used for measurement.
E0a,("e: !o measure cell*battery voltages use 39 or %9*39 voltmeters only.
9heck if the ma(imum and minimum measurable voltage of the meter is as per
re+uirement.
E0a,("e: !o measure cell voltages of around 1.5volts$ use a voltmeter having a range of
2 volts but not more than 5 volts. !he value of each small scale division of the meter
should be at least 1.2 volt or less.
<ake it a practice to connect red coloured meter prod to the Ive terminal of the meter
and black coloured prod to the ,ve terminal. !his avoids confusion and prevents
damage to meter.
2ever measure the current of a cell by connecting an ammeter directly across its Ive
and ,ve terminals. !his will not only damage the meter but will discharge the cell
heavily and make the cell weak. ?se a 1 F"0 resistor in series for measuring current
driving capacity of a cell.
59
60
61
91LTI-RAN8E 9ETERS AND 91LTI-31NCTION 9ETERS /
91LTI9ETERS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the advantages of multi,range meters over single range meters
2. state the basic working principle of a multimeter
3. state the steps to be followed while using multi,range and multi,meters
4. state the method of identification of the different scales of a multi,meter
5. state the difference between mechanical and resistance ero setting in multimeters.
62
91LTI-RAN8E 9ETERS
!est instruments used to measure the most common electrical parameters areG
8oltmeter , to measure , voltage
%mmeter or current meter, to measure L current
5hmmeter , to measure L resistance
"ingle range meters discussed in lesson 3.1- had the draw,back that one single range meter
can be used for measuring only one range of voltage$ current or resistance. &or e(ample# %
1,58 39 single range meter$ used to measure 1.5 volt cells$ cannot be used to measure a .
volt battery. % separate 11 volts range meter has to be used to measure a .8 cell. )n general$
to measure a wide range of values$ several single meters need to be used. !o overcome this
limitation$ meters are designed$ which can measure a wide range of values with the help of a
range switch. "uch meters are called multi range meters. &ig 1 shows a typical multi,range
39 voltmeter.
!he meter shown in &ig 1 can be used asten independent single range voltmeters as given
below#
'ith a control switch put in$
1 volt position , the meter can measure from 1 to 1 8.
2.5 volt position , the meter can measure from 1 to 2.5 8.
11 volt position , the meter can measure from 1 to 11 8.
MM..
MM..
MM..
1111 volt position , the meter can measure from 1 to 1111 8.
63
"uch multi,range meters are preferred when wide range of voltages are to be measured.
<ulti,range ammeters and ohmmeters are also available in the market for the measurement
of a wide range of currents and resistances as shown in &ig 2a and &ig 2b
9ete# sca"es !' ,)"ti-#an%e ,ete#s
<ulti,range meters may have more than one graduated scale as shown in &ig 1. "ome multi,
range meter may have a single common scale has to be used for all ranges while taking
readings as shown in &ig 3.)n the meter at &ig 3$ when the control switch is put to 1 volt range
position$ the meter gives full scale deflection /&"30 for 1 volt. >ence the scale end marking of
111 on the meter scale should be treated as 1 volt. "imilarly when the control switch is put to
11 volts position$ the scale end marking of 111 should be taken as 11 and so on...
!he other method of taking readings is by using the table given below.
7ange switch position
64
NOTE: 7eadings given in !able above is for the pointer position as shown in &ig 3.
&ig 4 shows a multi,range meter having more than one scale.
)n the meter at fig 4$ depending upon the range selected$ the most suitable scale is to be
chosen for taking the readings. &or e(ample# )f the range switch is put to 25 volts$ the
topmost scale$ wherein$ the number at the end of the scale is 25$ is to be chosen. )f the range
switch is set to 2.5 volts or 251 volts$ still the scale with 25 at the end is the most suitable
because instead of reading the end scale as 25$ it can be treated as 2.5 or 251 volts
respectively and the readings can be taken easily.
"imilarly
?se the scale with 51 at the end /&"30 for the control switch settings of 5 $ 51 and
511.
?se the scale with 111 at the end /&"30 for control switch settings of 1 $ 11 $ 111 and
1111.
91LTI-9ETER
!he voltmeter$ ammeter rand ohmmeter although used for measuring different electrical
parameters , all these meters use the same basic type of meter movement called the 3=
%rsonval movement /named after its inventor0. !he difference between these instruments
while measuring different electrical parameters areG
the circuit associated with the meter movement
the graduations*markings on its meter scale.
25!;# <eter movement is an electro mechanical arrangement used to deflect the meter
pointer. 3etails of types of meter movement are discussed in further lessons.
)t is$ therefore$ possible to design an instrument having a common meter movement$ with
three different circuits$ for measuring voltage$ current$ and resistance. % control switch will be
necessary to connect any one of the three circuits to the common meter movement as shown
in &ig 5.
65
"uch an instrument which can be used to measure voltage$ current and resistance is called a
8olt , 5hm , milliammeter or 85< or more commonly known as multimeter. &ig 6 shows a
typical multi,meter.
25!;# !he multimeter used in your institute may have a different front panel design than$
shown in fig 6. But the function will remain almost same.
)n the multimeter shown in &ig 6$ following steps are to be followed to measure 39 voltages.
&irst # Fnow the appro(imate voltage to be measured.
"econd# 4ut the control switch to the most suitable 39 volts range.
W&i"e ,eas)#in% )n.n!$n v!"ta%e "eve"s a"$a*s set t&e #an%e s$itc& t! t&e &i%&est
avai"ab"e #an%e an $!#. !$n '#!, t&e#e- T&is av!is a,a%e t! ,ete#-
66
!hird# )dentify the most suitable scale on which the readings are to be taken corresponding to
the chosen range.
&ourth# &ind the value of one small scale division of the scale.
&ifth# Aive the voltage to be measured to the meter using the meter probes with correct
polarity.
"i(th# 7ead the indicated voltage on the scale.
Ienti'*in% t&e sca"e t! ta.e #eain%s
)n almost all meters$ the symbol of the electrical parameter for which the particular scale is to
be used will be given either at the beginning$ or at the end$ or at both places as shown in &igs
7a$ b$ c.
!he symbol NKN at the beginning and end of scale shown in &ig 7a indicates that this scale
should be used for 39 voltages and current. "imilarly$. &ig 7b shows the scale to be used for
%9 voltage and current and &ig 7c for resistance. )n the scale meant for taking readings for a
particular parameter /say 39 voltage0 may itself have more than one scale for the
convenience of taking readings in different range positions. &or e(ample$ the scale to be
used for 39 voltages shown in &ig 7a itself has two scales 1,111 and 1,31. 5f these two
scales$ depending upon the range switch position selected$ readings will have to be taken on
any one scale.
Example 1: )n the multimeter at &ig 6$ if the range switch is put to 11 8 position$ choose 1,
111 scale. !reat the ma(imum marking 111 as 11 as shown in &ig -.
67
>ere each ""3 on meter scale corresponds to 1.2 volts and hence it is accurate as well as
easy to take the readings.
Example 2: 7eferring to &ig 6$ if the range switch is put to 311 volts position$ choose 1,31
scale. !reat the ma(imum marking 31 as 311 as shown in &ig ..
1sin% ,)"ti-,ete#s as v!"t,ete#, a,,ete# an !&,-,ete#
9)"ti,ete# as DC VOLT9ETER
!o measure a wide range of voltages the multi,meter will have several ranges under 39 volts
as shown in &ig 11.
!his is similar to a multi,range voltmeter. 3epending on the +uantity of voltage being
measured the control switch can be put to the most suitable range position. 9orresponding to
the range selected the most suitable scale has to be chosen for taking the readings.
Example 1: 7eferring to &ig 11$ to measure the voltage of a 1.5 8 dry cell$ the control switch
should be put to 11 8 position. !his is because$ the battery voltage is greater than 1 8 and
less than 11 8.
"ince the range selected is 11 8$ the most suitable scale to take reading is the scale with the
marking 1 , 111.
68
>ence$ with the control switch in 118 position$ if the pointer indication is as in &ig 11 the
voltage indicated will be 4 volts.
Example 2: 'ith the control switch in 311 volts position$ if the pointer indication is as in &ig
12$ the voltage indicated will be 211 volts.
9)"ti-,ete# as DC A99ETER
!o use a multi,meter as a 39 ammeter$ the control switch should be put to the most suitable
39 current position as shown in &ig 13a. !his depends upon the +uantity of 39 current to be
measured. )f in doubt put to ma(imum range position.
9hoose the scale shown in &ig 13b to read the 39 current.
9)"ti-,ete# as AC VOLT9ETER
!o use a multi,meter as an %9 voltmeter$ the control switch should be put to %9 volts position
as shown in &ig 14a.
9hoose the scale shown in &ig 14b to read the %9 voltages.
69
9)"ti-,ete# as AC A99ETER
4ut the control switch to %9 current position and the most suitable current range as shown in
&ig 15a and choose scale shown in &ig 15b.
9)"ti-,ete# as OH9 9ETER
4ut the control switch to the most suitable 5><" /O0 position as shown in &ig 16a and use
the scale shown in &ig 16b.
!he range switch in resistance range also has different range positions to enable the
measurement of a wide range of resistance values. But unlike in voltage and current range
positions$ these ranges are marked ( 1111$( 111 and so on. !his means$ whatever is the
value of resistance pointed by the meter needle should be multiplied by this factor.
Example: )f the meter needle shows a reading as shown in &ig 17a with the control switch in
position as in &ig 17b the value indicated by the meter will beG
<eter reading K /510 ( 111 K 5111 O or 5 F O.

70
Resistance +e#! settin%
5ne important thing to note in the scale for measuring resistance is that$ the ero of the scale
is on the right hand end of scale. 'hen the meter prods are shorted$ the resistance across
the meter terminals is ero and the meter should indicate 5"0. "ometimes the pointer may
not be e(actly at ero. !hen$ it is re+uired to set the pointer to indicate ero. !o set the pointer
to ero short the meter prods and turn the 7esistance ero set knob provided on the meter
such that the pointer goes to ero. !his procedure is called resistance ero setting of the
meter.
2ote that 7esistance ero setting is different from <echanical ero setting carried out in ;(.
3.1..
<echanical ero setting is to adCust errors arising due to the mechanical parts of the meter
whereas 7esistance ero setting is to adCust the meter full scale deflection due to low voltage
of battery inside the meter. !his adCustment is re+uired to be carried out only when using the
meter to measure resistance. 'hile using a multi,meter as ohmmeter$ whenever you change
the multiplier range position$ it is advised to carry out the 7esistance ero setting of the meter
to get accurate readings. !here are several manufacturers of multi,meters and the meters
differ from one another in the provided ranges and meter scales. !herefore$ before using any
multi, meter it is worth spending some time in studying the various ranges and scales
available on the meter. )n some low cost multi,meters there will be no control knob for
changing the meter range. )nstead they will have a common ,ve socket where the black
meter prod should always be plugged in. 3epending upon the range re+uired$ the Ive meter
prod should be plugged into the socket provided for each range.
71
T:PES O3 CAPACITORS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the basic function of capacitors
2. state the meaning of capacitance
3. describe how capacitor stores energy
4. define the unit of capacitance
5. list factors that determine capacitance value
6. state the effect of %$d$ k on capacitance value
7. list functions of dielectric in a capacitor
72
-. list main types of fi(ed value capacitors
.. list the minimum specifications that goes with capacitors
11. state the important of 39'8 in capacitors.
9apacitors are electronic components which can store electric energy in the form of electric
charge. !he charge storage ability of a capacitor is called the 9apacitance of a capacitor.
"ymbols used to represent capacitors are shown in &ig 1. %lphabet =9= is used to represent
the capacitance of a capacitor.
% simple capacitor consists of two pieces of conductors separated by an insulator as shown
in &ig 2.
73
)n capacitors the conductors shown in &ig 2 are called plates and the insulator is called
dielectric.
!he plates of a capacitor can be of any sie and shape and the dielectric may be any one of
several insulator materials. 3epending on the type insulator*dielectric used capacitors are
called as paper$ mica$ ceramic$ glass$ polyester$ air electrolyte capacitors etc.$ as shown in
&ig 3.
Ca(acit!# acti!n !' st!#in% c&a#%e
'hen electric charge is forced on to the plates of a capacitor by some energy source$ such
as a battery$ the capacitor stores these charges.
74
'hen a capacitor is connected to a battery as shown in &ig 4$ electrons from the negative
terminal of battery move through the connecting leads and pile up on one of the plates of the
capacitor. %t the same time free electrons from the other plate of the capacitor /remember
that plates of a capacitor are conductors having free electrons0 move through the connecting
lead to the positive terminal of the battery. !his process is known as =charging of capacitor=.
%s the process of charging continues$ the net result is that$ one plate of the capacitor ends up
with e(cess of electrons /2egative charge0 and the other plate with deficiency of electrons
/4ositive charge0. !hese charges on the plates of the capacitor represent a voltage source
similar to that of the charges on the terminals of a battery*cell. !he process of charging stops
once the energy stored on the capacitor develops a voltage e+ual to that of the battery. )t is
important to note that during the process of charging$ although electrons were moving from
and to the capacitor plates causing current flow in the circuit /you can connect an ammeter to
measure it0$ no electrons moved nor did current flow from one plate through the dielectric to
the other plate of the capacitor. !he charging current through the circuit stops when the
voltage across the capacitor becomes e+ual to$ and in opposition to$ the battery voltage. !his
charged capacitor can be disconnected from the circuit and used as a new energy source as
shown in &ig 5.
)f a voltmeter is connected across this disconnected charged capacitor$ the voltmeter reads
the voltage e+ual to that of the battery which charged it. )f a lamp is connected across this
charged capacitor$ the bulb glows for a moment indicating current flow through it. !he charge
stored in the capacitor is sufficient to supply current through the bulb only for a short duration
75
after which the charge filed up on the capacitor plates gets e(hausted. % capacitor has limited
use as a primary storage device of energy for two reasons#
1 &or its weight and sie$ the amount of energy it can store is very small when compared with
that of a battery.
2 !he voltage available from the capacitor diminishes rapidly as energy is removed from the
capacitor.
1nit !' ca(acitance
!he ability of capacitor to store electrical energy in the form of electrostatic field is known
capacitance. !he unit used to measure capacitance is &arad abbreviated as &. % capacitor is
said to have a capacitance/90 of 1 &arad$ if it stores a charge/P0 of 1 coulomb when a
voltage/80 of 18 is applied across its plates. !herefore$ capacitance can be mathematically
e(pressed as$
&arad/&0 is a very large +uantity of capacitance. %s most circuits use capacitance values
much lower than one farad /&0$ smaller +uantities of capacitance given below are generally
used#
E0a,("e: 'hat is the capacitance /90 of a capacitor that re+uires a charge /P0 of 1.5
coulombs to build a voltage/80 of 25 volts across its platesQ
SOL1TION
!he capacitance of a capacitor is determined by the following three main factorsG
1. %rea of the plates
2. 3istance between the plates
3. !ype of dielectric material /dielectric constant k0
76
9hart 1 at the end of this lesson illustrates the relationship between the above factors and the
value of capacitance.
)n addition to the above factors affecting the value of capacitance$ the temperature of the
capacitor also affects the capacitance although not very significantly. )ncrease or decrease in
temperature affects the characteristics of dielectric material which in,turn increases or
decreases the capacitance value. "ome dielectrics cause an increase in capacitance as
temperature increases. !hese are called positive temperature coefficients$ abbreviated as 4.
5ther dielectric materials have negative temperature coefficient$ abbreviated as 2$ in which
case$ increase in temperature decreases the capacitance. !here are dielectric materials
having ero temperature coefficient abbreviated as 245. !he temperature coefficient of a
capacitor is specified by the capacitor manufacturer in parts per million per degree 9elsius
/44<0. !he following e(pression gives the relation between the three factors that determine
the value of capacitance of a capacitorG
9 KR
r
R
o
%*d &arads
!he term Ro is the permittivity of free space /air0 K -.-5( 11,12 92*2m2 and R
r
is called the
relative permittivity of the dielectric material.
!he e(pression for capacitance /90 of a capacitor can also be written as$
9 K k R
o
%*d &arads
!he ratio of the capacitance with dielectric to the capacitance with air is called relativity
permittivity or dielectric constant$ k.
"ubstituting the value of -1 in the above e+uation$ value of a capacitor using any dielectric
can be found using the formulaG
9 K /-.-5 ( 11 ,12 k S% &arads
where$
9 K 9apacitance in farads
/-.-5 ( 1 1,120 K ; /permittivity of air0
k K dielectric constant of the insulator used between the plates
% K area of one side of the plate in s+uare meters$ m2
d K distance between the plates in meters$ m
E0a,("e: !wo metal plates$ each 5 ( 6 cms are separated from each other by 1mm.
9alculate the capacitance if the dielectric material used between the plates was$
10air
20glass
SOL1TION:
77
25!;# 3ielectric constants$ k of commonly used insulators are given in 4!B table 2o.1-.
W!#.in% v!"ta%e !# v!"ta%e #atin% !' ca(acit!#
!he dielectric strength of the insulating material used between the plates of a capacitor gives
the capacitor the ability to withstand a potential difference between the plates without causing
arcing. !herefore$ a specific capacitor using a specific type of dielectric can withstand only up
to a specific voltage across it. )f the voltage is further increased$ the dielectric breaks down or
gets punctured. !his causes a burn out or a hole in the dielectric material permanently
damaging the capacitor. !his ma(imum voltage that a capacitor can withstand is listed as one
of the specifications of capacitors as direct current working voltage$ 39'8. %s an e(ample# if
a capacitor has a 39'8 of 111 volts$ it can be operated at 111 volts for long periods of time
without any deterioration in the working of the capacitor. )f the capacitor is subCected to 1258
or 1518 39$ the dielectric may not break down immediately but the life of the capacitor gets
greatly reduced and may become permanently defective any time.
3)ncti!n !' a ie"ect#ic in a ca(acit!#
1. "olves the mechanical problem of keeping two metal plates separated by a very small
distance.
2. )ncreases the ma(imum voltage that can be applied before causing a breakdown$
compared with air as dielectric.
3. )ncreases the amount of capacitance$ compared with air$ for a given dimension of
plates and the distance between them.
T*(es !' ca(acit!#s
9apacitors can be classified under two main categories#
78
;- 3i0e va")e ca(acit!#s
!he capacitance value of these capacitors is fi(ed at the time of manufacture. !his value
cannot be varied*altered by the user.
<- Va#iab"e ca(acit!#s
!he capacitance of such capacitors can be varied between the specified minimum to the
specified ma(imum values by the user. %mongst fi(ed value capacitors$ many different types
of capacitors are manufactured to satisfy the needs of the electronic industry. !hese different
types of capacitors are named according to the
1 !ype of dielectric material used in capacitor
E0a,("e:
a0)f paper is used as dielectric$ the capacitors are called paper capacitors.
b0)f ceramic is used as dielectric$ the capacitors are called 9eramic capacitors.
K /-.-5 ( 11 ,120 ( 1 (
K 5 ( 26.55p& 9 K 132.75 T&
2 !ype of construction of the capacitor
E0a,("e:
a0)f the foils of the conductor and dielectric are rolled to form a capacitor$ such capacitors are
called as 7olled foil capacitors.
b0)f the plates and dielectric are in the form of 3iscs$ such capacitors are called as 3isc
capacitors.
3ifferent types of fi(ed value capacitors$ their sub types$ available values$ rated voltage and a
few applications are given in 9hart 2 at the end of this lesson. %lso refer to 9hart 3 for
illustration of some of the popular fi(ed value capacitors.
S(eci'icati!ns !' ca(acit!#s
'hile ordering capacitors$ one has to indicate the specifications needed to ensure that the
desired capacitor is received. !he minimum specifications to be indicated while
purchasing*ordering capacitors for general use areG
; T*(e !' ca(acit!#
&or e(ample# 9eramic$ disc$ styrofie($ electrolytic and so... on.
< Ca(acitance va")e
&or e(ample# 111T&$ 1.11T&$ 11Tf and so....on.
= DC $!#.in% v!"ta%e #atin% >DCWV?
&or e(ample# 111T&,128$ 111T&,1118$ 1.11T&,4118 and so... on.
@ T!"e#ance
79
@ike resistors$ capacitors also have tolerances over its rated value. !olerance of capacitors
may range from U1 J to U21J. "ome capacitors may have tolerance specified as ,21J$
I-1J.
A Te,(e#at)#e c!e''icients
!he temperature coefficient of capacitors can be 4ositive /40$ 2egative /20 or ero /2450.
!he temperature coefficient is e(pressed in parts per million /Tpm0 per degree 9elsius.
;(ample# I751ppm
!he above listed capacitor specifications$ the manufacturer=s name*code and the month and
year of manufacture are generally marked on all capacitors.
'hile identifying the specification of a given capacitor the following points are to be noted.
1. !he type of capacitor may not be marked on the capacitors. )n such cases the type has to
be identified depending on the physical appearance of the capacitor.
2. 9apacitance value of capacitors may be marked directly as T&$ T& etc or might be colour
coded. )t should be noted that the capacitance value formed using colour code is always in
4ico farads/4&0.
3ifferent capacitor manufacturers adopt different coding schemes for indicating the
capacitance value on the capacitor. 7efer 4!B !able 2os. 1. to 22 for different colour coding
schemes.
3. !he 39 working voltage /39'80 will be marked directly as$
168 , meaning 168 39 , marking scheme used in electrolytic capacitors
4118 , meaning 4118 39 , marking scheme used in paper capacitor
2 , meaning 2118 39 , marking scheme used in ceramic disc*plastic capacitors
4. !he tolerance of capacitors will be marked either directly as 11J$ 21J or in a coded form
as F /meaning 11J0$ <,meaning 21J and so...on. 7efer to 4!B for other tolerance codes.
5. !he temperature coefficient will generally be marked in the coded form as$ 4$ 2 or 245.
25!;# <any capacitors may not have all the markings on their body. >owever$ specification
can be obtained for a particular type from its manufacturer.
80
81
82
83
84
9EAS1RE9ENT O3 CAPACITANCE
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state methods of measuring capacitance value
2. e(plain how capacitors block 39 signals
3. e(plain how capacitors allow %9 signals
4. list a few applications of capacitor.
85
!he capacitance value of capacitors can be measured using an %9 bridge or digital meters
specially designed to measure capacitance values.
AC b#i%e ,et&! !' ,eas)#in% ca(acitance
!here are several methods of measuring capacitance using %9 bridges. !he easiest of all
these is the 3e "canty method. !his method adopts the techni+ue of comparing the value of
an unknown capacitor with that of a known capacitor as shown in &ig 1.
91 K 9apacitor whose capacitance is to be measured.
92 K Fnown standard capacitor
71 and 72 K 2on,inductive resistors
!he bridge is balanced by varying either 71 or 72 or both. 'ith the bridge in a balanced
condition$
!herefore the value of the unknown capacitor 91 can be calculated from the known values of
71$ 72 and 92 as follows#
25!;# % perfect balance of bridge is not possible if the capacitor under test is not free from
dielectric loss.
&or details of other bridge methods used for capacitance measurement$ refer reference
books listed at the end of this book.
Di%ita" ,ete#s '!# ca(acitance ,eas)#e,ent
3igital meters for e(clusive measurement of capacitance are available commercially. !hese
meters can measure values from a few hundred 4ico farads to a few thousands of micro,
farads. 3igital meters are also available which can measure resistance$ inductance and
capacitance$ known as 7@9 meters. !hese meters$ in addition to measuring the capacitance
values$ can also measure other properties of capacitors such as leakage current$ insulation
resistance.
86
Ca(acit!#s in DC ci#c)its
9onsider a test circuit shown in &ig 2.
'hen switch "' is put 52$ lamp @1 glows continuously whereas lamp @2 glows brightly only
momentarily$ and then the brightness becomes dim and eventually @2 glows no more. !he
reason is$ capacitor 9 in series with @2$ initially behaves as a closed switch. 3uring this time
a relatively large current /limited by the resistance of the lamp0 flows through the path %= ,
;31 of the circuit. !his current starts charging the capacitor. %s the capacitor slowly gets
charged towards the voltage of battery sup,ply$ the voltage built,up across the capacitor
opposes the battery voltage. !his then makes the capacitor appear as an increasing value
resistor. 5nce the capacitor gets fully charged to the level of the battery voltage$ the charged
capacitor voltage opposes the battery voltage$ and hence$ current through the path %=,B=
becomes ero. !his makes the capacitor appear as an opened switch. &rom this behavior of
capacitor in a 39 circuit$ it can be said that capacitor blocks 39.
Ca(acit!# in AC ci#c)its
%s in a 39 circuit$ a capacitor also gets charged by an %9 voltage. But$ as the polarity of %9
voltage reverses periodically$ the charge on the capacitor cannot remain stable as in a 39
circuit. 9onsider a circuit as shown in &ig 3 where a sine wave voltage from an %9 source is
connected across a capacitor.
87
!he %9 charging voltage starts at ero amplitude /% in &ig 30 and increases in a positive
direction. !his increase in voltage charges the capacitor. 'hen the charging %9 voltage
reaches its peak value /B in &ig 30$ ma(imum voltage is built,up in the capacitor$ and$ hence$
the charging current becomes ero. >aving reached its peak value at the end of the first
+uarter cycle /.1H0 shown in &ig 3b$ the charging %9 voltage begins to decrease in amplitude.
%t this instant$ the voltage built up across the capacitor e(ceeds the value of the charging
voltage source. "ince the source and capacitor are in parallel$ to maintain e+ual voltage$ the
capacitor starts discharging current into the voltage source as shown in &ig 3c. !his process
of discharging continues and when the charging source reaches point 9$ the voltage across
the capacitor also would have reduced to ero. !he charging$ discharging of capacitor voltage
will repeat during the negative half cycle. >owever$ the polarity change in the charging
voltage produces a change in the polarity of the voltage across the capacitor.
&rom the above it is evident that the variations in charge on the plates of the capacitor also
follows the form of the sine wave.
&ig 4 shows a lamp connected in series with a
capacitor. )n this circuit the lamp continues
to glow$ with normal brightness as long as the
supply e(ists. &rom this behavior of capacitor
in an %9 circuit$ we can say that the capacitor
allows %9 to pass.
!his property of capacitors to block 39 voltage
but pass %9 voltage is made use of in the
application of capacitors for coupling$
bypassing and filtering of %9 signals as
illustrated in &ig 5a$ 5b and 5c.
V>.)# )nstructor should discuss the circuits given
in
&ig 5 and discuss the function of capacitor in
each circuit at &ig 5W
88
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE AND I9PEDANCE O3 CAPACITIVE
CIRC1ITS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the relationship between current and voltage in a pure capacitive circuit
2. state the effect of fre+uency on capacitor current
3. state the effect of capacitance on capacitor current
4. e(plain the term capacitive reactance
5. e(plain the effect of 7 in series with a capacitor .
89
V!"ta%e an c)##ent #e"ati!ns&i(s in ca(acit!#s
%s shown in &ig 1$ when an %9 voltage source is connected across a capacitor$ ma(imum
current flows in the circuit the instant the source voltage begins its sinusoidal rise from ero.
%t first it may seem strange that the ma(imum current flows when the source voltage is at its
lowest value. But remember$ this current is actually the movement of free electrons from the
negative terminal of the source to one capacitor plate$ and from the other plate to the positive
terminal of the source. %t the first instant of charging$ since the plates are neutral$ they
present no opposition to the source voltage. !herefore$ by 5hm=s @aw$ if the opposition to
current flow is very low$ even a small applied voltage can cause considerable current to flow
in the circuit. %s the source voltage rises$ the charges on the capacitor plates build up due to
the current flow. !his built up voltage across the capacitor$ then$ presents an$ increasing
opposition to the source voltage and so the current decreases. 'hen the source voltage
reaches its peak value$ the charged voltage across the capacitor plates is also ma(imum.
!his charge is sufficient to cancel the source voltage completely$ and so the current flow in
the circuit becomes ero as shown in &ig 1 /point B in the graph0. %s the source voltage
begins to decrease$ the charge on the capacitor plates becomes greater than the voltage of
the source. "o the capacitor starts discharging. !hus$ at point B of &ig 1 the applied voltage
passes through its ma(imum value and begins decreasing while the current in the circuit
passes through ero and changes direction. %s can be seen from the graph /&ig 10$ this
results in a .1,degree phase difference between the source voltage and current$ with the
current leading the applied voltage by .1H. !his .1,degree difference is maintained
throughout the cycle of the applied voltage. 3ue to this .1H leading current$ when the applied
voltage is passing ero$ the circuit current will be at its ma(imum and when the applied
voltage is ma(imum$ the circuit current will be ero.
90
!herefore$ in a capacitor$ the current through the capacitor leads the applied voltage by .1
degrees or the applied voltage lags the circuit current by .1 degrees.
E''ect !' '#e6)enc* !n ca(acit!# c)##ent
!he amount of current flowing in any circuit is nothing but the number of electrons that flow
past any point in the circuit$ in a unit time. )n other words$ current is e+ual to the rate of flow
of electrons. %s an e+uation$ this can be written as$
) K P*t amperes
where$
P K number of electrons being transported in time t.
9urrent flow in an %9 capacitive circuit is made up of free electrons flowing between the
terminals of the voltage source and the plates of the capacitor. !he electrons flow in one
direction while the capacitor is charging$ and in the reverse direction when the capacitor is
discharging. %s shown in &igs 2a and 2b$ for any given capacitor$ how fast a capacitor
ac+uires ma(imum charge depends on the fre+uency of the applied voltage.
!his is because the charge on a capacitor follows the applied voltage e(actly. >igher the
fre+uency of %9$ the faster the applied voltage reaches its ma(imum voltage.
"o$ it follows that higher the fre+uency$ the faster the capacitor will reach its peak charge. "o$
when two identical capacitors are connected to identical voltage sources$ which have different
fre+uencies$ as shown in &ig 2$ although both capacitors will finally have the same value of
P$ capacitor 91 will have it earlier than capacitor 92.
3ue to this time difference in reaching the same final value of P$ at any instant of time
currents through the two capacitors will be different as shown in the graph at &ig 2c. "o$
higher fre+uency causes greater current$ and the lower fre+uency causes lesser current to
flow through the capacitor.
"ummariing$ current through a capacitor is directly proportional to the fre+uency of the
applied voltage. >igh fre+uencies result in large currents$ whereas low fre+uencies produce
small currents in the same capacitor.
E0a,("e: &or the circuits shown in &ig 2$ calculate the ma(imum current that will flow in each
circuit if both capacitors would reach a ma(imum charge of 1 coulomb.
91
"5@?!)52
a0&or the circuit with 51 >$ it would take 1*211 of a second to reach a charge of 1 coulomb.
!herefore$ using the formula ) K P*t
1
) K 1*/1*2110 K 211 amperes.
b0&or the circuit with 111 >$ it would take 1*411 of a second to reach a charge of 1 coulomb.
!herefore$ using the formula ) K P*t
) K1*/1* 4110 K 411 amperes.
E''ect !' ca(acitance !n ca(acit!# c)##ent
7ecall that capacitance is the amount of charge stored in a capacitor for each volt applied
across the capacitor /9 K P*80. "o$ the total charge stored is e+ual to the capacitance times
the applied voltage or P K 98.
%ssume two circuits having different values of capacitors. !he applied voltages to both the
circuits have the same amplitude/80 and same fre+uency as shown in &ig 3.
!he charges stored in the capacitors in each circuit will be different because P K 98 . !he
capacitor with a larger capacitance will store a larger charge because of the larger value of 9.
!his means that with larger capacitance$ more free electrons will flow during the charge and
discharge cycles. )f the time re+uired for fully charging the two capacitors were the same$
which would be the case if the applied voltages had the same fre+uency$ the current through
the capacitor with the larger capacitance would be greater than the current through the
smaller capacitance capacitor. &rom this it can be concluded that$ the current through a
capacitor is directly proportional to the capacitance.
)n the circuits in &ig 3$ although the amplitude and fre+uency of the applied %9 voltage is the
same to both the circuits$
92
)n the first circuit with 9K1.15p&$ PK9.8 K 1.5 coulomb. !he capacitor will build up a charge
of 1*2 coulomb in 1*4 of a cycle which is 1*211 sec.
?sing the e+uation ) K P*t$
the ma(imum current will be 111 amperes.
)n the second circuit with 9K1.1 2&$ PK9.8 K 1 coulomb. !he capacitor will build up a charge
of 1 coulomb in 1*4 of a cycle which is again 1*211 sec.
?sing the e+uation ) K P*t$
the ma(imum current will be 211 amperes.
&rom the above e(ample it is clear that$ by doubling the value of 9 the charging*discharging
current through the circuit also doubles.
Ca(acitive #eactance
"imilar to resistors and inductors$ a capacitor also offers opposition to the flow of %9 current.
!his opposition offered to the flow of current by a capacitor is called capacitive reactance
abbreviated as Ec.
7ecall e(pressions$
)KP*t K and P K 98.
"ubstituting P K 98 in ) K P*t
)K98*t
!his means$
) a 9$ ) a 8 and ) a f /Because$ 1*t K f0
&rom the above e+uation$ the amount of %9 current that a capacitor conducts depends onG
Lthe fre+uency /f0 of the applied voltage
Lthe capacitance /90 of the capacitor
Lthe amplitude of the applied voltage/80.
&ig 4a shows the graph of variation of current/)0 through a capacitor with fre+uency or
capacitance when the applied voltage is kept constant.
"ince current flow through a capacitor is directly proportional to fre+uency and capacitance$
the opposition to current flow by the capacitor is inversely proportional to these +uantities.
9apacitive reactance$ Ec can be mathematically represented asG
93
Ec K 1*2Xf9 ohms
where
Ec is the capacitive reactance in ohms
f is the fre+uency of the applied voltage in >
and 9 is the capacitance in farads.
&ig 4b shows the graph of variation of Ec with fre+uency or capacitance.
9apacitive reactance$ Ec$ e(pressed in ohms$ acts Cust like a resistance in limiting the %9
current flow. 'hen the capacitive reactance is known$ current can be calculated using the
formulaG
) K 8*E camperes
&ig 5 illustrates the effect of capacitive reactance Ec in a simple %9 lamp circuit.
;lectronic <echanic 1st :ear # 7elated !heory for ;(ercise -.14 237
Se#ies #esist!# - Ca(acit!# ci#c)it
'hen resistance is connected in series with a capacitor as shown in &ig 6$ the current in the
circuit is determined both by the resistor 7 and the capacitive reactance Ec of the circuit.
9urrent ) is the same in Ec and 7 since they are in series. ;ach component has its own
series voltage drop$ e+ual to )7 for the resistance and )Ec for the reactance. )f only the
resistance 7 in the circuit at &ig 6 is considered$ the )7 voltage has the same phase as )$
because resistance provides no phase shift. )f the capacitive reactance Ec alone is
considered$ since the current through a capacitor leads the voltage by .1H$ its voltage drop
lags the series current ) by .1H.
94
)n the phasor diagram at &ig 6b$ the resistive voltage drop )7 is shown in phase with ). !he
capacitor voltage )Ec is shown at ,.1H$ /clockwise from ) and )70 as the capacitive voltage
lags behind current ) by .1H.
25!;# )n phasor representation$ remember that positive angles are measured counter,
clockwise and 2egative angles are measured in clockwise direction.
&rom the phasor diagram at &ig 6b$ it can be seen that voltages 87 and 8c are out of phase
by .1H. !herefore$ the total voltage 8s across both 7 Y Ec is given by$
where$
87 K 8oltage across resistor 7 in volts
8c K 8oltage across capacitor 9 in volts.
I,(eance Z !' a se#ies R-C ci#c)it
!he voltage triangle in &ig 6b corresponds to the impedance triangle in &ig 6c. !his is$
because the common factor ) with both Ec and 7 gets cancelled. !he phasor sum of Ec and
7 is called the impedance 6 of the circuit.
95
!his total impedance of 14152 $ produces a current of 1 % in the series circuit/)K8*60.
!he voltage drop across 7 is )7 K1 %( 111 ohms K 1118.
!he voltage drop across 9 is )Ec K 1 % ( 111 ohms K1118.
25!; # !he arithmetic sum of voltage drops across 7 and Ec will be more than the applied
voltage if the phase angle is not considered.
!he phasor sum of the two series voltage drops of 1118 each e+uals the applied voltage of
141 8 as shown in &ig 6b. %lso$ the applied voltage is e+ual to ) ( 6$ or 1 ( 141$ which is
1418.
P&ase an%"e B in se#ies RC ci#c)it
%s shown in &ig 6b$ the phase angle 1$ is the angle between the source voltage 8s and the
series current ) in a series 7,9 circuit. %s shown in &ig 6b and 6c$ the value of 1 can be found
either by plotting a graph of 87$ 8c and measuring the angle or can be calculated from the
impedance triangle. )n a series 7,9 circuit$ the phase angle1 is negative. !his is because$
voltage across Ec lags the current. !o indicate the negative phase angle$ the .1H phasor line
is pointed downward from the horiontal reference as shown in &ig 6b.
4hase angle 1 can also be calculated knowing the values of 7 and Ec as followsG
&rom the voltage or impedance triangle$ shown in &ig 6c$
!he negative sign attached with 1 indicates that the applied voltage 8s lags behind the circuit
current )$ by angle 1.
E0a,("e: % 7esistance of 4152 is in series with a capacitor having a capacitive reactance of
41.1. 9alculate the 6 and B of the circuit.
"5@?!)52#
96
&rom the above e(ample$ it can be seen that$ when the value of 7 and Ec are e+ual$ 1 is
midway of S .1H. !he higher the Ec compared with 7$ the circuit becomes more
and more capacitive and 1 increases towards S .1H. )n such highly capacitive circuits$ the
current leads the applied voltage heavily. )f 7 in such a circuit is reduced to ero$ the entire
applied voltage is across Ec$ and 1 e+uals S.1H.
2ote that if the 9#7 ratio in a circuit is 11#1 or more then the circuit will be practically all
capacitive. !he phase angle will be almost S .1H and the total impedance 6 will be
appro(imately e+ual to Ec itself.
5n the other hand$ when 7 is ten times more than Ee$ the series circuit will be mainly
resistive. !he phase angle will be almost in phase with the applied voltage and 6 will be
appro(imately e+ual to 7. )n such a circuit the voltage drop across 7 is almost e+ual to the
applied voltage with negligible drop across the Ec.
97
98
SE9ICOND1CTOR DIODES
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the meaning of semiconductors
2. state the meaning of intrinsic and e(trinsic semiconductors
3. state the meaning of doping
4. list the important names of semiconductors
5. state what are donor and acceptor impurities
6. state how 4 and 2 materials are formed
7. state the meaning of electron and hole current
-. state the uni+ue property of a 42 Cunction
.. state the meaning of depletion layer in a 42 Cunction
11. state when a 42 Cunction is forward and reverse biased
11. state the resistance of a 42 Cunction in forward and reverse biased conditions
12. list the different classifications of diodes
13. state how to test a diode using an ohmmeter
14. list the different markings on a diode to identify its terminals
15. list the different types of packaging used for diodes
16. list a few type numbers*code numbers of diodes.
99
SE9ICOND1CTORS
"emiconductors are materials whose electrical property lies between that of 9onductors and
)nsulators. Because of this fact$ these materials are termed as semiconductors. )n conductors
the valence electrons are always free. )n an insulator the valence electrons are always
bound. 'hereas in a semiconductor the valence electrons are normally bound but can be set
free by supplying a small amount of energy. "everal electronic devices are made using
semiconductor materials. 5ne such device is known as 3iode.
Se,ic!n)ct!# t&e!#*
Basic semiconductor materials like other materials have crystal structure. !he atoms of this
structure are bonded to each other as shown in &ig 1. !his bonding is known as covalent
bonding. )n such a bonding$ the valence electrons of the atoms are shared to form a stable
structure as shown in &ig 1.
Int#insic se,ic!n)ct!#s
!he most important of the several semiconductor materials are "ilicon /"i0 and Aermanium
/Ae0. Both these semiconductor materials have four valence electrons per atom as shown in
&ig 1. !hese valence electrons$ unlike in conductors$ are not normally free to move. >ence$
semiconductors in their pure form$ known as intrinsic semiconductors$ behave as insulators.
>owever$ the valence electrons of a semiconductor can be set free by applying e(ternal
energy. !his energy will tear,off the bound electrons from their bond and make them available
as free electrons as shown in &ig 2. !he simplest method of turning bonded valence electrons
into free electrons is by heating the semiconductor.
100
!he higher the temperature to which the semiconductor is heated$ more the bound electrons
becoming free and will be able to conduct electric current. !his type of conduction in an
intrinsic semiconductor /pure semi,conductor0 as a result of heating is called intrinsic
conduction.
&rom the above said phenomena$ it is important to note that semiconductors are
temperature,sensitive materials.
E0t#insic se,ic!n)ct!#
!he number of free electrons set free by heating a pure semiconductor is comparatively small
to be used for any useful purpose. )t is found e(perimentally that$ when a small +uantity of
some other materials such as %rsenic$ )ndium$ Aallium etc. is added to pure conductor
material$ more number of electrons become free in the mi(ed material. !his enables the
semiconductor to have higher conductivity.
!hese foreign materials added to the pure semiconductor are referred to as impurity
materials.
!he process of adding impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor material is known as Doping.
"ince the doped semiconductor materials are no longer pure$ they are called impure or
extrinsic semiconductors.
3epending upon the type of impurity used$ e(trinsic semiconductors can be classified into
two types#
;? N-t*(e se,ic!n)ct!#s
'hen a pentavalent material like %rsenic /%s0 is added to a pure Aermanium or pure "ilicon
crystal$ one free electron results per bond as shown in &ig 3a. %s every arsenic atom donates
one free electron$ arsenic is called the donor impurity. "ince a free electron is available and
since the electron is of a 2egative charge$ the material so formed by mi(ing is known as N
type material.
101
'hen a 2,type material is connected across a battery$ as shown in &ig 3b$ current flows due
to the availability of free electrons. %s this current is due to the flow of free electrons$ the
current is called electron current.
<? P-t*(e se,ic!n)ct!#s
'hen a trivalent material like Aallium/Aas0 is added to a pure Aermanium or pure "ilicon
crystal$ one vacancy or deficit of electron results per bond as shown in &ig 4a. %s every
gallium atom creates one deficit of electron or hole$ the material is ready to accept electrons
when supplied. >ence gallium is called acceptor impurity. "ince vacancy for an electron is
available$ and as this vacancy is a hole which is of 4ositive charge$ the material so formed is
known as 4,type material.
102
'hen a 4,type material is connected across a battery as shown in &ig 4b$ current flows due
to the availability of free holes. %s this current is due to flow of holes$ the current is called hole
current.
P-N j)ncti!n
'hen a 4,type and a 2,type semiconductors are Coined$ a contact surface between the two
materials called 42,Cunction is formed. !his Cunction has a uni+ue characteristic. !his Cunction
has the ability to pass current in one direction and stop current flow in the other direction as
shown in &ig 5. !o make use of this uni+ue property of the 42 Cunction$ two terminals one on
the 4 side and the other on the 2 side are attached. "uch a 42 Cunction with terminals
attached is called a 3iode. !he typical symbol of a 42,Cunction diode is shown in &ig .a.
'hen a 4 and 2 material is put together$ at the Cunction of 4 and 2 materials$ as shown in &ig
6$ some electrons from the 2,material Cump across the boundary and recombines with the
hole near the boundary of the 4,material. !his process is called diffusion. !his recombination
makes atoms near the Cunction of the 4,material gaining electrons and become negative ions$
and the atoms near the Cunction of the 2,material$ after losing electrons$ become positive
ions. !he layers of negative and positive ions so formed
behave like a small battery. !his layer is called the depletion layer because there are neither
free electrons nor holes present /depleted of free carriers0. !his depletion region prevents
further the movement of electrons from the 2,material to the 4 material$ and thus e+uilibrium
is reached.
103
!he internal voltage set up due to Ive and ,ve ions at the Cunction is called barrier potential. )f
any more electrons have to go over from the 2 side to the 4 side$ they have to overcome this
barrier potential. !his means$ only when the electrons on the 2 side are supplied with energy
to over,come the barrier potential$ they can go over to the 4 side. )n terms of voltage applied
across the terminals of the 42 Cunction diode$ a potential difference of 1.78 is re+uired across
the terminals in the case of silicon diode and 1.38 in the case of Aermanium diode for the
electrons$ in order to cancel off the barrier potential and cross over the barrier as shown in
&ig 7. 5nce the barrier potential gets canceled due to e(ternal voltage application$ current
flows through the Cunction freely. )n this condition the diode is said to be forward biased.
'hen the applied e(ternal battery polarity is as shown in &ig -$ instead of canceling the
barrier potential$ the e(ternal battery voltage adds up to the barrier potential$ and$ hence$ no
current flows through the Cunction. )n this condition the diode is said to be reverse biased.
104
"ince current flows through a 42 Cunction diode when it is forward biased and does not when
reverse biased$ the diode can be thought of to be a unidirectional current switch.
&ig .a shows the symbolic representation of a 3iode. !he two leads connected to the 4 and
2 terminals are known as 9athode and %node.
!o forward,bias a diode$ the %node should be connected to the Ive terminal of the battery
and the 9athode to the ,ve terminal of the battery$ as shown in &ig .b. 'hen a diode is in the
forward biased condition$ the resistance between the terminals will be of the order of a few
ohms to a few tens of ohms. >ence$ current flows freely when a diode is forward biased.
5n the other hand$ when a diode is reverse biased as shown in &ig .c$ the resistance
between the terminals will be very high$ of the order of several tens of megohms. >ence$
current does not flow when a diode is reverse biased. %s a rule$ the ratio of resistance in
forward to reverse bias should be of at the minimum order of 1#1111.
T*(es !' i!es
!he 42 Cunction diodes discussed so far are commonly referred to as rectifier diodes. !his is
because these diodes are used mostly in the application of rectifying %9 to 39.
C"assi'icati!n !' Di!es
;? Base !n t&ei# c)##ent ca##*in% ca(acit*/(!$e# &an"in% ca(acit*, i!es can be
c"assi'ie as
low power diodes can handle power of the order of several milli watts only
medium power diodes can handle power of the order of several watts only
105
high power diodes can handle power of the order of several 111=s of watts.
2) Based on their principal application, diodes can be classified as,
Signal diodes
low power diodes used in communication circuits such as radio receivers etc.for signal
detection and mi(ing
S"witching diodes
low power diodes used in switching circuits such as digital electronics etc. for fast
switching 52* 5&& of circuits
S7ectifier diodes
medium to high power used in power supplies for electronic circuits for converting %9
voltage to 39.
30 Base !n t&e ,an)'act)#in% tec&ni6)es )se, i!es can be c"assi'ie as$
S4oint contact diodes
a metal needle connected with pressure on to a small germanium/Ae0 or silicon/"i0 tip.
"ee 9hart 1 at the end of this lesson.
4)ncti!n i!es
<ade by alloying or growing or diffusing 4 and 2 materials on a semiconductor substrate.
O!E: "efer to #hart 1 at the end of this lesson for $llustration of some of the
abo%e types of diodes.
T*(es !' i!e (ac.a%in%
!he type of packaging given to diodes is mainly based on the current carrying capacity of the
diode. @ow power diodes have either glass or plastic packaging. <edium power diodes have
either plastic or metal can packaging. >igh power diodes will invariably have either metal can
or ceramic packaging. >igh power diodes are generally of stud,mounting type. 7efer
illustrations given in 9hart 1 at the end of this lesson$ for illustrations of diode types.
Testin% #ecti'ie# i!es )sin% !&,,ete#
% simple ohmmeter can be used to +uickly test the condition of diodes. )n this testing method$
the resistance of the diode in forward and reverse bias conditions is checked to confirm its
condition.
7ecall that there will be a battery inside an ohmmeter or a multimeter in the resistance range.
!his battery voltage comes in series with the leads of the meter terminals as shown in &ig 11.
)n &ig 11$ the lead % is positive$ lead B negative.
NOTE# If the polarity of the meter leads is not known at first, the polarity of the meter leads
can be determined using a voltmeter across the ohm meter terminals.
)f the positive lead of the ohmmeter$ lead % in the &ig 11$ is connected to the anode of a
diode$ and the negative /lead B0 to the cathode$ the diode will be forward, biased. 9urrent will
flow$ and the meter will indicate low resistance.
106
5n the other hand$ if the meter leads are reversed$ the diode will be reverse,biased. 8ery
little current will flow because a good diode will have very high resistance when reverse
biased$ and the meter will indicate a very high resistance. 'hile doing the above test$ if a
diode shows a very low resistance in both the forward and reverse biased conditions$ then$
the diode under test must have got damaged or more specifically shorted. 5n the other hand$
a diode is said to be open if the meter shows very high resistance both in the forward and
reverse biased conditions.
P!"a#it* ,a#.in% !n t&e i!es
!he cathode end of a diode is usually marked by a circular band or by a dot or by plus /I0
sign as shown in 9hart 1. )n some diodes the symbol of the diode$ which itself indicates the
polarities$ is printed on the body of the diode.
T*(e n),be# !# i!e c!e n),be#
?nlike resistors$ capacitors or inductors$ the diodes do not have any value that can be printed
or coded on its body. !he other reason for this is$ there are almost innumerable types of
diodes with varied current handling and other specifications. >ence$ instead of printing its
specifications on its body$ all diodes will have a type number printed on their body. !his type
number carries a set of specifications which can be found out by referring to a diode data
manual. 3iode data manuals give data of several thousands of diodes from different
manufacturers. "ome of the popular type numbers of diodes are
107
108
3ORWARD AND REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS O3 DIODE
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. e(plain the meaning of &orward biasing of diode
2. e(plain the meaning of cut,in or knee or threshold voltage
3. e(plain the meaning of 7everse biasing of diode
4. e(plain leakage current in diodes due to minority carriers
5. e(plain effect of temperature in diodes.

109
Be&avi!# !' i!e $&en 3ORWARD BIASED
&ig1a shows forward biased silicon 42 Cunction diode using a variable 39 supply. 'hen the
applied voltage is slowly increased starting from 1 volts as long as the voltage across the
diode 8& is less than that of the depletion barrier potential /1.7 volts for "i diodes0$ no current
or a negligible current flows through the diode$ and$ hence$ through the circuit. !his is shown
in the graph at &ig 1 b.
But once the voltage 8& across the diode becomes e+ual to or greater than the barrier
potential 1.6 to 1.78$ there will be a canceling effect of the barrier potential. >ence$ the free
electrons from the 2 region get pushed away by the ,ve battery terminal /remember like
charges repel0 and cross over the Cunction$ pass through the 4 region and get attracted by
the I terminal of the battery. !his results in the electron current passing through the diode$
and$ hence$ through the @oad.
)n a similar way$ the holes in the 4 region are pushed away by the Ive battery terminal$ cross
over the Cunction$ pass through the 2 region and get attracted by the ,ve terminal of the
battery. !his results in hole current through the diode$ and$ hence$ through the @oad.
!hus current flows through the diode when the forward bias potential is higher than the
barrier potential. !his current flow through the diode is because of both electrons and holes.
!he total current in the circuit is the sum of the hole current and the electron current. >ence$
diodes are called bipolar devices in which both hole current and electron current flows.
&rom the graph at &ig 1 b$ it can be seen that$ once the forward voltage goes above 1.68 the
diode starts con,ducting$ resulting in considerable current through the circuit. !his voltage
level across the diode is referred to as cut,in or knee or threshold voltage.
)f the applied forward voltage is further increased beyond the cut,in voltage$ the depletion
layer further narrows down allowing more and more current to flow through the diode. )t can
be seen from the graph at &ig 1 b$ that beyond the cut,in voltage$ the current increases
sharply for very small voltage increase across the diode. )n this region$ above the cut,in
voltage$ the forward biased diode behaves almost like a closed switch. !he only limiting factor
for the current at this stage is the ma(imum current the diode can handle without getting
burnt or the Cunction getting punctured permanently. !his current limit is given in diode data
books as ma(imum forward current$ )
f ma(
.
110
v
Be&avi!# !' i!e $&en REVERSE BIASED
'hen an e(ternal 39 voltage is connected across the diode with the polarity as shown in &ig
2$ the diode is said to be reverse biased.
)n this condition$ when the battery voltage is increased from 1 to several tens of volts$ the
polarity of the applied voltage instead of canceling the barrier potential$ aids the
111
112
barrier potential. !his$ instead of narrowing the depletion layer$ widens the depletion layer.
!he widening of the depletion layer results in$ not allowing the current to flow through the
Cunction$ and$ hence$ the load. )n other words$ the polarity of the applied voltage is such that
the holes and electrons are pulled away from the Cunction resulting in a widened depletion
region.
7eferring to the graph shown in &ig 2b$ it can be seen that there is no current even when the
voltage 87 across the diode is several tens of volts.
)f the applied reverse voltage is kept on increased$ say to hundred volts /this depends from
diode to diode0$ atone stage the applied voltage 87 across the Cunction is so large that it
punctures the Cunction damaging the diode. !his results in shorting of the diode. !his short
results in uncontrolled heavy current flow through the diode as shown in graph at &ig 2b. !his
voltage at which the diode breaks down is referred to as reverse break-down or avalanche
breakdown.
!he ma(imum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand varies from diode to diode. !his
reverse voltage with,standing capability of a diode is referred to as the peak,inverse,voltage
or 4)8 of the diode. !his value for diodes is given in the diode data manual. !he 4)8 of
diodes varies from a minimum of 51 volts in small signal diodes to several thousands of volts
in high power diodes.
9in!#it* c)##ent in DIODES
'hen a 42 Cunction is reverse biased$ due to the in,creased width of the depletion layer$
there can be no current through the diode. But$ in practice there will be a small current of the
order of a few nanoamperes or a few micro,amperes through the diode as shown in &ig 3.
!he reason for this small current is due to the creation of a very limited number of free
electrons and holes on both sides of the Cunction due to thermal energy. "emiconductors are
highly sensitive to temperature. ;ven a temperature of 25H9 is sufficient to create a small
number of electrons and holes resulting in a current of the order of a few nanoamperes.
!hese current carriers created are referred to as minority current carriers. !his current$ due to
113
minority current carriers$ which flows through the diode when reverse biased$ is known as
reverse current or leakage current or saturation current$ i
s
. Based on e(periments$ for all
silicon diodes$ this reverse current doubles for each 11H9 rise in temperature. &or e(ample$ if
i
s
is 5n% at 25H9$ it will be appro(imately 11n% at 35H9 and so on.
E''ect !' te,(e#at)#e !n ba##ie# v!"ta%e
)t is known that semiconductors are highly sensitive to temperature. "ince the functioning of a
diode is basically due to the uni+ue property of its Cunction and its barrier voltage$ the barrier
voltage also depends on the Cunction temperature. )f the temperature of the Cunction is
increased beyond a limit /25H90$ electrons are produced due to thermal agitation in the semi,
conductor crystal structure. !hese electrons$ having sufficient energy$ drift across the
Cunction. !his decreases the barrier voltage. )t is e(perimentally found that the baffler voltage
decreases by
2 m8*H9 increase in temperature. !his reduced barrier voltage allows more current through
the Cunction. <ore current heats up the Cunction further$ reducing the barrier voltage further. )f
this cumulative effect continues$ the Cunction will get dam,aged making the Cunction no more
useful. !herefore$ diodes should not be allowed to go above a specified temperature. !his
ma(imum limit a diode Cunction can withstand safely is given in the diode manual as Cunction
temperature$ !
C ma(.

114
DIODE SPECI3ICATIONS, EC1IVALENTS AND DIODE
DATA BOO5
Objectives:
On c!,("eti!n !' t&is "ess!n *!) s&a"" be ab"e t!:
1. state the different industry standards for diode type numbering scheme
2. list the important specifications of a diode
3. refer to the diode data manual and find the specifications of a given diode
4. refer to the diode data manual and find the e+uivalent of a given diode.
115
INTROD1CTION
"emiconductor diodes are used for various applications. "ome of the maCor areas of
application are listed below.
10 <odulation and demodulation in communication re,ceivers.
20 "witching high speed and digital circuits.
30 @ow power and high power rectification.
40 %s surge protectors in ;< relay and other circuits.
50 &or clipping$ clamping wave,forms.
60
&or different applications$ diodes of different current carrying capacity$ different 4)8 capacity
and so on are re+uired. !herefore$ manufacturers of diodes make diodes to cater to varied
applications with different specifications. Before using a diode for a particular application$ it is
a must to find out whether the voltage$ current$ and temperature characteristics of the given
diode match the re+uirement or not.
I,(!#tant s(eci'icati!ns !' a i!es
10 !he material the diode is made,of# !his could be "ilicon or Aermanium or
"elenium or any other semi,conductor materials. !his is important because the cut,in
voltage depends upon the material the diode is made,of. &or e(ample$ in Ae diodes
the cut,in voltage is around 1.3 8$ whereas in "i diodes the cut,in voltage is around
1.78.
20 <a(imum safe reverse voltage denoted as 87 or 8r that can be applied across the
diode. !his is also known as peak,inverse,voltage or 4)8. )f a higher reverse voltage
than the rated 4)8 is applied across the diode$ it will become defective permanently.
30 <a(imum average forward current$ )f that a diode can allow to flow through it without
getting damaged.
40 &orward voltage drop$ 8& or 8f that appears across the diode when the ma(imum
average current$ )& flows through it continuously.
50 <a(imum reverse current$ )v$ that flows through the diode when the <a(imum reverse
voltage$ 4)8 is applied.
60 <a(imum forward surge current$ )s that can flow through the diode for a defined short
period of time.
70 !he ma(imum Cunction temperature in degree centigrade the diode Cunction can
withstand without mal,functioning or getting damaged.
-0 "uggested application indicates application for which the diode is designed and
produced.
!he above listed specifications go with all rectifier diodes. %s all these specifications cannot
be printed on the physically small sie diodes$ the diodes are printed with a type number
instead. 'hen this type number is referred to in the manufacturer=s manual$ the detailed
specifications for a particular type number of the diode can be obtained.
!here are hundreds and thousands of diode manufacturers all over the world. !o bring
standardiation for the diodes and other components manufactured by different
manufacturers$ the manufacturers and standards associations have set certain international
116
standards for the benefit of users of the components. !he principal industry standard
numbering systems are dealt with here#
>a?T&e 4EDEC t*(e c!e
!he ;)% in ?"% maintains a register of 12$ 22 types familiarly known as Dedec types$ which
have world wide acceptance.
2 is used as a prefi( for semiconductors with one Cunction. &or e(ample all 12 components
refer to diodes because diodes have one Cunction. 4refi( 22 is used with components having
two Cunctions.
>b?T&e PRO-ELECTRON t*(e c!e.
!he %ssociation )nternational 4ro,electron in ;urope maintains a register of 4ro,electron
types which have wide acceptance in ;urope.
9omponents in the 4ro,electron system have$
i?two letter and numeral code for consumer devices /;(ample$ B:127 and so on0.
ii?three letter and numeral code for industrial devices. /;(ample$ %9:17 and so on0.
!he first letter in the pro,electron type code indicates the type of semiconductor material used
in making the de,vice. ;(ample$ device numbers starting with % are made of germanium.
7efer to pocket table book$ !able 2o. 23 for further details and e(amples.
!he second and third letter indicate the applications of the component. ;(ample$ in the type
code B:127$ the sec,ond letter : indicates that it is a rectifier diode. 7efer to pocket table
book$ !able 2o. 23 for further details.
!he numeral after the second or third letter is the code number of its detailed voltage$ current
and temperature specifications.
>c? T&e 4IS t*(e c!e
)n Dapan$ the D)"$ /Dapanese )ndustrial "tandards0 code is used. !his system of component
numbering is almost universal. )n this system$ all component numbers start with 2"$ followed
by a letter and several numbers. ;(ample. 2"B364. !he letters after the " has the following
significance#
% K pnp hf
B K pnp )f
9 K npn hf
3 K npn )f
"ome components will have type numbers which does not match with any of the above said
international standards. !hen$ these type numbers are particular to the individual
manufacturers. !hese codes are generally referred to as manufacturer=s house code.
>owever$ these type numbers may conform to one or more of the international standards.
%lmost all standard diode data books lists popular manufacturers house codes.
117
DH-I: @ist a few manufacturers house codes relevant to your region by referring to any popular
diode data manual. Aive one data manual each to a batch of 4 trainees. 'rite a few diode
type codes on the black*white board and ask the batches to find the specifications-E
Di!e e6)iva"ents
!here are several occasions$ especially while servicing electronic circuits$ it may not be
possible to get a replacement for a diode of a particular type number. )n such cases one can
obtain a diode having specification closest to the one to be replaced. "uch diodes are
referred to as e+uivalents.
E0a,("e: )n a circuit$ diode 12 4117 is found to be defective. )f 124117 is not available in
stock$ then$ instead of 1 24117$ B:127 can be used because B:127 is the e+uivalent for
124117.
"ome data books give the lists of e+uivalents. !able 2o. 24 of pocket table book gives the
e+uivalent of some of the popular diodes used in general electronic circuits.
DHi: 'rite a few popular diode type numbers generally used in your institute and instruct
trainees to find its e+uivalents-E
118
AC-TO-DC CONVERSION 1SIN8 DIODE - HAL3 WAVE
RECTI3IER
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the need for converting %9 to 39
2. state the meaning of the term rectification
3. describe the working of a half,wave rectifier
4. state the output of a half,wave rectifier in terms of rms value of input %9$ peak value of
input %9.
5. state the meaning of pulsating 39
6. state the ripple fre+uency in a half,wave rectifier
7. state the meaning and importance of 4)8
-. state the value of 4)8 in a half,wave rectifier.
119
RECTI3ICATION
%lmost all electronic circuits need 39 voltage for their working. !his 39 voltage can be
obtained by dry cells and batteries. ?se of a dry cell is practicable only in portable electronic
circuits such as transistor radio$ tape recorders etc. But in circuits re+uiring large voltages
and currents$ like high power audio amplifiers$ television sets etc. batteries will not only be
very e(pensive but also be voluminous.
%n alternative method of obtaining 39 voltage is by converting the %9 mains supply of 2418$
51> into 39 voltage. !his techni+ue is not only convenient but also takes very small space
compared to battery packs. !his process of converting %9 to 39 is known as rectification. &ig
1 shows the principle of converting %9 to 39 of re+uired voltage level.
!he transformer wills step,down or step,up the mains %9 to the re+uired level. !he stepped,
up or stepped,down %9 from the output of the transformer is then converted to 39 using
diodes making use of their uni+ue unidirectional property.
HAL3WAVE RECTI3IER
!he simplest form of %9 to 39 converter is by using one diode. such an %9 to 39 converter
is known as half,wave rectifier as shown in &ig 2.
%t the secondary of the transformer$ across terminals 4 Y P$ when seen on a 975$ the
electric signal is a sinusoidal wave with its peak value of 8
4
and a fre+uency determined by
the rate at which the alternations /Ive to ,ve0 are taking place. )n &ig 2$ the fre+uency is 51>
as this voltage is taken from 51> %9 mains supply.
120
)f the voltage across 4 and P is measured using an %9 voltmeter$ the voltmeter shows the
rms /root mean s+uare0 value$ 8
rms
of the sinusoidal wave which will be less than the peak
value. !he relationship between 8
4eak
and 8
rms
is given by$
8
4eak
8
rms
K 1.717 8
4eak
conversely$
8
4eak
K 8
rms
*1.717K 8
rms
'hen this sinusoidal signal is applied across the diode 3 as shown in &ig 2$ the diode
conducts /behaves as a closed switch0 only during the Ive half cycle of the input sinusoidal
voltage and does not conduct /behaves as a open switch0 during the ,ve half of the input
sinusoidal voltage. !his process repeats again and again thus producing a pulsating Ive
wave,form at the output across the load$ 7
@
as shown in &ig 2.
!he operation of a half,wave rectifier circuit can be summaried with the help of &ig 3 as
follows#
10 3uring the positive half cycle of %9 input$ the diode is forward biased as the anode of
diode is positive as shown in &ig 3a.
20 >ence current flows from anode to cathode$ through load 7@ to secondary of
transformer as shown in &ig 3b. !he )7
@
drop across load resistor 7
@
is the 39 voltage
8
ac
with the polarity as shown in &ig 3b.
30 'hen the Ive half cycle of the input sinusoidal is completed$ the voltage across the 7
@
will be a positive half sine wave as shown in &ig 3c. !he peak of rectified voltage is
also e+ual to the peak of the input %9 voltage.
40 3uring the negative half cycle of the input %9$ the diode is reverse biased as the
anode of diode is negative as shown in &ig 3d.
50 >ence$ the diode behaves as an open switch and no current flows through the load
and hence there is no voltage output across load 7
@
as shown in &ig 3d.
60 %fter completing the ,ve half cycle$ when the input signal goes positive again$ the
whole operation repeats starting from step 1.
121
%s can be seen from &ig 2$ the output of the half,wave rectifier is always a Ive voltage /390
although it is pulsating. )n other words$ the output is either positive /during Ive half cycle of
the %9 input0 or ero /during ,ve half cycle of %9 input0 but never negative. >ence$ the output
of a rectifier is a pulsating Ive 39 voltage.
!he circuit at &ig 2 is known as a half-wave rectifier as the rectification is done by the circuit
only during one half cycle of the input %9 signal.
Ca"c)"atin% !)t()t DC "eve" in &a"'-$ave #ecti'ie#s
!wo important points to note for calculating the output 39 level of a half wave rectifier areG
10 the output of a half wave/>'0 rectifier across the load resistor is a pulsating 39
whose peak voltage is e+ual to the peak value of the Ive half cycle of the %9 input as
shown in &ig 4. !his can be checked using an oscilloscope. !he small forward voltage
drop of the diode /1.7 for "i0 when forward biased is ignored for simplicity in under,
standing.
20 !he pulsating signal level is ero when the input %9 is in the Sve half cycle as shown
in &ig 4.
30
>ence$ 'hen a 39 voltmeter is connected across the load resistor 7
@
$ the meter reads the
average 39 value of the pulsating signal. )gnoring the diode drop$ the average 39 value of
the pulsating output in a half wave rectifier is given by$
8
average
or 8dcK 1.31- 8
p
V2W
E0a,("e: )f the total secondary voltage of the trans,former /8s0 in &ig 2 is 24 8
rms
/measured
by %9 meter0$ the output 8
dc
will be$
&rom ...1$ 8
peak
K8
rms
*1.717
122
&rom ...2$ 8
dc
K /1.31-0 8
peak
K 1.45 8
s /rms0
!herefore$ for a half,wave rectifier the level of output 39 is given by$
8
dc
K 1.45 8
s /rms0

'here 8
s /rms0
is the input rms %9 voltage.
)n the e(ample considered above$ the output 39 voltage at &ig 2 will be$
8
dc
K 1.45 ( 8
s /rms0
K 1.45 ( 24 K 11.- volts.
Ri(("e '#e6)enc*
&rom &ig 4 it is evident that the fre+uency of the rectified pulsating 39 is same as the
fre+uency of the input %9 signal. !his is true for all half,wave rectifiers.
Pea. inve#se v!"ta%e
&ig 5a shows the half,wave rectifier at the instant the secondary voltage is at its ma(imum
negative peak.
)n this condition$ since the diode is reverse biased$ it behaves as an open switch as shown in
&ig 5b. "ince the diode is reverse biased$ there is no voltage across the load 7
@
. !herefore$
&rom Firchhoff=s voltage law$ all the secondary voltage appears across the diode as shown in
&ig 5b. !his is the ma(imum reverse voltage that appears across the diode in the reverse
biased condition. !his voltage is called the peak reverse voltage or more commonly as the
peak inverse voltage /4)80. !here,fore$ in a half,wave rectifier the peak inverse voltage
across the diode is e+ual to the ,ve peak value of the secondary voltage 8
s /peak0.
"ince$ the ,ve
peak voltage and Ive peak voltage in a sinusoidal wave is same in magnitude$ the peak
inverse voltage (I!" across the diode in a half wave rectifier can be taken as a 8
"/peak0Z
!o avoid break down of the diode used$ the 4)8 appearing across the diode of the designed
>' rectifier must be less than the 4)8 rating of the diode. &or instance$ in the above e(ample
to avoid break down of the diode$ the 4)8 rating of the diode should be greater than 34 volts.
123
124
31LL WAVE RECTI3IERS
Objectives:
On c!,("eti!n !' t&is "ess!n *!) s&a"" be ab"e t!:
1. state the limitations of half,wave rectifiers
2. describe the working of a two,diode full wave rectifier
3. state the output 39 level in a two,diode full wave rectifier
4. state the ripple fre+uency in a full wave rectifier
5. state the value of 4)8 across diodes in a two,diode full wave rectifier
6. state the current rating of the diode in a two,diode full wave rectifier
7. list the disadvantages of two,diode full wave rectifiers
-. state the working of a bridge rectifier
.. state the output level$ ripple fre+uency and 4)8 in a bridge rectifier
11. compare half,wave$ full wave and bridge rectifiers.
125
TWO-DIODE 31LLWAVE RECTI3IER
)n a half,wave rectifier there is no rectification action during the ,ve half cycle of the input %9
voltage. Because of this the output 39 level is low /1.31- 8
s/peak0
0. !his limitation of a half,
wave rectifier can be overcome by using two diodes and a centre,tap,transformer as shown
in &ig 1.
)n &ig 1$ each diode and the common load resistor 7eform two independent half,wave
rectifiers. Because of the centre,tapped secondary winding$ each diode receives only half of
the total secondary voltage.
!he opposite ends of the transformer secondary windings always have opposite polarities
with respect to the centre tap. %s shown in &ig 1$ when end % of the secondary winding is
positive$ the bottom end B will be negative.
&or the polarity shown in &ig 2a$ the anode of 3$ is positive and$ hence$ forward biased.
'hereas$ the anode of 32 is negative$ and$ hence$ does not conduct. 9urrent flows from the
transformer/end %0,,, 3
1
,, ,7
@
,, back to the transformer centre,tap. !his direction makes
point 9 across the load 7
@
as the Ive terminal of the output 39 voltage.
3uring the ne(t half cycle$ end B of transformer is Ive and % is Sve as shown in &ig 2b.
>ence the anode of 3
2
is Ive and this diode conducts whereas 3$ does not. 9urrent flows
from the transformer/end B0. 32.[ 7@ . back to the transformer centre,tap. !his direction of
current again makes point 9 across the load 7@ as the Ive terminal of the output 39 voltage.
It is i,(!#tant t! n!te t&e '!""!$in% t$! (!ints2
10 %t any instant of time either 3$ or 32 conducts but never both.
20 'hile any of the two diodes is conducting$ the rectified current i$ flows through 7@ in
the same direction as shown in &ig 2a and &ig 2b. "o the 39 output voltage is positive
at the common cathodes of the diodes 3$$32.
&ig 3 shows the input and output wave,forms of a full wave rectifier. %s can be seen from &ig
3$ the rectifier works both in the positive and negative half cycles of the %9 input to produce a
39 output across the load resistor 7
@
. %lthough only one diode conducts at a time$ the
outputs are combined in 7
@
. >ence$ full wave rectifier provides double the 39 current to the
load compared to that of a half,wave rectifier.
126
"ince both the half cycles of the input %9 signal are rectified by the circuit at &ig 1$ this circuit
is known as a full wave rectifier. "ince this full wave rectifier uses two diodes this circuit is
also known as two diode full wave rectifier.
O)t()t DC "eve" in a t$!-i!e ')"" $ave #ecti'ie#
"ince a full wave rectifier is nothing but a combination of two half,wave rectifiers$ the average
or 39 value of a full wave rectifier is naturally twice the output of a half, wave rectifier driven
by the same secondary voltage.
&rom &ig 3 it is evident that the average or 39 value of a full wave rectified output is
8dc K 1.31- 8
s4eak
I 1.31- 8s/peak0
8dc K 1.636 8
"/peak0
where$ 8
"/peak 0
is the e+ual peak voltage between the centre,tap and any one end % or B of the
transformer secondary.
)n terms of 8
s/rms0$
8
dc
of a full wave rectifier is given by$
8
s/rms0
K 1.717 8
s/peak0
!herefore$ 8 K 1.636. Z 8
s/rms0$
* 1.717
K 1.. 8
"/rms0
E0a,("e: "uppose the secondary voltage of the trans,former is 24,1,24
v/rms0$
the 39 output
voltage of a full wave rectifier using this transformer will be$
127
&or a two diode full wave rectifier
8dc K 1.. 8s/rms0
!herefore$ in the given e(ample$
8dc K 1.. ( 8soms0K 1.. ( 24 K 21.6 volts.
Ri(("e '#e6)enc* in a ')"" $ave #ecti'ie#
&rom &ig 3c it can be seen that two cycles of output occur for each input cycle of %9 voltage.
!his is because$ the full wave rectifier has inverted the negative half,cycle of the input
voltage. %s a result$ the output of a full wave rectifier has a fre+uency double the input %9
fre+uency. )f mains %9 is used as input to a full wave rectifier$ since mains fre+uency is 51
>$ the output fre+uency of the pulsating 39 will be 111 >.
NOTE: !his increased ripple fre+uency has certain ad,vantages when the pulsating 39 is
smoothed. !his will be dealt with in further lessons.
Pea. inve#se v!"ta%e
&ig 4 shows the full wave rectifier at the instant the secondary voltage reaches its ma(imum
positive value.
%pplying Firchhoff s law around the outside loop$ we get$ 28s/peak0,7everse voltage /4)80
across 32
I &orward voltage across 31 K 1
2eglecting the small forward voltage across 3iwe have$ 285/p\k0 , 4)8 across 32 I 1 K 1
or 4)8 across 32 K 28s/peak0
&rom the above it can be seen that each diode in a full wave rectifier must have a 4)8 rating
greater than the
peak value of the full secondary voltage. /28s/peak0 0
)n the e(ample considered earlier$ the 4)8 of diodes should be greater than 348.
C)##ent #atin% !' i!es in a ')"" $ave #ecti'ie#
)f the load$ 7@$ connected in the full wave rectifier is$ say 11y$ the 39 current through it will
be$
128
)t is interesting to note this current )
dc
is shared by the two diodes 31 and 32. !his is because
each diode conducts only for one half cycle. !herefore$ the 39 current through each diode is
half the total 39 load current =de >ence$ the ma(imum current through each diode with 11
ohm0 load will be 2.16*2 K 1.1- amps. &rom this it follows that the current rating /)f/ma(00 of
each diode need only be half the ma(imum*rated load current.
NOTE: )n a half wave rectifier /lesson ..140$ since there is only one diode$ the current rating
of the diode used should be the ma(imum current through the load unlike in the case of a full
wave rectifier in which the current rating of the diodes used is only half the ma(imum current
through the load.
E0a,("e: )n a two diode full wave rectifier$ with a load current re+uirement of 1.- amps$ what
should be the current ratings of the diodes usedQ
"ince it is a two diode full wave rectifier$ the current rating of each diode should be .]1*2 the
total load current.
!herefore$ )
fma(
of diodes should be ^K- amps*2 K 1..amps.
)t is fine if a diode of 1 amp current rating is used for this rectifier circuit.
Disavanta%es !' TWO DIODE ')"" $ave #ecti'ie#s
!he full wave rectifier using two diodes and centre tap transformer has the following
disadvantagesG
10 % centre,tapped transformer that produces e+ual voltages on each half of the
secondary winding is difficult to manufacture and$ hence$ e(pensive.
20 9entre,tapped transformers are generally bulkier than ordinary transformers$ and$
hence$ occupy larger space.
30 )n a two diode full wave rectifier$ only half of the secondary voltage is made use of at a
time although it works in both Ive and Sve half cycles.
THE BRID8E RECTI3IER
!he$ disadvantages of a full wave rectifier using two diodes and centre,tap transformer can
be overcome by a modified full wave rectifier as shown in &ig 5. )n &ig 5$ since the diodes are
connected in the form of a bridge$ this rectifier circuit is commonly known as a Bridge rectifier.
129
10 'hen end % of the transformer secondary is Ive$ as shown in &ig 6a$ diodes 31 and
33 are forward biased whereas$ 32 and 34 are reverse biased$ and$ hence$ 32 and
34 do not come in the circuit.
20 9urrent flows from the transformer/end %0 4,314_&7$ ,<3$ [ back to the
transformer/end B0. &rom the direction of the current flow point 9 is the positive
terminal of the 39 output across 7@.
30 3uring the other half cycle of the input /Sve half cycle0$ end B of the transformer
becomes Ive as shown in &ig 6b. 3iodes 34 and 32 are forward biased$ whereas 3$
and 33 are reverse biased.
40 9urrent flows from the transformer/end B0 ,1Z34 7@
50 32 back to the transformer/end %0. &rom the direction of the current flow$ point 9 is
again the Ive terminal of the 39 output across 7@.
N!te t&at, current ) is in the same direction through 7@ during both Ive and Sve half cycles
of the input %9. !he result is$ a Ive rectified 39 voltage appears at the end of 7@ connected
to the cathodes of 3$ and 34.
O)t()t DC "eve" in a b#i%e #ecti'ie#
&ig 7 shows the input %9 and the output pulsating 39 wave,form of a bridge rectifier.
!his wave,form is similar to that of the full wave rectifier using a centre,tap transformer.
>ence$ the average 39 value of the output is$
8
dc
K 1.636 8
s/peak0
or 8
dc
K 1.. 8
s/rms0
where$ 8
s/rms 0
is the full secondary %9 rms voltage.
130
NOTE: )n a two,diode full wave rectifier 8s /rms refers to only half of the total secondary
voltage whereas in a bridge rectifier 8s/rms0refers to full secondary voltage.
;(ample# )n &ig 6$ if the transformer secondary voltage 8
s/rms0
is 24 volts$ the rectified 39
voltage 8
dc
across the load 7
@
will be$
&rom e+uation ....2$ 8ds for a bridge rectifier is given by$
8ds K 1.. 8
"/rms0
)n the given e(ample$ 8s/rms0 K 24 volts
!herefore$ 8ds K 1.. ( 24 K 21.6 volts
NOTE: ?sing the same transformer$ a two,diode full wave rectifier would have given only
11.- volts which is half of that of a bridge rectifier output.
Ri(("e '#e6)enc* - B#i%e #ecti'ie#
!he pulsating 39 output of a bridge is similar to the two diode full wave. >ence$ as in a two
diode full wave rectifier$ the output ripple fre+uency of the bridge rectifier is also twice the
input %9 fre+uency.
Pea. inve#se v!"ta%e - B#i%e #ecti'ie#
&ig - shows a bridge rectifier at the instant the secondary voltage has reached its ma(imum
value.
131
3iode 34 is ideally short /as it is conducting0 and 31 is ideally open. "umming the voltages
around the outside loop and applying Firchhoff=s law$
8"/peak0S 4)8 across 31 I 1 K 1
or 4)8 across 31 K 8s/peak0
!herefore$ the peak inverse voltage across 34 is e+ual to the peak secondary voltage
8s/peak0
)n a similar way$ the peak inverse voltage across each diode will be e+ual to the peak
secondary voltage 8s/pea of the transformer secondary. >ence the 4)8 ratings of the diodes
used should be greater than 8"/peak0.
C)##ent #atin% !' i!es in b#i%e #ecti'ie#s
%s in the case of a two diode full wave rectifier even in a bridge rectifier shown in &ig 6$ diode
pairs 31$ 33 and 32$ 34 carry half the total load current ). !his is because each diode pair is
conducting only during one half of the %9 input cycle.
!he only disadvantage of bridge rectifiers$ if it is treated as a disadvantage$ is that$ this circuit
uses four diodes for full wave rectification instead of two as in two,diode full wave rectifier.
But this disadvantage is compensated by the simple transformer re+uirement of the bridge
rectifier and higher 39 output level. >ence$ bridge rectifiers are the most popular %9 to 39
rectifiers for most applications.
Enca(s)"ate b#i%e #ecti'ie# ,!)"es
&rom the comparative table above it is evident that even though bridge rectifiers need four
diodes$ it has several advantages over the other two types of rectifiers. >ence$ bridge rectifier
power supplies are very often used for most applications. Because of its popularity$
manufacturers are packing bridge rectifiers as a module for easy use in application. &or
instance$ the B 41 bridge rectifier module is a commercially avail,able bridge rectifier
assembly as shown in &ig ..
132
!he bridge rectifier module shown in &ig . consists of four hermetically sealed diodes$
interconnected and encapsulated in plastic to provide a single rugged pack,age. )t has two
input pins for feeding the %9 voltage from the transformer secondary and two output pins
across which the rectified 39 voltage is available.
A c!,(a#is!n !' &a"'-$ave, ')"" $ave an b#i%e #ecti'ie# is %iven be"!$ in a tab)"a#
'!#,;
133
134
ZENER DIODES - WOR5IN8 PRINCIPLE
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
10 state the need of regulators in power supplies
20 state the formula to calculate the J load regulation factor
30 list the main differences between rectifier diodes and ener diodes
40 list the similarities between rectifier diodes and ener diodes
50 name the main application of ener diodes
60 list the important specifications of a ener diode
70 )nterpret the specifications of some ener types without referring to data book.
135
VOLTA8E RE81LATORS
7ecall that$ the 39 output voltage level of power supplies such as$ full,wave and bridge
rectifiers$ tend to decrease or increase$
10 when the load current increases or decreases
20 when the %9 input voltage level decreases or increases.
"uch variations in the output 39 voltage level of power supply is not acceptable for most of
the electronic circuits. >ence$ it is re+uired to regulate the 39 output of power supplies so as
to keep the 39 output level constant$ inspire of variations in the 39 load current or the %9
input voltage. 9ircuits or components used to keep the 39 output voltage of a power supply
constant are called voltage regulators.
Re%)"ati!n 'act!#
!he ability of a power supply to maintain a constant 39 output voltage for variations in the
load current is referred to as load regulation. @oad regulation of a power supply is generally
given as a percentage.
@oad regulation factor J K 8
2)
,8
;@
11 * 8
2@

where$
8
2@
K 39 output at no load or open circuit
and
8
&@
K 39 output at rated full load.
)t should be noted that lower the percentage of load regulation factor$ better is the voltage$
regulation.
E0a,("e: !he 39 output of a power supply is 12 volts at no,load and 11 volts at full load.
J @oad regulation K 12 ,11*12( 111 K -.33J
)n practice the load regulation of a good power supply should be less than 1.1 J.
7egulating the 39 output voltage for variations in the input %9 level is termed as line
regulation. !his is discussed in further units.
T&e +ene# i!e
)n a power supply one of the simplest ways of regulating the 39 output voltage /keeping the
output voltage constant0 is by using a ener diode. 'ith ener in reverse breakdown
condition$ the voltage across the ener diode remains constant for a wide range of input and
load variations.
Because$ of this property$ ener diodes are also known as voltage regulators or voltage
reference diodes. &ig 1 shows the symbol used for ener diodes.
136
T&e i''e#ence bet$een a #ecti'ie# i!e an a +ene# i!e a#e "iste be"!$2
10 9ompared to normal rectifier diodes$ ener diodes are heavily doped.
20 ?nlike ordinary diodes which do not work in the breakdown region$ ener diodes work
only in the breakdown region.
30 Aeneral rectifier diodes are used in forward,biased condition$ whereas eners are
always used in re,verse,biased condition.
40 !he reverse breakdown voltage of ener diodes is very much less /3 to 1-80
compared to rectifier diodes /minimum 5180.
T&e si,i"a#ities !' a +ene# i!e $it& t&!se !' %ene#a" ()#(!se #ecti'ie# i!es
a#e "iste be"!$
10 6ener diodes are also 42 Cunction diodes$ which are also generally made of silicon.
20 6ener diodes also have two terminals /anode and cathode0.
30 )n physical appearance$ the ener diodes and ordinary diodes look alike.
40 @ike rectifier diodes$ ener diodes are also available with glass$ plastic
50 and metal casing.
60 !he anode and cathode marking techni+ue on the body is same for both ener and
rectifier diodes.
70 !he ener can be tested with an ohmmeter in the same way as in rectifier diodes.
-0 6ener re+uires appro(imately the same voltage for it to be forward,biased into
conduction as that of an ordinary diode.
&ig 2 shows the conduction characteristics of a typical ener diode. Because of the nature
and heavy doping in a ener$ its characteristics are different compared to a rectifier diode.
N!te that$ the ener diode acts as a rectifier diode when forward biased. )t also behaves as a
rectifier diode when reverse,biased$ till the voltage across it reaches the breakdown voltage.
%s can be seen from &ig 2$ even the reverse or leakage current remains almost negligible
and constant despite the increase in the reverse,biased volt,age till the break down voltage$
also called ener voltage is reached. But$ 5nce the ener breakdown voltage is reached$ the
137
diode current begins to increase rapidly and the ener suddenly begins to conduct. )n the
case of a normal rectifier diode$ once the break down voltage is reached the diode gets
punctured and starts conducting heavily whereas$ in a ener diode$ the diode does not get
punctured even though it conducts current in the reverse biased condition.
!he cause for this reverse conduction is referred to as the avalanche effect. !he avalanche
effect cause$ the electrons to be knocked loose from their bonds in the crystal structure. %s
more electrons are loosened$ they in turn knock others and current builds +uickly. !his action
causes the voltage drop across the ener to remain constant regardless of the ener current.
%s shown in &ig 2$ once the ener voltage is reached$ very small voltage changes create
much greater current changes. )t is this characteristic$ which makes the ener useful as a
constant voltage source or as a voltage regulator.
?nlike in a rectifier diode$ the reverse current through the ener is not destructive. )f the
current is kept within the specified limits depending upon the wattage rating of the ener$
using a suitable series resistance$ no harm is done to the ener diode.
Because the ener diode is designed to operate as a breakdown device$ the ener can be
brought out of condition easily. % ener is brought out of its ener conduction by lowering the
reverse,biased voltage below the ener voltage or by reversing the polarity of the applied
voltage.
A(("icati!n !' +ene# i!es
!he most popular use of ener diodes is as voltage regulators in 39 power supplies. &ig 3
illustrates a simple ener regulated power supply.
)n the circuit at &ig 3$ the ener diode is in parallel with the output or load of the power supply.
)t is very important to note that the ener is connected in the reverse,biased condition. "uch a
parallel circuit connection is often called a shunt. 'hen used in this way$ the ener is said to
be a shunt regulator.
)n &ig 3$ the ener begins to conduct in the reverse, biased condition as the voltage across it
reaches the ener voltage 8
6
. !he voltage across the ener remains constant immaterial of
the input 39 voltage. "ince the load is in parallel with the ener$ the voltage across the load
8
5?!
will be same as the voltage across the ener
8 /8
out
K 80.
138
)f the input 39 voltage to the ener increases$ as can be seen from its characteristics in &ig
2$ the current )$ through the ener increases but the voltage across the ener remains the
same due to avalanche effect. Because the ener voltage$ 8$ does not change$ the output
voltage 8
ou!
$ does not change and so the voltage across the load is constant. !hus$ the
output is said to be regulated.
7eferring to &ig 4$ the ener can be looked at as an automatically changing resistance. !otal
current through the resistance 7s is given by$
)
!
K )

I )
@
!hus the voltage across 7s is$
8
7 s
K /)

I )
@
0 7s
)f the input 39 voltage 8)2 increases$ output voltage 8ou!$ tends to increase. )n the
meantime$ the ener conducts more heavily$ causing more current /more )0 to flow through
7s. >ence$ more voltage drop occurs across 7s. !his increase in drop across 7s offsets the
increase in the output voltage 8out$ thus retaining the voltage across load 7
@
at its original
value. @ikewise$ if the value of 7
@
is decreased /increased )
@
0$ current through the ener )
decreases$ retaining the value of )
!
through 7s. !his ensures sufficient load current through
the load 7
@
with,out decrease in the level of 8out.
Zene# s(eci'icati!ns
@ike in rectifier diodes$ the type,code number is marked generally on the body of the ener.
&rom the type,code marked$ detailed specifications of the ener can be found referring to any
standard diode data manual.
I,(!#tant +ene# i!e s(eci'icati!ns a#e "iste be"!$2
10 2ominal 6ener voltage$ 8## !his is the reverse biased voltage at which the diode
begins to conduct in reverse bias.
20 6ener voltage tolerance# @ike the tolerance of a resistor$ this indicates the percentage
above or below 8. &or e(ample$ 6.3 8 U 5 percent.
30 <a(imum ener current$ )$ma(# !his is the ma(i,mum current that the ener can
safely withstand while in its reverse,biased conduction /ener0 mode.
40 <a(imum power dissipation$ 4

is the ma(imum power the ener can dissipate without

getting damaged.
50 )mpedance /6r0# !he impedance of the ener while conducting in ener mode.
60 <a(imum operating temperature# !he highest temperature at which the device will
operate reliably.
139
!hese specifications of ener diodes are given in diode data books. >owever a limited list of
the most commonly used ener diodes is given in !able 2o. 27 of the 4ocket !able book.
!he e(ample given below enables you to interpret,the specifications of certain types of ener
diodes without the need to refer diode data book#
E0a,("e ;: !he type,code printed on a ener is B6 9.81.
B6 9.81

E0a,("e <: !he type,code printed on a ener is 16 12.

16 12

5ther popular ener diode type,codes are$ 12751$ 124111$ 6&27$ 6431$ 3612$ B614-$ 66$
etc.
140
ZENER DIODES - DESI8NIN8 RE81LATORS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the need for minimum current through the ener
2. state the worst case conditions to be considered while designing a ener regulator
3. calculate the value and wattage of a series resistor
4. calculate the re+uired wattage of a ener for a given application.
141
Desi%nin% a si,("e +ene# #e%)"at!#
)n lesson ..12 it was discussed that if the voltage across a ener tends to increase or
decrease$ it results in increase or decrease in the current )

$ through the ener.

!his variation in )

results in the voltage across the series resistor 7s to increase or decrease$

thus keeping the voltage across the ener$ and$ hence$ the voltage across the output*load
constant.
&rom this it is clear that$ to make a voltage regulator circuit using ener$ a resistor and a
ener diode are re+uired. !he value of the resistor should be chosen so as to meet the
following conditionsG
10 ?nder full load condition /i.e.$ )@Kma(0$ at least the minimum reverse current should flow
through the ener such that the ener remains to be in the ener breakdown condition.
!he voltage drop across 7s should be such that$
8

I 8
7s
K 8
)2
where$ 8

is the ener voltage and also the re+uired output voltage 8

out
of the regulator.
25!;# &or the ener to hold the output voltage constant$ the ener must remain in the
breakdown region under all conditions.
20 ?nder no load condition$ the series resistor 7s must restrict the current through the
ener$ such that$ the power dissipation across the ener is within the specified limit of
the device.
!he voltage drop across 7s should be such that$
8I 8
7"
K 8
)2
!he design steps for a simple ener regulator circuit is given below through an e(ample#
E0a,("e: % ener regulator circuit is needed to supply a constant output voltage of 128 39 U
1.18. !he load current may vary /depending on load resistance0 from 1 to 111m%. !he
unregulated input to the regulator is 348 39 /ma(imum0.
Desi%n ste(s:
10 3raw a schematic of regulator as shown in &ig 1.
20 9hoose a ener of 8

K 12 volts as the output voltage re+uired is 12 8olts. 9hoose the

ener with a tolerance of ^11J$ so that the output will be 12 8 39 U 1.12 8.
30 &rom the specifications of the ener$ find )

. "ay the )

of the chosen ener is K 21m%.

40 9alculate the current through the ener in the worst conditions as e(plained belowG
142
5ne of the worst conditions is$ when the input voltage 8
)2
is minimum and$ the load current is
ma(imum. &or this condition$ choose the minimum )

that should flow through the ener to

keep it in reverse,52 condition.
)n the e(ample considered$ )K 21m%.
"ince$ )
!
K )

I )
@/mw0
&or the given e(ample$
)
!
K 21m% I 111 m% K 121 m%.
!he other worst condition is$ when ma(imum current flows through the ener as the load
current is ero or minimum and the source voltage is ma(imum. )n the e(ample considered$
minimum )
@
K 1 m%.
'hen )
@
K 1 m%$ current through the ener will be ma(imum and is$
121 m% S 1 m% K 121 m%.
50 9alculate the ener wattage.
!he enerwattage is determined from the ma(imum )

'

K 8
(
) K 12 ( 1.12 K 1.44 'atts
where$ 8

is the ener voltage and ) is the ma(imum current through ener.

60 9alculate the re+uired value of 7s 8
)2
8
5?!
K )
! 7s
5r$ )
!
7
"
K 8
)2
S 8out
K 348 S 128 K 228
"ince$ )
!
K 121m%
7s K22*121(11
,3
K1-3ohm 121 (11,3
"ince 1-3 is not a standard resistance value$ choose the nearest lower value of 7" which is
1-1ohm upon choosing 1-1ohm in place of 1-3ohm$ the changed value
of )
!
will be

!he increased =$of 122m% instead of 121 results in an e(cess of 2m% through the ener.
!herefore add an e(tra wattage of 128 ( 1.112 K 24mw to the already calculated ener
wattage of 1.44 watts. !herefore the new wattage of ener should be 1.4 watts I 1.124 ' K
1.464 p 1.5 '.
70 9alculating the wattage of 7s <a(imum current through 7sin the worst condition will be
122m%.
143
) of 22m% is sufficient to keep the ener in reverse 52
144
TRANSISTORS AND CLASSI3ICATION
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. "tate the two main uses of transistors
2. list the advantages of transistors over vacuum tubes
3. list the important classifications of transistors
4. state the use of a transistor data book
5. state the names given to the leads of a transistor
6. state the functions of the three sections of a transistor
7. state the uses of putting sleeves to transistor leads
-. 3escribe the two tests to be conducted on a transistor before using it.
145
INTROD1CTION TO TRANSISTORS
!ransistors are the semiconductor devices having three or four leads*terminals. &ig la shows
some typical transistors. &ig lb shows the symbols used for different types of transistors.
!ransistors are mainly used for enlarging or amplifying small electric*electronic signals as
shown in &ig 2. !he circuit which uses transistors for amplifying is known as a transistor
amplifier.
5ne other important application of transistors is its use as a solid state switch. % solid state
switch is nothing but a switch which does not involve any physical 52*5&& contacts for
switching.
!ransistors can be thought of as two 42 Cunction diodes connected back to back as shown in
&ig 3.
146
Before the transistors were invented /1.470$ there was what were known as vacuum tubes
which were used in amplifiers. % typical vacuum tube is shown in &ig 4a.
9ompared with the present day transistors the vacuum tubes were big in sie $ consumed
more power$ generated lot of unwanted heat and were fragile. >ence vacuum tubes became
absolute as soon as transistors came to market.
!ransistors were invented by 'alter >. Brail and Dohn Barlow of Bell !elephone
@aboratories on 23rd 3ec. 1.47. 9ompared to vacuum tubes /also known as valves0$
transistors have several advantages. "ome important advantages are listed belowG
10 8ery small in sie /see &ig 40
20 @ight in weight
30 <inimum or no power loss in the form of heat
40 @ow operating voltage
50 7ugged in construction.
!o satisfy the re+uirements of different applications$ several types of transistors in different
types of packaging are available. %s in diodes$ depending upon the characteristics$
147
transistors are given a type number such as B9 117$ 22 6114 etc.$ the characteristics data
corresponding to these type numbers are given in !ransistor data books.
CLASSI3ICATION O3 TRANSISTORS
;? Base !n t&e se,ic!n)ct!# )se.
10 Aermanium transistors
20 "ilicon transistors
@ike in diodes$ transistors can be made$ using any one of the above two important
semiconductors. >owever$ most of the transistors are made using silicon. !his is because$
silicon transistors work better over a wide temperature range /higher thermal stability0
compared to germanium transistors.
!ransistor data books give information about the semi,conductor used in any particular
transistor.
<? Base !n t&e $a* t&e P an N j)ncti!ns a#e !#%ani+e as s&!$n in 3i% A-
10 242 transistors
20 424 transistors
Both 242 and 424 transistors are e+ually useful in electronic circuits. >owever$ 242
transistors are preferred for the reason that 242 has higher switching speed compared to
424.
NOTE: 3etails of switching speed is discussed in further
'hether a transistor is 424 or 242 can be found with the help of transistor data book.
30 Based on the power handling capacity of transistors as shown in !able below /&ig 60.
148
@ow power transistors$ also known as small signal amplifiers$ are generally used at the first
stage of amplification in which the strength of the signal to be amplified is low. &or e(ample$
to amplify signals from a microphone$ tape head$ transducers etc.
<edium power and high power transistors$ also known as large signal amplifiers are used for
achieving medium to high power amplification. &or e(ample$ signals to be given to
loudspeakers etc. >igh power transistors are usually mounted on metal chassis or on a
physically large piece of metal known as heat sink. !he function of heat sink is to$ take away
the heat from the transistor and pass it to air.
!ransistor data books give information about the power handling capacity of different
transistor.
@? Base !n t&e '#e6)enc* !' a(("icati!n
10 @ow fre+. transistors /%udio fre+uency or %*& transistors0
20 >igh fre+. transistor /7adio fre+uency or 7*& transistors0
%mplification re+uired for signals of low or audio range of fre+uencies in !ape recorders$ 4%
systems etc.$ make use of %*& transistors. %mplifications re+uired for signals of high and very
high fre+uencies as$ in radio receivers$ television receivers etc.$ use 7*& transistors.
#he differences between $%& and '%& transistors are discussed in detail in further lessons.
!ransistor data books give information for any particular transistor as to whether it is a %& or
7& transistor.
A? Base !n t&e ,an)'act)#in% ,et&!
i. Arown Cunction
ii. %lloy Cunction
iii. 4lanar type
iv. 4oint contact
v. ;pito(ial
vi. <esa
!he aim of each manufacturing process is to yield transistors most suitable for a particular
type of application.
149
7efer reference books listed at the end of this book for detailed manufacturing processes of
transistors.
!ransistor data books generally do not give information about the adopted manufacturing
process of transistor. >owever$ the relevant details can be obtained from the transistor
manufacturer.
F? Base !n t&e t*(e !' 'ina" (ac.a%in%
i. <etal
ii. 4lastic
iii. 9eramic
<etal packaged transistors are generally used in medium and high power amplifications.
4lastic packaging is generally used for low power amplification. "ome plastic packages come
with a metal heat sink. "uch transistors are used for medium power amplification. 9eramic
pack,aging is used for special purpose very high fre+uency applications$ for higher
temperature stability etc.$
"ome e(amples of packaging type codes used with transistors are$ !5,3$ !5,.2$ "5!,25
and so on.
!ransistor data books give information about the type of packaging and its case outline. 9hart
1 at the end of this lesson illustrates some popular transistor case outlines and pin*lead
information.
INSIDE A TRANSISTOR
)nside a transistor there are two 42 Cunctions connected to each other as shown in &ig 3 and
&ig 5. 5utside a transistor$ one can see only three leads. !hese leads are known as base$
emitter and collector as shown in &ig 5. %s shown in &ig 5$ the three leads*pins*pigtails called
base$ emitter and collector are taken from each of doped semiconductor material.
)n simple terms$ as shown in &ig 7$ the function of the base$ emitter and collector regions of a
transistor are$
;mitter , emits current carriers /electrons*holes0
9ollector , collects current carriers
Base , controls flow of current carriers from emitter to collector.
'hile connecting a transistor to a circuit$ it is necessary to identify the base$ the emitter and
the collector pins. % !ransistor data book gives information on pin identification of transistors.
>owever$ it is convenient to put sleeve wires over the transistor pins for the following
reasonsG
i. for easy identification while wiring
ii. sleeves act as spacers while mounting and soldering
iii. they ensure the re+uired minimum lead distance from the solder Coint to the transistor
body.
&ollowing color scheme is suggested for putting sleeves to transistor pins although$ any
convenient colors cheme may be adopted.
i. Base pin, Blue color sleeve
150
ii. ;mitter pin ,7ed color sleeve
iii. 9ollector pin ,:ellow color sleeve
iv. "hield pin, Black color sleeve
TESTIN8 TRANSISTORS 1SIN8 OH99ETER
; 4)ncti!n test
"ince a transistor can be regarded as two diodes connected back,to,back$ a transistor=s
general working condition /+uick,test0 can be assessed by checking these two diodes as
shown in &ig -a and -b.
&ig -a shows a 242 transistor and &ig -b shows a 424 transistor. !he imaginary diodes 1
and 2 can be tested as testing any diode. 'hen a diode is tested$ if the ohmmeter shows
high resistance in one direction and low resistance in another direction$ then the diode
corresponding to that diode Cunction can be regarded as A553. 5ne important point to note
in a transistor is that$ both the diodes of the transistor should be A553 to declare the
transistor as A553.
'hile testing$ a transistor using ohmmeter$ it is suggested to use the middle ohmmeter range
/7(1110 be,cause$ ohmmeters in low range can produce e(cessive current and ohmmeters in
high range can produce e(cessive voltage which may be sufficient to damage small signal
transistors.
< ?C)ic. T1RN-ON test
7ecall that the base lead of the transistor controls the flow of current carriers from emitter to
collector. "o$ if the base is open$ then there can be no current flow through emitter, collector.
!his means$ the resistance between emitter and collector will be high when the base is open
as shown in &ig .a. !his can be checked using an ohmmeter with the base lead open.
151
NOTE: )n &ig .$ the Ive and Sye indicated across ohmmeter is the internal battery polarities
of the meter and not the markings at the meter prod sockets.
'hen the collector and base leads of a transistor is touched with a wet finger as the base of
the transistor turns 52 the transistor and makes current to flow through emitter,collector.
Because of the current flow$ the resistance across emitter,collector will be low. &rom this test
it is possible to make a +uick test of the transistors basic operation. !his test is most suitable
for low power and medium power transistors.
!he above two tests on a given transistor$ using a simple ohmmeter revels the condition of
the transistor. !hese tests are essential before using a transistor in a circuit.
152
153
154
155
156
157

158
BIASIN8 O3 TRANSISTORS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1.
compare the difference in the widths and doping levels of base$ emitter and collector
layers of a Cunction transistor
2.
state the type of maCority current carriers in 242 and 424 transistor
3.
describe the operation of a 242 transistor as a current amplifier
4.
state the typical percent of base current and collector current in a properly biased
transistor
5.
state the relationship between )
;
$ )
B
and )c
6.
state when a transistor is said to be properly biased
7.
state the meaning of leakage current )
co
159
Biasin% !' t#ansist!#s
Biasing a transistor means giving correct polarity and current level of voltages at the
terminals of a transistor$ such that$ it functions as intended. /as an amplifier or as a solid state
switch etc.0
7ecall$ transistors are three,layer semiconductor devices consisting of either a 4,type layer
sandwiched between two. 2,type layers as shown in &ig 1a or 2,type layer between two 4,
type layers as shown in &ig 1 b.
3#!, 3i% ;, t&e '!""!$in% (!ints a#e i,(!#tant t! n!te2
i. !he widths of the outer layers$ i.e. emitter and collector layers are much greater than
that of the base layer.
ii. !he emitter layer is heavily doped compared to both the base and collector layers.
iii. !he base layer is very thin$ of the order of 1*11th the width of the outer layers$ and is
very lightly doped.
T#ansist!# !(e#ati!n
%s transistors have three layers$ there are two Cunctions as shown in &ig 1. !he base,emitter
Cunction behaves as one diode Cunction. !he base,collector Cunction behaves as the other
diode Cunction.
7ecall that a diode Cunction conducts only when Ive supply is connected to the 4 material
and ,ve supply to the 2 material. &ig 2a shows a 242 transistor where the base,emitter
Cunction is forward,biased. >ence$ the diode conducts resulting in large flow of maCority
carriers/electrons0 from 2,type to 4,type material.
&ig 2b shows the base,emitter Cunction forward biased and the base,collector Cunction is
reverse,biased- W&* is t&e base-c!""ect!# #eve#se biaseG W&at e''ect !es t&is
c!nnecti!n &ave !n t&e t#ansist!# !(e#ati!nG
160
T&e ans$e# is$ in a 242 transistor$ maCority carriers are electrons$ because$ the emitter and
collector are 2,type materials. &ree electrons are generated in the 2,type emitter because of
the forward,biased base,emitter Cunction. )f the collector voltage is not there$ then all the
generated electrons flow to the base as shown in &ig 2a.
'hen the base,collector is reverse,biased$ then$ a positive voltage appears at the collector.
!his positive voltage at the collector completely changes the path of the electron current flow.
Because of the thin base and the low base,to,emitter voltage /1.78 for silicon0$ about .5
percent of the electrons pass through the thin base and are attracted to the more positive
potential collector as shown in &ig 2b. 5nly a very small percentage of the electrons from the
emitter combine with holes in the base.
It can be seen '#!, 3i% =, t&at t&e,
i. current carriers come from the emitter
ii. base current is small/ 5J of emitter current0
161
iii. and$ the collector current is high /.5J of emitter current0.
?nder such conditions$ it can be seen that$ small changes in the emitter,base current will
result in large change in the collector current. &or e(ample$ an increase of say one electron in
base current will result in an increase of 1. electrons in the collector current. !his is because
the collector current is .5J of the emitter current whereas the base current is only 5J of
emitter current. !his means that the value of the collector current can be easily controlled by
changes in the bias on the emitter,base Cunction.
"ummariing$ small changes in the base current results in large changes in the collector
current as shown in &ig 4. !his is nothing but amplification which is the intended function of a
transistor. !his behavior of a transistor is known as #ransistor action.
!he ratio of the change in output current to the change in the input current is called the
amplification or gain. )n &ig 4$ change in output current is due to the change in the input
current !herefore the current gain introduced by the transistor is$
9urrent gain
K 5utput current change * )nput current change
NOTE: Aain is a dimension,less +uantity.
!his condition as shown in &ig 4$ in which the two Cunctions of the transistor are connected to
such polarities of the voltage source$ such that the transistor behaves as an amplifier$ the
transistor is then said to be properly biased or correctly biased.
NOTE: "ome books use the term forward biased instead of the term properly biased.
"ummariing a transistor is said to be properly biased or correctly biased or forward biased if$
i. its base,emitter Cunction is forward biased
ii. and$ its base,collector Cunction is reverse biased.
5n the other hand$ if the polarities of voltages connected to transistor Cunctions is as shown in
&ig 5a and 5b$ because the base,emitter Cunction is reverse biased$ no electrons are
available for conduction$ and$ hence$ the transistor action does not e(ist. )f the base,emitter is
forward biased but the base,collector is not reverse biased as shown in &ig 5c$ then$ there is
no amplification as both the Cunctions simply conduct as diodes.
162
)n a properly biased transistor as shown in &ig 3 and &ig 4$ the relationship between )
;
$ )
B
$
and )
9
is given by$
1
;
K )
B
I )
9
MMMM.. V1W
or lc K )
;
)
B
or )s K )
;
, )c.
9in!#it* c)##ent in t#ansist!#s
)n 242 transistor$ as shown in &ig 6$ if no voltage is applied across the base,emitter Cunction$
but a reverse, bias is applied across the base,collector Cunction$ the following things happen$
i. !here is no current in the base,emitter path as no bias voltage e(ists.
ii. !he base,collector diode is reverse biasedG hence$ the forward current due to the
maCority current carriers /electrons0 is ero.
iii. % small +uantity current of the order of a few nanoamperes to microamperes flows in
the base,collector. !his small reverse current is due to minority current carriers$
electrons in the 4,type base material.
iv. !he minority current increases if the voltage applied to the base,collector increases or
the Cunction temperature increases. !his is because current
v. increases temperature and temperature releases cur,rent carriers from the covalent
bond structure.
163

O(e#ati!n !' PNP t#ansist!#s
'orking of a 424 transistor is e(actly the same as that of 242 transistors discussed earlier$
if the role played by the electrons in 242 transistors is interchanged with holes as given
belowG
164
)n a 424 transistor$
i. the maCority current carriers are holes instead of electrons
ii. the minority current )c1$ is due to electrons in the 2, type base material instead of
holes.
Test ci#c)it '!# testin% (#!(e# t#ansist!# biasin%
)f a transistor is properly biased /i.e. B,; Cunction forward biased and 9,B Cunction reverse
biased0$ then$ there will be collector current lc of the order of milliamps. !o check this an @;3
is connected in the collector circuit of the transistors as shown in &igs -a and -b. !he @;3 in
the collector glows only when the transistor is properly biased otherwise the @;3 remains
5&&.
165
166
T:PES O3 TRANSISTOR BIASIN8
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the need for biasing of transistors
2. state the reason for shifting of P due to temperature
3. state the reason for shifting of P due to 13dc changes
4. name the three main types of transistor biasing
5. state the reason why base,bias is not preferred
6. state the meaning of feedback
7. state the reason why emitter,bias in also known as emitter feedback bias
-. state why voltage divider bias is the most preferred type of biasing
.. state the design guidelines for voltage divider type biasing.
167
Before any one rides a motor cycle or drives a car$ he has to start the engine and keep the
engine running. )n simple terms biasing transistors is similar to keeping the transistor started
before making the real use of it. 5nce the transistor is started$ like the engine of a car$ it can
be made to amplify$ like covering the distance by riding the car.
Before an %9 signal is fed to a transistor$ it is necessary to set up an operating point or the
+uiescent/P0 point of operation. /7ecall @esson 11.150. Aenerally this P point is set at the
middle of the 39 load line. 5nce the P point is set$ then the incoming ac signals can produce
fluctuations above and below this P point as shown in &ig 1.
!he need for biasing of a transistor can also be e(plained as followsG
&or a transistor to remain operating in the linear region$ the emitter diode must remain
forward biased and the collector diode must remain reverse biased as long as the amplifier is
amplifying. )n other words$ the amplitude variations in current and voltage of the input signal
must not drive the transistor either into saturation or cut off.
Stab"e C (!int
% set P point of a transistor amplifier may shift due to increased temperature and transistor /3
value changes. !herefore$ the obCective of good biasing is to limit this shifting of the P point
or to achieve a stable P point.
168
!herefore$ a stable biasing is one which does not shift the P,point even if temperature varies
and*or the p of the transistor changes.
T*(es !' t#ansist!# biasin%
!here are several ways to bias a transistor for linear operation. !his means$ there are several
ways of setting up a P point near the middle of the dc load line. )mportant biasing
arrangements used with transistors are e(plained below#
;- BASE BIAS: &ig 2 shows one type of biasing of transistor known as base,bias. %s shown
in &ig 2b$ usually$ the collector voltage supply itself is used for the base voltage instead of a
separate supply.
169
)n &ig 3$ if pdc increases$ the collector current increases !his inurn increases the voltage at
the emitter. !his increased emitter voltage decreases the voltage across the base,emitter
Cunction and therefore$ the base current reduces. !his reduced base current results in less
collector current$ which partially offsets the increase in lc due to increased pdc.
;mitter bias is also referred to as emitter feedback bias. !his is because an output +uantity$
i.e.$ the collector current$ produces a change in an input +uantity i.e.$ the base current. !he
term feedback means a portion of the output is given back to the input. )n emitter bias$ the
emitter resistor is the feedback element because it is common to both the output and input
circuits.
)n &ig 3$ if we add the voltages around the collector loop$ we get$
170
= VOLTA8E-DIVIDER bias:
&ig 5 shows a typical volt,age,divider bias. !his type of biasing is also called the universal
bias becauseG this is the most widely used.
!his type of biasing is known as voltage divider bias
171
Because of the voltage divider formed by resistors 71 and 72. !he voltage drop across 72
should be such that it forward biases the emitter diode.
;mitter current in voltage divider bias
%ssume that the base lead is open as shown in &ig 6b. @ooking back at the unloaded voltage
divider$
8!> K ,
71 I 7 v99
2
NOTE: 8!> is known as the !hevinin=s voltage. 7efer reference books for !hevinin=s
theorem.
2ow assume that$ the base lead is connected back to the
voltage divider as in &ig 6a. !hen$ voltage 8!> drives the base of the transistor. )n other
words$ the circuit simplifies to &ig 6a and the transistor acts like the controlled current source.
172
Because the emitter is boot,strapped to the base$
!he collector current lc will be appro(imately e+ual to )
;
.
2otice that `
dc
does not appear in the formula for emitter 9urrent. !his means that the circuit
is not dependent on variations in `
dc.
!his means that the divider biased transistor has a
stable P point.
Because of the stable P point$ voltage,divider bias is the most preferred form of bias in linear
transistor circuits. >ence$ divider bias is used almost universally.
Si,("e v!"ta%e ivie# bias esi%n %)ie"ines
&ig 7 shows an amplifier using voltage,divider bias amplifier.
!he capacitor 9; is used to by,pass%9 signals. % small %9 input voltage drives the base$
and an amplified %9 output voltage appears at the collector. )n &ig 7$ as far as the dc
voltages and current is concerned$ the capacitors appear like open circuits. >ence they can
be neglected while designing the circuit for a stable P point.
Desi%n Ste( ;
9hoose 8
;
e+ual to one,tenth of the chosen 8
99.
)n &ig 7$
8
;
K 1.1 8
99
K 1.1 ( 12 8K 1.2 8.
25!;# !his design rule is suitable for most circuits$ but remembers that this is only a
guideline. )t is not necessary that everyone uses this rule. "o$ do not be surprised to find
emitter voltages at values different from one,tenth of the supply voltage.
Desi%n Ste( <
&i( the re+uired value of )
9
almost e+ual to )
;
. ;nsure that the worst case chosen )
9
is less
than )
9/ma(0
of the transistor given in the data book.
&or &ig 7$ fi( 1
;
K )
9
K 11 m%.
173
Desi%n Ste( =
!o locate the P point at appro(imately the middle of the 39 load line$ fi( 8
9;
K 1.5 8cc.
!herefore$ 8
9;
K 1.5 8
99
K 1.5 ( 12 8 K 6 8.
>ence$ 8
79
K 8
99
, 8
9;
, 8
;
K 12 , 6 , 1.2 K 4.- 8.
!herefore$ 7
9

9hoose the nearest 471O as 7c.
!)4 # 'ith the above design rule$ without calculation$ you can simply choose the value of 7c
as$
7c K 4 ( 7
;
K 4 ( 121 K 4-1O which is the same as calculated in step 3.
Desi%n Ste( @
Desi%n Ste( A
!his completes the design of the voltage,divider bias for the transistor amplifier at &ig 7. &ig
-a shows the transistor amplifier with the designed values of components. &ig -b shows the
174
39 load line and the P point. %s can be seen in &ig -b$ the P point is near the middle of the
dc load line. >ence$ the designed circuit works in the linear portion of the transistor
characteristic curve. !o cross check the above design we can calculate values of voltages
and currents using the formulas given belowG
@et us call the parallel combination of 7
1
and 7
2
as 7
BB
.
)n a divider bias$ the effective resistance of 71 )) 72$ denoted as 7BB is given by$
175
!he effective bias voltage is represented as 8B is given by$
'riting the Firchhoff=s voltage e+uation for the base emitter loop at &ig -$
2ote that 7BB is the effective resistance of parallel combination of 7
1
and 7
2
.
176
8AIN AND I9PEDANCE O3 CO99ON E9ITTER A9PLI3IER
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the meaning and method of finding voltage gain
2. state the meaning and method of finding input impedance
3. state the meaning and method of finding output impedance
4. state the meaning and method of finding power gain
5. state the phase relationship between input and output in a 9; amplifier.
177
%fter a transistor is biased with the P point near the middle of the 39 load line$ the transistor
can be made to amplify %9 and 39 signals as shown in &ig la. 'hen we use a transistor to
amplify a small %9 signal$ the small %9 signal to be amplified is coupled to the base of the
transistor using a capacitor. % capacitor is used for %9 coupling because as discussed in
earlier lessons capacitors behave as short for %9 signal and open for 39 signal. !he varying
amplitude and fre+uency of the coupled %9 signal produces greater value variations in the
collector current of the same shape and fre+uency as shown, in &ig 1 b.
%s shown in &ig 1 a$ if the input is a 1 F> sine wave$ the output will be an enlarged 1 F>
sine wave. !he small sine wave given at the base of the transistor produces variations in the
base current. >ence$ the collector current is an amplified sine wave of the same fre+uency.
!he sinusoidal collector current flows through the collector resistor and produces an amplified
sine wave output. "uch amplifiers which retain the shape of the input signal at the output are
called linear amplifiers.
&ig 1b$ shows the 39 load line$ the P point and %9 input and output signals. !his is generally
referred to as the %9 load line. %s can be seen from &ig lb$ the %9 input voltage produces
variations in the base current. !his results in sinusoidal variations about the P point.
8ariations in P point are nothing but the variations in the collector current resulting amplified
form of the input signal. &or small input signal levels$ generally referred to as small signal
operation$ the peak to peak swing in the collector current should be less than the U11J of the
collector current at P point to keep the distortion in the amplified output with in acceptable
limits.
178
&or large input signal levels$ generally referred to as large,signal operation$ the peak to peak
swing in the collector current will be larger/more than 11J0. )f the swing is very large$ the
transistor may go into saturation and cut off. !his swing into saturation and cut off will clip the
positive and negative peaks of the output signal. !his clipping is nothing but distortion$
meaning$ the output will not be an e(act replicate of the input signal.
AC C1RRENT 8AIN Ai, !' a CE a,("i'ie#
!he %9 current gain of a 9; amplifier shown in &ig 1 is the ratio of the %9 component of the
collector current to the %9 base current i
b
.
%i K )
9
* )
B
NOTE: "mall letter i is used to represent %9 current whose value keeps changing with time.
)t is to be noted that in most linear 9; amplifier circuits the current gain %$ is almost e+ual to
)3dc of the transistor. !herefore the following appro(imation can be used for %i.
%
)
K `
)n the amplifier at &ig 1$ if `
dc
of the transistor is 111$ then the current gain of the amplifier can
be taken as 111.
VOLTA8E 8AIN, A !# A
V
!' CE a,("i'ie#
!he voltage gain of an amplifier is the ratio of %9
output voltage to the %9 input voltage. !his is
represented as$
8oltage gain$ %v K 8
out
* 8
in
NOTE: "mall letter v is used for voltage because it is %9 voltage whose amplitude keeps
changing with time.
&or e(ample$ in &ig 1$ if the input voltage 8
in
is -1 m 8
/p,p0
and the corresponding output
voltage 8
out
is 7.2 8
/p,p0
then the voltage gain %v is given by$
8oltage gain$
% voltage gain of .1 means that$ in this amplifier$ a base voltage of 1 m8 produces an output
voltage of . m8.
NOTE: !he input and output voltage may be rms$ peak$ peak,to,peak$ as long as the input
and output are measured the same way consistently.
INP1T I9PEDANCE, Z
in
!' CE a,("i'ie#
7ecall that the ma(imum transfer of power takes place when the impedances of the
supplying and receiving circuits are matched. )f impedances are to be matched for best circuit
operation$ both impedances must be known. )f a single device such as a microphone$
speaker$ relay$ etc. is to be used$ its impedance will be given by the manufacturer. !he
amplifier to be designed for such a circuit must have an input or output impedance to match
the input,output devices.
!he %9 source driving the amplifier has to supply %9 current to the amplifier. !he less the
current the amplifier draws from the source$ the better because the supplying source does
not get loaded. !he input impedance of the amplifier determines how much of current the
amplifier takes from the ac source or the preceding stage of the amplifier.
)n the normal fre+uency range of an amplifier$ the coupling and by pass capacitors behave as
a short for ac. !he %9 input impedance 8
in
sometimes referred to as input resistance 7
)2
is
defined as the ratio of input signal voltage to input signal current.
179
where$ 8
in
and i
in
are rms or peak or peak,to,peak values.
&ig 2 shows the %9 e+uivalent circuit of the 9; amplifier shown in &ig 1.
&rom the %9 e+uivalent circuit the input impedance 6
in
is given by$
where$
7
1
and 7
2
are the voltage divider resistors$
` is the 39 current gain and r=
e
is the ac emitter resistance /8
B;
*)
;
0. r=
e
is appro(imately e+ual
to 25O when the P point is chosen at the mid of the load line. )n the 9; amplifier at &ig 1$ if
7$ K 1-1 O$ 72 K -.2FO and the transistor ` is 111$ the input impedance 6
in
will be$
P#actica" $a* !' 'inin% Z
in
!o find 6
in
of a given 9; amplifier circuit$ it is merely necessary to measure the %9 signal
input voltage and current. !hen$ use these values in the formula$ and calculate 6
in
.
% simpler method to measure i
in
is to connect a series input resistance of known value in
series with the input signal$ as in &ig 3.
!he voltage drop across the resistor 7s is measured$ and 5hm=s law is used to determine i
in.
!he value of 8 can be measured directly$ as shown in &ig 3.
180
O1TP1T I9PEDANCE, Z
!)t
!he output impedance of a 9; amplifier is naturally the impedance at the output terminals. !o
find the 6$\ of the 9; amplifier shown in &ig 1$ consider the %9 e+uivalent of the output as
shown in &ig 4a. 7ecall that a transistor operating in the linear portion of its characteristics
curve is like a current source. !herefore$ we can represent it as a current source ic. %s can be
seen from &ig 4a$ this collector current source is in parallel with the collector resistor 7c.
%ssuming that the collector current source is ideal$ it has infinite internal impedance. !hen$
the only impedance in the output is the collector resistor 7c. !he !hevinin=s voltage
appearing at the output is the voltage gain/%0 times the input 8
in
.
!herefore$ 8
out
K %. 8
in
>ence$ the output %9 e+uivalent circuit of the amplifier can be simplified as shown in &ig 4b.
)n &ig 4b$ an ideal output voltage source %8\ with ero internal impedance is in series with the
collector resistor 7
c
. !herefore$ the output impedance of the 9; amplifier is appro(imately
e+ual to the collector resistor 7
c
$ 6
out
a 7
c
)n the 9; amplifier circuit at &ig 1$ if 7
c
K 11111$ the output impedance of the amplifier is
e+ual to the value of $ that is 1111 O.
P#actica" $a* !' 'inin% Z
!)t-
!he easiest way of measuring the output impedance of a 9; amplifier circuit is given belowG
/10 <easure the unloaded output voltage 8
out
of the 9; amplifier.
/204lace a variable resistor across the load terminals$ as shown in &ig 5.
/30%dCust the variable resistor until the voltage drop across it is one,half of the
?nloaded output voltage 8
out
.
/407emove the variable resistor and measure its value. !his value is e+ual to 6
out
181
2ote that 6
out
is not a fi(ed valueG it varies with transistor voltages and the load resistance.
9are must always be taken to maintain an undistorted signal when input or output
impedances are measured.
POWER 8AIN, A
(
!' a CE a,("i'ie#
)n the 9; amplifier shown in &ig 1$ the input power is given by$
4
in
K v
in
.i
b
and the output power is given by$
4
out
K , v
in
.i
b
NOTE: !he negative sign associated with output power. !his is because$ in a 9; amplifier$
the output is 1-1H out of phase with the input signal. 3etails are discussed in the forthcoming
paragraphs.
)n the 9; amplifier at &ig 1$ power gain %p is the ratio of output signal power to input signal
power. T&e '!#,)"a is,
4ower gain K 4
out
*

4
in
4ower gain is also given by$
%
p
K , %
v
. %
i
'here$
%
v
is the voltage gain /8
in
* 8
out
0
%
i
is the current gain /i
c
*i
b
0
&or the amplifier at &ig 1$ if %v K .1 and the ` of the transistor is 111$ then the power gain %
p
of the amplifier is given by$
%
p
K , %v. %
i
K .1 ( 111 K .111.
!his means that if an %9 input power of 1 b' is given to the amplifier$ the output power will
be .mwatts.
182
P#actica" $a* !' 'inin% A(
"ince the formula for power is$ 4 K )
2
( 7 K )( ) ( 7
"ince$
!herefore$ by (hm)s law$ power gain is easy to calculate when signal voltages and
impedances are known as given belowG
Fnowing the values of 4
out
and 4
in
power gain of the circuit can be calculated.
4ower gain$ %4 in decibels$ dB
!he power gain of amplifiers is often e(pressed in decibels /dB0. !o calculate the power gain
of an amplifier in decibels$ use the following formula.
INP1T - O1TP1T (&ase #e"ati!ns&i(
7ecall$ that while calculating the power gain it was mentioned that the output signal of a 9;
amplifier is 1-1H out of phase with its input signal. !o find out why this happens in a 9;
amplifier$ assume that the 39 base bias current )B at the set P point is 31 b%. !he
corresponding collector current is 1 m%. 'hen the %9 signal is applied to the input$ the base
bias varies from 21 to 41 b%$ as shown in &ig 1 b. "ince the type of transistor used is 242$
as base bias is increased to 41 b%$ collector current )
c
increases. !he resultant effects are$
1. the increased transistor conduction causes less voltage drop across the transistor
/8
9;
0.
2. )ncreased is causes a larger voltage drop across 7
9
. >ence$ the voltage across the
collect or to ground gets reduced.
)n &ig 1a$ as the output signal is taken across the transistor collector and ground$ an
increasing signal voltage causes a decreasing output signal.
%s the input signal level decreases$ say to 21 b%$ the forward bias is less and transistor
conduction decreases. 'hen transistor conduction decreases$ its resistance is higher and so
the voltage drop across it increases. 'ith increased voltage drop across the transistor$ the
output voltage 8
out
increases. !his increase in 8
out
reduces the voltage drop across the
collector load resistance 7c.
&rom this$ it can be concluded that in a 9; amplifier$ a negative,going input signal causes a
higher$ or$ more positive,going output signal. !herefore$ in a 9; amplifier the output is 1-1H
out of phase with the input.
183
P#actica" $a* !' 'inin% in()t-!)t()t (&ase #e"ati!ns&i(s
!he phase relationship between input,output can be found in two ways as given below.
9et&! ;: ?sing a dual trace 975$ connect one of the 975 inputs to the input of the
amplifier and the other 975 input to the output of the amplifier. <ake the oscilloscope to
trigger on the input signal. !he waveforms shown on the 975 show the phase relationship
between input and output as shown in &ig 6a.
9et&! <: )f a single trace 975 is used$ then instead of feeding complete sine wave to the
input$ feed only the positive signal pulses as shown in &ig 6b. !hese positive pulses can be
generated using a simple half,wave rectifier as shown in &ig 6c.
'ith the positive pulse fed at the input$ the output of the 9; amplifier will be negative pulse
as shown in &ig 6b. ?se the signal as an e(ternal trigger source for the 975 to view the
waveform.
!he pocket table book table 2o.2. gives a summary of the important parameters of a
common,emitter amplifier with voltage divider bias.
184
E33ECT O3 B:PASS CAPACITOR IN CE A9PLI3IERS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the effect of emitter resistor bypass capacitor on$
o the gain of the amplifier
o input impedance of the amplifier
o +uality of the amplified output.
185
&igs 1 a and 1 b show common,emitter amplifiers. !he difference between the two circuits is
that in &ig la$ there is a capacitor 9; connected across the emitter resistor 7;. !his capacitor
is known as a bypass capacitor.
!he effect of the bypass capacitor isG
i. increased gain of the amplifier
ii. 3ecreased input impedance of the amplifier.
186
E''ect !' CE !n a,("i'ie# %ain
!o understand the effect of the bypass capacitor on the gain of the amplifier$ observe the
phase relationship of the waveforms at base$ emitter and collector shown in &igs 1 a and 1 b.
%s can be seen in &ig 1 b$ the %9 signal at the emitter is in phase with the input signal. 7ecall
that both input and output currents flow through the emitter resistor 7
;
.
I' R
E
is n!t b*(asse as in 3i% ; b, t&en,
i. as the input signal increases$ the collector current increases$ and hence$ the voltage
drop across 7; increases. !his result in increased voltage at the emitter terminal.
ii. the increased voltage at the emitter results in a reduced base,emitter voltage
iii. !his reduced 8B; results in less forward bias of the transistor$ and hence$ the
collector current decreases.
!herefore$ the overall effect of an un,bypassed emitter resistor is that$ the collector current is
not allowed to freely increase for increase in the base current. >ence$ the gain of the
amplifier is held at almost a constant value.
I' R
E
is b*(asse as in 3i% ; a, t&en,
i. %s the input signal increases$ the collector current increases. "ince the emitter resistor
is bypassed$ the bypass capacitor provides a very low resistance path for the %9
current$ and hence$ voltage at the emitter does not increase.
ii. "ince the emitter voltage does not increase$ the emitter, base Cunction remains at
increased forward bias and the increased collector current continues to flow.
!herefore$ the overall effect of a bypassed emitter resistor is that the collector current is
allowed to freely increase for increase in the base current. >ence$ the gain of the amplifier
increases. "ummariing the above effect$ in a 9; amplifier with the emitter resistor bypassed$
the gain of the amplifier is higher when compared to that of an un,bypassed emitter amplifier.
;ffect of 9; on )nput,)mpedance recall from @esson 11.17$ that the input impedance of a
emitter resistor bypassed 9; amplifier is given by$
&or the emitter bypassed amplifier shown in &ig 1 a$ the input impedance will be$
2ow if the emitter resistor is not bypassed by a capacitor as shown in &ig lb$ then$ the input
impedance is given by$
NOTE: !he resistor 7
;
is now in series with .
&or the un,bypassed amplifier shown in &ig lb$ the input impedance will be$
187
K5.14 F5><
!he above comparison of 6
)2
$ for bypassed and un,bypassed emitter 9; amplifier indicates
that the input impedance of the amplifier decreases drastically when the emitter resistor of
the 9; amplifier is bypassed with a capacitor.
C!nc")si!n:
*ummari+ing, in a ,- amplifier if the emitter resistor bypassed the input-impedance of the
amplifier reduces drastically when compared to the input-impedance of a ,- amplifier with
un-bypassed emitter resistor.
Disavanta%e !' b*(assin% e,itte# #esist!#
%lthough bypassing the emitter capacitor increases the gain of the amplifier$ it has the
following disadvantages which are very important to be consideredG
i. !he reduced input impedance due to bypassed 7; has the loading effect on the
source of the %9 signal feeding the amplifier. !his is very important especially when
the source feeding the input is a weak signal such as the output of a 7*4 head of a
tape recorder$ crystal pick,up of a gramophone etc.$
ii. )n a bypassed 7
;
amplifier$ the voltage gain changes impedance 6\ is$
throughout the input cycle. !his changing voltage gain may results in a
distorted output signal.
%s a compromise between an unbypassed emitter resistor and a bypassed emitter resistor$
some amplifier circuits use partially bypassed emitter resistor as shown in &ig 2.
188
!he effect of partially bypassed emitter resistor on the gain and input impedance is given
belowG
/!he ,ve sign indicates that output is 1-1 out of phase with the input0
!herefore$ voltage gain %v is$
NOTE: )n a fully bypassed emitter resistor$ the value of %v was given by
!he input impedance 6
)2
of the partially bypassed emitter resistor is given by$
&or the values of R
E
an r
;
shown in &ig 2$ the input impedance 6
)2
is$
N!te t&at this value of 6
)2
is in between those of fully bypassed and unbypassed emitter
resistor.
189
190
TRO1BLESHOOTIN8 A SI9PLE C
E
A9PLI3IER
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. list the possible defects in the components used in transistor 9; amplifier
2. state the steps involved in troubleshooting
3. "tate the method of in,circuit testing of transistors.
4. "tate the method of in,circuit testing of resistors.
191
INTROD1CTION
7ecall @esson ..17 in which the following points were discussed.
i. activities involved in troubleshooting a circuit or a system or an e+uipment
ii. general steps involved in troubleshooting
iii. <ethods of trouble shooting.
&or troubleshooting an amplifier$ the approach and the steps are the same as in
troubleshooting any other electronic circuit. !hat is$
V1W4hysical and sense tests
V2W"ymptom diagnosis
V3W!esting for defective components in the probable order of their failure and replacing the
defective components.
%fter carrying out the physical tests in power off condition and sense tests in power,on
condition$ the nature of complaint/defect0 it checked as a confirmation.
5nce you have checked and confirmed that the given single transistor 9; amplifier is not
working$ before going into troubleshooting$ it is necessary to know the nature of fault that can
occur in each type of component. 7eferring to the circuit diagram of the amplifier given in &ig
1$ the probable faults with the components are given belowG
)n the order of highest to lowest probability$ the probable faults in the amplifier circuit at &ig 1
are$
192
;- OPEN !# SHORT !# LEA5: electrolytic capacitors ;lectrolytic capacitors are the most
troublesome components and these components fail most fre+uently.
<- DE3ECTIVE t#ansist!# >!(en/s&!#t j)ncti!ns?
!ransistors are very sensitive to voltage$ current and temperature and$ therefore$ any error in
the applied voltage level or polarity or wrong limiting resistor values may make the transistor
faulty.
=- OPEN #esist!#s
)t is most unlikely that resistors may become faultyG however they do become faulty either
because of their leads becoming loose with the resistor body or the resistors may burn out
due to e(cess current through them. %ll these happens$ if$ the design of the amplifier is bad or
low rating resistors are used.
'ith the above order of component failure probability$ it is necessary to check these
components in the same order.
5nce all the electrolytic capacitors are checked by opening one of its ends and capacitor,
action is tested using ohmmeter$ the ne(t component to be checked is the active device. !he
only active device in the given circuit is the transistor.
&or testing the working condition of the transistor wired in a circuit$ instead of removing the
transistor out of the circuit and testing it$ as a short cut method it is possible to check the
voltage levels at various points of the transistor as shown in &ig 2.
)f the amplifier was in good working condition$ then$ the transistor would be conducting. )f the
transistor is conducting$ then there will be different voltage levels at the base$ emitter and
collector as shown in &ig 2.
&or e(ample$ if the voltage at the collector is e+ual to 8cc$ you can immediately say that$ the
transistor is not conducting.
"imilarly$ if the voltage at the emitter is e+ual to ero$ you can immediately say that the
transistor is not conducting.
193
)n addition to the above method of finding the condition of a transistor in a circuit$ there is one
more way by which you can find out whether or not the transistor is turning 52 and 5&&. !o
do this$ temporarily short the base and emitter of the transistor as shown by dotted lines in
&ig 3a$ using a tweeers. !his short$ bypasses the base,emitter Cunction of the transistor.
>ence the base,emitter is no more forward biased. !his makes the collector voltage at the
transistor to rise to 8. )n this shorted condition$ when the voltage at the collector is measured$
if the voltage is e+ual to 8cc$ you can say that the transistor is switching 5&& as e(pected.
5nce the$ temporary short between the base and the emitter is removed and the collector
voltage measured$ if the collector voltage becomes less than 8cc$ it indicates that the
transistor has again turned 52. "o$ by doing this test$ you can confirm the switching 52*5&&
of the transistor$ and hence$ conclude the condition of the transistor as good.
NOTE: .hen the base-emitter shifting test is done as shown in &ig /, to measure the voltage
at the collector, preferably use a !#!0 or a digital volt meter. #his is because, in general
type low cost voltmeters, a small current flows though the meter while measuring the voltage.
1ence, current flows through the collector resistor as shown in &ig 2a causing a drop across
it. 3ecause of this voltage drop across the collector resistor, the collector voltage shown by
the meter will be slightly less than !s, even though the transistor is really (&&.
&or testing the condition of resistors$ either open one end of the resistor and check its
resistance. %lternatively$ you can measure the resistance across the resistor without opening
the leads. But when resistance is measured without opening at least one lead of the resistor$
due to the other circuit components coming in parallel with it$ the meter reading may be
difficult to interpret. !his problem can be solved to an e(tent if the polarity of the meter probes
are such that the transistor Cunction is reverse biased$ and hence$ the resistors on the other
side of the transistor does not come in parallel with the resistor being checked. &igs 4a and
4b illustrates the effect of meter polarity while measuring resistance.
C&ec.in% #esistances )sin% !&,,ete# s&!)" be !ne $it& DC-s)(("* t! t&e ci#c)it
s$itc&e O33-
194
%fter finding the defective components and replacing them with good working components$ to
declare the circuit as working$ the following checks are necessary.
i. 7epeat checking the 39 levels at base$ emitter and collector of the transistor to
confirm working of the transistor.
ii. 9arry out the signal inCection test$ also known as dynamic test. )n this test$ inCect a
sinusoidal signal of 1 F> of suitable level and observe the wave,form at the output
using a 975. )f the output wave,form is undistorted and the amplifier has the re+uired
gain$ then the amplifier can be confirmed as working normally.
NOTE: #he dynamic test on the amplifier may also be conducted as a first step of
troubleshooting to confirm the complaint with the amplifier.
5nce the circuit is serviced and found to be in working order$ it is a good servicing habit to
physically recheck for dry solders and solder sprays to ensure that the circuit will not come
back for servicing too early again.
195
196
3REC1ENC: RESPONSE O3 CO99ON E9ITTER A9PLI3IER
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the meaning of fre+uency response of an amplifier
2. state the effect of capacitors on the fre+uency response of a 9; amplifier
3. find the theoretical lower cut off fre+uencies of an amplifier$ given the values of
coupling and bypass capacitors.
197
7ecall$ when a 1 F> sine wave is fed at the input of an amplifier$ the output will be an
enlarged 1 F> sine wave. !he amount$ by which the output voltage is enlarged$ depends on
the voltage gain of the amplifier.
)n the same amplifier$ instead of a constant fre+uency 1 F> signal$ if the fre+uency of the
input signal is varied$ from say 1 > /390 to several tens of kilo hert$ then the e(tent to
which the input level is enlarged at the output will be different at different fre+uencies. )n other
words$ the gain of the amplifier will not be the same for all fre+uencies.
!he reason for the gain to be different at different fre+uencies is mainly due to the capacitors
used in the amplifier circuit. )n addition to these capacitors$ the transistor itself is a reason for
the gains to be different at different fre+uencies. But the effect of the transistor is negligible at
low and medium fre+uencies.
&ig 1 shows a typical plot of gain of an amplifier at different fre+uencies. 2ote that in &ig 1$
the : a(is represents the gain of the amplifier at different fre+uencies as a measure of the
gain at mid fre+uency %
v/mid0Z
&rom &ig 1$ it is clear that in a capacitor coupled amplifier as in &ig 2a$ the gain falls sharply
towards 1 fre+uency and also at high fre+uencies. !he fall in gain in the lower fre+uency
range is mainly due to the effect of coupling capacitor 9c and bypass capacitor 9; of the
amplifier.
E''ect !' in()t c!)("in% ca(acit!# Cc>"n? !n '#e6)enc* #es(!nse !' CE a,("i'ie#s
&ig 2a shows the typical common emitter amplifier using coupling and bypassing capacitor.
!o understand the effect of 9c /ln0$ assume that the values of 9; and 9c /out0 are very large
and have no effect on the fre+uency response of the amplifier.
!he input section of the amplifier in &ig 2a can be simplified as shown in &ig 2b. )n &ig 2b$ 7)$
represents the input 7esistance*)mpedance of the amplifier.
198
9onsidering the effect of the coupling capacitor 9cin for %9 signals$ the coupling capacitor
has$
i. very high resistance/impedance0 E1 at very low fre+uencies and is almost infinity or
open at ero fre+uency /390.

ii. no effect$ or it behaves as a short at the mid,band fre+uencies$ say greater than 1 F>
and less than few hundred F>.
!he above listed effects of the coupling capacitor 9c/)n0 is because$ the capacitive
reactance Ec is inversely proportional to fre+uency f as given belowG

'hen fK 1 >$ Ec K )nfinity. >ence$ the voltage across 7an will be ero. !herefore$ at ero
input fre+uency the output of the amplifier is 1. But as the fre+uency increases the voltage
across 7rn increases /as Ec decreases0 and hence$ the output increases. !his is shown in
&ig 3a.
%s the input fre+uency is further increased$ Ec decreases and approaches ero. !herefore$
all the applied input voltage 8in appears across the input of the transistor. >ence$ the gain of
the amplifier will be high as shown in &ig 3b.
7eferring to the amplifier response at low fre+uencies shown in &ig 3b$ at a particular
fre+uency known as the cut,off fre+uency fcm$ the reactance E$ will become e+ual to 7n. %t
199
this fre+uency f$/Gn0$ the input section of the amplifier behaves as a %9 voltage divider. >ence
the output voltage of the input 79 network shown in &ig 2a /also known as lag network0 is
given by$

!he source feeding the amplifier will have some amount of resistance coming in series as
shown in &ig 4.
)f this series resistance or the source resistance 7$ is also considered in the input section of
the amplifier$ then the lower cut off fre+uency f$ is given by$
E0a,("e# )n the 9; amplifier shown in &ig 2a$ 7in is 1.73F52 and source resistance 7s is 1
F",2. )f the value of input coupling capacitor 9c /Gn0 is increased from 1.147p& to 11p&$ the
lower cut off fre+uency f$/Gn0 for different values of 99/in0 will be$
?sing the formula at e+uation ...c2d$ for
200
&rom the above calculated values$ it is clear that for the amplifier to work as an audio
amplifier /21> to 21 F>0$ the value of the input coupling capacitor to be chosen should be
4.7p& or more.
HAL3-POWER (!int
%t the lower cut,off fre+uency f
c/in0
$ the reactance of the input coupling capacitor EcK 7n. )f we
substitute this into e+uation. /10$ we get
!his means$ the voltage gain at the cut,off fre+uency will be 1.717 times the gain at mid
fre+uency %v/)nn0. >ence$ the cutoff point f$ /in.0 is sometimes called the half,power point
because at this point$ the available output power is half of its ma(imum value.
E''ect !' !)t()t c!)("in% ca(acit!# Cc>!)t? !n '#e6)enc* #es(!nse !' CE a,("i'ie#s
&ig 5 shows the e+uivalent circuit of the output section of a typical 9; amplifier shown in &ig
2a. !o understand the effect of 99/out0= assume that the values of 9; and 9c/Gn0 are very
large and have no effect on the fre+uency response of the amplifier.
)n &ig 5$ 7nin is the output impedance of the stage$ which s appro(imately e+ual to 7$ /recall
@esson 11$120. <aking similar analysis as in the case of calculating the f$/in0 due to 9c/in0$
the cut off fre+uency f$/1\0 of the amplifier due to output coupling capacitor 9c is given by$
E0a,("e : )n the 9; amplifier shown in &ig 2a$ 7out is 11Fohm and 7
@
is 1.-Fohm )f the
value of output coupling capacitor 9
c/out0
is increased from 1.147m& to 11m&$ the cut off
fre+uency &
c/out0
for different values of 9
c/out0
will be$ using the formula at e+uation ...c4d$ for$
&rom the above values it is clear that for the amplifier to work as an audio,amplifier/21>to
21 F>0$ the minimum value of the output coupling capacitor to be chosen should be 4.7m&.
E''ect !' e,itte# b*(ass ca(acit!# !n "!$ '#e6)enc* #es(!nse
201
!o understand the effect of the bypass capacitor 9
;
$ assume that the values of 9
cin
and 9
9/out0
are very large and have no effect on the fre+uency response of the amplifier.
&or the amplifier shown in &ig 4a, if the effect of the emitter bypasses capacitor is
considered,
i. in the mid,band 9
;
appears like a ac short$ making 7out appro(imately e+ual to 7c.
ii. below the mid,band the 7
;
no longer appears like a perfect ac short. !herefore the
voltage gain decreases. /7ecall effect of 7
;
bypass capacitor on amplifier gain.0
&ig 6 shows the resistance seen by the by,pass capacitor 9
;
under such a condition.
!hen 7
out
becomes$
%nalying &ig 6$ in a similar way as done for coupling capacitors$ the cut off fre+uency &
;
due
to the bypass capacitor 9
;
is given by$
'here
&
;
K cut off fre+uency of emitter network
7out K output resistance as seen by the bypass capacitor
9
;
K emitter bypass capacitor.
E0a,("e : &or the 9
;
amplifier shown in &ig 4$ if the p of the transistor is 111 and if the value
of the bypass capacitor 9
;
is increased from 1.147m& to 11m&$ the lower cut off fre+uency &
;
for different values of 9
;
will be$ using the formulae at e+uations ...V5W and V6W$ for$
202
&rom the above values$ it is clear that$ for the amplifier to work as an audio,amplifier /21> to
21 F>0$ the mini,mum value of the bypass capacitor to be chosen should be 471m&.
3ue to the different values of the coupling capacitors and bypass capacitors used$ the values
of f
cin
$ f
cout
and &
;
may be different. 'henever such two or three different cut,off fre+uencies
are obtained$ then$ the higher of the cut,off fre+uencies is more important. !his is because it
is at this fre+uency the first break in the amplifier response occurs. !his fre+uency is called
the dominant lower cut,off fre+uency of the amplifier.
E0a,("e : )n the 9; amplifier shown in &ig 7$ if f3 is 111 and if the values of capacitors were
9
c/)n0
K 1.47m&$ 9
c/out0
K 1.47m& and 9
;
K 111m&$ then the dominant lower cut off fre+uency f
cl
would be$
where rte is the %9 resistance of the transistor given by$
&or the given circuit at &ig 7$ !hevinines e+uivalence 7
!>
of resistors 7
1
and 7
2
is
!herefore$ )
B
is$
203
!herefore$ emitter current at P point is$
!herefore$
@ower cut,off fre+uency &
c/in0
due to input coupling ca,pacitor 9
c/in0
is given by$
@ower cut,off fre+uency &c/out0 due to output coupling capacitor 9c/out0 is given by$
@ower cut,off fre+uency f
;
due to bypass capacitor 9
;
is given by$
where$
'here$ 7out K output resistance as seen by the bypass capacitor$
!herefore$ 7out K 21.5-52ohm
>ence$ f
;
K 73.7. >.
%mongst the above calculated lower cut,off fre+uencies$ the dominant lower cut,off fre+uency
is the highest of the calculated cut,off fre+uencies. i.e.$ 163 > due to the input coupling
capacitor 9
c/in0.
>ence$ to improve the lower cut,off fre+uency of the amplifier$ the value of 9
c/in0.
should be
made larger.
8ain !' t&e a,("i'ie# in t&e ,i-#an%e '#e6)encies
%bove the dominant lower cut off fre+uency the gain of the amplifier remains almost constant
over a wide range of fre+uencies$ generally up to several tens of kilo hert. But$ once the
input fre+uency becomes very high$ the gain of the amplifier again reduces as shown in &ig 1.
204
Hi%& '#e6)enc* #es(!nse !' CE a,("i'ie#s
5ften capacitors come in parallel with the input and output of the amplifier. !hen$ at low
fre+uencies$ the capacitors behave as open circuits. But as the fre+uency increases the
capacitors no longer behave as open and the output of the amplifier approaches ero.
3i%s Ha an Hb, s&!$ t&e e''ect !' ca(acit!#s c!,in% in (a#a""e" $it& t&e a,("i'ie#-
%t low fre+uencies$ where the capacitor behave as open$ the circuit acts like a voltage divider
with a mid,band gain of$
%t higher fre+uencies$ the shunt capacitor begins to shunt ac current away from the load
causing the voltage at the output to drop off.
)n transistor amplifiers$ the transistors will have internal capacitance 9c across the emitter
diode and 9= across the collector diode as shown in &ig ..
!hese internal capacitances of the transistors come in parallel with the input and output
sections of the amplifier$ and limit the highest fre+uency that can be amplified by an amplifier.
!ransistor data sheets give the values of internal capacitances of the transistors. !he data
sheets give another important data known as the current gain,band,width product$
designated as f
!
. !his is the fre+uency at which the current gain of the transistor drops to
unity.
205
206
3EEDBAC5 IN A9PLI3IERS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the meaning of the term feedback
2. state the meaning and effect of degenerative feedback
3. state the meaning and effect of regenerative feedback
4. list the advantages of negative feedback in amplifiers
5. state the e+uation for gain of the amplifier with a feedback
6. calculate the feedback factor k from the circuit component values in a 9; amplifier
7. 9alculate gain of a 9; amplifier with and without feedback.
207
9eanin% an e''ect !' 'eebac.
!he term feedback means$ the output signal of a circuit is given back /fed back0 to the input
of the same circuit. )n feeding back the output signal to input$ if the fed back signal is 1-1H
out,of phase with the input signal$ then such a feedback is referred to as 2egative feedback
or degenerative feedback. !his type of feedback is known as degenerative because$ the
feedback signal opposes the input signal lowering is magnitude. >ence$ the gain of the
amplifier decreases. 5n the other hand$ if the feedback signal is in,phase with the input
signal$ then such a feedback is referred to as positive feedback or regenerative feedback. )n
a circuit with positive feedback$ the feedback signal being in, phase with the input$ increases
the magnitude of the input signal resulting in high to very high gain of the amplifier. 4ositive
feedback in amplifiers results in what is known as oscillations.
%lthough negative feedback results in reduced output of an amplifier$ this type of feedback is
e(tensively used in most of the electronic circuits because of the following advantages$
negative feedback in amplifiers results in$
i. stabilied voltage gain
ii. reduction in distortion of the amplifier output
iii. widening of the amplifier fre+uency band width
iv. increased input impedance
v. reduced output impedance
vi. reduced noise in amplifier.
%ll radios$ tape recorders and televisions invariably use negative feedback in circuits for a
function called %utomatic volume control or %utomatic gain control /%A90.
4ositive feedback is used to generate %9 signal using dc supply voltage in what are known
as oscillators. "ignal generators which generates sinusoidal signals invariably use positive
feedback in their circuits.
P#inci("e !' ne%ative 'eebac.
!he principle of feedback involving feeding a signal /voltage or current0 back from the output
of an amplifier or a system to the input of the amplifier is shown in &ig 1.
208
)n &ig 1 above$ if the feedback switch is open then there will be no feedback. !he amplifier
gain will then be$
)f the feedback switch is closed$ then a portion of the output gets added to the input and the
new output of the amplifier would be 8=
o
.
)f the feedback switch remains 52$ then portion of the new output .K F8
1
is added to the input
8
i
. >ence$ the new input to the amplifier will be 8
i
I k8=
o
.
)f the phase of k8=
o
is 1-1H out,of,phase with 8
i
then$
8
i
I k8=
o
will be less than 8
i
. !his is the condition of negative feedback.
)f k8=
o
happened to be in,phase with 8
i
$ then$ 8
i
I k8
o
will be greater than 8
i
. !his is the
condition of positive feedback.
)t can be shown that$ the overall gain of the amplifier with the feedback being either positive
or negative is given by
'here$
%
vf
K voltage gain with feedback
%
8
K voltage gain without feedback
k K feedback factor$ usually between 1 and 1.
)n the above e+uation$ the term k% is known as the loop gain of the circuit. )n negative
feedback$ k%
v
is negative. >ence the denominator increases and$ therefore$ %
vf
decreases.
)n regenerative or positive feedback k%
v$
is positiveG hence the denominator of e+uation V1W
decreases$ therefore %
vf
increases. !his increase in %vf causes oscillations in the amplifier$
and hence$ converts the amplifier to an oscillator.
Example: )f an amplifier has a voltage gain of , 41 without feedback$ find the gain of the
amplifier with the following feedback#
/%011J negative feedback
/B0 21J negative feedback
/901J positive feedback.
NOTE: % negative sign in voltage gains indicates that output is 1-11 out of phase with the
input.
SOL1TION
>a?Aain of the amplifier without feedback$ %
v
K , 41. 'ith 11J negative feedback$ the
feedback factor k K 1.1 /11J0.
!herefore$ k%
v
K 1.1 ( , 41 K , 4.
?sing the formula at e+n M.. V1W
209
N!te t&at the gain with 11J negative feed is much less than the gain without feedback.
>b?'ith 21J negative feedback
k K 1.2 /21J0
k%
v
K 1.2( , 41K ,-.
N!te t&at the gain has further decreases with 21J negative feedback.
>c? 'ith 1J positive feedback$ kK,1.11 /1 J0.
NOTE: !he negative sign fork value indicates that the output of the amplifier is further shifted
by 1-11 such that the input 8. and the feedback signal are in phase.
!herefore$ k%
v
K 1.11 ( , 41 K 1. 4
2ote that with positive feedback the overall gain of the amplifier has increased from , 41 to ,
66.7.
NOTE: 3etails of positive feedback is discussed in further lessons.
Ne%ative 'eebac. in c!,,!n e,itte# a,("i'ie#s
&ig 2 shows one method of providing negative feedback in a common emitter amplifier.
210
)n the amplifier at &ig 2$ by not,bypassing the emitter resistor$ an ac negative feedback
occurs in the amplifier. !he un shunted portion or the un,bypassed portion of the emitter
resistor 7
e1
$ has a voltage drop of 8
7e1
Z !his voltage 8
7e1
directly subtracts from the input
voltage 8
i
$ reducing the base emitter voltage of the transistor. !hat
is$ 8
B;
K 8
i
, 8
7e1
)t can be shown that the amount of voltage feedback or feedback factor k is given by$
'here$
k is the feedback factor /dimension less0
7
e1
is the un,bypassed emitted resistor in ohms.
7
out
is the total ac load resistance K 7
9
* 7
@
in ohms.
E0a,("e: )n the amplifier shown in &ig 2$ 7
9
K 1 Ff 7
;
K 571f. 'hen 7
;
is completely
bypassed the input resistance of the amplifier 7 11715. )f is 111 calculate$
/a08oltage gain without feedback
/b08oltage gain without the emitter bypass capacitor
/c08oltage gain when 1-1f of 7
;
is not bypassed
/d0Aain with feedback as in /c0$ with a load resistance 7
@
K 1 Ff.
SOL1TION
;- Aiven or %
i
$ voltage gain %
8
$ can be found using the formula$
8oltage gain$ /%
v
0 K 9urrent gain /%
i
0 (
>b?8oltage gain of the amplifier with the emitted bypass capacitor 9
;
$ is not connected /with
feedback0.
211
>c?8oltage gain when 1-1y of 7
;
is not bypassed /7
e1
K 1-1f0.
>?'hen a load 7
@
K 1 Ff is added$ the voltage gain without feedback will change because$
7
out
t now is$
!he voltage gain without feedback with the new value of 7
out
is given by
!he feedback factor with new value of 7out is given by$
!herefore$ gain with feedback 7
e1
and load 7
@
is given by$
!his type of negative feedback obtained in 9
;
amplifiers$ due to un,bypassed emitter resistor
is known as current series feedback. )n this type of feedback the output current /l
9
K )
;
0 is
sampled and a proportional voltage /across un bypassed 7
;
0 is made to come in series with
the input. !his type of feedback is also known as non, inverting current feedback because
current at the input /Base0 is in phase with the current at output /emitter0 circuit.
&ig 3 shows another type of negative feedback in a common emitter amplifier. !his type of
feedback is known as voltage series feedback.
212
!he type of feedback shown in &ig .3 is also known as inverting voltage feedback. !his
method of connecting a resistor between the collector and base of a transistor resulting in a
feedback is one of the methods of dc biasing of a transistor$ and is also known as collector
feedback configuration.
Ot&e# ,et&!s !' ne%ative 'eebac.
)n addition to the above discussed current series feedback and voltage series feedback$ there
are several other methods of providing negative feedback in amplifiers. "ome of them are
voltage shunt feedback and current shunt feedback. !hese types of feedbacks will be
discussed at appropriate situations in further lessons.
213
214
RC PHASE SHI3T OSCILLATOR
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the essential re+uirements to make an oscillator
2. state the value of the loop gain k%$ to have self, sustained oscillation
3. write the circuit schematic of a transistor 79 phase,shift oscillator
4. state the e+uation for fre+uency of oscillations in a transistor phase,shift oscillator
5. state the e+uation for finding the re+uired minimum /3 of the transistor in a 79 oscillator.
215
)t was discussed in lesson 11.11 that positive feedback results in converting an amplifier into
an oscillator. !o provide positive feedback the feedback signal$ should be in phase with the
input signal such that it adds up with the input signal.
)n practice$ an oscillator will have no input %9 signal at all$ but it still generates %9 signal. %n
oscillator will have only a 39 supply. !he oscillator circuit$ makes use of the noise generated
in resistors at the switching on time of 39 supply and sustains the oscillations.
!o build an oscillator$ the following are essentialG
10%n amplifier
20% circuit which provides positive feedback from output to input.
!he gain of an amplifier with feedback is given by$
k%
v
is known as the loop gain of the amplifier. 'hen the sign associated with k%
v
is negative$
the denominator has value more than 1. %nd$ hence$ the value of %
vf
will always be less than
%
v
/negative feedback0. But$ if the value of k%
v
is made larger$ such that$ it approaches unity$
and$ if the sign associated with k%
v
is negative then the value of the denominator decreases
to less than 1$ and hence$ %
vf
will be larger than %
v
.
)f the loop gain k%
v
is made e+ual to 1$ and$ if the sign of k%
v
$ is made positive$ i.e. by feeding
back signal which is in,phase with the input signal$ then there will be an output signal even
though there is no e(ternal input signal. )n other words$ an amplifier is modified to be an
oscillator by positive feedback such that it supplies its own input signal.
E0a,("e: %n amplifier has a voltage gain of 41 without feedback. 3etermine the voltage
gains when positive feedback of the following amounts is applied.
/i0k K 1.11 /ii0 k K 1.12 /iii0 k K 1.125
SOL1TION
)n /iii0 the gain of the amplifier become infinite when the loop gain k%
v
K I1. !his is known as
the critical value of the loop gain k%
v
. )t is important to note that the output voltage cannot be
infinite. )nstead the amplifier will start working as an oscillator without the need of any
separate input. )f the feedback path contains a fre+uency selective network$ the re+uirement
of k%
v
K 1 can be met at only one particular fre+uency$ such that$ the output of the oscillator
will be a sinusoidal signal of a particular fre+uency. "uch oscillators are known as sine wave
oscillators.
216
5ne of the simplest form of sine wave oscillators is the phase shift oscillator. &ig 1 shows the
principle behind an 7.9 phase shift oscillator.
!he feedback network shown in &ig 1 consists of resistors and capacitors which provide the
re+uired phase shift of 1-1H. 3ue to the presence of capacitors in the feedback network$ the
feedback network can be so designed to provides the re+uired phase shift of e(actly 1-1H at
a particular fre+uency f given by$
!he other condition to be satisfied for oscillations to occur is that$ the loop gain k%
v
should be
e+ual to unity. !o satisfy this condition$ using classical network analysis$ it can be found that$
the value of k should be$ k K1* 2.
!herefore$ the voltage gain of the amplifier %
v
stage must be greater than 1*k or greater than
2. so that k%
v
becomes e+ual to 1.
T#ansist!# RC (&ase s&i't !sci""at!#
&ig 2 shows a single transistor phase shift oscillator using resistors and capacitors in a
feedback network.
217
!here are three sections of 7 and 9 in the feedback network. ;ach 79 section provides a
61H phase shift at a specific fre+uency$ resulting in a 1-1H phase shift as re+uired for positive
feedback. !his satisfies one of the two re+uired conditions for oscillations.
)n &ig 2$ the feedback signal is coupled through a feedback resistor 7= in series with the
amplifier stage input resistance 7
in
. 7esistor 7= can be made variable for adCusting the
oscillator fre+uency. &or each of the three sections of 7
c
phase shift network to produce 61H
phase shift$ it is necessary that 9
1
K 9
2
K 9
3
and 7
1
K 7
2
K 7e I 7
in.
!he other re+uired condition for oscillation$ i.e. loop gain k%
v
to be unity is satisfied by the
circuit at &ig 2$ when of the transistor used in the circuit is$
where$ 71 K 72 K 7
'hen is at least the value given by e+uation V2W or greater than$ the circuit at &ig 2 it will
oscillate.
P#actica" t#ansist!# RC (&ase s&i't !sci""at!#
&ig 3 shows a practical transistor 79 phase shift oscillator which is similar to that shown in
&ig 2.
218
)n &ig 3 note that resistor 7
3
/in &ig 2 it is denoted as 7=0 used for fre+uency adCustments is
connected in series with one of the resistors of the 79 section. 7esistor 7
4
provides the
necessary bias stabiliation for the transistor operation. 2ote that a small value capacitor9
4
is
connected in shunt with the input. !he purpose of 9
4
is to bypass the unwanted high
fre+uency oscillations to ground. !he value of 7
3
can be varied to adCust the fre+uency of
oscillations. >owever$ the variation that can be obtained by 7
3
is limited.
&or the circuit at &ig 3$ the fre+uency of oscillation is given by$
where 9 K 9
1
K 9
2
K 9
3
!he minimum value of h
fe
or of the transistor used in the circuit at &ig 3 should be$
using the component values at &ig 3$ the of the transistor used should be a minimum of$
TIP: !he fre+uency of oscillations can be increased by decreasing the value of 7 or by
decreasing the value of 9.
219
)n the practical circuit at &ig 3$ collector feedback bias is employed to ensure that the
transistor will never go to saturation. 5ther biasing techni+ues such as voltage divider bias
can also be used for dc biasing of the transistor. "ince the fre+uency of oscillations is decided
only by the feedback phase shift network$ biasing resistors will not have any effect on the
fre+uency of oscillations. !he important point to be noted is that the ` of the transistor should
be higher than the minimum given in e+uation 2 to have sustained oscillations.
220
SI9PLE SERIES RE81LATOR
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the disadvantages of a ener regulator
2. state the working of a simple series regulator
3. design a simple series regulator for a re+uired dc output voltage.
221
8oltage regulated power supply using ener diode discussed in previous @esson is the
simplest form of voltage regulator. But$ ener voltage regulators have two main
disadvantages#
'hen the load current re+uirement is higher$ say of the order of a few amperes$ the
ener regulator re+uires a very high wattage ener diode capable of handling high
current.
)n a ener regulator$ the load resistor sees an output impedance of appro(imately the
ener impedance$ 7

which ranges from a few ohms to a few tens of ohms /typically

5O to 25O0.!his is considerably high output impedance because the output impedance
of a ideal power supply should be ero ohms.
!hese two disadvantages of ener regulators are over,come in a simple series regulator
shown in &ig 1 a.
!he simple series regulator shown in &ig 1a$ redrawn in &ig 1 b is nothing but a ener
regulator followed by an emitter follower. % circuit like this can hold the load voltage almost
constant$ thus working as a voltage regulator.
!he advantages of this circuit are listed belowG
222
;- Less "!a !n t&e +ene# i!e-
9urrent through 7 is the sum of current Cust re+uired to keep the ener fired and the small
base current )
B
.
"ince the base current is very much smaller than the emitter current or the load current$ a
very small wattage ener diode itself is sufficient.
&or instance for a load of say 1 amp$ if the pd$ of the transistor is 111$ then the ener diode
need to handle only$
"ince )
/min0
will generally be in the range of 5 to 11m%$
)

K 11m% I 11m% K 21m%.

<- L!$e# !)t()t i,(eance
)f the ener resistance$ 7

is say 7O$ then$ in a ener regulator discussed in

unit .$ the output impedance of the power supply will be appro(imately e+ual to
7 K 7 O.
&ig 2 shows the output e+uivalent circuit of the series regulator at &ig 1. %s shown in &ig 2$
the output impedance of the power supply will be$

223
"ince 1
;
is very large /load current0$ re
e
will be comparatively small$ hence the term re
e
can be
neglected. !herefore$ in &ig 1 the output impedance will be$
!his low output impedance of 1.17O is close to the ideal output impedance of ero re+uired
for a power supply.
W!#.in% !' a si,("e se#ies #e%)"at!#
)n &ig 1b$ the current through 7
s
should be at least e+ual to ener breakdown current$ plus$
base current for the transistor P. !he voltage across the ener$ 8

drives the base of the

emitter follower. !herefore$ the 39 output voltage is bootstrapped to within one 8
B;
drop of
the ener voltage. !he regulated de output voltage will be$
8
out
K 8

, 8
B;
MMMMV1W
!he collector, emitter voltage across the transistor will be the difference in the voltage
between the input and output.
8
9;
K 8
in
, 8
out
)f the input voltage 8
in
increases$ the output voltage 8
out
remains constant due to the
bootstrapped ener voltage. !herefore$ the drop across the collector,emitter$ 8
9;
of the
transistor increases compensating the rise in the input voltage 8
i
.
&or e(ample$ in the series regulator shown in &ig 1$ if 8
in
is 15 8 and 8out 8
out
is 12 volts$
then$ 89; will be$
8
9;
K 8
in
, 8
out
K 15,12K38.
)f 8
in
increases to say 21 8$ then 8
9;
increases to 21,12K- 8$ thus keeping the output voltage
unaltered at 12 volts. "ince the collector and emitter of the transistor in &ig 1 is in series with
the input and output terminals$ this type of regulators are known as series voltage regulators.
Because the transistor is in series$ all the load current must pass through the transistor.
>ence the transistor is referred to as the pass transistor. Because of the fact$ that all the load
current must flow through the pass transistor and that the value of 8
9;
increases when 8
in
increases$ the wattage rating of the pass transistor should be high enough to handle the
dissipation. &or instance$ while supplying a load current of 311 m%$ with 8
in
at 21 8 and 8
out
at
128$ 8
9;
will be - 8. !herefore$ the dissipation at the transistor will be$
4
3
K 8
9;
E )
@
K - ( 311 m% K 2411 mw K 2.4 watts
!o accommodate this$ the wattage rating of the chosen pass transistor should be greater than
2.4 watts.
TIP: %llow at least 21J higher rating. &or the e(ample above$ choose a transistor of rating
2.4 I 1.4- watts
3
3 watts.
224
Because there will be +uite a high dissipation depending on load current re+uirement$
medium to high power transistors are used as pass transistors.
Te,(e#at)#e e''ect !n !)t()t v!"ta%e
'hen temperature increases$ 8
B;
decreases. !herefore$ 8
out
decreases by the change of
current in 8
B;
. 3ata sheets of transistors usually give information about how much 8
B;
changes with temperature. &or all practical purposes$ an appro(imate of 2 m8 decreases in
8
B;
for each degree rise in temperature. &or instance when the temperature of the transistor
rises from 25H9 /room temperature0 to 75H9 /due to power dissipation at the transistor0$ 8
B;
decreases appro(imately 111 m8. >ence$ the output will increases by 111 m8. !his is
relatively small$ and hence$ can be neglected. !emperature also has an effect on the voltage
across the ener. %ny increase or decrease in the voltage across the ener is reflected at the
output. >ence$ while choosing the ener$ it is e+ually important to know the temperature
coefficient of the ener$ especially when the power supply is connected to higher loads of the
order of a few amperes.
Desi%n %)ie"ines '!# a si,("e se#ies #e%)"at!#
Example: &or the series regulator shown in &ig 1$ find the values of the components for an
output voltage of 12 volts. !he input unregulated 39 voltage 8
in
to the regulation may vary
158 to 1-8. !he load resistor 7
@
is 22112
Ste( ;
3inin% +ene# v!"ta%e #atin%
7e+uired output voltage 8
out
K 12.
8
out
K 8

, 8
B;
or$ 8

K 8
out
I 8
B;
K 12 I 1.7 K 12.78
"ince the nearest value is 12 8$ choose a ener of voltage 12 8.
% ener$ of 12 8$ U5J rating will have output of 128 I 1.68K 12.6 8. >ence practically the
output voltage of the regulator will be 12.6 , 1.7 8 K 11... >ence for further calculations 8out
is taken as appro(imately 12 8.
Ste( <
3inin% t&e va")e !' R
s+
an t&e $atta%e !' t&e +ene# i!e-
a0 %t the given$ /the worst case0 minimum 8
in
of 158$ the minimum current through the ener
to be in break,down condition
3
11 m%.
b0 'hen 8in K 1- 8 /given0

!herefore the wattage of ener should be$
4

K 8

( )
s
K 12 ( 1-.2 m% K 21- m'.
>ence$ a 1*4 watts$ 128 ener is sufficient.
225
Ste( =
3inin% $atta%e #atin% !' (ass t#ansist!#-
a0 &or a load of 22152$ the load current will be$ 8oid 12

b0 <a(imum power is dissipated in the transistor$ when
/i0 8in is ma(imum$ i.e. 8in K 1- 8.
and /ii0 @oad current is ma(imum$ i.e. )@ K 55 m%.
!herefore$ 4ower rating of pass transistor 4P should be$
4
P
K 8
9;
E )
@
K /8
in
, 8
out
0 E )
@
K /1-,120 ( 55 m%
K 68 ( 55 m%
K 331 mwatts
9hoose any transistor with a power rating of 21J more than 4
P
ie. 331 I 66 K 3.6 mw
411m'
25!;# &or further calculations "@ 111 is chosen as the pass transistor although its wattage
rating is less than 1watt. !he damage to the transistor can be avoided if load current is
restricted to g2-m%.
c0 !he base current for the chosen pass transistor "@111*>@111 has `
dc
between 51 to 211.
%ssuming an average `
dc
of -1$

!otal ma(imum ener current )

will be$ )

K)
s
, )
B

)

K 1-.2 m% , 1.6.m% 17.5m%.

Ste( @
3inin% t&e !)t()t i,(eance !' t&e #e%)"at!#- %ssuming the ener resistance$ 7

K 7O

where$

and$
!herefore$

226
25!;# re
e
is high because )@ is low. )f )@ is high then 14 e becomes very small.
Ste( A
3inin% V
!)t
va#iati!ns '!# &i%&e# "!as-
)f the load resistance is decreased from 221O to 1-1O$ the load current increases from 55
m% to 67 m%. !his change in 12 m% of load$ decreases the load voltage by$
h8
@
K /h)
@
0 /6
out
0
!herefore$
h8
@
K /12m%0 /1.54-O0 K 6.5- m8
!his change is negligible compared to 128 and hence$ for all practical purposes$ the output
voltage can be taken as well regulated.
P!$e# s)(("* c&a#acte#istics
% power supply is said to be good$ if its output voltage changes by as small a value as
possible when the load current changes or when the input voltage changes. !hese are
specified in terms referred as$
@oad regulation
"ource regulation Valso called line regulation.W
L!a #e%)"ati!n
@oad regulation is defined as the change in the regulated output voltage when the load
current changes from the minimum to the ma(imum.
@oad regulation K 8
2@
, 8
&@
'here$ 8
2@
K output voltage at no,load
8
&@
K output voltage at full,load.
&or instance$ in the regulated power supply designed above$ it has 128 across its output
when the load is not connected and$ 11.- 8 when the rated full load is connected. !he load
regulation of this power supply is given by$
@oad regulation K 8
2@
, 8
&@
K 128 , 11.-8 K 1.28
@oad regulation is generally e(pressed as a percentage. 4ercentage regulation is calculated
as followsG

4ercentage load regulation in the e(ample considered above will be$

!)4# @ower the J load regulation value$ the better is the +uality of the power supply.
227
Line #e%)"ati!n
@ine regulation is the change in the regulated load voltage for the specified range of input
voltage or line voltage. @ine voltage generally means the mains %9 supply voltage.
&or e(ample$ if the output voltage /also referred to as load voltage0 changes from 12 8 to
11.6 8 when the line voltage changes from 241 to 211 8$ then the line regulation of the power
supply is$
@ine regulation K 12 , 11.68 K 1.48.
@ine regulation is also generally in percentage as$
J @ine regulation K
&or the above e(ample$
J @ine regulation K 1.4*12E111 K 3.33J.
TIP: @ower the J line regulation the better is the +uality of the regulated power supply.
Ri(("e #ejecti!n
8oltage regulators not only regulate or stabilie the output voltage against changes in the
load current and input voltage but also reduce or attenuate the ripple that comes with the
input voltage. !his is because of the fact that the ripple in the input is e+uivalent to a change
in the input voltage$ the voltage regulator reduces the effect of these changes at the output.
7ipple reCection /770 is e(pressed as a ratio of the amount of ripple at the output and that at
the input. 77 is e(pressed usually in decibels. &or e(ample$ if 77 is specified as -1db$ it
means that the ripple at the output is -1 db or 11$111 times less than the ripple at the input.
25!;# 'ith an intension to further reduce the ripple in the regulated output some series
regulator circuits use a small value electrolytic capacitor at the output.
"ummariing$ the advantages of simple series regulators over ener regulators are$
reduced wattage re+uirement of ener diode
reduced output impedance
increased load and line regulation
reduced ripple at the output.
228
SERIES RE81LATOR WITH VOLTA8E-3EEDBAC5 RE81LATION
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. write the blocks of a series regulator and e(plain their functions
2. write a simple series regulator circuit and e(plain the function of each component
3. design a series regulator for a given input,output specification.
229
SERIES RE81LATOR
)n lesson a simple series regulator$ consisting of a ener diode and an emitter follower was
discussed. !hat was an improvement over the ener regulator. )t is possible to further
improve the voltage regulation of the simple series regulator by providing a voltage feed back
as shown in &ig 2. !o understand this circuit better$ consider the block diagram of series
voltage regulator with feed back as shown in &ig 1.
)n &ig 1$ the control element generally a pass transistor controls the amount of input voltage
that gets to the output. !he output voltage is sampled by the sampling circuit. !he sampled
voltage provides a feed,back volt,age to the comparator. !he other input to the comparator is
the reference voltage$ generally using a ener diode.
)f the output voltage increases /or tends to increase0$ the sampling circuit provides a sample
of the increase to the comparator. !he comparator circuit provides a control voltage /based
on the amount of increased output0 to the series element to decrease the output voltage$
thereby maintaining the output voltage constant. 5n the other hand$ if the output voltage
decreases /or tends to decrease0 due to higher load current$ the comparator provides a
control signal to the series element to increase the output voltage$ thereby maintaining the
output voltage constant.
&rom &ig 1$ it can be seen that the negative feedback provided will hold the output voltage
almost constant despite the relative large changes in the input voltage and load current.
P#actica" t#ansist!# se#ies #e%)"at!# $it& 'eebac.
&ig 2 shows a practical circuit schematic of a series regulator.
230
!ransistor P
1
is the pass transistor or the control element. %s in a simple series regulator$ the
pass transistor P
1
is connected as an emitter follower. !herefore$ its base voltage is one 8
B;
/1.780 higher than the output voltage 8
out
across the load. !ransistor P
2
does the Cob of a
comparator. !his transistor P
2
$ operates in the active region as a linear amplifier. !he ener
diode 6 provides the necessary reference voltage. )n critical applications$ eners having a
temperature coefficient approaching ero are used.
TIP: 6ener voltages near 6 8 have temperature a coefficient approaching ero.
!he voltage divider network$ 7
1
and 7
2
form the sampling circuit. !he voltage divider samples
the output voltage 8
out
$ and provides a feedback voltage 8
&
to the base of P
2
. !he feedback
voltage 8
&
varies the collector current of P
2
. &or instance$ if 8out tries to increase$ more 8
&
is
fed to the base of P
2
. !his produces larger P
2
collector current through 7
B
. @arger collector
current of P
2
results in increased voltage drop across 7
B
and reduced voltage at the collector
of P
2
. 7educed collector voltage at P2 means$ less base voltage at P
1
. !he reduction in the
base voltage of P
1
results in reduced output voltage /recall P
1
is an emitter follower0.
"imilarly$ if the output voltage tries to decrease$ there will be less feedback voltage 8
&
.
!herefore$ less base voltage at P
2
resulting in less collector current of P
2
. !his results in
more base voltage at P
1
$ and therefore$ more output voltage across the load. )t is important to
remember that the 8
9;
drop across the pass transistor P
1
will be the difference between the
input voltage 8
in
and the output voltage 8
out
$ as shown in &ig 3.
231
Si,("e esi%n %)ie"ines
%ssuming an unregulated input of 348 to the regulator to the designed. 7eferring to &ig 2$ the
output voltage 8out$ is applied to the voltage divider formed by 7
1
and 7
2
. !he feedback
fraction k is given by$
k K 7
2
*/7
1
I 7
2
0 MMMM.. V1W
TIP: !he feedback factor k will always be less than 1.
!he feedback voltage 8
&
will be$
8
&
K k.8
out
$
k.8
out
is also given by$
k.8
out
K 8
6
I 8
B;
!herefore$
8
out
K/ 8
6
I 8
B;
0*k MMMM.V2W
'here$
8
out
K 7egulated output voltage
k K &eedback factor
8
6
K 6ener voltage
8
B;
K base,emitter voltage of P
2
.
)f 7
1
K 331O and 7
2
K 1.5 F O$ using e+n 1$
k K 1511*/331 I 15110 K 1.-1..
)f a ..18 ener is chosen$ then 8
out
$ will be$ using e+n 2$
8
out
K /..1 I 1.70* 1.-1. K 11..65 i 12 volts.
!ransistor P
2
can be any silicon small signal transistor such as B9 147.
9urrent through the voltage divider 7
1
$ 7
2
will be$
TIP: )d should be preferably below 11m%. !his is because this current is also a load to the
pass transistor.
%ssuming a ma(imum load current )
@
of 61 m%$ the pass transistor has to pass this current.
%ssuming the worst case p of -1 for the pass transistor$

232
!he base current of P
1
has to be supplied by P
2
. )f 7
B
K 3.3F$ the voltage at the collector of
P
2
will be one 8
B;
drop more than the 8
out
/1280. !hat is$
8
9
of P
2
K 12 I 1.7 K 12.7.
!herefore$ current )$ through 7
B
will be$
NOTE: ?nregulated input voltage 8
in
given at the time of design is 1-8.
%s shown in &ig 4$ collector current of P2 is$
)
9P2
K )
2
L 1
BP1
K 1.6m% , 1.-3m% K 1.77m%.
)f 7
"6
is -21O$ current )
1
$ through it is$
9urrent )$ through the ener diode is$
)
6
K )
1
I 1
;P2
K 11.-5m% I 1.77m% K 11.62m%.
)
;P2
i)
9P2
. "ince )
9P2
K 1.77m%$ )
;P2
is also taken as 1.77m%.
6ener wattage rating is given by$
4
6
K 8
6
( )
6
K ..18 ( 11.62m% i 116 m watts.
233
>ence a 1*4' ener is sufficient for this circuit.
<a(imum current$ 1
;
through the pass transistor P
1
is$ the sum of$ load current )
@
and voltage
divider circuit current )
d
which is e+ual to 61m% I 6.5m% K 66.5m%.
!herefore$ 4ower dissipation across P
1
at ma(imum input voltage and ma(imum load current
is$
4
3
K 8
9;
( )
;
K /1- ,120/66.5m%0 K 3.. m watts.
%ny medium power silicon transistor which has a power rating of at least 511 m watt$ such as
"@ 111 or 93111 can be chosen as the 4ass transistor.
"ummariing$ the values of components in the feed,back series regulator.
9ircuit shown in &ig 2 are$
P
1
# !ransistor with `/min0 of -1 4ower dissipation 511mw/min0 9ollector
current 66.5m%/min0
P
2
# !ransistor with ` /typ0 of -1 9ollector current 1.77m%/min0 4ower
dissipation 25mw/min0
6 # ..18 ener$ 1*4watt
7
"6
# 1.-FO$ 1*2'$ 11J
7
B
# 3.3FO$ 1*4'$ 11J
7
1
# 331O$ 1*4'$ 5J
7
2
#1.5FO$ 1*4'$ 5J
25!; # <ore accurate the values of 7
1
and 7
2
$ better will the feedback voltage and hence
the regulation. !herefore the tolerance value of 7
1
and 7
2
is chosen as 5J.
234
INTE8RATED CIRC1IT VOLTA8E RE81LATORS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the meaning of integrated circuits
2. state the two main types of )9 voltage regulators with e(amples
3. design voltage regulators for the re+uired output
4. modify a fi(ed voltage regulator to a variable output regulator.
235
INTROD1CTION
;lectronic circuits invariably consist of a number of discrete components connected to each
other in a specific way. &or instance$ the series regulator circuit discussed in earlier lessons$
consisted of transistors$ ener diodes$ resistors and so on$ connected in a defined way for it
to function as a regulator. )f all these components instead of building on a boardG if they are
built on a single wafer of a semiconductor crystal$ then$ the physical sie of the circuit
becomes very very small. %lthough small$ this will do the same Cob as that of the circuit wired
using discrete components. "uch miniaturied electronic circuits produced within and upon a
single crystal$ usually silicon$ are known as integrated circuits or )9s. )ntegrated circuits /l9s0
can consist of thousands of active components like transistor$ diodes and passive
components like resistors and capacitors in some specific order such that they function in a
defined way$ say as voltage regulators or amplifiers or oscillators and so on.
C"assi'icati!n !' inte%#ate ci#c)its
)ntegrated circuits may be classified in several ways. >owever the most popular
classifications is as follows#
;- Base !n its t*(e !' ci#c)it#*
VaW%nalog )9s , ;(ample# amplifier )9s$ voltage regulator )9s etc.
VbW3igital )9s , ;(ample# 3igital gates$ flip,flops$ adders etc.
<- Base !n t&e n),be# !' t#ansist!#s b)i"t int! IC
VaW"mall scale integration /"")0 , consists of 1 to 11 transistors.
VbW<edium scale integration /<")0 , consists of 11 to 111 transistors.
VcW@arge scale integration /@")0 , 111 to 1111 transistors.
VdW8ery large scale integration /8@")0 ,1111 and above.
=- Base !n t&e t*(e !' t#ansist!#s )se
VaWBipolar , carries both electron and hole current.
VbW<etal o(ide semiconductor /<5"0 , electron or hole current.
VcW9omplementary metal o(ide semiconductor /9<5"0 , electron or hole current.
25!;# !he terms <5" and 9<5" are another type of transistors which will be discussed in
further lessons. &urther details on different classifications of )9s will be discussed at
appropriate lessons.
Inte%#ate ci#c)it >IC? v!"ta%e #e%)"at!#s
!he series voltage regulators discussed in earlier les,sons are available in the form of
integrated circuits /)9s0. !hey are known as voltage regulator )9s.
!here are two types of voltage regulator )9s. !hey are$
1 &i(ed output voltage regulator )9s
2 %dCustable output voltage regulator )9s.
3i0e !)t()t v!"ta%e #e%)"at!# ICs
!he latest generation of fi(ed output voltage regulator )9s have only three pins as shown in
&ig 1. !hey are designed to provide either positive or negative regulated 39 output voltage.
236
!hese )9s consists of all those components and even more in the small packages shown in
&ig 1. !hese )9s$ when used as voltage regulators$ do not need e(tra components other than
two small value capacitors as shown in &ig 2.
!he reason behind using capacitor 9
1
is when the voltage regulator )9 is more than a few
inches from the filter capacitors of the unregulated power supply$ the lead inductance may
produce oscillations within the )9. 9apacitor 9
1
prevents setting up of such oscillations.
!ypical value of bypass capacitor 9
1
range from 1.221T& to 1T&. )t is important to note that
91 should be connected as close to the )9 as possible. !he capacitor 9
2
is used to improve
the transient response of the regulated output voltage. 9
2
bypasses these transients
produced during the 52*5&& time. !ypical values of 9
2
range from 1.1 T& to 11 T&. &i(ed
voltage three terminal regulators are available from different )9 manufacturers for different
output voltages /such as 58$ .8$ 128$ 2480 with ma(imum load current rating ranging from
111m% to more than three amps.
!he most popular three terminal )9 regulators are$
10@<EEE,E series ;(ample# @<321,5$ @<321,24 etc.
207-EE and 7.EE series ;(ample# 7-15$ 7-12$ 7.12 etc.
% list of popular three terminal regulators is given in 4ocket !able Book$ !able 2o.31.
237
S(eci'icati!ns !' t&#ee te#,ina" IC #e%)"at!#s
&or simplicity in understanding$ let us consider the specification of a three terminal )9
T%7-12. !he table given below lists the specifications of T%7-12.
IO)t()t v!"ta%e:
!his specification indicates the regulated 39 output voltage that can be obtained from the )9.
%s can be seen from the sample specification table given above$ the manufacturer specifies
minimum$ typical and ma(imum output voltages. 'hile using this )9 take the typical value as
this value corresponds to the output voltage at )9 under normal input and load conditions.
IO)t()t #e%)"ati!n
!his indicates the amount by which the output voltage may vary at rated ma(imum load
condition. &or e(ample$ in T%7-12 )9$ the output voltage may vary by 4 m8 from its rated 12
8 39 when the rated typical load current is 2.2%.
IS&!#t ci#c)it !)t()t c)##ent
!his indicates the shorted current )sc /recall lesson 11.140 if the output gets shorted. )n T%
7-12 the output current is limited to 351m% when the output terminals are shorted.
!hese regulators also use fold back current limiting which was discussed in lesson 11.14.
>ence )sc will be less than )@.
ID#!( !)t v!"ta%e
&or instance$ in T%7-12 in which the output voltage is I12 8$ the input unregulated 39
voltage to the regulator must be higher than the output voltage. !he specification drop out
voltage indicates$ the minimum positive difference between the input and output voltages for
the )9 to operate as a regulator. &or e(ample$ in$ T%7-12 the unregulated input voltage
should be at least 2 volts more than the regulated 39 output of 128. !his means for p%7-12
the input must be at least 148.
!he difference between the voltage across the input and output of the )9 should also not to
be very high as this causes unwanted dissipation. %s a thumb rule$ the input voltage to the
regulator shall be restricted to a ma(imum of twice the output voltage of the regulator. &or
238
e(ample$ for T%7-12$ the unregulated input voltage should be more than 148$ but less than
248.
I Ri(("e #ejecti!n
!his indicates the ratio of ripple reCection between the output to input$ e(pressed in decibels.
IPea. !)t()t c)##ent
!his indicates the highest output or load current that can be drawn. %bove this rated
ma(imum current the safety of the )9 is not granted.
Ienti'icati!n !' !)t()t v!"ta%e an #ate ,a0i,), "!a c)##ent '#!, IC t*(e n),be#
S7-01/ and 7.01/ series are 3 !erminal voltage regulators.
S%ll 7-EE series are positive output voltage regulators.
S%ll 7.EE series are negative output voltage regulators.
!he term EE indicates the rated output regulated voltage.
E0a,("e:
)t is important to note that$ different manufacturers of 7-EE* 7.EEseries such as &air 9hild
/T%*Tpc0$ <otorola$ and "ignetics /""0 adopt slightly different coding schemes to indicate the
rated ma(imum current of the three pin regulated )9s. 5ne such scheme is given below.
7-@EE , @ indicates rated ma(imum load current as 111m%.
7-<EE , < indicates rated ma(imum load current as 511m%
7-EE , %bsence of an alphabet between 7- and EE indicates that the rated ma(imum load
current is 1%.
7-"EE , " indicates rated ma(imum load current is 2 amps.
E0a,("e:
239
7efer !able book$ !able 2o.31 for 7-EE and 7.EE series of fi(ed voltage$ 3 terminal voltage
regulators.
L9 =JJ se#ies !' = te#,ina" v!"ta%e #e%)"at!#s
)n @< series of three terminal regulators$ to find the specifications$ it is suggested to refer to
its data manual. >owever$ the following tipswill help in identifying whether the )9 is a fi(ed
positive or fi(ed negative regulator.
@<321,E and @<321,EEj &i(ed ,ve voltage regulators.
@<341,E or @<341,EE j&i(ed Ive voltage regulators.
E0a,("es:
P#actica" KHJJ an KLJJ v!"ta%e #e%)"at!# ci#c)its
&ig 3 shows the circuit connections of a 12 8$ 1 % regulated power supply using 7-12.
!he output voltage of a 3,terminal regulator )9 is with reference to the )9=s common terminal
/95<0. 'hen the 95< terminal is grounded$ the output voltage of the regulator will be the
specified output voltage of the )9 as shown in &ig 3. But the output voltage of the )9 can be
increased above the specified value by raising the volt,age at the 95< terminal as shown in
&ig 4. Because of 6.18 ener$ the output voltage will be 6.18 I 128 K 1-.18 or appro(imately
1-8 as shown in &ig 4.
240
'hen the 95< terminal of the )9 is grounded as shown in &ig 3$ the +uiescent current
flowing from the 95< terminal to ground in 7- series is around - T%. !his current decreases
as the load current increases. 'hen a ener is connected at 95< terminal as shown in &ig
4$ to ensure that the ener is always in the reverse 52 condition$ resistor 7
1
is used. )f 7
1
K
1.-F$ l

will be 7m% which is sufficient to keep the ener 52 always. &ig 5 shows a variable
output voltage regulator using a fi(ed voltage regulator. !he variable reference voltage at
95< terminal is obtained using a 45!.
"ince the +uiescent current through the pot is very low /around -T%0 and it decreases with
load resistor 71 is used to compensate the changes in the +uiescent current due to loading.
!herefore$ the bias voltage is determined by the sum of the +uiescent current la and the bias
current set by 71. )n &ig 5$ when the resistance of the 45! is set to 1$ 95< is grounded and
hence output will be 128. %s the set value of pot increases the output voltage also increases.
&ig 6 shows a negative voltage regulator using 7.12. !he working of this circuit is similar to
that of &ig 7 e(cept that it is a negative voltage regulator and hence the voltage at pin no.3 of
the )9 will be ,12volts.
&ig 7 shows a I15 volts regulator using @<341. !his circuit connection is very much similar to
that of the 7-01/ series regulator.
241
9)"ti("e v!"ta%e )sin% t&#ee te#,ina" 'i0e v!"ta%e #e%)"at!#
&ig - shows how a three,terminal )9 can be used to obtain multiple voltages. "uch
economical and elegant circuits are very useful for electronic circuits and for service
technicians.
7ecall$ than the value input unregulated 39 to a regulator should always be less than twice
the output of the regulator. %s shown in the third regulator /7-150 of &ig -$ when it is
necessary to operate with a large input voltage$ a series resistance 7s can be added in
series to drop re+uired voltage.
3i% H
!he scheme shown in &ig - is one of the several schemes that can be adopted to get multiple
voltage output.
7efer reference books listed at the end of this book for further details on 3 pin )9 regulators
and power supply circuits.
242
IC VOLTA8E RE81LATORS - VARIABLE O1TP1T
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. draw the circuit diagram of a dual power supply
2. list a few variable regulator 3,pin )9s
3. draw the circuit diagram of a variable output regulator using a 3,pin )9
4. draw the circuit diagram of a variable output regulator using a 723 )9
5. state the functions of the e(ternal components in regulator circuits.
243
<ost electronic circuits generally need either a Ive 39 supply or a ,ve 39 supply for its
working. >owever$ there are circuits which are designed to work using both Ive and ,
supplies. %n e(ample of circuits which re+uire both Ive and ,ve supply are the 54%<4s.
54%<4s are integrated circuit amplifiers which need$ Ive supply$ ,ve supply and ground. %
typical 54%<4 circuit is shown in &ig 1.
25!;# 3etails of 54%<4s and its application is discussed in further lessons.
!herefore$ for circuits which re+uire both Ive and ,ve 39 supplies$ a single power supply
which can deliver both t 39 is re+uired to be designed. 4ower supplies which can deliver
both t 39 are generally referred to as 3ual 4ower "upply. !o design a t or dual regulated
power supply$ as a first step it is re+uired to design a t unregulated 39 supply. &ig 2 shows a
simple method of obtaining U unregulated 39 supply.
5nce$ a t unregulated 39 supply is available$ one each of Ive regulator 3,terminal )9 and a
,ve regulator 3, terminal )9 can be attached$ to obtain a U regulated 39 supply. 5ne such t
regulated 39 supply using 7-12 /Ive regulator0 and 7.12 eve regulator0 is shown in &ig 3.
244
!he Ive and ,ve regulator circuits shown in &ig 3 are similar to those discussed in lesson
11.15 but for the diodes 31 and 32. !he function of these diodes is very important. )f these
diodes are not used$ the regulator )9s may get damaged due to common load problems. !he
term common load means$ a load connected across the Ive and ,ve outputs of the regulator
as shown in &ig 4. Because of the fact that these common leads does not make use of the
ground /A230 several problems occur when the supply is switch 52$ in case of over loads
and so on /&or further details on common,load problems in dual supplies refer reference
books listed at the end of this book0. >ence to avoid the common load problem in dual power
supplies diodes 31 and )3$ are very essential.
Va#iab"e/aj)stab"e !)t()t v!"ta%e #e%)"at!#s
% number of )9 voltage regulators are available using which an adCustable output voltage of
1.28 to 32 volts can be obtained. %mongst these adCustable output voltage regulators$ there
are two types#
3,!erminal variable output voltage regulators )9s <ulti,terminal variable output voltage
regulator )9s
=-Te#,ina" va#iab"e !)t()t #e%)"at!#s ICs
!hese )9s look like 3,terminal fi(ed output voltage regulators as shown in &ig 3. % few
e(amples of 3,terminal adCusted output voltage regulator )9s are$
Z@<117 5utput adCustable from 1.2 8 to 37 8
245
Z@<317 5utput adCustable from 1.2 8 to 32 8
Z@<33- 5utput adCustable from 1.2 8 to 32 8
Z@<351 5utput adCustable from 1.2 8 to 33 8
!hese variable output voltage regulator )9s are designed for adCustable output voltage$ unlike
the fi(ed output ",pin regulators such as 7-12$ @< 341,5 etc which can be modified to get
variable output voltage.
&ig 5 shows a basic variable output voltage regulator.
)n the circuit at &ig 3$ if the adCustment terminal /%3D0 is grounded$ the output of the regulator
will be 1.2 volts. !o obtain a higher output voltage a small reference voltage is given at %3D
using a voltage divider circuit consisting of 7$ and 72 as shown in &ig 5. 'ith this the
regulated output voltage is appro(imately given by
% practical version of the circuit at &ig 3 is shown in &ig 6. !his circuit uses a few bypass
capacitors and protection diodes.
)n &ig 6$ capacitor 9$ is used to prevent setting up of the oscillations and should be
connected as close to )9 as possible. 9apacitor 92 is used to improve the ripple in the output
voltage. 2ote that the value of 93 should not be very high /recall$ surge current0. 9apacitor
92 is used to avoid e(cess ringing. 'hen e(ternal capacitors are used with any )9 regulator$
it is necessary to add protection diodes to prevent the capacitors from discharging through
low current points into the regulator. >ence$ diodes 31 and 32 are used. 31 protects the )9
against shorts due to 93 and 32 protects against shorts due to 92.
246
!he )9s @<317 and 33- have built in fold back current limiting and thermal protection. !hese
)9s are available in both plastic and metal packages with current ratings from 1.1% /@<317@0
to 5%/@<33-F0. &or other details refer 4ocket !able Book$ !able 2o.31.
25!;# @<117$ @<317 and @<33- are of the same family )9s$ and hence$ are
interchangeable. &or details refer the 2ational "emiconductor application notes.
9)"ti("e-(in-Va#iab"e v!"ta%e #e%)"at!# ICs
?nlike 3,pin fi(ed output voltage regulators and 3,pin variable output voltage regulators$
voltage regulator )9s having multiple pins are designed for versatility. !hese multiple pin )9
regulators can be used as a linear regulator /all the regulators discussed so far0$ or as a
switching regulator /to be discussed0$ or as a shunt regulator /to be discussed0 or as a
current regulator /to be discussed0. Aenerally in multiple pin types of regulators$ dissipation
limitation of the )9 packages restrict the output current to a few tens of milliamps. >owever$
e(ternal transistors can be added to obtain currents in e(cess of 5%. "ome of the multiple
pin$ versatile )9 regulators are$ @<111$ @<115$ @<215$ @<315$ p%723$ 9%31-5 and so on.
P#actica" ci#c)its )sin% K<= IC
&ig 7 shows a I58$ 51m% regulator using 723 )9.
)n &ig 5$ the internal components of the regulator )9 are shown in dotted lines. !he )9 has a
internal reference voltage of 7.15 8. !his reference voltage can be varied using a voltage
divider 71$ 72. )n &ig 7$ the regulated output voltage is given by$
!he value of 73 in &ig 7 should be chosen such that there is minimal temperature drift. !he
value of 73 should be$
7esistor 7s$ is the short circuit current
sensing resistor. !he value of 7s$ is
chosen for about 1.5 volts drop at the
ma(imum desired output current. !his
1.58 across 9@,9" input will turn on the
current limiting transistor$ Ps shutting off
the base drive to the output pass
transistor Pp.
Hi%&e# !)t()t c)##ent )sin% e0te#na"
t#ansist!#
&ig - shows a I58$ 2 amps regulator
which is a modified form of the regulator
shown in &ig 7.
247
25!; # )n most cases$ the power supply re+uirement is satisfied by the newer 3,pin variable
regulators. >ence$ multiple,pin )9 regulators are rarely used.
248
RESISTORS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the function of a resistor in a circuit
2. state the unit of resistance
3. name the two broad classifications of resistors
4. state the meaning of fi(ed value resistors
5. list the classifications of fi(ed value resistors based on their construction and material
used
6. state meaning of power rating of resistors
7. name the two methods to indicate ohmic value of a resistor on its body.
-. state the meaning of tolerance in a resistor
.. give e(amples to find the value of a resistor using color code
11. state the two important points to remember while bending resistor leads
11. state the constructional details of important types of resistors.
249
Resist!#s
7esistors are electronic components$ used to reduce$ or limit$ or resist the flow of current in
any electrical or electronic circuit. 9hart 1 at the end of this lesson shows different types of
resistors. &ig 1 shows a circuit in which the bulb glows brightly. &ig 2 shows the same circuit
with a resistor$ and the bulb glows dim. !his is becauseG the current in the circuit is reduced
by the 1111 ohms resistor. )f the value of this resistor is increased$ current in the circuit will be
further reduced and the light will glow even dimmer.
7esistors are made of materials whose conductivity fall in, between that of conductors and
insulators. !his means$ the materials used for making resistors have free electrons$ but not
as many as in conductors. 9arbon is one such material used most commonly for making
resistors. 'hen a large number of electrons are made to flow through a resistor$ there is
opposition to the free flow of electrons. !his opposition results in generation of heat.
1nit !' #esistance
!he property of the resistor to limit the flow of current is known as resistance. !he value or
+uantity of resistance is measured in units called ohms denoted by the symbol f. 7esistors
are called passive devices becauseG their resistance value does not change even when the
level of applied voltage or current to it is changed. %lso$ the resistance value remains same
when the applied voltage is %9 or 39.
7esistors can be made to have very small or very large resistance. 8ery large values of
resistances can be represented as given belowG
1111 f K 1 ( 1111 f K 1 ( kilof K 1 F f
250
11$111 f K 11 ( 1111 f K 11 ( kilo K 11 F f
111$111 f K 111 ( 1111 f K 111 ( kilo f K 111 F f
1111$111 fK 1111 ( 1111fK 1111 ( kilof K 1111 Ff$
K 1<ega f K 1<f
C"assi'icati!n !' Resist!#s
7esistors can be classified under two main categories as shown in &ig 3.
3i0e va")e #esist!#s
)ts ohmic value is fi(ed. !his value cannot be changed by the user. 7esistors of standard
fi(ed values are manufactured for use in maCority of applications. &i(ed resistors are
manufactured using different materials and by different methods. Based on the material used
and their manufacturing method*process$ resistors carry different names. &i(ed value
resistors can be classified based on the type of material used and the process of making as
follows.
4hysical appearance of some types of fi(ed value resistors is shown in 9hart 1 at the end of
this lesson.
CARBON CO9POSITION RESISTORS
C!nst#)cti!n
251
!hese are the simplest and most economical of all other types. Brief constructional detail of
the simplest type of carbon composition resistors commonly called carbon resistor is shown
in &ig 4.
3i% @
% mi(ture of finely powdered carbon or graphite /%0$ filler and binder is made into rods or
e(truded into desired shapes. @eads /B0 made of tinned copper are then attached to the body
either by soldering or embedding/90 in the body. % protective layer*tube /30 of phenolic or
Bakelite is moulded around the assembly. &inally its resistance value is marked on the body.
'efer reference books listed at the end of this unit for further details on resistor
manufacturing techni5ues.
P!$e# #atin%
%s already discussed$ when current flows through a resistor$ heat is generated. !he heat
generated in a resistor will be proportional to the product of applied voltage /80 across the
resistor and the resultant current /)0 through the resistor. !his product 8) is known as power.
!he unit of measurement of power is watts-
!he physical sie of a resistor should be sufficiently large to dissipate the heat generated.
!he higher the physical sie$ the higher is the heat that a resistor can dissipate. !his is
referred to as the power rating or wattage of resistors. 7esistors are manufacturers to
withstand different power ratings. &ig 5 illustrates comparative physical sies of different
wattage resistors. )f the product of 8 and ) e(ceeds the ma(imum wattage a resistor can
dissipate$ the resistor gets charred and loses all its property. &or instance$ if the applied
voltage across a 1 watt resistor is 11 volts resulting in 1.5 %mps of current through the
resistor$ the power dissipated /8)0 by the resistor will be 5 watts. But$ the ma(imum power
that can be dissipated by the )' resistor is much less. !herefore$ the resistor will get
overheated and gets charred due to overheat.
252
>ence$ before using a resistor$ in addition to its ohmic value$ it is important to choose the
correct wattage rating. )f in doubt$ choose a higher wattage resistor but never on the lower
side. !he power ratings of resistors are generally printed on the body of the resistor.
7esistor values , coding schemes
&or using resistors in circuits$ depending upon the type of circuit in which it is to be used$ a
particular type$ value and wattage of resistor is to be chosen. >ence before using a resistor in
any circuit$ it is absolutely necessary to identify the resistor=s type$ value and power rating.
"election of a particular type of resistor is possible based on its physical appearance. 9hart 1
at the end of this lesson illustrates the physical appearance of most commonly used fi(ed
value resistors. !he resistance value of a resistor will generally be printed on the body of the
resistor either directly in ohms as shown in &ig 6% or using a typographic code as shown in
&ig 6B or using a colour code as shown in &ig 69.
C!"!)# ban c!in% !' #esist!#s
9olour band coding as shown in &ig 69 is most commonly used for carbon composition
resistors. !his is because the physical sie of carbon composition resistor is generally small$
and hence$ printing resistance values directly on the resistor body is difficult.
T!"e#ance
)n bulk production* manufacturing of resistors$ it is difficult and e(pensive to manufacture
resistors of particular e(act values. >ence the manufacturer indicates a possible variation
from the standard value for which it is manufactured. !his variation will be specified in
percent,age tolerance. !olerance is the range /ma( ,to, min0 within which the resistance
value of the resistor will e(ist. !able 2o.6 of pocket table book gives a list of commercially
available standard resistor values. 7efer to the 4ocket !able book$ table nos 7$ - and . for
methods to read the value of resistors and their tolerance for resistors using 3 band$ 4 band
and 5 band colour coding schemes.
T*(! %#a(&ica" c!in% !' #esist!#s
)n the typographical coding scheme of indicating resistance values$ the ohmic value of the
resistor is printed on the body of the resistor using a alpha,numeric coding scheme. % few
e(amples of the generally used typo,graphical codes and their meanings with e(amples are
given in !able 2o.11.
253
25!;# *ome resistance manufacturers use a coding scheme of their own. In such cases it
will be necessary to refer to the manufacturer)s guide.
A(("icati!ns
9arbon composition$ fi(ed value resistors are the most widely used resistors in general
purpose electronic circuits such as radio$ tape recorder$ television etc. <ore than 51J of the
resistors used in electronic industry are carbon resistors.
9eas)#in% !&,ic va")e !' #esist!#s
)t is not possible to read the e(act ohmic value of a resistor from color*other coding schemes
due to manufacturing tolerance built into the resistors. !o find the e(act ohmic value of
resistors ohmmeters are used. 'hen a resistor is placed between the tests prods of an
ohmmeter as shown in &ig 7%$ the meter shows nearest to the e(act resistance of the resistor
directly on the graduated meter scale. <ultimeter is also used to measure the value of
resistors as shown in &ig 7B.'hen a multimeter is used for resistance measurement$ the
resistance range switch on the meter should be put to the most suitable resistance range$
depending upon the value of resistance being measured.
!able 2o.11 of 4ocket table book suggest the meter ranges for measuring different resistor
values accurately.
Wi#e-$!)n Resist!#s
7esistors$ in addition to having a re+uired ohmic value$ should also be capable of dissipating
the heat produced. 9arbon by its nature has a limitation in the ma(imum heat it can dissipate.
9arbon resistors become too hot when high current flows through them. !his increased heat
in carbon resistors changes the ohmic value of the resistors. "ometimes the resistors may
even burn open due to e(cessive heat. >ence carbon resistors are suited only in low power
254
circuits safely up to 2 watts. !his limitation in carbon resistors can be overcome by using
wires of resistive materials like 2ichrome$ <anganin etc.$ instead of carbon. 7esistors made
using wires of resistive materials are known as wire,wound resistors. !hese resistors can
withstand high temperature$ and still maintain the e(act ohmic values. )n addition$ wire,wound
resistors can also be made to have a fractional ohmic value which is not possible in carbon
composition resistors.
C!nst#)cti!n
!ypical construction of a fi(ed value wire,wound resistor is shown in &ig -. 5ver porcelain
former /%0$ resistive wire /B0 such as 2ichrome$ <anganin or ;ureka is wound. !he number
of turns wound depends on the resistance value re+uired. !he wire ends are attached to
terminals /30.
!he entire construction$ e(cept the terminals are coated using an insulating binder/90 such
as shellac*ceramic paste to protect the wire,wound resistor from corrosion etc. )n very high
voltage*current application$ the resistive wires are coated with vitreous enamel instead of
shellac. !he vitreous enamel coating protects the wire,wound resistor from e(treme heat and
inter,winding firing*dis,charge. /7efer reference book for details.0
Resist!# va")es
'ire,wound resistors are available from a fraction of an ohm to 111=s of Filo ohms$ with
power ratings of 1 watt to several 111s of watts. !he higher the power rating$ the thicker the
resistive wire used and bigger will be the physical sie of the wire,wound resistor.
A(("icati!ns
'ire,wound resistors are commonly used in electronic circuits where small values$ precision
values$ high watt,age ratings are re+uired. % few applications are # regulated power supplies$
amplifiers$ motor controls$ servo control circuits$ !8 receivers etc.
S(ecia" t*(es !' 'i0e va")e $i#e $!)n #esist!#s
)n applications where more than one fi(ed value wire, wound resistor is re+uired to be used$
a tapped wire wound resistor with more than one value$ made in a single unit as in &ig . can
be used.
255
!apped resistors$ whose tapings can be adCusted by adCusting the position of the sliding
collar$ are also avail,able as shown in &ig 11. !his gives the fle(ibility of varying the
resistance value between the tapings.
C!,(a#is!n !' 'i0e va")e ca#b!n an $i#e-$!)n #esist!#s
OTHER T:PES O3 RESISTORS
% brief constructional detail of some types of resistors is given in 9hart 2 at the end of this
lesson. &or further details on these types of resistors$ refer reference books listed at the end
of this book.
Resist!#s "ea benin%
!he most delicate portion of a resistor is the Coint between the leads and the resistor body.
!he leads give electrical connection to a resistor with the e(ternal circuit. 'hile connecting a
resistor in a circuit$ the leads may come across vibration$ shock$ rough handling etc. )n spite
of these$ the leads must maintain perfect electrical contact with the resistor. )f the lead Coint is
loose with the body$ it may lead to intermittent electrical contact resulting in the
malfunctioning of the circuit. 7esistors are the most common components in any electric and
electronic circuits. !he circuits may be wired on$ lug boards or on printed circuit boards.
256
'hen resistors are to be soldered on boards$ it becomes necessary to bend the leads of the
resistors to different shapes as shown in &ig 11.
'hile bending the resistor leads$ the following two vital points should always be kept in mind.
5therwise$ the strain on the lead may make the resistor=s body,to,lead connection weak.
1. 2ever bend the component as shown in &ig 12b. Bend the lead as shown in &ig 12a.
2. Bend the lead at least 2mm away from the resistor as shown in &ig 12c.
T*(es !' #esist!# "eas
7esistors are available with different types of lead attachment as shown in &ig 13. !his
makes it easy for the user to mount the resistors in different ways on lug boards$ 49Bs and
other types of circuit boards.
257
258
259
260
9EAS1RIN8 OH9IC VAL1E O3 RESISTORS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the uses of an ohmmeter
2. list the basic components of an ohmmeter
3. name the two main types of ohmmeters
4. state the difference in the scale marking in the two main types of ohmmeters
5. state the need for resistance ero setting in ohmmeters
6. name the instrument to measure very accurate resistance values
7. name the instrument to measure very high resistance values
-. ;(plain the precautions to be taken while measuring resistance.
261
OH99ETERS
% color coded resistor indicating 22f with 11J tolerance can have resistance value
anywhere between 24.2 ohms to 1..- ohms. But$ is its e(act value is still unknown. !o find
its e(act value$ a measuring instrument known as ohmmeter is used. !hese ohmmeters
indicate the resistance values directly on a calibrated scale$ as shown in &ig 1.
5hmmeters can also be used to measure the resistance of any component or circuit.
"ince an open circuit or a short circuit means$ infinite resistance and ero resistance
respectively$ ohmmeters can also be used to check open circuits and short circuits.
C!nst#)cti!n
%n ohmmeter consists of a dc current meter movement /%0$ graduated scale /B0$ a low
voltage dc power source/90 which will generally be a set of dry cells$ a current limiting
resistor /30 and a ero adCust potentiometer as shown in &ig 2.!he unknown resistance/E0
whose ohmic value is to be measured is connected across the meter terminals 41 Y 42.
!he battery makes the current to flow through the unknown resistor E. !he +uantity of
current that flows through E depends on the ohmic value of the resistor E. !his current
makes the meter movement to deflect the pointer. !he amount of deflection$ therefore$
depends on the +uantity of the current flow$ which in turn$ is dependent upon the value of
the unknown resistor E. !he scale of the meter is calibrated in ohms as shown in &ig 1.
>ence the pointer position on the graduated scale directly indicates the e(act value of the
unknown resistor
E in ohms.
262
!he ero adCust potentiometers as discussed in les,son 3.11$ is used for 7esistance ero
setting of the ohmmeter.
T*(es !' !&,,ete#s
3epending upon the type of internal circuit used$ ohmmeters are of two typesG
; "eries ohmmeter
< "hunt ohmmeter
3ifference between these types of meters and their working principle is dealt in detail in
further lessons. >owever it should be noted$ that one important difference between these
types of meters is the scale graduations. "cale markings of these two types of meters are
shown in &ig 3a Y 3b.
READIN8 ERRORS IN 9ETERS
;- E##!#s )e t! ,!vin% (a#ts
!he meter movement /label % of &ig 20 of meters depends on a magnet$ spring/s0$
bearings and several other mechanical parts. Because these mechanical parts and
pointer needle is involved in the meter movement$ the meter will have measuring error.
!his error varies along the length of its scale as shown in &ig 4. !his error will be
ma(imum at the left edge and minimum at the right edge as shown. >ence while taking
readings on a meter scale$ readings will be most accurate if the reading is taken in the
minimum error portion of the meter.
263
<- Pa#a""a0 e##!#
!his error occurs in all measuring instruments employing a graduated scale and pointer.
!his error occurs be,cause$ while taking the reading pointed by the pointer$ if the
observeres eye and the pointer is not in line and perpendicular to the plane of the scale$
the reading taken will be slightly different from that actually shown. !his is known as
4aralla( error. !o minimie this error$ always look into the meter perpendicular to plane of
the scale while taking readings.
=- Ze#! settin% e##!#s in !&,,ete#s
)n addition to the above$ since ohmmeters need an internal battery$ it is necessary to check
the internal battery voltage before using the meter. @ow battery voltage adversely affects the
accuracy of resistance measured. >ence a procedure called resistance ero setting of the
ohmmeter is carried out before measuring an unknown resistance value. 7esistance ero
setting of the meter means$ checking full scale deflection of the meter with the meter probes
shorted as shown in &ig 5. !he dry battery inside the meter becomes weak with time and use.
%s they age$ their output voltage drops. %s the voltage drops$ the current it can supply
decreases and the meter will no longer deflect full scale. ?nder this circumstance$ the
readings taken on the meter will not be accurate. !o accommodate for small variations in the
battery voltage$ a potentiometer /7
2
of &ig 50 is connected in series with the meter circuit. By
decreasing the value of this resistance$ the current in the meter circuit can be increased$ and
hence$ full scale deflection of the meter movement can be achieved. )f it is not possible to get
full scale deflection by adCusting 7
2
, it is necessary to replace the batteries with a new set$ to
get accurate readings.
264
C&!!sin% !&,,ete# #an%e
%s discussed in lesson 3.11$ to enable measurements of a wide range of resistance values
/ohms to several megohms0 multi,range ohmmeters as shown in &ig 6$ with ohms multipliers
are available. 3epending upon the value of resistance to be measured$ the most suitable
multiplier ranges can be chosen such that the meter readings is taken between the mid,
portion and right edge of the graduated scale where the meter error will be less. &or e(ample
as shown in &ig 6$ to measure a resistance value of say 211 ohms$ although this value can
be measured in x / f range$ it is better to put the multiplier switch to x /6 f range as the
pointer position in this range will be in minimum error one of the scale as shown in &igure.
<eter errors$ discussed above$ limit the accuracy of analog ohmmeters. !his is especially
true while measuring resistance of very low /less than 1 ohm0 and very high /more than a few
hundred megohms0 values.
Di%ita" !&,,ete#s
3igital meters work on the principle of digital electronics /discussed in further lessons0. !hese
meters will not have any movable parts such as the meter movement$ pointer etc.$ as in
analog meters.
% typical digital ohmmeter is shown in &ig 7. 3igital meters are more accurate than analog
ohmmeters be,cause of the following reasonsG
a? 2o mechanical movement is involved.
b? 2o paralla( error /meter reading error0 occurs as ohmic values are shown
directly in numerals.
c? 9an show values with two or three decimal place accuracy directly.
265
3igital meters are more e(pensive than analog meters.
9)"ti,ete# as !&,,ete#
%s already discussed in lesson 3.11$ multi,meters are used to measure several electrical
parameters like volt,age$ current and resistance. !hese meters are more popular because of
their integrated measurement capabilities. )n these meters$ for measuring resistance$ the
control switch should be put to the suitable resistance range depending upon the value of
resistance being measured.
WHEATSTONE BRID8E
'heatstone bridge is another commonly used instrument to measure accurate resistance
values. % 'heatstone bridge$ shown in &ig -$ consists of four resistors connected in a
diamond shaped array$ a center ero galvanometers and a dc power source. 5ne of the
resistors in the diamond shaped array will be the un,known resistance /7
(
0$ whose value is to
be measured. 'hile making measurement the value of 7
3
in &ig - is adCusted till the
galvanometer shows ero reading. 'ith this adCustment$ the value of the unknown resistor
will be e+ual to that of 7
3.
<easurement of resistance using a 'heatstone bridge is more time consuming than using a
direct measuring ohmmeter but$ the accuracy of the measured values will be very high.
'heatstone bridges are not commonly used to measure resistance smaller than 1 ohm or
greater than 111$111 ohms.
9E88ERS
266
Bridges and simple meters$ both analog and digital$ cannot be used to measure very high
resistance values of the order of several thousands of megohms. !o measure these very high
resistance values such as$ insulation resistance of$ cables$ motor winding$ trans,former
winding etc.$ an instrument known as <egohm meter or more commonly known as <egger
shown in &ig . is preferred. !his is becauseG meggers are specially designed to measure
resistance values ranging from several hundred megohms to several thousand megohms.
<eggers are most fre+uently used by electricians to check insulation resistance.
P#eca)ti!ns t! be ta.en $&i"e ,eas)#in% #esistance
;? )f the resistance to be measured is not appro(imately known$ set the ohmmeter to the
ma(imum resistance range. !hen$ go down the ranges in steps till the resistance under
measurement is shown in the upper half or middle of the meter scale.
<? !ouch or clip the ohmmeter terminals firmly to the resistor under
measurement.

NOTE: $ loose contact or open may show very high resistance which may be
misunderstood to be the value of the resistor under test.
=? 3o not touch both the conductor portion of the meter probes while making
resistance measurement
NOTE: If both the terminals are touched by fingers, the meter shows body
resistance not the component resistance.
@? "witch 5&& or disconnect power supply*battery of the circuit to measure the
resistance connected in the circuit.
A? )f the resistance to be measured is connected in a circuit$ de,solder or
disconnect one end of the resistor before measuring its resistance.
F? 3ischarge all capacitors$ particularly electrolytic capacitors$ in the circuit
before making resistance measurement.
NOTE: If the circuit is energi+ed while measuring resistance, its voltage could
cause a damaging current to flow through the meter.
RESISTIVE CIRC1ITS
267
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state 5hm=s law
2. calculate current in a circuit with one resistor
3. calculate the total resistance of series resistance circuits
4. calculate the power dissipated across a resistor
5. calculate the power dissipated in a circuit
6. design a simple voltage divider circuit using resistors
7. calculate the total resistance of parallel resistance circuits
-. calculate the current flowing through branches of a parallel resistance circuit
.. calculate the total resistance of series,parallel resistive circuits
11. calculate the resistance value re+uired to limit current in simple circuits
11. calculate and connect resistors to obtain non,standard resistance values.
OH97S LAW
!he +uantity of current flowing through a resistor depends on two factors#
268
1. !he ohmic value of the resistor.
2. !he voltage applied across the resistor.
)f the voltage applied across a resistor is kept constant$ higher the resistance of the resistor$
lower will be the current flowing through it. )n other words current /)0 through a resistor is
inversely proportional to resistance/70 value of the resistor.
5n the other hand$ if the applied voltage /80 across a fi(ed value resistor is increased$ the
current flowing through the resistor also increases. )n other words current /)0 through a
resistor is directly proportional to the applied voltage/80 across the resistor. 9ombining the
above two relationships between resistance/70$ current /)0 and applied voltage /80$ it can be
written as$
) K 8 * 7
!his relationship of ) K 8*7 was found by the scientist Aeorge "imon 5hm and hence this is
referred to as ohm=s law.
!he relationship of ) K 8*7 can be e(pressed mathematically in different forms as
) K 8 * 7 or 8 K ) ( 7 or 7 K8 * )
!hese formulas are used invariably while designing or testing electrical*electronic circuits.
7eneralising, ohm)s law can be stated as follows8
?nder a given constant temperature$ the current flowing through a resistor is directly
proportional to the voltage across the resistor and inversely proportional to the value of
resistance .!his statement holds good not only for a resistor$ but in common to all resistive
circuits.
Example 1: ?sing ohms law find the current flowing through the resistor in &ig1.
S!")ti!n :
%pplied voltage across the resistor is # 11 volts 7esistance value of the resistor is given as
11 ohms. !herefore current /)0 through the resistor by 5hm=s law isG
) K8 * 7 %mps K 11 volts * 11 ohms K 1 amp.
9urrent through the resistor is 1 ampere.
Example 2: &ind the current flowing through the circuit in &ig 2.
S!")ti!n :
@et the total circuit current be )
t
.
269
&rom 5hm=s law
)
t
K !otal voltage applied to the circuit /80
!otal circuit resistance /70
)n the given circuit$ total applied voltage K 11 volts.
!otal circuit resistance K resistance of the only resistor K 111f.
NOTE: #his is because the given circuit consists of one resistor and that is the only
component in the circuit.
!otal current through the circuit )
t
is e+ual to
)
t
K8* 7 K 118*111f K 1.1 amps K 111 m % .
RESISTORS IN SERIES
'hen resistors are connected end to end as shown in &ig 3$ the resistors are said to be in
series with each other.
T!ta" #esistance !' #esist!#s in se#ies
'hen resistors are connected in series$ the total resistance of the series connection will be
e+ual to$ the sum of individual resistance values. )n &ig 3$ total resistance across pointes a,d
will be e+ual to 7
1
I 7
2
.
Example: )n &ig 3$ if 7
1
is 1 F ohms and 7
2
is 2.2F ohms. !he total or effective resistance
between the terminals a and d will be$
/7
1
and 7
2
are connected in series0.
K 7
1
I 7
2
K 1.1 Ff I 2.2 F f K 3.2 F f.
9urrent through a series circuit
'hen resistors are connected in series as shown in &ig 3$ the current that flows through 7
1
can only flow through 7
2
. !his is because
,there is no other path for any other e(tra current to flow through 7
2
,there is no other path for the current through 7
1
to escape from flowing through 7
2
.
!herefore in a series circuit$ the +uantity of current will be the same at all the points /a$ b$ c$
d0 of the circuit as shown in &ig 3c.!he +uantity of current flowing through the series path is
decided by both the resistors put together or the effective resistance of the circuit.
Example: &ind the total circuit current /)
t
0 in the circuit at &ig 4.

270
S!")ti!n:
7esistors 7
1
Y 7
2
are in series. !herefore$ the effective resistance of the circuit K 7
1
I 7
2
K 3.3F ohms I 331 ohms.
K 3311 I 331 K 3631 ohms.
9ircuit current )
t
K8 * 7 K 12 8 * 3631 f K1.1133 amps K3.3 m % .
Example: calculate the voltage drop across 7
1
and 7
2
for the circuit at &ig 4.
S!")ti!n#
)n the circuit /&ig 40$ 7
1
and 7
2
are in series. >ence the current through both the resistors is
the same. !his current is 3.3 m% as calculated in the previous e(ample.
&rom 5hm=s @aw
) K 8 * 7 or K ) ( 7.
!herefore the voltage
K ) ( 7
1
volts
K 3.3 m%mps ( 3.3 kilo ohms
K /3.3 ( 11
,3
0 ( /3.3 ( 11
3
0
K 3.3 ( 3.3 K 11.-. volts.
"imilarly the voltage drop across 7
2
K /3.3 ( 11
,3
0 ( 331 ohms
K 11-. milli ,volts
K 1.1-. volts.
Ve#i'icati!n !' s!")ti!n
"ince 7
1
and 7
2
are in series$ the sum of the voltage drops across 7
1
and 7
2
must be e+ual to
the applied battery voltage of 128.
i.e.$ 11.-. I 1.1-. K 11..7. a12 volts K applied battery voltage.
POWER DISSIPATION IN RESISTORS
'hen current flows through a resistor heat is generated. !his is because $ the voltage driving
the current through the resistor is doing some amount of work in overcoming the opposition to
the flow of electrons. )t is found through e(periments and analysis that$ the amount of work
done by the voltage is directly proportional to the ohmic value/70 of the resistor and s+uare of
the current/)20 flowing through the resistor. !his work done is dissipated in the form of heat
generated by the resistor. !his heat dissipating capacity is known as the power or wattage of
a resistor. !he unit of power is 'att.
4ower dissipated by a resistor K )
2
( 7 'atts.
'here$ ) is the current through the resistor and 7 is the resistance of the resistor.
Example: )f 11 m% flow through a resistor of 11 F ohms$ what is the power dissipated by the
resistorQ
271
4ower dissipated by the resistor K )
2
( 7 K /)( )0 ( 7
K /11 ( 11
,3
0 ( /11 ( 11
,3
0 ( /11 ( 11
3
0
K1111 ( 11
,3
K1111 milli,watts K 1 watt.
!he power dissipated by the resistor is 1 watt.
Example : 'hat is the total power dissipated by the circuit given at &ig 5.
S!")ti!n:
9et&! ;
9urrent through the circuit is
)
t
K 8 * 7 K 128 * 2 Ff K 6 m%
4ower dissipated by the circuit is
K /circuit current0
2
( circuit resistance
K /36 ( 11
,6
0 ( /2 ( 11
3
0
K 72 ( 11
,3
watts
K 72 milli,watts K1.172 watts.
9et&! <
4ower dissipated is given by$
4K)
2
(7K) ( ) ( 7 MMM V1W
&rom 5hm=s law
"ubstituting this in ) K 8 * 7 MMM.. V1W
4ower dissipated K )( ) ( 7K 8 * 7 ( ) ( 7 K 8 ( )
because$ by measuring the total circuit current and the applied circuit voltage$ power
consumed by the circuit can be found out easily without knowing the value of the resistors.
?sing this formula for the circuit as given in &ig 5$4ower dissipated K /6 ( 11
,3
0 amps ( 12
volts K 72 milli, 'atts.
!he power dissipated by the circuit found using method 2 is same$ as that calculated using
method 1.
NOTE: #ry to derive alternative formulas for calculating power.
1SE O3 RESISTORS IN SERIES AS A VOLTA8E DIVIDER
Aiven a single voltage source$ several circuits re+uiring smaller voltages can be obtained
using a set of resistors connected in series. !his is called a voltage divider. "ome simple
voltage divider circuits are shown in &ig 6.
Desi%nin% v!"ta%e ivie# ci#c)its )sin% #esist!#s
272
Example : Aiven a 12 volts 39 power supply$ design a voltage divider using resistors to
obtain three voltages of 2 volts$ 4 volts and 6 volts.
S!")ti!n :
3raw the divider diagram as shown in &ig 7. %ssume the voltage across resistors as given in
&ig 7.
@et the resistor values be 7
1
$ 7
2
Y 7
3
%ssume a value of 1Ff will have a drop of 1volt across it.
!herefore to obtain 2 volts we need 7
1
K 2F ohms.
"imilarly for 4 volts 7
2
K 4F ohms for 6 volts 7
3
K 6F ohms
;asier method V7atio methodW
&ind the ratio of the three different voltages re+uired#
273
28#48#68 K 1#2#3.%dd up the ratios 1I2I3 K 6.
3ivide 12 volts by 6. 12*6 K 2. &i( 2 ohms or 2 F ohms or 2 < ohms as the resistance value
of 7
1
re+uired to drop 2 volts. @et us fi( 7
1
K 2F ohms for the present /reasons in later
lessons0.<ultiply 2 F ohms by the ne(t ratio value i.e. 2.
2(2F ohms K 4 F ohms. !his is the value re+uired to drop 4 volts. <ultiply 2 F ohms by the
ne(t ratio value i.e. 3.2(3F ohms K 6 F ohms. !his is the value re+uired to drop 6 volts.
8alues of the resistors of the voltage divider should$ therefore$ be$ 7
1
K 2 F ohms$ 7
2
K 4 F
ohms and 7
3
K 6 F ohms. !he voltage divider circuit designed above can also be designed in
a different way as shown in &ig -.
NOTE: Discuss merits and demerits of the above two designs.
7efer reference books listed at the end of this book for other methods of designing voltage
dividers.
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
9ompare the circuits at &ig . and &ig 11. Both the circuits are carrying the same current
although &ig . is having large resistor values than &ig 11.
274
!his means that$ the two resistors connected in parallel as shown in &ig . has effective or
total resistance e+ual to that of a single resistor that is shown in &ig 11.%nalysing both
circuits$ it can be concluded thatG when resistors are connected in parallel as shown in &ig 11$
the effective resistance /7
!
0 across the terminals ( Y y will be e+ual to$
275
"imilarly$ if 3 resistors are connected in parallel$ the effective resistance 7
!
will be$
%s a thumb rule 'hen resistors are connected in parallel$ the effective resistance will always
be less than the least resistance value of the resistor in the parallel connection.
Example: )f two resistors of 1Ff each are connected in parallel$ from the thumb rule$ the
effective resistance will be less than 1Ff
Ve#i'icati!n:
&rom the formula derived above$
Example: )f two resistors of 2 Ff and 111 f each are connected in parallel$ from the thumb
rule$ the effective resistance will less than 111f.
Ve#i'icati!n
&rom the formula derived above$
E0a,("e: )n circuit in &ig 11$ if the value of the resistors were$
7
1
K 11 ohms $ 7
2
K 1 F ohm$ what is the effective resistanceQ
S!")ti!n :
?sing the formula
;ffective resistance of 11 ohms Y 1 F ohm in parallel is ... ohms or appro(imately 11 ohms.
&rom this$ it can be understood when a very small value resistor is connected in parallel with
a very large resistor$ the effective resistance of the parallel connection will be appro(imately
e+ual to the values of the very small resistance itself. !he effective value of resistance
becoming lower than the lowest value resistor in the parallel connection is called the
@5%3)2A effect. !his effect is very important in electronic circuits. ;ffect of loading is
discussed in detail in further lessons.
POWER DISSIPATION IN PARALLEL RESISTIVE CIRC1ITS
'hen resistors are connected across a voltage source in parallel as in &ig 12$ the voltage
across each resistor will be the same and e+ual to the source*battery voltage.
276
>owever the current through the resistors /)
1
Y )
2
0 depends on the value of the independent
resistors. >ence$ power dissipated* consumed by each resistor can be calculated separately
using the formula 4 K)
2
7 or 4 K 8). !he sum of the power consumed by each resistors will be
the total power consumed by the circuit. !otal power consumed can also be found if the total
circuit current and the effective resistance of the circuit are found.
E0a,("e: 9alculate the power consumed by the circuit in &ig 12.
S!")ti!n :
9et&! ;:
4ower consumed by the circuit K /)
1
2
( 7
1
0 I /)
2
2
( 7
2
0
)
1
K8 * 7
1
K 12 * 1FK 12 m%.

)
2
K8 * 7
2
K 12 * 2FK 6 m%.

4ower dissipated by 7
1
K /12 ( 12 ( 11
,6
0 ( /1 ( 11
3
0 K 144 m'atts
4ower dissipated by 7
2
K 6 ( 6 ( 11
,6
( 2 ( 11
3
K72 m'atts
!otal power consumed by the circuit is K144 I 72 milli watts K 216 milli,watts
9et&! <:
!otal circuit resistance
9ircuit current )
t
K )
1
I)
2
4ower consumed by the circuit K )
t
2
( 7
!
K /1.11-0
2
( /666.70
K 1.216 watts
K 216 mwatts
277
5IRCHHO337S LAWS
278
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state Firchhoff=s current law
2. write Firchhoff=s current e+uation for resistive circuits
3. state Firchhoff=s voltage law
4. write Firchhoff=s loop e+uation for resistive circuits
5. 9alculate voltage and currents at different points in a resistive circuit.
'hen a circuit consists of several resistors in a comple( series , parallel arrangement as in
&ig 1$ it is difficult to calculate the currents and voltages in the circuit using 5hm=s law.
279
!o find current and voltage drops in a comple( series , parallel circuit$ an easy method was
found by a Aerman physicist A?"!%8 7. F)79>>5&&. >e formulated two basic laws called$
1- 5i#c&&!''Ms C)##ent "a$
2- 5i#c&&!''Ms V!"ta%e "a$-
; 5IRCHHO337S C1RRENT LAW:
!his law is illustrated in &ig 2.
5i#c&&!''Ms C)##ent "a$ states t&at !he sum of currents entering any point in a circuit is
e+ual to the sum of currents leaving that point. )n &ig 2 currents )) and 12 are entering a point
E. 9urrent 13 is leaving the point E.
&rom Firchhoff=s current law$ )
)
I )
2
K )
3 ....
V1W
!his e+uation can also be written as$
)
1
I )
2
L )
3
K 1 .... V2W
&rom e+uation 2$ Firchhoff=s current can also be stated as !he algebraic sum of currents
entering and leaving any point in a circuit must be e+ual to ero .
!o determine the algebraic sign of currents$ consider all currents going into a point as positive
and all currents going away from that point as negative.
)n &ig 2$ )
1
Y )
2
will have positive sign as they are going into point ( whereas 13 will have
negative sign as it is going out of the point E. >ence we can also write the Firchhoff=s 9urrent
e+uation as$
%t point E$ /I)
1
0 I /I)
2
0 I /L)
3
0 K 1 "implifying$ )
1
I )
2
L )
3
K 1
"ubstituting current values given in &ig 2$ 2%mps I 3%mps L 5%mps K 1.
&or the circuit shown in &ig 3$ Firchhoff=s 9urrent e+uation at nodes E and : can be written
as follows#
%t node E )
!
L )
1
L )
2
K1 7% L 4% L3% K1.
%t node : )
1
I )
2
L )
!
K1 4% I 3% L 7% K1.
Example : 'rite the current e+uations at nodes p and + in the circuit at &ig 4.
280
%t node 4 )
!
L )
2
L )
3
K1 or )
!
K )
2
I )
3
%t node P )
2
I )
3
L )
1
K1 or )
2
I )
3
K)
1
5IRCHHO337s VOLTA8E LAW
)n the circuit shown at &ig 5%$ consider the two closed paths a,c,d,b,a and a,e,f,b,a as
shown in &ig 5b. !hese closed paths are called as loops. ;ach closed path has several
resistors and there will be a voltage drop across each resistor. F)79>>5&&=s voltage law
states that !he algebraic sum of voltages around any closed path is ero.
!o find the algebraic sum of voltages around a closed path$ start from any point$ go around
the path and come back to the same point from where you started.
Example: 7eferring to &ig 5b$ the method of going through a closed path is$ start from point
a$ go through points c$ d$ b and return to point a.
!o determine the signs for voltage drop across the resistors in &ig 5b$ mark the polarity of
each voltage$ based on the polarity of source voltage as shown in &ig 6. Ao around the
path and give Ive sign for the voltage whose Ive terminal is reached first or give ,ve sign for
the voltage whose ,ve terminal is reached first.
'rite the loop e+uation considering the voltage sources also.
!o write the loop e+uation for the closed path a,c,d,b,a of &ig 6$ proceed as follows#
281
!aking clockwise direction for going through the loop$ start from point a of &ig 6. Ao through
the chosen loop a,c,d,b,a and write down the voltage drop across the resistors including their
signs and e+uate it to ero as given belowG
I 8
1
I 8
2
I 8
5
L 8
!
K 1 MM.. V1W
7ewrite the e+uation as$
I 8
2
I 8
5
K 8
!
.
"imilarly for the closed path a,e,f,b,a$
9onsidering clockwise direction$ start from point a of &ig 6. Ao through the chosen loop a,e,f,
b,a and write down the voltage drop across the resistors including their signs and e+uate it to
ero as given belowG
8
1
I 8
3
I 8
4
I 8
5
L 8
!
K 1 MM..V 2W
7ewriting the e+uation$
I8
1
I 8
3
I 8
4
I 8
5
K 8
!
.
;+uations V1W Y V2W above state thatG )n any closed loop$ the sum of voltage drops across
resistors is e+ual to the applied voltage. !his can be written as#
k 8
d
K8
!
$
where$ k 8
d
is the sum of voltage drops across resistors 8
!
is the applied voltage.
Ci#c)it $it& ,!#e t&an !ne v!"ta%e s!)#ce
Firchhoff=s voltage law is applicable even when$ there are more than one voltage source in a
circuit. !he method of writing loop
e+uations remains the same.
E0a,("e: 'rite the loop e+uations for
the circuit shown in &ig -.
282
&or the loop a,c,d,b,a$
I8
1
I 8
2
L 8
b1
K 1
8
1
I 8
2
K 8b
1
61 I 61 K 121
&or the loop a,e,f,b,a$
I 8
1
I 8
3
I 8b
2
I 8
4
L 8
b1
K1
8
1
I 8
3
I 8
b2
I 8
4
K 8
b1
61 I 11 I 21 I 31 K 121
&or the loop c,e,f,d,c$
I8
3
I 8
b2
I 8
4
L 8
2
K1
8
3
I 8
b2
I 8
4
K 8
2
11 I 21 I 31 K 61
T! 'in c)##ent an v!"ta%es in a ci#c)it )sin% 5i#c&&!''Ms "a$
E0a,("e: )n the circuit at &ig .a$ find the branch currents and voltage drop across resistors
7
1
$ 7
2
and 7
3
.
S!")ti!n :
Ste( ;: %ssume that the current flow is from the Ive of the battery to the ,ve of the battery
/conventional current direction0 and write direction of current as shown in &ig .b.
Ste( <: <ark the polarity of voltage across each resistor as shown in &ig .c consistent with
the assumed direction of the current.
283
Ste( =: 'rite the loop e+uations which cover the two battery sources as given belowG
&or the loop a,c,d,b,a$
I8
1
I 8
3
L 8
!1
K1
or 8
1
I 8
3
K8
!1
8
1
I 8
3
K -4 MM..V1W
&or the loop c,e,f,d,c$
L 8
2
I 8
!2
L8
3
K1
or 8
2
I 8
3
K 8
!2
8
2
I 8
3
K 21 MMM..V2W
?sing the known values of 7
1
$ 7
2
Y 7
3
$ write )
7
drops$ 8
1
$ 8
2
and 8
3
.
8
1
K )
1
.7
1
K ( 12 K 12.)
1 MMM..
V3W
8
2
K )
2
.7
2
K )
2
( 3 K 3.)
2 MM..
V4W
8
3
K )
3
.7
3
K /)
1
I)
2
0 ( 6K6.)
1
I6.)
2 MMM.
V5W
"ubstitute e+uations 3$ 4 and 5 in the loop e+uations 1 and 2$ we have$

"ubstituting for e+uation 1$
8
1
I 8
3
K -4
or /12.)
1
0 I /6. )
1
I 6.)
2
0 K -4
1-. )
1
I 6.)
2
K -4
/3ividing 7>" Y @>" by 20
.. )
1
I 3.)
2
K 42 M...V6W
"ubstituting for e+uation 2$
8
2
I 8
3
K21
/3.)
2
0 I /6. )
1
I 6.)
2
0 K21
6. )
1
I ..)
2
K21
/3ivide 7>" Y @>" by 30
2. )
1
I 3.)
2
K 7 M...V7W
"olving e+uations..V6W and..V7W$
"ubstituting value of )
1
in e+uation ...V7W
2 ( 5 I 3.)
2
K7
!herefore
284
NOTE: !he <inus sign indicate that$ the assumed direction of )
2
in &ig .
b
was opposite to that
of the actual direction of the current. >owever the numerical value of )
2
remains unchanged.
&rom known value of )
1
$ 1
2
and )
3
K /)
1
I )
2
0$ find the voltage drop across resistors as given
belowG
.
NOTE:
1. !he method used for finding branch currents and voltage drops in the above discussion is
called Branch current method.
2. !o solve similar problems$ other methods known as$ 2ode voltage method, <esh current
method can also be used. 7efer reference books listed at the end of this book to practice
these methods or consult your instructor.
285
286
T1NED A9PLI3IERS AND SERIES RESONANCE
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the meaning of audio fre+uency and radio fre+uency amplifiers
2. state the meaning of broad,band and narrow,band amplifiers
3. state the meaning of tuned,amplifiers
4. state the meaning of resonance in @9 circuits
5. calculate the impedance of a series @9 circuit
6. state the condition for resonance in a series @9 circuit
7. list the characteristics of series @9 circuits at resonance
-. calculate the resonance fre+uency of series @9 circuits
.. e(plain the terms selectivity and bandwidth of a @9 circuit
11. calculate the +uality factor$ P of a @9 circuit
11. e(plain the relationship between the P factor and bandwidth
12. list a few applications of series resonance circuits.
287
T1NED A,("i'ie#s
!he amplifiers discussed so far amplified audio amplifiers and hence are referred to as audio
amplifiers. !hese audio amplifiers amplified the wide range of signal fre+uencies /21> to 21
F>0 in the audio range. "uch amplifiers which amplify a wide band of fre+uencies or a broad
band of fre+uencies are referred to as wide band amplifiers or broad band amplifiers. 5ften$
amplifiers may be re+uired to amplify a very narrow band of fre+uencies. "uch amplifiers
which are designed to amplify a single fre+uency or a very narrow band of fre+uencies are
referred to as narrow,band amplifiers. 2arrow,band amplifiers are commonly used in higher
fre+uency ranges. 5ne such application of narrow,band amplifiers is radio and television
receivers where$ a narrow band of radio fre+uency /7&0 are amplified by amplifiers. )n a radio
broad casting station$ the audio signal/voice or music0 is superimposed on a high fre+uency
/7&0 much above the audible fre+uency range. !his process of raising the audio signal
fre+uencies to radio fre+uencies /7&0 is called modulation /details discussed in further
lessons0. "ome of the radio fre+uencies over which audio signals are sent /broad,cast0 by
radio stations are listed belowG
"tation !ransmitted &re+uency
9>;22%) L % 721 F>
9>;22%) , 8ividbharati 7-3 F>
'hen the 7& signal /carrying audio signal0 reaches the receiving antenna*aerial$ the signal
will be very weak and$ hence$ needs to be amplified before e(tracting the audio information
from it. !o amplify this weak 7& signal$ the amplifier used should be capable of amplifying a
very narrow band of fre+uencies around that single fre+uency /either 721 F> or 7-3 F>0
such that only the desired station$ say 9hennai,% station or 9hennai,B station only is
received. !his is how a radio receiver can separate one station from another. %mplifiers which
are designed to amplify high radio fre+uencies are referred to as 7& amplifiers. %mplifiers
used to amplify such very narrow band radio fre+uencies are called narrow band 7&
amplifiers or tuned amplifiers. !hey are called tuned amplifiers becauseG the amplifier is tuned
to amplify a specific fre+uency only. !o obtain this tuning$ these amplifiers use a tuned circuit.
% tuned circuit generally consists of an inductor /@0 and a capacitor/90 as shown in &ig 1 and
&ig 2.
288
!he specialty of this @9 network is its property$ known as resonance. 'henever an inductor
and a capacitor are connected in parallel as shown in &ig 1 or in series as shown in &ig 2$ the
circuits e(hibit a special phenomenon known as resonance . 7esonance$ in simple terms$
means$ the ability to select a particular fre+uency from the fed signal consisting of signals of
different fre+uencies /wide band of fre+uencies0.
SERIES RESONANCE CIRC1IT
I,(eance !' se#ies #es!nance ci#c)it
% simple series @9 circuit shown in &ig 3a. )n this series @9 circuit$
resistance 7 is the total resistance of the series circuit/internal resistance0 in ohms$ E
@
is the
inductive reactance in ohms$ and E
9
is the total capacitive reactance in ohms. )n the circuit at
&ig 3$ since the capacitive reactance/.1f0 is larger than inductive reactance/61f0$ the net
reactance of the circuit will be capacitive. !his is shown in &ig 3b.
NOTE: )f the capacitive reactance was smaller than inductive reactance the net reactance of
the circuit would have been inductive.
%ll though the unit of measure of reactance and resistance is the same /ohms0$ the
impedance$ 6 of the circuit is not given by the simple addition of 7$ E
@
and E
9
. !his is
because$ E
@
is I.1H out of phase with 7 and E
9
is ,.1H out of phase with 7. >ence the
impedance 6 of the circuit is the phasor addition of the resistive and reactive components as
shown by dotted lines in &ig 3c. !herefore$ )mpedance 6 of the circuit is given by$
)f E
@
were greater than E
9
$ then the absolute value of impedance 6 is will be$
289
&or the circuit in &ig 3/a0$ total impedance 6 is$
9apacitive /because E
9
^ E
@
0
9urrent ) through the circuit is given by$
!herefore$ the voltage drop across the components will be$
8
7
K voltage drop across 7 K ).7 K 2(41 K -1 volts
8
@
K voltage drop across @ K ). E@ K 2(61 K 121 volts
8
9
K voltage drop across 9 K ). E9 K 2(.1 K 1-1 volts.
"ince 8
@
and 8
9
are of opposite polarity$ the net reactive
8oltage 8
(
is K 1-1 l 121 K 618 as shown in &ig 4.
2ote that the applied voltage is not e+ual to the sum of voltage drops across reactive
component E and resistive component. !his is again because the voltage drops are not in
phase. But the phasor sum of 8
7
and 8
(
will be e+ual to the applied voltage as given below$
4hase angle m of the circuit is given by$
C!niti!n at $&ic& c)##ent t&#!)%& t&e RLC Se#ies ci#c)it is ,a0i,),
&rom the formula$
290
it is clear that the total impedance 6 of the circuit will become purely resistive when$
reactance E
@
K E
9
)n this condition$ the impedance 6 of the circuit will not only be purely resistive but also
minimum.
"ince the reactance of @ and 9 are fre+uency dependent$ at some particular fre+uency say f
r
$
the inductive reactance E
@
becomes e+ual to the capacitive reactance E
9
. )n such a case$
since the impedance of the circuit will be purely resistive and minimum$ current through the
circuit will be ma(imum and will be e+ual to the applied voltage divided by the resistance 7.
Se#ies #es!nance
&rom the above discussions it is found that in a series 7@9 circuit$
)f the fre+uency of the signal fed to such a series @9 circuit/&ig 3a0 is increased from 1 >$ as
the fre+uency is increased$ the inductive reactance/E
@
K 2f@0 increases linearly and the
capacitive reactance /E
9
K 1*2f@0 decreases e(ponentially as shown in &ig 5.
%s shown in &ig 5$ at a particular fre+uency called the #es!nance '#e6)enc*$ f
r
$ the sum of
E
@
and E
9
becomes ero /E@l E
9
K 10.
&rom &ig 5 above$ at resonant fre+uency f
r
$
,2et reactance$ E K 1 /i.e. E
@
K E
9
0
,)mpedance of the circuit is minimum$ purely resistive and is e+ual to 7
,9urrent ) through the circuit is ma(imum and e+ual to 8*7
,9ircuit current$ ) is in,phase with the applied voltage 8 /i.e. 4hase angle e K 10.
%t this particular fre+uency fr called #es!nance '#e6)enc*$ the series 7@9 is said to in a
condition of series resonance.
291
7esonance occurs at that fre+uency when$
E
@
K E
9
or 2f@ K 1*2f9
!herefore$ 7esonance fre+uency$ f
r
is given by$
Reactance !' se#ies RLC ab!ve an be"!$ #es!nance '#e6)enc* '
#
&ig 6 shows the variation of net reactance of a 7@9 circuit with the variation in fre+uency.
&rom &ig 6 above$ it can be seen that the$
,net reactance is ero at resonant fre+uency f
r
,net reactance is capacitive below the resonant fre+uency f
r
,net reactance is inductive above the resonant fre+uency f
r
.
Se"ectivit* !# C 'act!# !' a se#ies RLC ci#c)it
&igs 7a and 7b two graphs showing the current through series two different 7@9 circuits for
fre+uencies above and below f
r
. &
1
and f
2
are fre+uencies at which the circuit current is 1.717
times the ma(imum current$ )
ma(
or the 3dB points.
292
&ig 7 indicates that series 7@9 circuits select a band of fre+uencies around the resonant
fre+uency$ f
r
. !his band /f
1
to f
2
is called the band width f of the series 7@9 circuit.
Bandwidth K nf K f
2
l f
1
>.
where$ f
2
is called the upper cut off fre+uency and f
1
is called the lower cut off fre+uency of the
resonant circuit.
9omparing &igs 7a and 7b$ it is seen that the bandwidth of 7b is smaller than that of 7a. !his
is referred to as the selectivity or +uality factor$ P of the resonance circuit. !he 7@9 circuit
having the response shown in &ig 7b is more selective than that of &ig 7a. !he +uality factor$
P of a resonance circuit is given by$
)f P is very large$ the bandwidth f will be very narrow and vice,versa. !he P factor of the
series resonance circuit depends largely upon the P factor of the coil/inductance0 used in the
7@9 circuit.
!herefore$
A(("icati!n !' se#ies #es!nance ci#c)its
% series resonance circuit can be used in any application where it is re+uired to select a
desired fre+uency. 5ne such application is shown in &ig -.
293
)n &ig -$ the radio receiver antenna intercepts all the fre+uencies available in air. &or
instance$ the antenna intercepts the fre+uencies transmitted by 9hennai,% radio station$
9hennai,8ividhabharthi station$ and so on. !he series @9 circuit when tuned to 721F> /f
r
0
will allow only the signal corresponding to 9hennai,% radio station and reCects all other signal
fre+uencies. !his is how a radio can receive any one station although fre+uencies of many
stations are in the air simultaneously.
% series resonance circuit can also be used to reCect an undesired fre+uency /used as wave
trap0 as shown in &ig ..
% wave trap is a resonant @9 circuit tuned to the fre+uency to be reCected. !hus the output of
the tuned amplifier in &ig . will not have the fre+uency for which the trap is tuned. !his is
because$ at resonance the series @9 of the wave trap$ provides very low impedance. %s the
trap is connected across the collector and ground$ the reCection fre+uency component is
grounded. "uch wave traps are e(tensively used in very high and ultra,high fre+uency
circuits such as television receivers$ communication receivers etc.
294
PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRC1ITS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. list the characteristics of @9 parallel circuits at resonance
2. e(plain the term Band,width in parallel @9 circuits
3. e(plain the storage action in parallel @9 circuits
4. e(plain the terms make up current and tank circuit
5. list a few applications of parallel @9 circuits
6. compare the properties of series and parallel @9 circuits at resonance$ above
resonance and below resonance.
295
PARALLEL RESONANCE
!he circuit at &ig 1$ having an inductor and a capacitor connected in parallel is called parallel
@9 circuit or parallel resonance circuit. !he resistor 7$ shown in dotted lines indicates the
internal 39 resistance of the coil @. !he value of 7 will be so small compared to the inductive
reactance$ that it can be neglected.
&rom &ig 1 a$ it can be seen that the voltage across @ and 9 is same and is e+ual to the input
voltage 8s.
By Firchhoff=s law$ at Cunction %$ ) K )
@
I )
9
.
!he current through the inductance )
@
/neglecting resistance 70$ lags 8
s
by .1H. !he current
through the capacitor )
9
$ leads the voltage 8
s
by .1H. !hus$ as can be seen from the phasor
diagram at &ig 1b$ the two currents are out of phase with each other. 3epending on their
magnitudes$ they cancel each other either completely or partially.
)f E
c
g E
@
$ then )
9
^ )
@
$ and the circuit acts capacitively.
)f E
@
g E
9
$ then )
@
^ )
9
$ and the circuit acts inductively.
)f E
@
K E
c
$ then )
@
K l
c
$ and hence$ the circuit acts as a purely resistive.
6ero current in the circuit means that the impedance of the parallel @9 is infinite. !his
condition at which$ for a particular fre+uency$ f
r
$ the value of E
c
K E
@
$ the parallel @9 circuit is
said to be in parallel resonance.
"ummariing$ for a parallel resonant circuit$ at resonance$
)n a parallel resonance circuit$ with a pure @/no resistance0 and a pure 9/loss,less0$ at
resonance the impedance will be infinite. )n practical circuits$ however small$ the inductor will
have some resistance. Because of this$ at resonance$ the phasor sum of the branch currents
296
will not be ero but will have a small value ). !his small current ) will be in phase with the
applied voltage and the impedance of the circuit will be very high although not infinite.
"ummariing$ the three main characteristics of parallel resonance circuit at resonance are$
Sphase difference between the circuit current and the applied voltage is ero
Sma(imum impedance
Sminimum line current.
!he variation of impedance of a parallel resonance circuit with fre+uency is shown in &ig 2.
)n &ig 2$ when the input signal fre+uency to the parallel resonance circuit is moved away from
resonant fre+uency f
r
$ the impedance of the circuit decreases. %t resonance the impedance
6
4
is given by$
%t resonance$ although the circuit current is minimum$ the magnitudes of )
@
Y l
c
will be much
greater than,the line current. >ence$ a parallel resonance circuit is also called current
magnification circuit. &or further details on current magnification in parallel resonance refer
reference books at the end of this book.
Ban$it& !' (a#a""e" #es!nant ci#c)its
%s discussed in series resonance$ all resonant circuits have the property of discriminating
between the fre+uency at resonance /f
r
and those not at resonance. !his discriminating
property of the resonant circuit is e(pressed in terms of its bandwidth /B'0. )n the case of
series resonant circuits the response of the circuit at resonance fre+uency /f
r
0 is in terms of
the line current /which is ma(imum0$ and in a parallel resonant circuit$ it is in terms of the
impedance /which is ma(imum0.
!he bandwidth of a parallel resonant circuit is also defined by the two points on either side of
the resonant fre+uency at which the value of impedance 6
4
drops to 1.717 or 1*o2 of its
ma(imum value at resonance$ as shown &ig 3.
297
&rom &ig 3$ the bandwidth of the parallel resonance circuit is$
Bandwidth$ B' K nf K f
2
l f
1

%s can be seen in &ig 3$ the value of 6
4
is dependent on the resistance 7 of the coil /6
4
K
@*970. )f 7 is less 6
4
will be larger and vice versa. "ince the bandwidth depends on 6
4
and
6
4
depends on 7$ we can say that the bandwidth of a resonant circuit depends upon the
resistance associated with the coil. !he resistance of the coil in turn decides the P of the
circuit. !hus$ the P of the coil decides the band width of the resonant circuit and is e(pressed
as$
St!#a%e acti!n !' (a#a""e" #es!nance ci#c)it
%t parallel resonance$ though the circuit current is minimum /ideally ero0$ )
@
and l
c
will still be
there. !his )
@
and l
c
will be a circulating current in the closed loop formed by @ and 9. !his
circulating current will be very high at resonance. !hese circulating current flip,flops between
the capacitor and inductor$ alternately charging and discharging each. 'hen a capacitor or
an inductor is charged$ it stores energy. 'hen it is discharged it gives up the energy stored in
it. !he current inside the @9 circuit switches the stored energy back and forth between @ and
9. )f the inductor had no resistance and if the capacitor was loss,free$ then$ no more e(ternal
energy would be re+uired to retain this flip,flop or oscillation of charging and discharging. But$
in a practical circuit$ since ideal @ and 9 cannot be obtained$ some amount of the circulating
energy is lost due to the resistance of the coil and the loss due to capacitor. !his lost energy
is the only energy the power supply source /8
s
0 must supply in the form of circuit current$ ).
!his current$ therefore$ is called as make,up current. )t is this storage action of the parallel,
resonant circuit which gives rise to the term tank circuit$ often used with parallel resonant
circuits. >ence$ parallel resonant circuits are also called tank circuits.
A(("icati!n !' (a#a""e" #es!nant ci#c)its
4arallel resonance circuits or tank circuits are commonly used in almost all high fre+uency
circuits. !ank circuits are used as collector load in class,9 amplifiers instead of a resistor load
as shown in &ig 4.
298
NOTE: Details of class-, amplifiers are discussed in
further lessons.
!ank circuits are used in circuits known as oscillators
which are designed to generate ac signals using dc
supply.
NOTE: (scillators are discussed in detail in further
lessons.
!able below gives a comparison between series
resonant and parallel resonant circuit at fre+uencies
above and below their resonant fre+uency f
r
.
299
300
OSCILLATORS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the function of an oscillator
2. name the two main classifications of oscillators
3. e(plain the principle of oscillation in a tank circuit
4. state the Barkhusan criterion for making an amplifier work as an oscillator
5. list the basic re+uirements for an oscillator
6. list the feed back re+uirement for an amplifier to take,off and have sustained
oscillations
7. e(plain the working of parallel,fed >artley oscillator with the help of a circuit
-. calculate fre+uency of oscillations$ given values of @ Y 9
.. list methods of measuring fre+uency of oscillations.
301
OSCILLATOR
%n oscillator is a circuit for producing voltages that vary in a regular fashion with respect to
time. !he output wave forms of oscillators are repeated e(actly in e+ual successive intervals
of time as shown in &ig la and &ig 1b.
!he output wave,form of an oscillator may be sinusoidal as shown in &ig 1 a. "uch oscillators
are known as sine wave oscillators or harmonic oscillators.
!he output of oscillators may be s+uare$ triangular or saw,tooth waveform as shown in &ig 1
b. "uch oscillators are known as non,sinusoidal oscillators or rela(ation oscillators.
P#inci("e !' sin)s!ia" !# &a#,!nic !sci""ati!ns
&ig 2a shows an inductor and a
capacitor connected parallel as a
parallel @9 resonant circuit. %
parallel @9 circuit is also known
as tuned circuit or tank circuit.
)n &ig 2a$ when switch " is put
into position %$ the capacitor gets
charged with the bottom plate
being negative and the top plate
positive. !his means$ energy is
stored in the capacitor in the form
of an electric charge.
'hen switch " is put into position
B$ as in &ig 2b$ the capacitor
starts discharging through the
inductor$ creating an e(panding
302
magnetic field around @. "ince the inductor has the property of opposing any sudden change
in current through it$ the current builds up slowly. 5nce the capacitor gets fully discharged$
the magnetic field around @ begins to collapse. !he collapsing magnetic field induces a
voltage /back,emf0 in @. !his back emf tends to maintain the electron flow through @ in the
same direction as when 9 was discharging. >ence$ this back emf in the inductor starts
charging the capacitor with opposite polarity as shown in &ig 2c. %fter the magnetic field has
totally collapsed$ 9 would have got charged in the opposite direction as shown in &ig 2c.
%gain capacitor 9 discharges through the inductor in the opposite direction. %n e(panding
magnetic field appears around @ but in the opposite direction. !his process continues back
and forth$ causing the electrons to oscillate in the tuned tank circuits. )f the inductor was ideal
/ero resistance0 and the capacitor was totally loss,free$ this process would have continued
indefinitely$ and would have resulted in a continuous sinusoidal waveform as shown in &ig 1a.
>owever$ owing to the resistance in an practical inductor$ and the losses in the capacitor due
to the resulting )
2
7 /heat loss0$ the amplitude of the oscillation decreases gradually/damped0
and ultimately the oscillations die down as shown in &ig 2d.
!he fre+uency of oscillation produced by the resonant fre+uency is given by$
Ove#c!,in% "!sses in tan. ci#c)it '!# s)staine !sci""ati!ns
!o avoid the damping of oscillations$ when the energy fed into the circuit has been used up$ it
is necessary to supply more energy by charging the capacitor again. %s shown in &ig 2a$ by
switching " between % and B at proper time$ the oscillations can be maintained thus obtaining
sinusoidal waveform of constant amplitude and fre+uency. %nother method of making the @9
tank circuit to give undamped oscillations is$ to connect the tank circuit in the output of an
amplifier as shown in &ig 3.
!he amplifier is kept at cut,off by the 39 supply 8
BB
which reverse,biases the base,emitter
circuit. % sine wave is inCected to the base circuit with such amplitude that the collector current
flows at the peaks of the negative alterations of the input sine wave. !his e(cites the @9
303
circuit in the collector of the transistor and the tank keeps oscillating. )f the input sine wave
has the same fre+uency as the fre+uency of oscillations of the tank circuit$ the oscillations in
the @9 tank is maintained. &ig 4 shows a modified form of circuit at &ig 3. )n &ig 4 a transistor
amplifier connected in such a way that it will cause undamped oscillations without re+uiring
any e(ternal signal. "uch a circuit is known as an oscillator.
!he oscillator circuit at &ig 4 is known as tickler,coil oscillator. >ere @1 is inductively coupled
to @. 'hen power is first switched 52 to the circuit$ current flows in the transistor. %s the
current flows through @$ it induces a voltage in @1 which is coupled to the base of the
transistor and is amplified
. )f the phase of the feedback voltage is aiding$ then there is an increase in the collector
current. !his action builds up a large current pulse which e(cites the @9 tank into oscillations.
!he signal fed by @1 to the base of the transistor is a sine wave of the same fre+uency as
that in the @9 circuit and of proper phase to sustain the oscillations. !he signal induced in the
base thus eliminates the need for an e(ternal input to the oscillator and the @9 tank will
oscillate as long as the 39 power to the circuit is 52. !he feedback given to the amplifier in
&ig 4 in the proper phase so as to sustain /keep going0 oscillations is referred to as positive
feedback or regenerative feedback.
BAR5HA1SEN CRITERION
!he mathematical analysis for an amplifier to oscillate on its own is given below#
)n the amplifier shown in &ig 4$ assume that the gain of the amplifier is % and the feedback
factor is . )f the product of % 7 is less than 1 /% g 10$ then the output signal will be a
damped oscillations which will die down as is shown in &ig 5a.
if % ^ 1$ the output voltage builds up as shown in &ig 5b. "uch oscillations are called
growing oscillations.
)f % K 1 $ the output amplitude of oscillations remains constant as in &ig 5c.
'hen the feedback is positive /regenerative0$ the overall gain of the amplifier with feedback
/%
f
0 is given by$
304
'hen % K 1$ the denominator of the e+uation will be ero$ and hence %
f
Kinfinity. !he gain
becoming infinity means$ there is output without any input. i.e. the amplifier becomes an
oscillator. !his condition % K1 $ is known as Barkhausen criterion for oscillations.
"ummariing$ the basic re+uirements for an oscillator areG
1 % stable 39 power supply source
2 %n amplifier
3 % regenerative /positive0 feedback from output to input
4 % @9 tank circuit to determine the fre+uency of oscillations.
Sta#tin% si%na" '!# !sci""at!#s
%s discussed above an oscillator gives alternating output voltage without an input signal once
the amplifier is given a regenerative feedback. But in a practical oscillator circuit$ to start off
oscillations$ no starting input signal is provided. >owever$ the starting signal of an oscillator is
generated by the noise voltage while switching on the oscillator circuit. "uch noise voltages
are produced due to the random motion of electrons in resistors used in the circuit.
2oise voltage contains almost all the sinusoidal fre+uencies of small amplitude. >owever$ it
gets amplified and appears at the output terminals. !he amplified noise now drives the
feedback network$ which is a resonant tank circuit. Because of this tuned tank circuit$ the
305
feedback voltage. % is ma(imum at a particular fre+uency f
r
$ which will be the fre+uency of
oscillations. &urthermore$ the phase shift re+uired for positive feedback is correct at this
fre+uency f
r
only. !hus although the noise voltage contains several fre+uency components$
the output of the oscillator will contain a single sinusoidal fre+uency f
r
the resonant fre+uency
of the tank circuit.
!o summarie$ the following are the re+uirements of an oscillator circuit to take,off with
oscillations and have sustained,oscillationsG
S!here must be positive feedback.
S)nitially the loop gain product % must be ^ 1.
S%fter the circuit starts oscillating$ the loop gain product % must decrease to 1 and remain
at 1.
HARTLE: OSCILLATOR
5ne of the simplest of sinusoidal oscillators is the >artley oscillator shown in &igs 6a and 6b.
306
"hown in &ig 6a is a series,fed >artley oscillator. !his circuit is similar to the ticker,coil
oscillator shown in &ig 4$ but the tickler circuit coil @1 is physically connected to @$ and is
hence a part of @/like an auto,transformer0. !his oscillator is called series,fed because$ the
high fre+uency oscillations generated and the 39 paths are the same$ Cust as they would be
in a series circuit. "eries,fed >artley oscillators are not preferred due to their poor stability of
oscillations.
&ig 6b is parallel,fed >artley oscillator commonly used in radio receivers. 4arallel,fed >artley
oscillators are known for their high stability of oscillations.
!he circuit at &ig 6b is actually an amplifier with positive /regenerative0 feedback to have
sustained oscillations. !he capacitor 9
2
and inductor @
2
form the path for 7& current in the
collector to ground circuit .7& current through @
2
induces a voltage in @
1
in proper phase and
amplitude to sustain oscillations.
!he position of the tap at the Cunction of @
1
and @
2
determines how much signal is fed back to
the base circuit.
!he capacitor 9 and the inductors @
1
I @
2
forms the resonant tank circuit of the oscillator
which determines the fre+uency of oscillations. 9apacitor 9 can be made as a variable
capacitor for tuning the oscillator to different fre+uencies. 9
1
and 7
1
form the 79 circuit which
develops the bias voltage at the base.
!he 7& choke at the collector keeps the high fre+uency %9 signal out of the 8
cc
supply. )n
cheaper oscillator circuits the 7& choke is omitted and is replaced by a resistor. 7esistor 7
2
connected in the emitter provides 39 stabiliation. 7
2
is bypassed by 9
3
to prevent %9
degeneration. !he >artley oscillator coil has three connections. !hese are usually coded on
the coil. )f they are not$ it is generally possible to identify them by a resistance check. !he
resistance between the taps ! and 4 as shown in &ig 6b$ is small compared with the
resistance between ! and A. )f the coil connections are not made properly$ the oscillator will
not work.
C&ec.in% Osci""at!# 3#e6)enc*
!he fre+uency of an oscillator can be computed if the values of @ /@ K @
1
I @
2
0 and 9 are
known using the formula$
where$ f is in hert$ @ in henrys$ and 9 in farads.
!he fre+uency of an oscillator may be measured in two ways$
,?sing a direct read,out fre+uency meter also known as fre+uency counter which is most
accurate$ popular and easy to use.
,?sing an oscilloscope with a calibrated time base to measure the period of the wave,form.
&rom the measured period$ t fre+uency is calculated using the formula fK1*t where$ f is the
fre+uency in > and t the time period in seconds.
&or further details on conditions for oscillations and Barkhausen criterion$ refer reference
books listed for this book.
% practical >artley 5scillator circuit using medium,wave oscillator coil as @ is shown in &ig 7.
307
!he advantage of using a medium wave oscillator coil for @ is that the output can be taken out
of the secondary winding /4 and 50 of the coil.
!he transistor used is a silicon high fre+uency transistor /B& series0 as the oscillator
fre+uency is in the range of 1 <>.
!he divider biasing is provided to make the 39 conditions such that the amplifier works as
9lass %. 'ith the heavy feedback /large `0$ the large feedback signal drives the base of the
transistor into saturation and cut,off. !his large feedback signal produces negative 39
clamping at the base$ changing the operation from 9lass % to 9lass 9. !he negative clamping
automatically adCusts the value of %` to 1. )f the feedback is too large$ it may result in loss of
some of the output voltage because of the stray power loses. 'hen you build an oscillator$
you can adCust the amount of feedback to ma(imie the output voltage. !he trick is to use
enough feedback to start under all conditions /different transistors$ temperature$ voltage etc.0$
but not so much that you lose more output than necessary. !he fre+uency of oscillations of
the oscillator circuit at &ig 7 can be varied by varying the position of the shaft of the gang of
the gang capacitor /9
4
0.
308
COLPITTS AND CR:STAL OSCILLATOR
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the difference in the feed back method in a 9olpitt=s oscillator compared to
>artley oscillator
2. calculate fre+uency of oscillations$ given the values of @ and 9
3. list a few areas of applications of 9olpitt=s oscillator
4. state the main disadvantage of @9 oscillators and give reasons
5. describe the pieo electric property of crystals such as +uart
6. name a few pieo electric crystals
7. write the %9 e+uivalent circuit of pieo electric crystals
-. give the oscillator fre+uency range in which crystals are generally used
.. write the circuit of a crystal controlled oscillator and e(plain the function of the
components
11. list a few areas of application of crystal oscillator
309
COLPITTS Osci""at!#
9olpitts oscillator is another type of sinusoidal oscillator or harmonic oscillator which uses a
tank circuit for oscillations. 9olpitts oscillators are very popular and are widely used in
commercial signal generators and communication receivers.
% typical 9olpitts oscillator shown in &ig 1 is similar to a >artley oscillator. !he only difference
is that the 9olpitts oscillator uses a split capacitor for the tank instead of a split inductor used
in >artley oscillators.
!he parallel,fed or shunt,fed 9olpitts oscillator shown in &ig 1$ uses the common emitter
configuration. !he capacitors 9
1%
Y 9
1B
form the voltage divider used to provide the feedback
signal. !he voltage drop across 9
1B
determines the feedback voltage. %ll other components in
this circuit have the same function as in the >artley circuit.
!he fre+uency of oscillations of the 9olpitts oscillator is given by$
where$f is the fre+uency of oscillation in hert$ @ is the inductance of the coil in >enry. 9 is the
total capacitance in farads given by$
!he fre+uency of oscillations can be changed by using a miniature ganged capacitor for 9
1%
Y
9
1B
. By varying the shaft of the ganged capacitor$ both the capacitances 9
1%
and 9
1B
get
varied$ and hence$ the fre+uency of oscillations of the oscillator varies. 9olpitts oscillators are
generally used for generating fre+uencies above 1 <>.
% practical >artley 5scillator circuit using a ganged capacitor for 9
1%
and 9
1B
and a medium
wave oscillator coil for @ is shown in &ig 2.
310
CR:STAL OSCILLATORS
!he @9 oscillator circuits such as >artley and 9olpitts have the problem of fre+uency in,
stability. !he most important reason for the fre+uency drift in @9 oscillators is$ the change in
value of capacitance and inductance of the tank circuit that occurs when temperature
changes. %s the temperature increases or decreases$ the values of @ and 9 deviate causing
the circuit to oscillate at a fre+uency different from the desired resonant fre+uency. 5ther
reasons for fre+uency deviation are$ the leads of transistor$ inter electrode and wiring
capacitances. !he problem of fre+uency drift can be largely overcome by using high P coils
and good +uality capacitors. But$ with ordinary inductors and capacitors$ P,values in e(cess
of a few hundred is very difficult or impossible to achieve.
@arge improvements in fre+uency stability can be achieved by using a +uart crystal in the
place of the conventional tuned circuit. "uch oscillator circuits are referred to as crystal
controlled oscillators.
PIEZO ELECTRIC E33ECT
)t was discovered that certain crystals such as +uart and 7ochelle$ e(hibit a special property
known as pieo,electric property. % +uart crystal looks like a piece of thin frosted glass
usually cut into 1*4 to 1 inch s+uares as shown in &ig3. 'hen such a crystal is held between
two flat metal plates and pressed together$ a small emf will be developed between the plates
as if the crystal became a battery for an instant. 'hen the plates are released$ the crystal
springs back to its original shape and an emf of opposite polarity is developed between the
two plates. )n this way$ mechanical energy*force is converted to electrical energy by the
crystal. !his property is made use of in the pick,ups for gramophone records. )n a
gramophone record$ small mechanical vibrations are produced when the stylus tracks the
groove on the gramaphone plate. !his vibrating force gives rise to corresponding voltages
311
representing the recorded sound at the pick,up terminals .)n addition to the above property of
the crystal$ when an emf is applied across the two plates of the crystal$ the crystal will distort
from its normal shape.
)f an opposite polarity emf is applied$ the crystal will reverse its physical distorted shape. )n
this way$ these crystals also convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. !he above two
312
reciprocal actions of a crystal are known as pieo,electric effect. "uch crystals are housed in
crystal holders as shown in &ig 3.%mongst several crystals having this pieo,electric property$
the +uart crystal is most popular because$ this material is almost perfectly elastic. )f
mechanical oscillations are started in this crystal it takes a long time for the oscillations to die
away. Puart crystals therefore$ have a very high mechanical P. "o far as the electrical
properties are concerned$ a +uart crystal is e+uivalent to the @9 resonant circuit shown in
&ig 4.
!he values of @$ 7$ 9 and 9
m
depend upon the physical sie of the crystal and how the crystal
is cut from the original mass. 9apacitance 9
m
represents the mounting capacitance. &or
using the crystal in electronic circuits$ two conducting electrodes are placed on to its two
faces. 9onnecting leads are then Coined to these electrodes. 'hen the leads are connected
to a source of oscillating voltage$ mechanical vibrations are set up within the crystal. )f the
fre+uency of the oscillating voltage is close to a resonant fre+uency of the crystal$ then the
crystal forces the oscillating voltage to coincide with the oscillating fre+uency of the crystal.
>ence$ in an oscillator$ by using the crystal in the place of an @9 resonant circuit$ the
fre+uency of oscillation is determined almost entirely by the crystal. P values in e(cess of
21$111 are easily obtained with readily available crystals resulting in highly stable oscillating
fre+uency. >ence$ when accuracy and stability of the oscillation fre+uency are important$ a
+uart crystal oscillator is used instead of >artley or 9olpitts oscillators.
C#*sta" c)ts
!he natural shape of a +uart crystal is a he(agonal prism with pyramids at the ends as
shown in &ig 5a.
313
!o get an usable crystal out of this$ a rectangular slab is cut out of the natural crystal as
shown in &ig 5b. 3epending upon the angle of the cut and the thickness of the slab$ the
fundamental fre+uency of vibration of the crystal varies. !he resonant fre+uency of a crystal
is usually between 1.5 and 31 <>.
Pie#ce c#*sta" !sci""at!#
!he pierce crystal controlled oscillator shown in &ig 6 is often used because it re+uires very
few components and has good fre+uency stability.
!he pierce crystal oscillator is similar to the 9olpitts oscillator but for the inductance coil
replaced by a crystal. >ere the crystal across the collector and the base terminals of the
transistor determines the oscillating fre+uency. %s in a 9olpitts oscillator$ capacitors 9
1
and 9
2
form a capacitive voltage divider for feedback. !he %9 voltage across 9
2
provides the
necessary positive feedback to the base.
)n &ig 6$ the crystal acts like an inductor that resonates with 9
1
and 9
2
. )n the base circuit$ the
7
1
7
2
divider supplies forward bias voltage from the 8
cc
. Bias stabiliation is provided by the 7
;
9
;
combination in the emitter circuit.
314
)n &ig 6$ if the crystal resonant fre+uency is$ say 357..545 >$ then the oscillator oscillates at
the same fre+uency and gives a sinusoidal output of 357..545 >.
9rystal oscillators are generally used in$ mobile radio transmitters and receivers. broadcast
transmitters. test e+uipments such as signal generators where e(act fre+uency and very high
fre+uency stability are of utmost importance. !he fre+uency drift in crystal controlled
oscillators will be less than 1 > per 11
6
>.
315
316
RC 3EEDBAC5 OSCILLATORS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state why @9 oscillators are not suitable for fre+uencies less than 51 F>
2. name the two important types of 79 oscillators
3. write the circuit of a wien,bridge oscillator using a 5p,%mp and state the function of
the circuit components
4. calculate the fre+uency of oscillations using the values of the circuit components
5. state the most suitable range in which a wien,bridge oscillator can be used.
317
RC Osci""at!#s
@9 oscillators are not suitable for generating fre+uencies less than 1 <>. !o make audio
fre+uency oscillators /g21 F>0 if @9 oscillators are used$ the @9 values re+uired will be too
large. >ence$ @9 tuned circuit is not used in audio fre+uency oscillators. &or generating audio
fre+uencies$ resistors and capacitors/790 can be used to provide the necessary phase shift
for positive feedback. !hen$ the fre+uency of oscillations depends on the 79 values. !wo
important types of 79 oscillator areG the 79 phase,shift oscillator the 'ien,bridge oscillator.
79 phase,shift oscillator was discussed in ?nit 11$ while discussing feedback in transistor
amplifiers.
Wien-b#i%e !sci""at!#
'ien,bridge oscillator is a standard oscillator for generating low fre+uencies in the range of
11 > to 1 <>. 'ien,bridge oscillator is a 79 feedback oscillator. !he oscillator circuit uses
inverting and non,inverting amplification for negative and positive feedback. %lthough 'ien,
bridge oscillators can be constructed using transistors$ the number of components re+uired
will be large. )n addition$ there must be an even number of amplifier stages to obtain non,
inverting amplification. !o avoid this$ operational amplifiers are generally used for constructing
'ien,bridge oscillators as 5p,%mps can pro,vide the feedback re+uirements most
conveniently as shown in &ig 1a.
NOTE: @9 oscillators such as >artley and 9olpitts are for generating high fre+uency
oscillations in the range of 1<> to 511 <>. !his fre+uency range is beyond the &
unity
/unity
gain fre+uency0 of most 5p,%mps. !his is why bi,polar transistors are used in >artley and
9olpitts oscillators. )n &ig 1$ the amplifier output is fed back both to the negative /L0 and
positive /I0 input terminals of the 5p,%mp. 7esistors 7
2
provides the negative feedback to
the amplifier. !he purpose of this negative feedback is to reduce amplitude distortion.
4ositive feedback is applied through the path with 7
B
9
B
and 7
%
9
%
to the /I0 terminal. !his
feedback produces oscillations.
318
!he circuit oscillates only at the fre+uency at which the bridge shown in &ig 1 b is balanced.
)n this condition the positive feedback balances out the negative feedback. &or the wien,
bridge of &ig 1$ the following relative values are shown$
7
2
K 27
1
$ 7
%
K 7
B
$ and 9
%
K 9
B
7
%
and 7
B
are about two,thirds the value of 7
1
9
%
and 9
B
should have values such that E
c%
e+ual to 7
%
or 7
B
at the oscillating fre+uency.
'ith the above relative values of the resistors and capacitors$ the bridge is balanced and the
circuit oscillates at a fre+uency given by$
where$
7 K 7
%
7
B
in ohms
9 K 9
%
K 9
B
in farads
f
o
K 5scillation fre+uency in >ert.
&or the values shown in &ig 1 b$ the fre+uency of oscillations is given by$
%t this oscillating fre+uency$ the positive feedback volt,age across 7
%
9
%
Cust e+uals or
e(ceeds the negative feedback voltage across 7
1
. %t any other fre+uency$ the negative
feedback is greater. !hus the circuit is pre,vented from oscillating.
% practical 79 oscillator circuit using 5p,%mp @<351 )9 is shown in &ig 2.
!he 79 network is a 'ien bridge type of fre+uency. selector. !he output of the 'ien bridge
8=
in
is applied to the non inverting amplifier. )f the input signal /8=
in
0 fre+uency is varied$ only
one fre+uency will be developed at 8=
in
having a phase shift at 1H. /!his can be checked using
a dual trace 9750. !his fre+uency$ f
1
is the oscillating fre+uency. which can be calculated
from the values of 7 and 9 as followsG
319
%t the oscillating fre+uency f1$ the attenuation to the input signal$ 8
i
is one,third.
!he gain of the amplifier can be adCusted using the 51F pot. )f the gain of the amplifier is
made e(actly e+ual to 3 at f.$ then the output of the amplifier$ 8.$ will be precisely e+ual to 8
in
$.
)n this condition if the Cumper or the switch is put to oscillate position$ the circuit starts
oscillating at fre+uency f..
5nce the oscillations begin$ the output voltage 8
out
could increase without any limit. !o avoid
this in,practical circuits a back,to,back ener diode and a resistor is added such that 8
out
is
prevented from being driven to U8
sat
. 'ien,bridge oscillators can be constructed to give a
variable oscillator fre+uency. !he oscillator fre+uency is generally varied by varying 9
%
and 9
B
together on a common shaft as shown in &ig 3.
Because of the good sinusoidal output it produces$
'ien,bridge oscillators are often used in audio signal
generator with a fre+uency range of 21 > to 211 F>.
3ifferent values for 7
%
and 7
B
can also be switched in$
to change the fre+uency range.
&ig 4 shows a few 'ien,bridge oscillator circuits using
transistors.
RELAJATION OSCILLATORS
320
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the function of rela(ation oscillators
2. state the meaning of clock in the digital system
3. draw the circuit of an astable multi,vibrator
4. calculate the 52,time$ 5&&,time and 47& of astable multi,vibrators given values of 7
and 9
5. state why astable multi,vibrator is also known as a free running multi,vibrator
6. list a few applications of an astable multi,vibrator
7. e(plain the difference between a astable multi,vibrator and a monostable multi,vibrator
-. draw the circuit of mono,shot and calculate the 52,time of the output pulse
.. state the difference between a mono,shot and a bistable multi,vibrator
11. e(plain the term logical states of a bistable multi,vibrator
11. name one important application of flip,flops in digital computers.
NON SIN1SOIDAL OSCILLATORS
321
% rela(ation oscillator is a circuit for generating non, sinusoidal oscillations. !hese circuits can
be used to give different types of repetitive wave,forms other than sine waves. % few types of
non sinusoidal wave forms generated using rela(ation oscillators are shown in &ig 1.
%mongst the different types of wave forms shown in &ig 1$ the rectangular wave form is most
fre+uently used for several applications. % few such applications are# 3igital clocks$ 3igital
computers and 3igital e+uipments.
%ll digital systems need a reference fre+uency referred to as clock fre+uency to time the
operation of the various sections of the system. !his clock fre+uency is generated using a
clock generator. % clock generator is nothing but a rela(ation oscillator circuit which produces
repetitive wave,forms$ generally s+uare wave as shown in &ig 2.
!he output of this rela(ation oscillator /clock generator0 will be continuous pulses having two
distinct states >)A> and @5'. % >igh state corresponds to a constant voltage /say 580 and
the low state corresponds to a different constant voltage/say 180. !hese high and low states
are repeated at definite intervals.
!he clock generator or the rela(ation oscillator used for generating pulse wave,forms as
shown in &ig 2 is commonly known as a <ultivibrator. % few applications areG ;lectronic
Feyboards or 4ianos# )n entertainment electronics$ rela(ation oscillators generating s+uare
wave,forms are essential for the production of electronic music. !his is because$ s+uare
waves are rich in harmonics. !est and <easuring )nstruments# !he rectangular$ s+uare and
sawtooth wave,forms generators are e(tensively used in 5scilloscopes /975=s0$ &unction
generators and so on. !imers and )ndustrial controls# 7ectangular$ s+uare wave generators
322
are e(tensively used to control the delay time in switching,on and duration of on,period and
several such industrial control re+uirement applications.
NOTE: $bove listed applications of non-sinusoidal wave-form generators are only a few of
the its vast applications.
ASTABLE 91LTI-VIBRATORS
% basic multi,vibrator circuit for generating s+uare,wave pulses is shown in &ig 3.
%s can be seen$ the multivibrator has two amplifier stages with feedback. !he output of P
1
drives the input of P
2
$ and the output of P
2
is fed back to P
1
. "ince each 9; amplifier stage
introduces a phase shift of 1-1 degrees to its input signal$ the signal fed at the input of P
1a
under goes a total phase shift of 1-1I1-1 degrees at the output.
% 361 degrees phase shift between the input and output means$ they are in phase. >ence$ if
the output signal is fed,back to input$ it results in positive feed,back$ which results in
oscillations.
&ig 4 is a redrawn circuit of the multivibrator circuit at &ig 3. !he circuit is redrawn for the sake
of easier understanding of the working and waveforms.
)n &ig 4$ the oscillations are produced by switching 52, 5&& of transistors. 'hen one
amplifier /stage0 conducts$ it cuts,off the other amplifier. 'hen the stage which was 5&&$
starts to conduct$ this action cuts,off the stage which was 52. !his circuit is referred to as a
rela(ation oscillator because$ at any instant of time$ one amplifier stage is will be resting while
the other is working.
!he rate at which P
1
and P
2
are switched 52 and 5&& determines the oscillator fre+uency.
%s can be seen from the output wave
form of the oscillator at &ig 4$ the duration
for which P
1
is 5&& is called the 52 time
of the pulse and the duration for which P
1
is 52 is called the 5&& time of the pulse.
!he sum of one 52 time plus one 5&&
time is called the time,period$ !$ of the
wave form.
!Kt
1
It
2
)f 7
1
K 7
2
$ 7
@1
K 7
@2
$ 9
1
K 9
2
and P
1
Y P
2
are identical$ then$ the 52 time and 5&&
time due to both P
1
and P
2
will be same.
&or instance$ if each stage is 52 or 5&&
for 1.5 ms$ then the time period ! is
simply given 2 ( 1.5 ms K 1 ms. !hen the
fre+uency of the multi, vibrator is 1* ! K
1111 >.
7eferring &ig 4$ the period for which
transistor P
1
and P
2
stays 5&& is
determined by the 79 time constants of
323
7
1
Y 9
1
and 7
2
Y 9
2
. )t takes about 1.6. time constants / K 790 for the 79 network to reach
the base turn,on voltage. !his gives the way to estimate the time that each transistor will be
held in the off state.
>ence$ the multivibrator produces a fre+uency$ f $ or more aptly known as 4ulse 7epetition
&re+uency /47&0 of s+uare wave/because t
1
K t
2
0 given by$
'hen the values of 7
1
$ 7
2
and 9
1
$ 9
2
are not e+ual$ the off,time of the two transistors will be
different. >ence the output wave,form will be non,symmetrical or will not be a s+uare wave
form .!he multivibrator circuit shown in &ig 4 is known as a free running multi,vibrator. !his
mean$ the multi,vibrator oscillates by itself without the need for any e(ternal signal to change
the states. !his free running multi,vibrator is also known as %stable multi,vibrator$ because
the amplifiers used in the circuit is not stable in either state /52 or 5&&0.
%s can be seen in &ig 4$ the s+uare wave output of the astable multi,vibrator is having
rounded edges. "uch round edges are not suitable in certain critical digital applications.
!hese rounded edges can be eliminated /made vertical0 by adding two diodes and two
resistors as shown in &ig 5.
!he astable multi,vibrators shown in &ig 4 and &ig 5 are referred to as the collector,coupled
multi,vibrators. %nother form of astable multi,vibrator in &ig 6.
324
!he astable multi,vibrator shown in &ig 6 is an emitter, coupled circuit. )n this circuit$ the
collector of P
1
drives the base of P
2
through the coupling circuit 9
cc
and 7
2
. >owever$ P
2
feeds back to P
1
only through the common emitter resistor 7
;
. )n addition to astable multi,
vibrators which gives repetitive pulse wave form output$ there are other types of multi,
vibrators which are classified depending upon the manner in which the two stages of the
multi,vibrator interchange their 52 and 5&& states. !hey are# <ono,stable multivibrator,
having one stable state. Bistable multivibrator , having two stable states.
9ONO-STABLE 9)"tivib#at!#s
&ig 7 shows a typical mono,stable multi,vibrator also known as mono,shot or one,shot. %
mono,shot has one stable state with one transistor conducting and the other off. !his state
can be changed only temporarily by giving an input pulse generally known as trigger pulse to
the transistor which is off. But this changed state returns back to its original stable state after
a period decided by the values of 7 and 9.
&ig - shows a practical mono,stable multi,vibrator with trigger input. &ig - also shows the
wave,forms at different points of the circuit. !he period t for which P
2
is kept off temporarily is
given by$ tK1.6. 79.
325
<ono,stable multi,vibrators are e(tensively used as timers in electronic timing control circuits.
BISTABLE 9)"tivib#at!#s
%n astable multi,vibrator automatically switches from one state to other /52,to,5&& or 5&&,
to,52...0. 'hereas$ a bistable multi,vibrator will change the state /52 to 5&& or 5&& to 520
when triggered and remain in the new state /52 or 5&&0. !his means$ a bistable multi,
vibrator has two stable states. &ig . shows a typical bistable multi,vibrator circuit.
326
!he circuit at &ig . is completely symmetrical. !he potential dividers 7
1
$ 7
2
and 7
3
$ 7
4
form
identical bias network at the base of transistors. ;ach transistor is biased from the collector of
the other transistor. 3ue to the slightest difference in parameters of the transistor$ when the
circuit is switched 52$ any one of the two transistors will turn,52$ and the other remain in
5&& condition. )n the circuit at &ig .$ the two identical 9; amplifier stages are so connected
that the output of one is fed to the input of the other$ through resistors 7
1
$ 7
3
and shunted by
capacitors 9
1
$ 9
2
. !he purpose of the capacitor is nothing but to speed up the switching
characteristic of the circuit to get distortion,less output wave,form. 9apacitors 9
1
Y 9
2
are
also known as commutating capacitors.
% bistable multi,vibrator is also known as a flip,flop. !he output terminals are generally
identified as P Y P /P,bar0 as shown in &ig 11.
'hen P is in high state /also known as @ogic,1 state in digital electronics0$ P /P,bar0 will be
in low state /also known as @ogic,1 state0$ and vice versa. !his circuit is known as a flip,flop
circuit because$ if one output flips /high* logic,10 the other output automatically flops
327
/low*logic,10. % flip,flop can be switched from one state to the other by applying a suitable
triggering input. &lip,flops are used as a basic memory cell in digital computers for storing
information. &lip,flops are used in various forms in almost all digital system as counters$
fre+uency dividers and so on. 4ractical bistable multi,vibrators with unsymmetrical and
symmetrical triggering arrangement are shown in &ig 11 a and 11 b.
8ENERATION O3 ELECTRICIT:
328
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. "tate &araday=s law of electromagnetic induction
2. @ist the three conditions for electromagnetic induction
3. "tate the direction of motion of conductor Y field for electromagnetic induction
4. "tate @en=s @aw
5. "tate &leming=s right hand rule
6. @ist the factors governing the magnitude of induced emf
3a#aa*7s "a$
329
)n 1-31$ <ichael &araday discovered how to obtain electricity from magnetism. >e found that$
whenever a conductor cuts magnetic lines of force$ an emf is induced in the conductor. !his is
known as &araday=s law of ;lectromagnetic )nduction.
H!$ in)ce c)##ent is %ene#ate
'henever a conductor is moved in a magnetic field as shown in &ig 1 a$ the conductor cuts
the magnetic lines of force. !his action forces free electrons present in the conductor to
move. But with an open circuit$ the displaced electrons produce opposite electric charges at
the two ends as shown in &ig 1 b. !his action is called )23?9!)52. )n induction$ note that
there is no physical connection between the magnet and the conductor. !he induced current
is a result of the mechanical work in moving the conductor in a magnetic field. !he
mechanical work is converted into electrical energy by way of current flow in the conductor.
!his process is known as ;lectro magnetic )nduction. !o induce emf and hence current$ it is
necessary that magnetic lines are cut by conductor. !herefore$ motion is necessary in order
to have the flu( lines cut by the conductor. !his cutting can be accomplished by moving the
magnetic field as shown in &ig 1a or by moving the conductor as shown in. &ig 1b.
"ummariing$ to generate electricity with the help of magnetism$ the following conditions
must e(istG
10 !here must be a magnetic field.
20 !here must be a conductor.
30 !here must be a relative motion between the magnetic field and the conductor. /;ither the
field must move or the conductor must move.0
Di#ecti!n !' ,!ti!n !' c!n)ct!# an '")0
)n order to have electromagnetic induction$ the conductor and the magnetic lines of flu( must
be perpendicular to each other as shown in &ig 2. !hen only the motion of either the magnet
or the conductor makes the flu( cut through the cross sectional area of the conductor
inducing emf.
Di#ecti!n !' In)ce e,' Len+7s La$
!he basic principle used to determine the direction of induced voltage or current is given by
@en=s @aw.
9en+) law states that the direction of induced current is such that the magnetic field set-up
due to the induced current opposes the action that produced the induced current.
330
7eferring to &ig 2$ for e(ample$ the induced current has such a direction that makes the left
end of coil as 2 pole. !his opposes the 2orth 4ole of the magnet being moved in$ which was
actually the cause for the 2orth 4ole to be set,up at the left end of the coil. !o move the 2
pole of magnet towards 2 pole set,up at coil$ it takes some work to be done to push the
permanent magnet into the coil. !his work done by moving the magnet inside the coil is the
source of energy$ which is converted into electrical energy.
3"e,in%7s #i%&t &an #)"e
!he direction of dynamically induced emf in a conductor can be identified by &leming)s right
hand rule as shown in &ig 3a and 3b.
331
9a%nit)e !' in)ce e,'
!he magnitude of induced emf in a coil depends onG
&mount of flux: <ore number of magnetic lines of force cut by the conductor$ higher
is the amount of induced voltage.
umber of !urns of coil: <ore number of turns in the coil cutting magnetic lines$
higher is the induced voltage.
25!;# #he total induced voltage is the sum of individual voltages developed%generated in
each turn of the coil.
Rate !' c)ttin%: &aster the conductor cuts the flu( or vice versa$ the higher is the
induced voltage. !his means$ more the number of lines of force cut by the conductor
within a specified period of time$ higher is the induced voltage.
%ll the above three factors governing the magnitude of the induced voltage can be
represented by the formula$
332
)ncreasing any of the above three factors namely 2 or p or dp *dt will cause an increase in
the induced emf. !he magnitude of the induced emf also depends on the direction in which
the conductor moves through the field. 7eferring to 9hart 1 given at the end of this lesson$ if
the conductor moves at right angles to the direction of the field$ the emf is ma(imum. )f the
direction of the conductor is parallel to the direction of the field$ no emf is induced. 9hart 1
shows other factors that determine the magnitude of induced emf. 3iscuss these factors for a
clear understanding of the magnitude of induced emf. )f the conductor moves neither at a
right angle nor parallel$ but at an angle to the direction of the field as shown in &ig 4$ the
induced emf is proportional to the sine of the angle between the direction of the field and the
direction of motion of the conductor. !his is discussed in detail in further lessons. !he above
description was for the case of a moving conductor in a stationary magnetic field. ;(actly the
same results can be obtained by having a moving magnetic field and a stationary conductor.
Example: !he flu( density /B0 between the poles of a magnet is 1.6! /'b*m
2
0. !he pole
faces are 2cm s+uare. 9alculate the voltage induced in a single wire if it is moved
perpendicularly through the magnetic field at a uniform rate of 1.11 second.
&ns:'
333
334
ROTATIN8 COIL 8ENERATOR
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. sketch and e(plain the output waveform of a single coil %9 generator
2. sketch and e(plain the type of 9ommutators used in %9 and 39 generators
3. sketch and e(plain the output waveform of a multiple coil dc generator
4. e(plain ways of increasing the output of coil generators
5. list the main parts of a commercial 39 generator and state its functions
6. sketch different types of e(citation in 39 generators.
335
)n order to create a continuous motion of a conductor through a field$ it is convenient to have
a coil rotate in the field. &ig la shows a single loop of wire arranged to rotate in magnetic field.
!he curved arrow shows the direction of rotation. 9ontinuous rotation of the coil in the
stationary magnetic field produces a current in the coil$ which is reversing its direction for
every half revolution of the coil. % current which changes its direction periodically as shown in
&ig 1 b is known as an %@!;72%!)2A 9?77;2! or %9. !he generator shown in &ig 1 is
called an %9 generator. )t is possible to have generators which can give 39 outputs. 'hether
the output of a generator is %9 or 39$ it is governed by how the generated emf is taken out of
the armature. )n a %9 generator$ as shown in &ig 1$ the two ends of the loop are terminated to
two rings known as slip rings commutator. )n case of 39 generators$ as shown in &ig 2$ the
two ends of the loop is terminated on to a set of split rings. !his is known as the split ring
commutator. !o this split ring commutator are attached two brushes generally made of carbon
as shown in &ig 2b. &rom these brushes$ the generated 39 voltage is taken for useful
purposes as shown in &ig 2c.
N(#-8 In this lesson D, generators are discussed. $, generators are discussed in the next
lesson.
DC 8ENERATORS
Split'ring commutator
!o understand split,ring commutator action in 39 generator refer the direction of current flow
shown by arrows in &ig 2c. "ide % of the loop is cutting up through the field and side B is
cutting down through the field. 9urrent flows out of side %$ to commutator bar E. !he brush
collects the current and it flows through the e(ternal circuit to commutator bar 6 and into side
B of the coil. %s the coil and commutator sections rotate through one, half turn$ the situation
will be as shown in &ig 3a. !he current is reversed in the loop coil$ but the commutator bars
have also changed position. 2ow$ the current flows out of B to bar 6$ through the e(ternal
circuit to bar E and into side % of the coil. &rom the direction of current arrows$ it is clear that$
although the current is alternating in the coil$ the current in the e(ternal circuit is flowing in
one direction$ or is a 3)7;9! 9?77;2!. ?sing a graph to show the current flow$ it appears
as pulses of current. %ll the current pulses are above the ero line as shown in &ig 3b. !hus
the split ring commutator used converts the generated %9 to 39 and make it available to the
load.
336
337
8ene#at!# !)t()t
!he simple generator discussed so far$ used only a single loop of wire rotating in a magnetic
field. !he induced emf in a single loop is very small and is of no practical use. !o increase the
induced output$ instead of a single loop$ coils having a number of turns can be used. !his coil
is known as the armature winding. !his will multiply the generated emf by the same number.
"uch is the case in practical generators. !he output of the generator can also be increased
by making the magnetic field much stronger in which the armature rotates. !he magnetic field
is made stronger by using electromagnets as shown in &ig 4 instead of permanent magnets.
)f the armature has only one coil$ the output waveform of the generator will be similar to that
of shown in &ig 3b. By increasing the number of coils in the armature$ with a corresponding
increase in commutator$ more number of direct current pulses may be obtained from one
revolution of the armature as shown in &ig 5.
"ummariing# !here are two ways of increasing the number of direct current pulses
generated during each rotation of the armature$
/i0 By increasing the number of field poles.
/ii0 By increasing the number of coils in the armature.
&ig 5 shows the output of a 39 generator with two armature coils. But$ commercial 39
generators will have many coil windings on the armature and multiple field poles. >ence it
produces several pulses during each rotation of the armature as shown in &ig 6 which is
almost a pure direct current.
338
PARTS O3 A CO99ERCIAL DC 8ENERATOR
&ig 7a Y 7b shows the essential parts of a 39 generator
!he yoke$ pole cores$ air gap between the poles and the armature core and the armature
core forms the magnetic circuit.
!he armature conductors$ field coils$ commutator and brushes forms the electrical circuit.
:!.e
:oke serves two purposes$
i0 4rovides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole
machine.
ii0 &orms a part of the magnetic circuit and allows magnetic lines to complete through it.
)n small generators yokes are made of cast iron. )n larger machines usually cast steel or
rolled steel is used.
339
P!"e c!#e
4ole core and pole shoe assembly is illustrated in &ig -a. !hese form a part of field magnet.
4ole core may be a solid piece as shown in &ig -b made of solid cast iron*cast steel. 4ole
core can also be made of thin laminations of annealed steel riveted together as shown in &ig
-c.
P!"e s&!e
4ole shoe is always made of thin laminations. 4ole shoe is fastened to the pole face using
screws. )n some cases pole shoe will be a part of the laminated pole core as shown in &ig -c.
4ole shoes serve two purposes#
i0 "pread out the flu( uniformly in the air gap and reduce the reluctance of magnetic path.
ii0 "upports the field coils.
P!"e c!i"s !# 'ie" c!i"s
&ield or pole coils use copper wire wound on a former as shown in &ig .a. !his is put over the
pole core as shown in &ig .b. !erminals are brought out to supply e(citation current.
340
A#,at)#e c!#e
!he armature core is made of circular laminated sheets of silicon as shown in &ig 11. !he
armature core houses the armature conductors and rotate in the magnetic field so as to make
the conductors cut the magnetic field. )n addition the armature core provides a low reluctance
path to the field flu($ completing the magnetic circuit through the yoke and poles. !he
purpose of lamination of the armature core is to reduce the loss due to eddy currents.
A#,at)#e $inin%
!hese are wound in the form of flat rectangular coils and pulled into re+uired shape with a
coil puller. !hese conductors are placed in the armature slots shown in &ig 11 with tough
insulation and secured by special hard wooden or fiber wedges.
C!,,)tat!#
)t is a cylindrical structure made up of wedge shaped segments of high conductivity as shown
in &ig 11a and 11b. !hese segments are insulated from one another by layers of mica. !he
number of commutators segments will be e+ual to the number of armature coils. ;ach
commutator segment is connected to one armature conductor by means of a copper lug or
raiser.
B#)s&es
Brushes are usually made of carbon or graphite and are rectangular blocks as shown in &ig
12. Brushes are housed in brush holders which has a spring to maintain the brush tension.
!he tension can be adCusted using the tension lever to make the brushes touch down the
commutator. ;ach brush will always span two or more number of commutators segments.
3ie" c!i" e0citati!n
!he field windings of a 39 generator may be independently e(cited by a direct current source
such as a battery pack as shown in &ig 13. )n such a case$ the generators are called
separately excited generators( )n some generators$ the field e(citation is provided the voltage
developed by the armature. !hese are called "elfe(cited generators. )n this type of
generators$ initially the voltage is built up by the residual magnetism retained in the field
poles. "elf e(cited generators can be classified as "hunt generator$ "eries generator and
9ompound generators depending on how the field winding is connected to the armature
341
winding. Aeneral classification of 39 generators and illustrations of different types of
e(citations is given in 9hart 1 at the end of this lesson.
342
ROTATIN8 COIL AC 8ENERATOR
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. differentiate between the commutators in 39 and %9 generators
2. state the formula for finding the magnitude of induced emf
3. define the terms cycle$ fre+uency and period of sine wave
4. state the relationship between fre+uency and time period
5. state the formula for calculating fre+uency of general emf of an alternator
6. list the types of alternators based on type of rotation
7. list the types of alternators based on number of phases
-. use of salient type and smooth type rotor
343
INTROD1CTION
)n the lesson on direct current generators$ it was learnt how alternating current was
generated in the rotating armature and how the commutator converted the alternating current
/%90 to direct current /390. !he most common form of electrical current used in the world is
the alternating current or %9. )t is used in industries to run different types of machines. )t is
used in houses for lighting$ heating$ cooking$ and for many other kinds of home appliances.
AC 8ene#at!# !# ALTERNATOR
%9 generators also known as %lternators$ are similar to 39 generators with one e(ception.
!he commutators of 39 generators are "@)4 7)2A" instead of "4@)! 7)2A" as shown in
&ig 1a.
)n an %9 generator the slip rings are connected to each end of the coil as in &ig 1b. !he
brushes are in constant sliding contact with the rings providing a way to pick up the electrical
energy generated in the rotating armature. 7efer &ig 3 of lesson 6.12 for the changing
polarity and changing direction of the induced current in a single coil rotating armature. !he
important point to note$ in %9 generators is that$ the generated current %@!;72%!)2A
9?77;2! which 4;7)53)9%@@: 7)";" %23 &%@@" changing the direction as shown in
3i% <-
&ig 3 shows the induced emf in an %9 generator at different positions of the coil shown in &ig
3 of lesson 6.12.
344
4osition 1# 9onductor not cutting field. 2o voltage.
4osition 2# 9onductor in centre of field. <a(imum voltage. 4ositive.
4osition 3# 9onductor not cutting field. 2o voltage.
4osition 4: 9onductor cutting centre of field. <a(imum voltage. 2egative.
7eferring to &ig 3$ assuming that the armature is revolving at a speed of 51 revolutions per
second$ the time elapsed for one revolution would be one fiftieth of a second. %long the base
line in &ig 4$ the voltage starting at ero /position 10$ rises to ma(imum in one direction
/position 20$ at the end of 1-1H rotation returns to ero$ /position 30. )n the ne(t .1H of rotation$
the voltage rises to ma(imum but in the opposite direction /position 4?- )n the last .1H the
voltage returns to ero /position 10. !he curve in &ig 3 is a graph of the instantaneous
generated voltage. !he curve represents the rise and fall of the voltage during one revolution.
!his curve is known as ")2; '%8; and it represents an alternating current or voltage.
VECTORS AND SINE WAVES
;ngineers and technicians have a convenient way of representing a force by means of a
vector. % 8;9!57 is simply an indicator of direction of force represented by arrows. !he
length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the force and the arrow pointer is the
direction in which the force is acting. 8ectors are sometimes called graphical mathematics.
8ectors may be used to represent the magnitude of a generated voltage and the direction in
which electromotive force is acting or causing a current to flow.
9A8NIT1DE O3 IND1CED E93
!he magnitude of the induced emf in an alternator is given by the formulaG
;
o
K B@8 sinq$ where ;
o
K )nduced emf$
BK &lu( density in 'eber per s+uare meter
@K @ength of conductor in meters
8Kvelocity of loop rotation in meters per second
qK angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic lines of force
7efering to &ig 3 of previous lesson and &ig 3 of this lesson$
"ince
%t position 1# qK1
o
$ sinqK1
345
!herefore ;
o

K1
%t position 2# qK.1
o
$ sinqK1
!herefore ;
o

KIve /ma(imum0
%t position 3# qK1
o
$ sinqK1
!herefore ;
o

K1
%t position 4# qK,.1
o
$ sinqK ,1
!herefore ;
o

K , ve/ma(imum0
%t position 5# qK1
o
$ sinqK1
!herefore ;
o

K1
3#e6)enc* !' SINE WAVE
!he chain of events shown in &ig 3 of lesson 6.12 and &ig 3 of this lesson represents 52;
9:9@; of operation. 2otice that from position 4$ the vector returns to position 1 and the
whole se+uence of events repeats over and over for each revolution. !he output of the
generator which is a sine wave is nothing but a graphic picture of the instantaneous voltages
during generation. )f the time duration of one cycle is one,fiftieth of a second$ then the
&7;P?;29: of the generated voltage is 51 9:9@;" 4;7 ";9523. !his is the standard
fre+uency of the alternating current generated in our country. !he term cycles per second is
also known as >;7!6 /name of the inventor0 abbreviated as >. 5ne >;7!6 e+uals one
cycle per second. &or e(ample$ 51 cycles per second sine wave is also referred to as a 51 >
sine wave.
PERIOD OR TI9E PERIOD
!ime period is nothing but the time re+uired for a wave to complete one cycle.
Re"ati!n bet$een 3REC1ENC:, SPEED an N19BER !' (!"es !' an a"te#nat!#
)f an %9 generator has only two poles as shown in &ig 1$ in one rotation of the loop$ the
induced voltage undergoes one cycle. )f an %& generator has four poles as shown in &ig 4$
then$ in one rotation$ the coil produces two cycles of sinewave. !his is because$ whenever
the coil crosses a set of 2orth and "outh poles$ it generates one cycle.
346
&ig 5 shows the number of cycles produced in each revolution of the coil$ with 2 poles$ 4
poles and 6 poles. &rom &ig 5 it is clear that the number of cycles per revolution is e+ual to
half the number of poles /4*20.
!herefore the number of cycles produced per second /fre+uency0 depends onG
i0 "peed of the armature in revolutions per second
and
ii0 >alf the number of poles
<athematically$
&rom the above e+uation$ we can state that$ the
fre+uency of the generated emf of an %9
generator is directly proportional to the number of
field poles and the speed of armature rotation. )n
practice %9 generators /%lternators0 to have a
constant fre+uency of the generated emf$ the
alternator must be driven at a particular constant
speed called the synchronous speed. 3ue to this
reason$ these are called synchronous alternators
or synchronous generators.
CLASSI3ICATION O3 ALTERNATORS
>;?C"assi'icati!n acc!#in% t! t*(e !' #!tati!n
%n alternator can have stationary magnetic field
and a rotating armature. "uch type of alternators
are called 7otating armature type alternators. 5n
the other hand an alternator can have a stationary
armature and a rotating magnetic field. "uch type
of alternators are called 7otating field type
alternators.
><?C"assi'icati!n acc!#in% t! n),be# !'
(&ases
347
!he generator discussed so far have only one coil in the armature. "uch single coil armature
gives an output as shown in &ig 5. !his is known as single phase and such generators are
called "ingle phase alternators. )t is possible to place a second coil in the armature of a
generator which will then produce an additional voltage. ?sually the second coil is so spaced
that$ the second generated voltage will be .1H out,of,phase with the first generated voltage as
shown in &ig 6.
)n &ig 6$ voltage B is .1H out,of,phase with %$ or there is a .1H phase displacement or$ phase
shift. !he output circuits may be 9onnected to either voltage % or voltage B or both in series.
"uch generators are called <ultiphase alternators. % most common type of multiphase
alternator is !hree phase alternator. >ere three separate voltages are generated as shown in
&ig 7. 8oltage B is 121H out,of,phase with voltage % and voltage 9 is 121H out,of,phase with
voltage 9.
"ummariing$ according to the number of phases generated$ alternators can be classified as$
10"ingle,phase alternators
20!hree,phase alternators.
"ingle phase alternators are generally used as a temporary standby power for construction
sites and for installations in remote locations. !hree phase alternators are most popular and
are used in ;lectric power plants for supplying domestic and industrial power re+uirements.
!hese alternators are driven by prime movers such as diesel engines$ steam turbines$ water
wheels etc.$ depending on the available source.
PARTS O3 AN ALTERNATOR
!he essential parts of a rotating field type alternator is illustrated in &ig -.
348
Stat!#
)t consists of the armature core formed of laminations of silica steel having slots to house the
armature conductors. !he armature core is laminated to reduce eddy current losses. %
general view of the stator with the frame is shown in &ig ..
R!t!#
!his forms the field system of the alternator. 2ormally the field system is e(cited from a
separate source of low voltage 39 supply. !he e(citation source is usually a 39 shunt or
compound generator$ known as an e(citer$ mounted to the same alternator shaft. !he e(iting
current is supplied to the rotor with the help of two slip,rings and brushes. !he field poles
created by the e(citation are alternately north and south. 7otating field rotors are of two
types$ namelyG
/i0 "alient pole type as shown in &ig 11a and
/ii0 "mooth cylindrical type or non,salient pole type$ as shown in &ig 11b.
"alient pole type of rotor is used only for slow and medium speed alternators. !his type is
less e(pensive. >owever$ this type is not suitable for high speed alternators as the salient
poles create a lot of noise while running and have difficulty in having sufficient mechanical
strength. "alient pole type alternators can be identified by their larger diameter$ short a(ial
length and low or medium speed of operation. "mooth cylindrical or non,salient pole type
rotor is used in very high speed alternators$ driven by steam turbines. !o have good
mechanical strength$ the peripheral velocity is lowered by reducing the diameter of the rotor
349
and alternatively with the increased a(ial length. "uch rotors have either two or four poles but
run at higher speeds. "mooth cylindrical pole type alternators can be identified by their
shorter diameter$ longer a(ial length and high speed of operation.
DC 9OTOR - PRINCIPLE AND T:PES
350
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the working principle of a 39 motor
2. state &leming=s left hand rule
3. list the different types of 39 motors
4. list the application of different types of 39 motors
5. state the meaning of =back emf= in 39 motors
6. e(plain the need for starters in 39 motors
7. list the types of starters and their areas of application.
INTROD1CTION
% 39 motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. )t is similar
to a 39 generator in construction. !herefore$ a 39 generator can be used as a motor and a
39 motor can be used as a 39 generator.
351
Because of the e(cellent characteristic of 39 motors$ .1J of the motors used in precision
machines and other industrial applications are generally 39 motors. >owever 39 motors
need fre+uent care and maintenance by +ualified electricians.
PRINCIPLE O3 WOR5IN8 O3 DC 9OTORS
'e know that$ current through a conductor*wire$ produces its own magnetic field around the
wire. )f this current carrying conductor is kept in an uniform magnetic field$ the magnetic field
around the wire will distort the flu( lines that e(ists between two magnetic poles as shown in
&ig 1a and &ig 1b. %s shown in &ig 1a and 1b$ the flu( lines due to magnetic poles tend to
move to the side of the wire$ where the lines of force due to current carrying wire are in the
same direction. !his distorted flu( lines of the poles try to straighten$ e(erting a repelling force
on the wire. >ence$ the wire is pushed out of the field where the flu( lines are weakest. !his
is the principle of operation of electric motors.
Di#ecti!n !' ,!ti!n !' c!n)ct!#
!he force on the wire due to the distorted magnetic field will move the current carrying wire at
right angles to magnetic field as shown in &ig la and 1 b. !he direction of force produced on a
current,carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field can be determined by &leming=s @eft
>and 7ule as shown in &ig 2. >old thumb$ forefinger and middle finger of your left hand at
right angles to each other. )f the fore finger is in the direction of flu(/north to south0$ and if the
middle finger is in the direction of current flow in the conductor /conventional current0$ then
the thumb indicates the direction of motion of the conductor.
352
!he direction of motion of the conductor can be changed either by changing the direction of
current through the wire or the polarity of the field.
C)##ent ca##*in% "!!( in a ,a%netic 'ie"
)f the conductor shown in &ig 1 is replaced by a loop of wire as shown in &ig 3$ the resultant
field makes one side of the conductor to move upwards and other side to move downwards.
!his forms a twisting force /tor+ue0 on the wire loop as shown in &ig 3. !his tor+ue makes the
loop to rotate$ if it is made free to rotate. &ig 4 shows the different positions of the coil and the
direction of tor+ue produced in a 39 motor. %s shown in &ig 4a$ the magnetic field will cause
the current carrying wire loop to turn$ and the loop goes to position as shown in &ig 4b.
353
'hen the loop is in position as shown in &ig 4b$ the repelling force stops$ but inertia carries
the loop around to position as shown in &ig 4c. >ere the loop is repelled again to position as
in &ig 4d. )n position 4d$ although no tor+ue is developed due to inertia the loop moves again
to position 4a and the cycle repeats. !hus the current carrying loop keeps rotating. !he
commutator shown in &ig 4 is needed because$ when the loop reaches position 4b and
passes it$ it would be repelled back to position 4a again$ if the direction of current through the
loop is not reversed. "ince the commutator segments are split at that point$ the current
through the wire gets reversed$ and the wire is pushed in the same direction and hence
moves to position 4c. )n a practical motor$ there will be a number of such conductors* coils as
shown in &ig 5a known as the armature winding. 'hen the armature is supplied with 39
current$ the armature e(periences a tor+ue and rotate in anti clockwise direction as shown in
&ig 5a.
!he direction of rotation of the armature could be changed either by changing the direction of
armature current as shown in &ig 5b or the polarity of the field.
354
T*(es !' DC ,!t!#s
%s the 39 motors are similar in construction to that of 39 generators$ as in the case of 39
generators$ the 39 motors are also classified as series$ shunt and com,pound motors$
depending upon the connection of field winding with the armature and supply. 9hart,1 at the
end of this lesson illustrates types of 39 motor and list a few applications. )n a ";7);"
<5!57 the armature and field windings are connected in series$ as shown in 9hart,1. 3ue
to this mode of connection$ all the current that flows through the armature must also flow
through the field$ and hence$ the field strength varies with the change in the load to the motor.
39 series motor has very high starting tor+ue. )n some motors$ it may be as high as 5 times
the full load tor+ue. !he speed of 39 series motor also varies with the load.
)n ">?2! <otors the armature and field windings are connected in parallel across supply.
3ue to this mode of connection$ the field current and hence the field flu( are constant. >ence$
39 shunt motors are best suited for constant speed drives.
'hen the motor has two fields coils$ one in series with the armature and the other in parallel
with the armature$ it is called a 95<45?23 <5!57. 9ompound motors are used to drive
machines that re+uire a relatively constant speed under varying loads. 9ompound motors are
also used when it is desired to protect the motor by causing it to decrease the speed under
heavy loads. ?sing a flywheel along with the motor$ almost constant speed can be obtained
by converting the stored energy in the fly wheel$ to be utilied during heavy loads.
Ot&e# t*(es !' DC ,!t!#s
!here are two other types of motors which fall under the category of 39 motors. !hey are$
4ermanent magnet motors
"tepper motors
<iniature motors
!hese motors are shown in 9hart ,2 at the end of this lesson. <iniature motors are used
e(tensively in cassette tape recorders$ turn tables etc.$ !hese motors have permanent
magnetic field. !he armature 39 supply is supplied from dry cells or 39 power supply. !he
operating voltage range from 6 volts to 12 volts. !o prevent speed variations of the motor$
355
speed control mechanism or circuit is built into the motor. !wo types of speed controls are
commonly used in miniature motors used in cassette recordersG
i0 <echanical governor control
ii0 ;lectronic speed control
<ost of the recent motors come with electronic speed control. !hese motors have speed
ranging from 2111 rpm to 3611 rpm.
Bac. e,'
%s the armature of a 39 motor starts rotating$ the armature conductors cut the magnetic flu(
produced by the field poles. 3ue to this$ an emf will be induced in these conductors. !he
induced emf will have a direction so as to oppose the flow of current or the emf applied to the
armature conductor. %s the induced emf opposes the supply voltage which is the cause for its
e(istence$ it is called as B%9F ;<& or counter emf. !he direction of the induced back emf
can be determined by &leming=s right hand rule.
r!he magnitude of back emf or the counter emfG ;
b
$ depends upon flu( per field pole /p0 and
speed of rotation /20 of motor.s
DC 9OTOR STARTERS '!# &eav* )t* ,!t!#s
2ecessity of starters# "ince the armature is stationary before starting of the motor$ the back
emf which is proportional to speed will be ero. %s the armature resistance is small$ if the
rated voltage is applied to the armature$ the armature will draw many times the full load
current$ and hence the armature winding burn,off due to heavy starting current. !herefore$
the starting current of the motor should be limited to a safe value. !his is done by devices
known as <otor "tarters. %s shown in &ig 6$ the simplest way to start a motor is by inserting
a variable resistance in series with the armature. %t the time of starting$ for a period of 5 to 11
seconds the resistance is kept large. %s the motor gains speed and back emf is built up$ the
resistance could be gradually cut off to 6ero.
)n addition to the inclusion of resistance at the time of starting$ starters are also designed to
protect the motor from overload and will switch 5&& the motor when supply fails. !hese
starters are named according to the number of connecting terminals as given belowG
T$!-(!int sta#te#
T&#ee-(!int sta#te#
3!)#-(!int sta#te#
356
!wo,point starters are fre+uently used with 39 series motors. !he three,point starters are
used to start both shunt and compound motors. )n applications where the motor speed is to
be increased beyond their rated value$ a four,point$ face plate starter is used with the motor.
357
C&a#t - <
S(ecia" t*(es !' DC ,!t!#s an t&ei# a(("icati!ns
>as the same characteristics of a 39 "hunt <otor. ?sed where high starting$ high operating
and a constant tor+ue is re+uired. 5pening of high pressure valves$ 4recise positioning of
3ampers and valves.
"imilar in design as that of a permanent <agnet <otor. ?sed for Cobs re+uiring minimum
tor+ue. 5ften controlled by computers to obtain fast and accurate stepping. 4rinting shops$
<achine shops$ ;lectronic circuits. 9assette !ape 7ecorders$ !urn tables$ !oys etc.
358
AC 9OTORS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. list the classifications of %9 motors
2. state the principle of %9 motor
3. list the types of 3,phase induction motors$ advantages$ disadvantages and
applications
4. list the types of single,phase induction motors and their applications
5. state the advantages and applications of universal motors
6. state the characteristics features and applications of synchronous motors.
359
INTROD1CTION
%lternating current or %9 has been almost universally adopted as the electric energy for
lighting and heating. !his popularity of %9 electric energy has lead to development of %9
motors. <otors manufacturers are developed several types of %9 motors to suit various
industrial motor re+uirements. %9 motors are manufactured to work with both single,phase
and three,phase %9 supply.
C"assi'icati!n !' AC ,!t!#s
<otor manufacturers have come out with amaing types of %9 motors leading to difficulty in
proper classifications of the %9 motor types. >owever$ %9 motor may be classified into
different groups from the following different points of viewG
Based on the type of %9 re+uired$ %9 motors can be classified as
1. Single phase motors , which need single phase %9 for its working
2. !hree phase motors , which need three,phase %9 for its working
Based on the speed of %9 motors
1. 9onstant speed %9 motors
2. 8ariable speed %9 motors
3. %dCustable speed %9 motors
Based on their principle of operation
1. "ynchronous motors
2. %synchronous motors
Based on their constructional features
1. 5pen type
2..;nclosed type
3. "emi,enclosed type
4. 8entilated type
8ENERAL PRINCIPLE
)n a 39 motor the electric current fed to the armature /rotor0 through the brushes and the
commutator is the cause for the rotation of the rotor in the uniform magnetic field generator
by the field poles /stator0. >owever$ in %9 motors$ the armature /rotor0 is not directly fed with
electric power$ butG electric energy gets induced to it. 'hen a 3,phase %9 current is supplied
to the field or stator windings of an %9 motor$ the %9 current produce a magnetic flu( which
will be constant in magnitude but revolves or rotates at a constant speed. !his revolving
magnetic flu( induces an emf in the rotor by electromagnetic induction. !he combined effect
of the flu( set,up due to this induced current and the rotating flu( of the field sets the rotor
into rotation in the same direction as that of the stator or field flu(.
Brief details of different types of &# motors are gi%en belo)*
THREE-PHASE IND1CTION 9OTORS
)nduction motors fall under the category of asynchronous motors. 5f all the types of %9
motors$ three,phase induction motors are e(tensively used in industries. !here are two main
types of induction motors namely$
360
1. "+uirrel cage rotor type induction motor
2. "lip,ring or phase wound /wound rotor0 rotor type induction motor
9hart,1 at the end of this lesson illustrates the above motor types and lists a few applications.
!he main advantages of induction motors are listed belowG
1. "imple and rugged in construction /especially s+uirrel , cage type0
2. >ighly reliable in operation and very efficient
3. 2eeds minimum maintenance
4. "imple starting arrangement /especially s+uirrel,cage type0
5. @ow cost
"ome of the disadvantages of induction motor are#
1. "peed of motor decreases with increase in load
2. "peed cannot be varied without loosing efficiency
3. @ow starting tor+ue.
SIN8LE PHASE IND1CTION 9OTORS
%mongst single phase induction motors$ the most popular types are$
*plit-hase motors
*haded pole motors
'epulsion type motors
S("it (&ase ,!t!#s
5ne method of making a single phase motor self,starting is to employ the phase splitting
principle. 7efer 9hart 1 for illustrations. !he stator has two windings. !he main winding is
connected across the mains in the usual manner. !he au(iliary winding /starting winding0 is
so connected$ that the currents in the main winding and the au(iliary winding are out of phase
with each other. !his difference in the phase relationship gives the necessary starting tor+ue
for the motor to self,start.
!he au(iliary winding will remain in the circuit only for a short time till the motor picks,up
speed. !he centrifugal switch$ connected in series with this winding$ will open once the rotor
reaches appro(imately 75J of the rated speed. !he motor then operates as a single phase
induction motor. &or improved performance of the above said principle type of phase splitting$
a resistance or a capacitor will be connected in series with the =au(iliary= or =start winding=
which gives other types of split,phase motors such as$
"plit,4hase$ 9apacitor start , )nduction run motors
"plit,4hase$ 9apacitor start , 9apacitor run motors
"plit 4hase$ permanent capacitor motors
7efer 9hart 1 for applications of different types of split, phase motors.
S&ae (!"e ,!t!#s
"haded pole motors can be easily identified by their pole construction. !he poles of such
motors are called shaded poles. % shaded pole has a slot cut across at a distance of about
361
one third from the edge of the pole as shown in &ig 1. %round this a short circuited copper
ring is placed called the shading coil.
!his shaded portion of the pole$ virtually shifts the magnetic a(is from the unshaded part of
the pole to the shaded part. !his shifting of a(is is e+uivalent to physical movement of the
pole. !he magnetic a(is$ which is moving$ cuts the rotor conductors and hence a rotational
tor+ue is developed in the rotor. "haded pole motor has poor starting tor+ue and is
manufactured only in very small sies.
7efer 9hart N1 for applications of shaded pole motors. 7epulsion type motors 7epulsion
motors work on the principle of =@ike poles repel=. !here are four different types of repulsion
motors. !hey are$
7epulsion motor
9ompensated,repulsion motor
7epulsion start , induction run motor
7epulsion,induction motor
7efer 9hart 1 for applications of different types of single phase motors.
AC-SERIES 9OTORS-SIN8LE PHASE
1nive#sa" 9!t!#s
?niversal motors almost resemble a 39 series motor with some modifications in its
construction and winding as shown in 9hart 1. ?niversal motors can be operated either with
direct,current/390 or alternating,current/%90. !he reason for this is that$ a 39 motor will
continue to turn in the same direction if the current through the armature and field are
reversed at the same time. !his is e(actly what happens when the motor is connected to an
%9 source. @ike in a 39 series motor$ the armature and field coils of a universal motor are
connected in series as shown in &ig 2.
362
?niversal motors are also named as N%9 single phase motorsN.
C&a#acte#istics !' )nive#sa" ,!t!#s
?niversal motors work on the same principle of a 39 series motor. !he speed of a universal
motor is inversely proportional to the load$ i.e. speed is low at &?@@ @5%3 and high on 25
@5%3. !he speed reaches a dangerously high value at no,loads. >ence these motors are
generally connected with permanent loads or gear trains to avoid running on no, load. !he
!or+ue,speed relationship of a universal motor$ in %9 and 39 operation is shown in &ig 3.
!he speed of a universal motor can be controlled by varying the voltage applied to the motor.
!his can take the form of a solid,state voltage controller or rheostat connected in series with
one of the line leads as shown in &ig 2. !he direction of rotation of a universal motor can be
changed by reversing the connections to the armature brushes. !his is usually done with a
reversing switch.
7efer 9hart 1 for applications of ?niversal motors.
9hart 2 at the end of this lesson illustrates the B)" standard symbols and B)" codes for
different types of generators$ motors and their parts.
S:NCHRONO1S 9OTORS
"ynchronous motors are electrically identical with alternators or %9 generators. %t least
theoretically$ a given synchronous motor can be used as an alternator when driven
mechanically. !he same e+uipment works as a motor when driven electrically. % few
important characteristic features of synchronous motors are listed belowG
1. "ynchronous motors runs at synchronous speed or does not run at all. !his means that the
motor always maintains a constant speed.
2. !hese motors are not self,starting type.
3. !hese motors can be used for power factor correction purposes in addition to supplying
tor+ue to drive loads.
"ynchronous motors find e(tensive application in the following areasG
1. 9onstant,speed$ 9onstant,load drives
-xamples, 9entrifugal pumps$ vacuum pumps$ reciprocating compressors$ blowers$ metal
rolling mills.
2. 4ower,factor correction
-xamples$ @arge system employing large number of induction motors and other devices such
as welders and fluorescent lights etc.$ having lagging power factor.
363
3. 8oltage regulation of long transmission lines etc.$ "ynchronous motors have rated speeds
ranging from 151 r.p.m to 1-11 r.p.m.
364
365
366
TRANS3OR9ER AND TRANS3OR9ER T:PES
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the basic function of a transformer
2. state and e(plain important terms used with transformers
3. list the different classifications of transformers
4. list the common application of different types of transformers.
367
!ransformer is an electrical device used to transfer electric energy from one %9 circuit to
another circuit by magnetic coupling as shown in &ig 1 a.
% transformer essentially consists of two coils of insulated conducting material$ generally
copper. !hese coils are wound on a core made of iron or ferrite as shown in &ig 1 b. !hese
coils are so arranged that magnetic flu( developed in one coil will link with the other coil.
>ence$ mutual inductance e(ists between the two coils with tight coupling /kK10. % change in
current through one coil /say 2
4
0 induces a voltage in the other coil /say 2
s
0. !he magnitude
of induced voltage in the secondary winding depends on the number of turns of the coils and
on how tight the magnetic coupling/k0 is$ between the two coils. )n a transformer$ as shown in
&ig 1b$ the coil or the winding to which electrical energy is given from an ac power source is
called the primary winding. )n &ig 1 this coil is marked 2
4
. !he second coil to which$ energy
from the primary wincing is coupled magnetically is called the secondary winding /2
s
in &ig 1
b0. )f a load$ say a lamp or a resistor$ is connected across the secondary winding$ current
flows through the load although there is no direct %9 power source connected to it. >ence$
transformers can be defined as devices that make use of the principle of mutual induction$ in
transferring electrical energy from one ac circuit to another circuit with out direct electrical
connection.
)t is important to note that transformers cannot transfer 39 energy from primary winding to
secondary winding$ because$ a 39 current cannot produce changing magnetic field and
hence cannot develop induced voltage. )mportant terms used with iron,core transformers are
e(plained belowG
368
;- T)#ns Rati! !' a t#ans'!#,e#
!he ratio of the number of turns of coil in the primary /2
4
0 to the number of turns of coil in the
secondary /2
s
0 is called the turns ratio of the transformer.
!urns ratio K 2
4
* 2
s
&or e(ample$ 1111 turns in the primary and 111 turns in the secondary gives a turns ratio of
1111*111$ or 11#1 which is stated as ten,to,one turns ratio.
<-V!"ta%e Rati! !' a t#ans'!#,e#
!he ratio of voltage across the primary winding/8
4
0 to the voltage available across the
secondary winding/8
"
0 is called the voltage ratio of the transformer.
+oltage ratio , +
-
. +
S
'hen coefficient of mutual coupling/k0 between primary and secondary winding is 1$ the
voltage induced per turn of the secondary winding is the same as the self,induced voltage per
turn in the primary winding. !he total voltage appearing across the secondary winding
depends on the number of turns of secondary winding. !herefore$ the voltage ratio is in the
same proportion as the turn ratio#
+
-
. +
S
,
-
.
s
!his means$ if the secondary winding has more turns than the primary winding /2
"
^ 2
4
0 then$
the secondary voltage will be higher than the primary voltage. )n other words$ in such a
condition the primary voltage is said to be raised or stepped,up. "uch transformers are called
"!;4,?4 !7%2"&57<;7" as shown in &ig 2a.
369
Example: $s shown in &ig 4a, a transformer has 466 turns of 2
4
and /666 turns of 2
s
, its
turns ratio will be$
!urns ratio K 2
4
* 2
s
K211 * 1111 K 1 # 5
&or this transformer$ )f the applied %9 primary voltage /8
p
0 is 111 8
rms
$ the secondary voltage
will be stepped up in the same ratio as that of turns ratio. >ence$ the secondary voltage will
be twice the primary voltage$ i.e.$ 5 ( 111 K 551 8
rms
. 5n the other hand$ when the secondary
winding has less number of turns than the primary winding$ the primary voltage is said to be
lowered or stepped down. "uch transformers are called *#--D(.N #'$N*&('0-'* as
shown in &ig 2b.
Example: %s shown in &ig 2b a power transformer has 1111 turns of 2
4
and 111 turns of 2
"
.
'hat is the turns ratioQ >ow much is the secondary voltage 8
"
when a primary voltage is 241
8 Q
SO/0!$O:
!he turns ratio is 1111*111$ or 11#1. >ence$ secondary voltage will be stepped down by a
factor of 1*11$ making 8
"
e+ual to 241*11 or 24 8olts.
=- Sec!na#* C)##ent in t#ans'!#,e#s
!he amount of current in secondary winding of a trans,former will be e+ual to$ by ohmes law$
the secondary voltage 8
"
divided by the load resistance in the secondary circuit. 7eferring to
&ig 3$
)f the value of load /7
@
0 is 11 ohms and if the secondary winding coil resistance is negligible$
then secondary current )
"
will be$
)
"
K8
"
* 7
@
K 12 8 * 11f K 1.2 %mperes
@- P!$e# in t&e Sec!na#* !' t#ans'!#,e#
7eferring to &ig 3$ the power dissipated by load 7@ in the secondary /4s0 is given byG
370
&rom the above calculations it can be seen that the power consumed in primary is the same
as the power consumed in secondary /4
"
K 4
4
0. 2ote that a current of 61m% at 241 volts in
primary results in 1.2%mps at 128 in secondary. !hus in an ideal transformer /having no
energy loss0 the power consumed in the secondary is e+ual to the power consumed in the
primary of the transformer. !his actually means that$ the power consumed by the secondary
is fully supplied by the primary as the secondary has no direct electrical connection with the
supply source /2418$ 51> in &ig 30.
C)##ent Rati! !' t#ans'!#,e#
7eferring to &ig 3$ in an ideal transformer the power consumed in the secondary e+uals the
power in the primary. <athematically it is given by$
%s it can be seen$ the current ratio )
"
*)
4
$ is the inverse of the voltage ratio 8
4
*8
"
. !his means
voltage step,up in the secondary means current step,down$ and vice versa.
Example: % voltage step,up transformer with a 1#5 turns ratio has 2218 across 2211. in the
secondary. /a0 >ow much is )
"
Q /b0 9alculate the value of )
4
Q
E0a,("e: % transformer with a 21#1 voltage step down ratio has 128 across 1 f in the
secondary. /a0 >ow much is )
"
Q /b0 >ow much is )
4
Q
371
%s a check for your calculations$ remember that the side with the higher voltage always has
the lower current.
P!$e# in T#ans'!#,e#s $it& ,!#e t&an !ne sec!na#* $inin%
% transformer need not have only one secondary winding as shown in &igures 1 to 3.
!ransformers can have one$ two$ or more number of secondary windings. ;ach secondary
winding will have induced voltage in proportion to its turns ratio with the common primary
winding. &ig 4 shows a transformer with two secondary windings. 7eferring to &ig 4$ the
secondary winding 2
s1
provides voltage step,up and has a step,up of 3#1 providing 721 8.
!he other winding 2
s2
provides voltage step,down$ with a ratio of 41#1 providing 6 8. )f the
first secondary circuit consumes 72 watts and the second secondary circuit consumes 61
watts$ then the power supplied by the 241 8 source in the primary is 72 I 61 K 132 '.
372
CLASSI3ICATION O3 TRANS3OR9ERS
;- C"assi'icati!n base !n t&e t*(e !' C!#e 9ate#ia" )se
!ransformers can be classified according to the type of material used for the core asG
>a? Ai# c!#e t#ans'!#,e#s : %s shown in &ig 5$ air core$ %ir core transformers consists of a
hollow non magnetic core$ made of paper or plastic over which the primary and secondary
windings are wound. !hese transformers will have values of k less than 1. %ir core
transformers are generally used in high fre+uency applications because these will have no
iron,loss as there is no magnetic core material.
$ron'loss is a type of transformer loss due to core material. !ransformer losses are
discussed in detail in further lessons.
>b? I#!n c!#e t#ans'!#,e#s: &ig 6 shows a laminated iron,core transformer. !hese
transformers have stacked laminated sheets of silicon steel over which the windings are
wound. !his is the most common type of transformer used with mains power
supply/2418$51>0. )n these transformers$ since the core is a magnetic material and due to
the shape of the core$ the value of k is almost e+ual to 1.
373
>c? 3e##ite c!#e t#ans'!#,e#s: %s shown in &ig 7$ these transformers have &errite material
as its core. )n most cases$ the primary and secondary windings are wound on a hollow plastic
core and the ferrite material is then inserted into the hollow core. !hese transformers are
used in high fre+uency to very high fre+uency applications as they have the advantage of
introducing mini,mum losses. )n these transformer$ the position of core can be changed$ thus
changing the value of <.
<- C"assi'icati!n base !n t&e s&a(e !' c!#e an #e"ative (!siti!n !' (#i,a#* an
sec!na#* $inin%s:
>a?C!#e t*(e t#ans'!#,e#s# 7efer &ig 1 of 9hart 1 given at the end of this lesson. )n 9ore
type of transformer$ the primary and secondary windings are on two separate sections*limb of
core. 9ore type transformers are less fre+uently used as their efficiency is low because the
magnetic flu( spreads out reducing the number of useful flu( lines. !he shape of core
stampings used for these transformers is shown in &ig 1 c.
>b?S&e"" t*(e t#ans'!#,e#s: 7efer &ig 2 of 9hart 1. )n this type$ both the primary and the
secondary windings are wound on the same section*limb of the core. %s the portion of the
core surrounds the two windings$ almost all the flu( is confined to the core of the transformer.
"hell type transformers have a higher efficiency as compared to core type transformers.
!hese are widely used as voltage and power trans,formers. !he shape of core stamping used
for these transformers is shown in &ig 2c.
>c?Rin% t*(e t#ans'!#,e#s: 7efer &ig 3 of 9hart 1. )n this$ the core is made up of circular or
semicircular laminations as shown in &ig 3c. !hese are stacked and clamped together to form
a ring. !he primary and secondary windings are then wound on the ring. !he disadvantage of
this type of construction is the difficulty involved in winding the primary and secondary coils.
7ing type transformers are generally used as instrument transformers for measurement of
high voltage and current.
=- C"assi'icati!n base !n t&e T#ans'!#,ati!n #ati!:
a?Ste(-)( T#ans'!#,e#s: !ransformers in which$ the induced secondary voltage is higher
than the source voltage given at primary are called step,up transformers.
b?Ste(-!$n T#ans'!#,e#s: !ransformers in which$ the induced secondary voltage is lower
than the source voltage given at primary are called step,down transformers.
c?Is!"ati!n t#ans'!#,e#s: !ransformers in which$ the induced secondary voltage is same as
that of the source voltage given at primary are called one,to,one or isolation transformers. )n
these transformers the number of turns in the secondary will be e+ual to the number of turns
in the primary making the turns ratio e+ual to 1.
@- C"assi'icati!n base !n t&e !(e#atin% '#e6)enc*:
a?9ains t#ans'!#,e#: 7efer &ig 4 of 9hart 1. !hese are basically$ iron,core shell type
transformers. !hese transformers form the link between %9 mains source and other devices
re+uiring %9 or 39 power. %s an e(ample$ radio receivers need low voltage 39 supply. !o
use a radio receiver from %9 mains$ the mains %9 is stepped,down$ %9 is converted to 39
/rectification0 and fed to the radio receiver. !he secondary winding of these transformers may
have a centre tap as shown in &ig -a or may have more than one secondary windings as
shown in &ig -b. !hese transformers may also have more than two terminals at primary
374
winding as shown in &ig -c to accommodate for different %9 mains levels. !apped primary
also allows changes in the secondary,primary turns ratio. %ll the power transformers are
generally designed to work at mains supply fre+uency/51 >0. 4ower transformers use color
coding scheme to identify the primary and secondary windings. 5ne such scheme is shown
in &ig ..
b?A)i! '#e6)enc* >A3? t#ans'!#,e#s: 7efer &ig 5 of 9hart 1. !hese %& transformers look
similar to a mains voltage transformer but they are very small in sie comparatively. <ost %&
transformers are of 49B mounting type. !hese transformers are designed to operate over the
audio fre+uency range of 21 > to 21 F>. %udio transformers are used in$
coupling the output of one stage of audio amplifier to the input of the ne(t stage
/interstage coupling0
the amplified audio signal from an amplifier to the speaker of a sound system.
!hese transformers are said to have flat fre+uency response over the entire audio range. !his
means that the transformer behaves e+ually well over the entire range of audio fre+uencies.
!he transformation ratio of audio transformers will be generally less than unity. !hese
transformers also use a color coding scheme to identify those used as driver transformers
/for inter,stage coupling0 or out,put transformers /for amplifier to speaker0. %s the color
coding schemes differ from manufacturer to manufacturer$ the color coding is not given in this
lesson.
>c?Hi%& '#e6)enc* t#ans'!#,e#s: 7efer &ig 6 of 9hart 1. !he core of high fre+uency
transformers are made of powdered iron or ferrite or brass or air core/hollow core0 as shown
in &ig 5 and 7 of this lesson. !hese transformers are called 7adio fre+uency
transformers/7&!s0 and )ntermediate fre+uency transformers /)&!s0. !hese trans,formers are
used for coupling any two stages of high fre+uency circuits such as radio receivers. !he
upper fre+uency limit of these transformers is 31 <>. %nother specialty of these
transformers is that the position of the core can be altered$ which results in varied coupling
and energy transfer. !hese transformers also have another electronic component called
capacitor connected across the windings in parallel. !his results in a different behavior of the
transformer at different fre+uencies. >ence these transformer types are also called !uned
transformers. !hese transformers are smaller than even audio fre+uency /%&0 transformers.
!hese transformers will generally be shielded*screened using a good conductor/recall lesson
on inductors for need of screening0. 7&!s and )&!s also have a color coding scheme to
identify their different places of application. "ince the coding schemes vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer$ the color coding scheme for 7&!s and )&!s are not given in
this lesson.
>?Ve#* &i%& '#e6)enc* t#ans'!#,e#s: !hese trans,formers also have air or ferrite or brass
as core material. !hese transformers are constructed specially to minimie energy losses at
very high fre+uencies. 8ery high fre+uency transformers are available in several shapes and
designs. "ome of these find wide application in !elevision receivers. &ig 11 illustrates a high
fre+uency transformers used in !8 reception.
375
A- A)t!-t#ans'!#,e#s:
%uto,transformer as shown in &ig 11 is a special variety of transformers which have only a
single winding. Because of single winding$ there is no isolation between primary and
secondary side. %uto,transformers are used when isolation between input and output is not
important. %uto, transformers can be used for variable voltage operation by using a sliding
contact like a potentiometer. But$ it is important to note that an auto,transformer does not
function as a simple voltage divider.
%uto,transformers are smaller in sie and uses less iron than a conventional two winding
transformer of the same rating. %uto,transformers used for variable voltage operation are
referred to the trade name of 8%7)%9. %s shown in &ig 11$ auto,transformers has a step,up
section /shown in dotted lines0 which enables the trans,former to develop a variable voltage
output from 1 to 2718 from a 2418 input %9 supply. %uto,transformers are mostly used in
laboratories for conducting e(periments.
F- Sin%"e (&ase an t&#ee (&ase t#ans'!#,e#s:
!ransformers shown in &ig 4 of 9hart are designed for use with single phase %9 mains
supply. >ence these transformers will have a single primary winding. "uch transformers are
known as single phase transformers. !ransformers are also available for3 phase %9 mains
supply. !hese are known as polyphase transformers. 7efer &ig 7 of 9hart 2. )n a 3,phase
376
transformer$ there will be three primary windings. !hree phase transformers are used in
electrical distribution and for industrial applications.
K- C"assi'icati!n base !n a(("icati!n:
!ransformers can also be classified depending upon their application for a specialied work.
"ince there are innumerable number of applications$ the types are also innumerable.
>owever a few of these are listed below#
#urrent !ransformers, used in clip on current meters$ overload trip circuits etc.$
#onstant %oltage transformers #used to obtain stabilied voltage supply for sensitive
e+uipments
$gnition transformers , used in automobiles
1elding transformers , used in welding e+uipments
-ulse transformers , used in electronic circuits
377
378
379
LOSSES AND E33ICIENC: O3 TRANS3OR9ERS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to :
1. state the difference between an ideal and practical transformer
2. define the term efficiency of a transformer
3. list out the losses in a transformer and their causes
4. e(plain how the losses in a transformer can be minimied
5. e(plain how 59 and "9 tests reveal losses in transformers
6. e(plain the method to determine the efficiency of a transformer from 59 and "9 tests.
380
E33ICIENC: O3 TRANS3OR9ERS
)n an ideal transformer$ the power consumed in the secondary is e(actly e+ual to the power
consumed in the primary as shown in &ig 1 a.
)n practice$ ideal transformers cannot be made. !his is because some amount of power is
always wasted in transferring the power from primary to secondary. >ence$ the power
consumed in primary will always be higher than that available in secondary as shown in &ig 1
b. !his difference in the power between primary and secondary is lost or wasted as a result of
transformer losses. !ransformers can be designed and made so that the transformer losses
are minimum. !he degree to which any transformer approaches the ideal condition is called
the efficiency of the transformer. ;fficiency of a transformer is generally e(pressed in
percentage as$
%s an e(ample$ efficiency of the ideal transformer shown in &ig 1a is$
381
&rom this e(ample$ it can be seen that$ smaller the output power in relation to the input
power$ the lower is the efficiency of the transformer. ;fficiency of a transformer is also a
measure of the losses in the transformer. !he lower the efficiency of the trans,former$ the
higher are the losses in the transformer.
E0a,("e: % transformer with .1J efficiency consumes 51 'atts at primary. 'hat is the
power delivered at secondary across a purely resistive load.
SOL1TION:
T#ans'!#,e# "!sses N In()t (!$e# I O)t()t (!$e#
N AB I @K-A N <-A $atts
LOSSES IN TRANS3OR9ERS
Because of the transformer losses$ the transformer heats up when in operation. !he losses in
the transformer convert some of the electrical energy into heat energy as shown in &ig 1c. %s
a thumb rule$ if a transformer is heating,up while in operation$ the losses in the trans,former
382
is high. <ost common types of transformer losses which always e(ist with almost all iron,core
transformers are e(plained belowG
;-C!((e# "!sses
!ransformer windings are made of many turns of copper wire. 9opper wire although a very
good conductor$ still has some resistance /refer 4ocket table book$ !able 2o.120. !he value
of this resistance depends upon the type of material and the length of wire. %s the number of
turns in windings increase$ the longer is the length of wire$ and greater will be the resistance.
%s shown in &ig 2$ when primary and secondary currents flow through the windings$ due to
the ohmic resistance of the windings$ power/)
2
70 is dissipated in the form of heat. !hese 127
losses are called ,opper losses. 9opper losses increase if the currents through primary and
secondary increases. !otal copper loss in a transformer is e+ual toG .
9opper loss K )
p
2
r
p
I 1
s
2
r
s
9opper losses can be minimied by using a thicker gauge copper wire$ but this increases the
sie$ weight and cost of the transformer.
<-C!#e "!sses !# I#!n "!sses
9ore*)ron losses in transformer are due to two different types of losses namelyG
i0 >ysteresis loss
ii0;ddy current loss
i? H*ste#esis "!ss
!he magnetic field in the iron,core of a transformer undergoes a complete reversal 51 times
each second for a mains,supply fre+uency of 51>. %s shown in &ig 3$ every time the polarity
of the supply reverses$ the molecules of iron with its 2," poles change its direction$ such that
the direction of magnetic field reverses.
383
;nergy has to be supplied to the molecules of the iron core to make them catch up with the
new direction of magnetic field. !his turning around of molecules$ or reversing the magnetism
of iron core$ consumes energy in the form of heat. !his loss of energy$ appearing in the form
of heat$ is proportional to the area of the B,> curve or >ysteresis loop of the core material as
shown in &ig 4.
!his loss of energy in the primary of the transformer in reversing the magnetism of the iron
core is called hysteresis loss of the transformer. )t should be noted that air core transformer
will not have hysteresis loss as air core transformers do not use magnetic core material.
ii? E* c)##ent "!ss
)n iron,core transformers$ the core material is a conducting material. "o$ the changing
magnetic field of trans,former induces a voltage in the core. !his induced voltage in the core
cause small current to circulate within the core as shown in &ig 5. !his current is called eddy
current.
!he induced eddy current is large if the resistance of the core material is small. 3ue to this
circulating eddy cur,rents and the resistance of the core material$ power loss occurs /4Ki
e
2
r
c
0
in the form of heat as shown in &ig 5. )n addition$ the induced eddy currents set,up an
opposing flu( /p
2
0 in the core as shown in &ig 6. !his results in more primary current trying to
maintain the magnetic field in the core. !his further increases the eddy current and hence the
384
losses due to it. !his loss of power in a transformer due to eddy current in the transformer
core is referred to as eddy current loss.
;ddy current loss in a transformer core can be reduced by making the core$ into thin flat
sections as shown in &ig 7 instead of a solid single piece iron as in &ig 5. !hese thin flat
sections are called laminations.
"ince these laminations have very small cross,sectional areas$ the resistance offered to the
setting up eddy current is greatly increased and hence the loss due to it is also reduced.
"uch laminations$ are stacked together as shown in &ig -. !hese laminations are insulated
from each other by means of an insulation coating$ generally shellac. 3ue to the insulation
between laminations$ the eddy currents can only flow in individual laminations. >ence the
overall eddy current loss of the transformer is greatly reduced. !he power loss due to eddy
currents is directly proportional to$
a0 the fre+uency of current.
b0 the magnitude of current.
)f iron,core transformers are used at high fre+uencies$ the eddy current losses become high.
>ence iron,core trans, formers are not preferred in high fre+uency applications.
)t should be noted that air core transformer will not have any eddy current loss as they do not
have core material in which the eddy current can flow.
Ot&e# "!sses in t#ans'!#,e#s
)n addition to copper losses andiron losses$ transformers have two more types of losses.
!hey are#
385
10 @oss due to flu( leakage
20 9ore saturation loss
L!ss )e t! '")0 "ea.a%e
%s can be seen from &ig .$ in transformers all the flu( lines produced by the primary and
secondary windings does not travel through the iron core. "ome of the magnetic lines leak
from the windings and go out into space as shown in &ig .. !hese leaked magnetic lines
cannot do useful work. !his leakage of the flu( lines represents wasted energy$ reducing the
efficiency of the transformer.
L!ss )e t! c!#e sat)#ati!n
'hen the current in the primary winding of an iron,core transformer increases$ the flu( lines
generated follow a path through the core to the secondary winding$ and back through the
core to the primary winding$ %s the primary current first begins to increase$ the number of flu(
lines in the core increases rapidly shown in light gray shade in &ig 11. %dditional increases in
primary current will produce only a few additional flu( lines less /shown in dark gray shade in
&ig 110 than what it should have produced. !he core is then said to be saturated. %ny further
increase in primary current after core saturation$ results in wasted power.
386
"umming the different types of losses in a transformer$ the total loss is given by$
!otal transformer loss K 9opper losses/primary I secondary0 I )ron losses
/>ysteresis I eddy current0 I &lu( leakage loss I 9ore saturation loss.
9ompared with the other two losses$ the flu( leakage loss and the core saturation loss are
negligible. %lso these two losses can be greatly reduced by good transformer design and safe
current level operation. >ence$ the total losses that occur in a transformer can be found after
knowing its copper losses and iron losses.
9EAS1RIN8 TRANS3OR9ER LOSSES
!o determine losses in a transformer$ its turns ratio and efficiency$ two simple tests are
conducted. !hese tests are$ the no,load test and the full,load test.
N!-"!a test !# !(en ci#c)it test >B-C test?
&ig 11 shows the circuit arrangement for 5,9 test on a transformer.
!he %9 input voltage /8
i
0 is set at a rated primary voltage. !he input power /4
i
0 is measured
by the wattmeter /'0. !he input current /)
p
0 is measured by ammeter.
!he open,circuit secondary voltage /8
"
0 is measured by voltmeter. "ince the secondary is
open there is no current in secondary. %s the transformer secondary is open,circuited/)
"
K10$
the primary current /)
p
0is very small. "ince )
4
is very small$ the voltage drops across the
ammeter and wattmeter can be neglected. "o the input voltage /8
i
0can be taken as primary
voltage /8
4
0. !herefore$ the ratio of the two voltmeter readings gives turns ratio of the
transformer.
!urns ratio of transformer K

!he input power /4
i
0 measured by the wattmeter /'0 gives the total transformer core losses
because with very small primary current and ero secondary current the copper losses in the
windings are negligible and hence can be taken as ero.
!otal losses in a transformer K
9opper loss I )ron loss
K 1 I )ron loss
'ith copper loss being ero$ the input power measured on the wattmeter /'0 is the total
transformer 9ore loss or )ron loss /'
i
0.
3)"" "!a test !# s&!#t ci#c)it test >S-C test?
&ig 12 shows the circuit arrangement for ",9 test on a given transformer.
387
'ith the secondary terminals shorted$ the input voltage /8
i
0 is increased slowly from ero till
the ammeter in the primary circuit indicates rated full,load primary current$ )
4
'hen this
occurs$ the rated full load secondary current l
"
will be circulating in the secondary winding.
Because the secondary terminals are shorted$ the voltage re+uired at primary$ 8
4
to produce
full,load primary and secondary current is Cust around 3J of the rated input voltage /8
i
0. )n
this condition$ the wattmeter measuring input power /4
i
0 indicates the full,load copper losses
for the reasons given belowG
'ith a low level of input voltage /3J of rated0$ core flu( is minimum. >ence the core
losses are so small that they can be neglected and taken as ero.
"ince the winding$ both primary and secondary are carrying rated full,load currents$
the input is supplying the rated full,load copper losses only.
!otal losses K 9opper loss I )ron loss
!otal losses K 9opper loss I 1
'ith )ron loss being ero$ the input power measured/'
9
0 on the wattmeter is the total
transformer copper loss at rated full,load current. ?sing the results of the "9 test$ the phase
angle difference /p0 between the current and the voltage can be determined as given belowG
4ower &actor$ cos pK!rue power * %pparent power
!rue power is the power read on the wattmeter$ apparent power is given by$
8
p
( )
p
voltamps.
!herefore$ in "9 test
T#ans'!#,e# #atin% in VA
&rom above discussions it is seen that copper loss of a transformer depends on current and
iron loss depends on voltage. >ence$ the total transformer loss depends on volt,ampere /8%0
and not on the phase angle between the voltage and current. !his also means that the trans,
388
former loss is independent of load power factor. >ence transformers are rated in 8% or F8%
instead of ' or F'.
&or simplicity$ assuming the effect of inductance in secondary is negligible cos p
s
can be
taken as 1.
therefore$
4o K 8
o/&@0
E )
"/&@0 MMMMMMMMM.
V2W
9ore losses is given by wattmeter/'
i
0 reading in 1,9 test MMMMV3W
&ull load copper losses is given by wattmeter reading in "9 test V4W
Fnowing V2W$ V3W and V4W$ the efficiency of the transformer can be calculated using ..V1W.
E0a,("e: % 368% rated step down transformer /2318#128$ 3% secondary0 on 59 and "9
tests gave the following resultsG
59 test# 8
p
K 2218$ )
p
K 1.16-%$ ' K 2 watts
"9 test# 8
p
K 218$ )
p
K 1.3%$ ' K 6 watts
&ind the efficiency of the transformer at the rated secondary load of 368%. %ssume secondary
load 4.&/cosp0 K1.
389
&rom 59 test#
%pparent power K 8
p
.)
p
K 221 ( 1.16- K 14..6 8%
!rue power K 'K2'
9os p K !rue power * %pparent power K 2 * 14..6 K1.1337
9os p K 1.1337
t a -2
o
)ron losses K 'attmeter reading in 5.9 testK 2 watts
&rom ".9 test
"hort circuit voltage 8
"/&@0
is given byG
9opper losses K 'attmeter reading in "9,test K 6 watts !otal transformer losses K 9opper
loss I )ron loss
K 6 watts I 2 watts
K - watts.
;fficiency of the transformer at rated load of 368% is
25!;# !hese calculations have not taken into account the effect of inductive reactance of the
primary and secondary circuit. )f the load connected to the secondary of a transformer is
going to be a highly inductive load$ then it is necessary to consider the power factor /9os p0.
&or details refer reference books listed at the end of this book for e(act calculations of
efficiency of transformers from the data obtained by 1,9 and ",9 tests.
390
391
VOLTA8E RE81LATION, PHASE RELATIONSHIP IN
TRANS3OR9ERS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. e(plain the meaning of regulation in transformers
2. determine regulation from 59 and "9 test data
3. describe the phase relationship between primary and secondary with reasons.
392
VOLTA8E RE81LATION
&or simplicity in understanding$ in all the previous les,sons on transformers$ the resistive and
inductive effect of the primary and secondary windings were neglected. %lso$ the effect of
load current on the magnitude of secondary voltage was neglected. )n a practical situation$
the secondary voltage of a transformer decreases as the load*load,current is increased.
9onsider the e+uivalent circuit of a transformer shown in &ig 1.
&rom the circuit in &ig 1$ the secondary current )s produces voltage drops )
s
7
s
. and )
s
E
s
across the resistive and reactive components of the secondary winding. 9onse+uently$ the
output voltage 8
o
is less than 8
s
. 'hen load is not connected at the output terminals of the
transformer$ no secondary current flows$ and hence$ no voltage drops occur across 7
s
and
E
s
. >ence$ 8
o
e+uals 8
s
. !hus$ the transformer secondary voltage is greatest on no load.
?nder loaded condition$ the voltage drops across the resistive and reactive components of
the secondary winding$ reducing 8
o
. !he larger the load current$ larger will be the drop across
the resistive and reactive components of the secondary and hence$ smaller will be the value
of 8
o
. !he percentage change in output voltage 8
o
from no load to full load is termed the
voltage regulation of the transformer.
)deally$ there should be no change in 8o from no,load to full,load$ /i.e.$ regulation K 1J0. &or
best possible performance$ the transformer should have the lowest possible percentage
regulation.
25!;# )n some te(t books$ the regulation discussed above is termed as NJ 7egulation,?pN
some books also use$ the term NJ 7egulation,3ownN given by$
&or e(ample$ if a transformer has an output of 13 8 when on no,load and has an output of
11.- 8 when on its rated resistive load$ the regulation of the transformer is$
393
3inin% #e%)"ati!n '#!, OC an SC test #es)"ts
PHASE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
PRI9AR: AND SECONDAR:
Wit& O(en sec!na#* $inin%
&or ease of understanding the phase
relation ship between voltages and currents
in primary and secondary of a transformer$
consider a transformer having an open
secondary. 7eferring to &ig 2$ with open
secondary$ the primary winding works
similar to that of an inductor.
!his means that$
the primary current lags behind the
applied voltage 8
i
by .1H as shown in
&ig 2b.
&rom @ens= law the back,emf
produced in the primary$ which
opposes the cause$ therefore lags
be,hind the primary current by .1H as
shown in &ig 2c.
394
!he voltage induced in secondary is ma(imum when the primary back,emf is ma(imum. !hat
means$
the secondary voltage lags behind the primary current by .1 degrees and hence the
secondary voltage/8s0 is 1-1H out of phase with the primary voltage.
&ig 3 shows a combined illustration of the phase relation,ship between primary and
secondary.
Wit& "!ae sec!na#*
'hen a load is connected to the secondary of a trans,former$ current flows in the secondary.
%s in any inductance$
the current through the secondary winding lags behind the secondary voltage that
produces it by .1 degrees.
"ince the secondary voltage lags behind the primary current by .1H/&ig 40$ and since the
secondary current lags behind the secondary voltage by .1H$
the secondary current is 1-1H out of phase with primary current as shown in &ig 4.
395
%s the secondary current changes$ it generates its own magnetic field$ whose flu( lines
oppose those of the magnetic field created by the primary current. !his reduces the strength
of the primary magnetic field. %s a result$ less back,emf is generated in the primary. 'ith less
back,emf to oppose the applied voltage$ the primary current increases. !he amount of
increase in primary current is directly proportional to the amount of increase in secondary
current. !hus$ when secondary current in a transformer increases$ the primary current
automatically also increases. %nd when secondary current decreases$ the primary current
also decreases. %pplying rated primary voltage$ if the secondary of a transformer is shorted$
e(cessive current will flow in the primary as well as in the secondary. !his e(cessive current
will not only burn out the transformer$ but there is a possibility that the source supplying
power to the primary would also be damaged.
TRANS3OR9ER RATIN8S
1( +oltage rating
!ransformer manufacturers always specify the voltage rating of both the primary and
secondary windings. 5perating the primary above rated voltage usually causes the
transformer to overheat. <ore serious is the additional stress placed on the transformer
insulation by the higher primary and secondary voltages. 5perating the primary below rated
voltage does no harm$ but this makes the secondary voltages lower than rated values. !he
rated voltages of the secondary are specified for full,load conditions with rated primary
voltage. 'ith no, load$ the secondary voltage is slightly higher than rated voltage/usually 5 to
11 percent higher0. <anufacturers indicate the specification of centre,tapped secondary in
different ways. &or e(ample$ the secondary in &ig 5 may be specified in any of the following
ways#
10 41 8 9entre tapped
or 20 21 8 , 1 , 21 8
or 30 21 8 each side of center
396
<- C)##ent #atin%
<anufacturers usually specify current ratings for secondary windings only. !his is because$
as long as the secondary current rating is not e(ceeded$ the primary current,carrying capacity
cannot be e(ceeded. ;(ceeding the current rating of a secondary causes its voltage to fall
below rated value. But more serious than this slight decrease in secondary voltage is$ the
increase in$ )
2
7 /copper,loss0 loss in the secondary. !he increased )
2
7 loss causes the
winding to overheat and eventually destroys the transformer. )ncrease in copper,loss reduces
the efficiency of the transformer.
=-P!$e# #atin% >W #atin%?
"ome manufacturers specify a power rating /in watts0 for their transformers. !his is
understood to be the power the transformer can deliver to a resistive load. !hus the power
rating is merely the product of the current rating and the voltage rating of the secondary
/4K8)0. &or multiple,secondary transformers$ the power rating is the sum of the powers
available from the individual secondaries
/4
!
K 4
1
I 4
2
I etc.0.
25!;# !he total power/4
!
0 cannot be taken from a single secondary on a multiple,secondary
transformer. !he current rating of the individual secondaries must not be e(ceeded.
@-V!"ta,(e#e #atin% >VA #atin%?
!he 8oltampere rating/8%0 of a transformer is an apparent power rating. )t is applicable to any
type of load 7esistive$ 7eactive$ or its combination/impedance0. !he 8% rating$ like the power
rating$ is given for the total transformer secondary instead of individual secondary windings.
)n a multiple,secondary transformer$ the total voltampere rating cannot be taken from a single
secondary. &rom the details given above$ it can be seen that$ manufacturers use many ways
to rate transformers. &rom users point$ you will never overload a transformer or e(ceed any
of its rating if you observe the following two basic rules$
1. 2ever apply more than the rated voltage to the primary winding.
2. 2ever draw more than the rated current from secondary winding/s0.
397
I9PEDANCE 9ATCHIN8 1SIN8 TRANS3OR9ERS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the need for matching impedance of circuits
2. state the conditions for ma(imum power transfer
3. e(plain the impedance matching using transformer
4. list data to be collected while disassembling*assembling transformers.
398
I9PEDANCE 9ATCHIN8
%ll sources electricity will have some amount of internal resistance or impedance Vrecall Ko
/72 I ( 2 0W. %s an e(ample$ consider a dry cell which is a popular source of 39. 9ells are
made up of electrodes and electrolytes$ all of which have some electrical resistance. !hus$ a
cell$ while generating an emf$ has a resistance which is distributed throughout the cell. !his
distributed internal resistance can be assumed as a single e+uivalent resistance in series
with the emf as shown in &ig 1 a.
%s in case of battery cells$ all sources will have some amount of internal resistance/r0 or
impedance/0. 'hen a load is connected across any source$ ma(imum power gets
transferred from the source to the load only when the impedance of the load is e+ual to that
399
of the source as shown in &ig 1 b. !his is known as the =<a(imum power transfer theorem=.
!able below indicates results of an e(periment to prove ma(imum power transfer theorem.
&rom the above table$ it can be seen that$ greatest amount of power is delivered to the load
when the load has a resistance or impedance of 1 ohm which is the same as the internal
impedance of the battery or voltage source. !ransformers in addition to its Cob of coupling
energy from one circuit to other$ is also a useful device for matching the impedance of a
source to that of its load as shown in &ig 2.
!his property of transformers is important because$ in electronic circuits such as radios$
amplifiers$ televisions and so on$ it is often necessary to connect a low, impedance load to a
high,impedance generator and vice, versa. )n such cases$ unless there is an impedance
match$ the available power will not get transferred fully from source to load. %s an e(ample of
use of transformers in impedance matching$ assume a source or generator with an internal
impedance of 1111 ohms. )t is now necessary to match it to a load of 41 ohms using a
transformer as shown in &ig 3.
400
&irst$ the primary winding impedance/6
p
0 of the trans,former must match the generator
impedance. "econd$ the secondary winding impedance/6
s
0 of the transformer must match the
load impedance. Fnowing 6
p
and 6
s
$ the turns ratio of the transformer can be calculated as
follows#
%s a check$ )f 111 volts are applied to the primary$ the secondary voltage is 21 volts.
"econdary current is 218*41f$ or 1.5%. !he primary current is 1118 or 1.1%. !he primary
power is$ /1.10
2
( 1111 K 11 watts. !he secondary power is$ /1.50
2
( 41 K 11 watts. "ince the
primary power is e+ual to the secondary power$ the power transferred is ma(imum. "o$ the
transformer has matched a 41f load to a 1111 f source. 'hen such matching occurs$ it can
be said that the source see=s the primary impedance as a matching impedance$ and the
secondary$ see=s the load impedance as a matching impedance.
WINDIN8 9AINS TRANS3OR9ERS
'inding a mains transformer is a easy Cob if you have the design. !his is because$ standard
tables for choosing the bobbin sie$ stamping sie and wire gauge sies are readily available.
%ll that you need to wind a transformer is a good transformer coil winding machine and the
transformer spare parts. !ransformer spares of standard dimensions are readily available in
the market and they are not e(pensive. 3efective transformers with primary or secondary
winding burnt or open can also be rewound if practiced. >owever$ while dismantling a
transformer$ care should be taken to record the essential data by which the rewinding
process becomes easy and the original performance of the transformer is assured.
!he following data has to be taken from the transformer before disassembling#
2umber of windings
)nput and output voltages$ current and 8.%. rating/s0
9onnection diagram with terminal marking if available
401
)nformation about termination of lead connection positions and other assembly
particulars
!he following data has to be recorded during disassemblingG
!ype of core$ its condition
9ore assembly details and number of stamping
"ie of wire
2umber of turns in each layer$ number of layers and number of turns in each winding
and tapings.
"cheme of insulation like binding$ layer$ lead wires$ type and sie of sleeves$ type and
sie of insulation in between winding.
Bobbin details like bobbin dimensions$ wall thickness$ shape and materials etc.
3rawing showing the details of bobbin assembly.
P!ints t! #e,e,be# $&i"e #e$inin%
)f an old bobbin is to be reused for winding$ it should be cleaned well and ensured that it is
free from any break or cracks. )f a new bobbin is to be used$ it should be checked with the
stamping /core0 for proper assembly to avoid too much air gap or too tight a fitting. &or
winding$ suitable sie of wire shall be selected from the data and the sie of wire shall be
measured as per ).".4-11 /4art , )0 1.6-. !he sie of the wire can be measured with
insulation but it should be within the limit of tolerance. )nsulation scheme should be followed
as per the data taken. )f e(act replacement is not available$ an e+uivalent type and sie may
be selected. !urns and tapping of winding shall be made as in the original.
9et&! !' Stac.in% c!#e
Before stacking the core$ stamping should be checked for dents$ bends and core insulation.
3ent on core should be removed if possible. )f stampings are badly damaged$ it should be
replaced with new ones. "tacking shall be done as in the original se+uence and pattern. %ll
the stamping available for the transformer shall be stacked without sparing any. @eads should
be properly sleeved and terminated.
9A8NETS AND 9A8NETIS9
402
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:

1. state the meaning of magnetism
2. differentiate between magnetic and non,magnetic materials
3. list a few magnetic and non,magnetic materials
4. state the meaning of magnetic poles
5. list the properties of magnets
6. differentiate between temporary and permanent magnets
7. state the meaning of retentivity
-. state the meaning of residual*magnetism
.. applications of magnetic compass
11. list a few types of commercially used magnets and their applications
11. state the units for measuring flu( and flu( density.
INTROD1CTION
5ver 2111 years ago$ ancient Areeks noticed that certain kind of stones attracted iron. "ince
this stone was first found in <agnesia in %sia minor$ the stone was named magnetie. @ater
they discovered that this stone would align itself to north and south when suspended freely.
3ue to this property$ this stone was also called as leading stone or lodestone.
9a%nets an ,a%netis,
<agnets are those which have the power to attract iron or alloys of iron /ferrous materials0.
<agnets available in nature are called natural magnets or lodestones as shown in &ig 1. !he
property of a material to attract pieces of ferrous materials is called ,a%netis,-
403
2atural magnets are of very little practical use these days because it is possible to produce
much better magnets by artificial means.
9a%netic an n!n-,a%netic ,ate#ia"s
%ll materials cannot be made magnets artificially. <aterials which are attracted by magnets
are called magnetic materials and only such magnetic materials can be made as artificial
magnets. %ll other materials are called non,magnetic materials. % list of a few magnetic and
non,magnetic materials is given below#
9a%netic 9ate#ia"s N!n- 9a%netic ,ate#ia"s
)752 %@?<)2)?<
"!;;@ 9544;7
95B%@! B7%""
2)9F;@ @;%3
P!"es !' a ,a%net
!he magnetic strength of a magnet is concentrated at two points on the magnet. !hese points
are called the poles of a magnet. !he earth itself is a huge magnet$ with its strength
concentrated at its poles called the north pole and the south pole as shown in &ig 2.
404
Because of the earth=s magnetic poles$ if a bar magnet is suspended freely$ one end of the
bar magnet will always point towards north pole of earth magnet. !his end of the bar magnet
is therefore called the north seeking pole as shown in &ig 3. !he opposite end of the bar
magnet is called the south seeking pole. 'hen poles are indicated on a magnet$ the north
seeking end is marked as the north pole/20 and the opposite side is marked as the south
pole/"0 as shown in &ig 3. )t should be noted that the magnetic north pole differs by about 15H
from true geographic 2orth 4ole on the a(is of the earth=s rotation as shown in &ig 3.
9A8NETIC 3IELD AND 9A8NETIC 3L1J O
!he property of magnetism in any magnet is because of an invisible field of force between the
two poles at the opposite ends of the magnet as shown in &ig 4. &rom &ig 4 it can be seen
405
that the magnetic field is strongest at the poles. <agnetic field e(ists in all directions$ but
decreases in strength$ as you go away from the poles/decreases inversely as the s+uare of
the distance from the poles0. !he magnetic lines can be considered to flow outward from the
north pole and enter the magnet at the south pole. !he entire group of magnetic lines$ which
can be considered to flow outward from the north pole of a magnet$ is called the magnetic
flu(. !he magnetic flu( is symbolically represented by the Areek letter t /phi0. !he more the
magnetic flu( t, the stronger is the magnetic filed$ and hence$ the magnet.
PROPERTIES O3 9A8NETS
P 1n"i.e (!"es att#act eac& !t&e#-
'hen the north pole of a freely movable permanent magnet is brought near the south pole of
a second permanent magnet$ an invisible force causes the two poles to be attracted to each
other as shown in &ig 5a. !he two unlike poles actually stick to one another. !he force of
attraction between unlike poles increases as the distance between the poles decreases.
%ctually$ the force of attraction varies inversely as the s+uare of the distance between poles.
!he magnetic field along unlike poles will be similar to that shown in &ig 5b.
P Li.e (!"es #e(e" eac& !t&e#-
'hen the north pole of a freely movable permanent magnet is brought near the north pole of
a second permanent magnet$ an invisible force causes the two poles to repel each other as
shown in &ig 6a. !he two unlike poles actually move away with a Cerk. !his force of repulsion
406
increases as the distance between the poles decreases. %ctually$ the$ force of repulsion
varies inversely as the s+uare of the distance between poles. !he magnetic field around like
poles will be similar to that shown in &ig 6b.
P P!"es !' ,a%nets a"i%n $it& %e!%#a(&ic (!"es-
'hen a bar magnet is suspended freely in air$ the 2 and " poles of the magnet align in such
a way that$ the magnets 2 pole settles in the geographic 2orth direction and the " pole
towards the geographic "outh direction. !his direction aligning property of magnets is made
use of in finding the direction of geographic north and south poles while sailing in ships and
flying in aircraft. % small$ thin$ magnet pivoted at its centre so that it can rotate freely in a
horiontal plane as shown in &ig 7 is called a magnetic compass. !his is an e(tremely useful
instrument for direction finding.
P In)ces ,a%netic (#!(e#ties t! ,a%netic ,ate#ia"s-
% permanent magnet can induce magnetism to an unmagnetied iron bar such that the iron
bar become a magnet. !o induce magnetism$ it is enough if the permanent magnet comes
close to the iron bar as shown in &ig -.
407
'hat is happening in &ig - is that$ the magnetic lines of force generated by the permanent
magnet$ make the internal molecular magnets in the iron bar line up in the same direction as
shown in &ig .b. %n unmagnetied iron as shown &ig .a$ the molecules will be in random
directions. 2ote from &ig - that$ the induced poles in the iron bar have opposite polarity from
that of the poles of the permanent magnet.
)t should be noted that inducing magnetism was possible only because the unmagnetied
material shown in &ig 11 was a magnetic material. )n &ig . instead of iron$ a copper bar is
used$ the permanent magnet will not induce magnetism in copper as copper is a non,
magnetic material. !he magnetic field lines will be unaffected by the non,magnetic materials
when placed in the magnetic field of a magnet as shown in &ig 11.
T:PES O3 9A8NETS
<agnets are available naturally$ and can also be made artificially. 'hen magnets are made
artificially$ depending on the type of material magnetism is retained for different durations. &or
e(ample$ if a piece of soft iron and a piece of steel are magnetied. !he magnetism in steel
remains for a much longer duration than in soft iron. !his ability of a material to retain its
magnetism is called retentivity of the material. 3epending upon the retentivity of the material$
artificial magnets can be classified as temporary magnets and permanent magnets.
!emporary magnets lose their magnetic power or magnetism once the magnetiing force is
removed. !he magnetism that remains in a magnetic material$ once the magnetiing force is
removed$ is called residual magnetism. !his term is usually only applicable to temporary
magnets. 4ermanent magnets retain magnetism for a long period of time. 9lassification of
magnets$ popularly used types of magnets and their applications are given in 9hart 1 at the
end of this lesson.
1nits !' ,a%netic '")0 O 9a0$e""
!he unit <a(well/<(0 for the magnetic field$ is named after Dames 9lerk <a(well$ an 1-th
century mathematical physicist from "cotland. 5ne <a(well /<(0 unit e+uals one magnetic
408
field line. )n &ig 11$ for e(ample$ the flu( illustrated is 6 <( because$ there are si( field lines
flowing in or out of each pole. % one pound magnet can provide a magnetic flu( t of about
5111 <(. <a(well is a unit of magnetic field in 9A" system of units.
Webe#
!his unit of magnetic field$ is named after 'ilhelm ; 'eber /1-14,1-.10$ a Aerman physicist.
!his is a larger unit of magnetic flu(. 5ne weber /'b0 e+uals 1 ( 11
-
lines or ma( wells. "ince
weber is a large unit for typical fields$ micro weber /T'b0 unit can be used. 1T'b K 11
,6
'b.
&or a one lb magnet producing the magnetic flu( of 5111 <($ corresponds to 51 T'b. 'eber
is a unit of magnetic field in ") system of units.
3L1J DENSIT: B
!he flu( density is the number of magnetic field lines per unit area of a section perpendicular
to the direction of flu( as shown in &ig 11.
%s a formula$
BN O / AN '")0 / A#ea
)n magnets$ the flu( density will be higher close to the poles because flu( lines are more
crowded near the poles.
1nits !' '")0 ensit*
8a)ss
!his unit of flu( density$ is named after Farl &. Aauss /1777,1-550$ a Aerman mathematician.
5ne Aauss is e+ual to one flu( line per s+uare centimeter$ or 1 <(*cm
2
. Aauss is a unit of
flu( density in 9A" system of units. %s for e(ample in &ig 11$ total flu( t is 6 lines$ or 6 <( at
point 4 in this field$ the flu( density B is 2 Aauss because there are 2 lines per cm
2
.
%s an e(ample the flu( density B for a 1 lb magnet will be 1111 A at the poles.
;(ample # 'ith a flu( of 11$111 <( through a perpendicular area of 5 cm
2
$ what is the flu(
density in gaussQ
BK t * %K11$111 <( * 5 cm
2
K 2111 <( cm
2
25!;# !ypical values of flu( densities are $ ;arth=s magnetic flu( density is about 1.2 A.
% large laboratory magnet produces flu( density of 51$111 A. "ince gauss is a small unit$ flu(
density if often measured in kilogauss
1 kilogauss K 11
3
Aauss.
409
Tes"a !# Webe#s/,
<
!his unit of flu( density is named after 2ikola !esla /1-57,1.430$ a crotion born %merican
inventor of electricity and magnetism. )n ") units of measurement$ the unit of flu( density B$ is
webers per s+uare meter /'b* m
2
0. 5ne 'eber per s+uare meter is called a tesla$
abbreviated as !. !esla is a unit of flu( density in ") system of units.
;(ample # % flu( of 411 T'b passes through an area of 1.1115 m
2
$ 'hat is the flu( density in
tesla unitsQ
BK t * % K 411 E 11
,6
'b * 5 ( 11
,4
m
2
K^BK411 * 5 E 11
,2
K-1 E 11
,2
'b*m
2
B K 1.-1 !esla
!esla is a larger unit than gauss 1 ! K 1 ( 11
4
A. &or e(ample$ the flu( density of 21$111 A is
e+ual to 2 !.
410
9A5IN8 ARTI3ICIAL 9A8NETS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the two theories of magnetism
2. e(plain the methods of magnetiing an iron bar
3. e(plain the methods of demagnetiing a magnet
4. state the type of magnetic field around a current,carrying conductor
5. state the method and use of right hand screw rule
6. e(plain the magnetic effect of a pair of current carrying conductors
7. e(plain the magnetic field around a coil carrying current
-. state the effect of core in a solenoid
.. list a few applications of electromagnet.
411
T&e!#ies !' 9a%netis,
3ifferent theories have been developed over the years in an attempt to e(plain what causes
magnetism. !wo of the important theories are /i0 <olecular theory and /ii0 ;lectron theory.
9!"ec)"a# t&e!#*
!he molecular theory of magnetism assumes that each molecule /group of atoms0 of a
substance is a small magnet. 'hen a material is in an unmagnetied condition its molecular
magnets are arranged in a random fashion as shown in &ig 1 a. !herefore$ the net result is$
cancellation of the magnetic effect. )n a magnetied bar$ the molecular magnets are arranged
so that their magnetic fields are aligned in the same direction as shown in &ig 1 b.
E"ect#!n t&e!#*
!he electron theory of magnetism assumes that each
spinning electron is a small magnet. ?nmagnetied
materials have electrons spinning in different
directions causing the cancellation of the magnetic
effect as shown in &ig 2a. <agnetied materials tend
to have more of their electrons spinning in the same
direction as shown in &ig 2b. )ron$ nickel$ and cobalt
are the only naturally magnetic metals. "ince all
materials contain electrons$ why is it everything does
not have magnetic propertiesQ !he answer is$ the
electrons in atoms tend to pair off in orbits with
opposite spins$ so that their magnetic fields are
opposite$ and hence cancel with each other. %lthough
iron$ nickel$ and cobalt are the only naturally magnetic
materials$ compounds of these metals can be
manufactured with a controlled process to give them
good magnetic properties.
412
9a%neti+in% i#!n
"ince a magnetic material can be magnetied by aligning its molecules$ the best way to do it
is by applying a magnetic force. !he force would act against the magnetic field of each
molecule and force it into alignment. !his can be done in two waysG
10By magnetic stroking
20By an electric current.
<agnetiing by stroking # 'hen a magnet is stroked across the surface of an unmagnetied
piece of iron as shown in &ig 3$ the field of the magnet aligns the molecules to magnetie the
iron.
<agnetiing by electric current # % piece of iron can be magnetied by making a 39 current to
flow around it. !his is discussed in detail in further in the lesson.
De,a%neti+in% a ,a%net
<aking a magnet lose its magnetic properties is known as demagnetiing magnets. )n order
to demagnetie a magnet$ the arranged molecules must be disarranged. !his can be done in
three waysG
1.By striking with a hammer
2. By heating
3. By placing it in a rapidly reversing magnetic field.
)f a magnet is struck hard as shown in &ig 4$ the force would Cam the molecules and they
would rearrange themselves. "ometimes$ repeated strokes are needed for demagnetiing.
)f a magnet were heated as shown in &ig 5$ the heat energy would cause the molecules to
vibrate sufficiently and rearrange themselves causing demagnetiation.
413
)f a magnet is placed in a rapidly reversing magnetic field$ the molecules would become
disarranged trying to follow the field. % rapidly reversing field can be produced with alternating
current. !his topic is covered in further lessons.
9a%netic 'ie" a#!)n a c)##ent-ca##*in% c!n)ct!#
'hen current is passed through a conductor$ a magnetic field is produced around it as shown
&ig 6a. )t is important to note the following two factors about the magnetic lines of force
around a current carrying conductor.
10!he magnetic lines are circular and the field is symmetrical with respect to the current
carrying wire in the centre.
20!he magnetic field with circular lines of forces is in a plane perpendicular to the current in
the wire.
!he direction of the magnetic lines around the conductor can be determined by the right hand
screw rule as shown in &ig 6c. !he direction of magnetic lines reverses$ if the direction of
414
current through the conductor is reversed as shown in &ig 6b. !his magnetic field around a
single conductor is too weak to make the wire behave as a useful magnet. "ince a current,
carrying conductor has a magnetic field around it$ when two current,carrying conductors are
brought close together there will be interaction between the fields. &ig 7 shows such different
interactions.
&ig 7a shows the effect on the fields when two conductors carrying currents in opposite
directions are adCacent. !he directions of the magnetic fields around the conductors are in
opposition$ and this is similar to the situation when two like magnetic poles are brought close
together. !he fields e(ert a force of repulsion on each other$ tending to push the conductors
apart. 'hen the adCacent conductors have currents flowing in the same direction$ the
magnetic fields assist each other. "ince the lines of force are always in tension$ they always
try to find the shortest path. 9onse+uently$ the fields e(ert a force that tends to pull the
conductors together$ as shown in &ig 7b and 7c.
9a%netic 'ie" a#!)n a c!i"
9onsider the effect of passing a current through a one, turn coil of wire as shown in &ig -a.
&ig -a and -b shows the magnetic flu( generated by the electric current passing through the
centre of the coil. !herefore$ a one,turn coil acts as a little magnet. )t has a magnetic field with
an identifiable 2 pole and " pole. )nstead of a single turn$ a coil may have many turns as
shown in &ig -c. )n this case$ the flu( generated by each of the individual current ,carrying
415
turns$ tends to link,up and pass out,of one end of the coil and back into the other end as
shown in &ig -c. !his type of coil$ also known as a solenoid has a magnetic field pattern very
similar to that of a bar magnet. !he right hand rule for determining the direction of flu( from a
solenoid is illustrated in &ig -d. 'hen the solenoid is gripped with the right hand such that$
the fingers are pointed in the direction of current flow in the coils$ the thumb points in the
direction of the flu( as shown in &ig -d.
!he coil now behaves like an electromagnet. !he solenoid acts like a bar magnet whether it
has an iron core or not. %dding an iron core in a solenoid increases the flu( density inside the
coil. )n addition$ the field strength will then be uniform for the entire length of the core. )t
should be noted that$ adding an iron core into a solenoid does not change the 2 and " pole
positions of the solenoid. 'hen the direction of the current through the coil is changed$ it
changes the direction of magnetic lines$ thereby changing the poles of the solenoid.
A(("icati!ns !' e"ect#!,a%net
;lectromagnets are used in various applications such as electrical circuit breakers$ relays$
door bells etc.
416
9A8NETIC CIRC1IT PARA9ETERS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. name the factors that decide the strength of an electromagnet
2. e(plain what is a magnetic circuit
3. state flu( and its unit
4. state the magneto motive force and its units
5. state the magnetic reluctance and its units
6. state the magnetic field intensity and its units
7. state the relative and absolute permeability.
417
)n a coil magnet or solenoid$ the strength of the magnetic field depends on$
the magnitude of current through the coil and
the number of turns in the coil.
!he more the current$ stronger the magnetic field. %lso$ the more the turns$ the more
concentrated are the lines of force. % more detailed analysis of the strength of the magnetic
field and the terms used can be understood by considering a magnetic circuit.
9a%netic ci#c)it
%s shown in &ig 1a and &ig lb$ a magnetic circuit is a closed,loop path for magnetic lines of
force like an electric circuit is a closed,loop path for the flow of electrons.
)n an electrical circuit$ electrons travel from the negative to the positive terminal of the voltage
source as shown in &ig 1 a. "imilarly$ in a magnetic circuit$ the lines of force travel from the
2orth pole to the "outh pole of the electromagnet as shown in &ig 1 b. !he rate of flow of
electrons in the electrical circuit is called current /)0 and is measured in amperes /%0. !he
lines of force in the magnetic circuit is called the magnetic flu( /t0 and is measured in webers
/wb0.
9A8NETO9OTIVE 3ORCE>,,'?
%s electric current is the result of an electromotive force /emf0 acting upon an electric circuit$
a magnetic flu( is the result of a magnetomotive force /mmf0 acting upon a magnetic circuit.
!he magnetomotive force of a current carrying coil is the product of the current in amperes /)0
and the number of turns /20 on the coil as shown in &ig 2. !he approved ") unit of mmf is the
ampere,turn. "ome times the abbreviation of ampere,turns$ %t is used.
<agnetomotive force/mmf0 K 9urrent through the coil/)0 ( 2o. of turns in coil/20 mmf K ) ( 2
ampere,turns.
%s shown in &ig 3$ a solenoid with 5 turns carrying 2 amperes has the same magnetiing
force /mmf0 as that of a coil with 11 turns$ carrying 1 ampere of current. !his is because the
product of current and turns is 11 in both cases. !he amount of current through a coil
depends on the resistance of the wire and the applied source voltage. 3epending upon the
re+uired %t /magnetic field strength0$ the re+uired number of turns of the coil can be decided.
418
E0a,("e ; : 9alculate the ampere,turns for a coil with 2111 turns /20 and a 5,m% current /)0.
2) K 2111 ( 5 ( 11
,3
K 11 %t
!he ampere,turn/%t0 is a ") unit of measure of mmf. !he 9A" unit of mmf is Ailbert$
abbreviated as Ab. 5ne ampere,turn /%t0 e+uals 1.26 Ailbert /Ab0.
REL1CTANCE
!he counterpart of the term resistance /70 in an electrical circuit is called reluctance in a
magnetic circuit as shown in &ig 4. !herefore$ reluctance is a measure of the opposition
offered to the setting up of flu( in a magnetic circuit$ Cust as resistance is the opposition to
current flow in an electric circuit. !he symbol for reluctance is 7
m
. !he reluctance of a
magnetic circuit depends upon the width of the air gap$ and the type of magnetic material
used. %ir gap is the air space between the poles of a magnet. "ince air has high reluctance$ a
magnetic circuit having widely spaced poles will have high reluctance. &ig 5 shows the effect
of air gap on reluctance in different shapes of magnets.
7eluctance is measured in %t per 'eber /%t*'b0. !he similarity between magnetic and
electric circuits e(tends even to 5hm=s @aw as shown in &ig 6. !he same relationship e(ists
between magnetomotive force$ flu( and reluctance as that e(ists between voltage$ current
and resistance. 5hm=s @aw for magnetic circuit states that$ the flu( produced by a magnetic
circuit is directly proportional to the magnetomotive force /mmf0 and inversely proportional to
the reluctance/7m0.
419
E0a,("e : % coil has a mmf of 511 %t and a reluctance of 2 ( 115 %t*'b. &ind the total flu( t.
9alculation and measurement of electrical parameters such as voltage$ current and
resistance is relatively easy in an electrical circuit. !he same is not true for the magnetic
circuit parameters. %lthough meters are available for measuring different parameters of a
magnetic circuit$ they are most e(pensive and hence often used in the test laboratories only.
3IELD INTENSIT: >H?
)f a coil with a certain number of turns is stretched to twice its original length as shown in &ig
7a and :b, the intensity of the magnetic field$ that is$ the concentration of lines of force will
become one,half. !he field intensity at any point in space around a magnetic circuit depends
on the length of coil.
420
>ence$ at any point in space$ a specific value of ampere, turns will produce less field intensity
for a long coil than for a short coil. !he symbol for field intensity is >. !he field intensity > in
") system for a solenoid is given by$
>K 2) %t * @ meter$ %mpere turns per meter
'here$
> K <agnetic field intensity in ampere,turns
per meter/%t*m0
2) K <agnetomotive force in ampere,turns/%t0
@K@ength between poles of the coil in meters
&or an air core solenoid$ > is the intensity at the centre of the air core. &or a solenoid with an
iron core$ > is the intensity through the entire core and @ is the length or distance between
poles of the iron core as shown in &ig 7c. %s can be seen from the formula for field intensity$
the field intensity />0 is nothing but the magnetomotive force /mmf0 per unit length. )n ")
units$ > is %t*m. !he 9A" unit for > is the oersted$ abbreviated as oe. 5ne oersted e+uals
one gilbert of mmf per centimeter. !he magnetic field intensity for both electromagnets and
permanent magnets as specified either in %t*meter or in oersted.
E0a,("e:
/a0 &ind the field intensity />0 of a 4,turn$ 11,cm,long coil$ with 3 % flowing through it as shown
in &ig 7a.
/b0 )f the same coil is stretched to 21 cm as shown in &ig 7b$ with the same number of turns
and current$ what is the new value of field intensityQ
/c0 !he 11cm coil in &ig 7a with the same 3 % flowing is now wound around an iron core of
21cm long as shown in &ig 7c. 'hat is the field intensityQ
S!")ti!n:
421
PER9EABILIT: >Q?
4ermeability refers to the ability of a magnetic material to concentrate the magnetic flu(. %ny
material that is easily magnetied is said to have high permeability. %ir or vacuum has very
low permeability. % measure of permeability of materials in comparison with air or vacuum is
called #e"ative (e#,eabi"it*- !he symbol of relative permeability is T
r
$ where r stands for
relative. T
r
has no units because$ it is a comparative ratio of flu( densities. % good magnetic
material with high relative permeability can concentrate flu( and produce a large value of flu(
density for a specified >. !hese factors are related by the formula#
BN Q J H !# QN B / H
!he factor T is known as the abs!")te (e#,eabi"it*- !his means$ the permeability not
referred to the permeability of any other material. 7ecall that in ") system$ B is the flu(
density in webers per s+uare meter$ or tesla$ and > is the field intensity in ampere,turns per
meter. )n 9A" system$ B is the flu( density in gauss$ and > is the field intensity in oersteds.
)n 9A" system the units for B is Aauss and for > is oersted. !hese units are defined to give
T the value of 1 A*5e$ for vacuum or air. >ence$ the values of relative permeability Tr are the
same as those for absolute permeability in B*> units in 9A" system. %s an e(ample$ if Tr for
an iron sample is 611$ the absolute T is also 611 A*5e because T is 1 for air or vacuum. )n
")$ however$ the permeability of air or vacuum is not e+ual to 1. "pecifically$ this value is 4u
(11
,7
$ or 1.26 ( 11
,6
'b*%t,m with the symbol T
o
. !herefore$ values of relative permeability pr
must be multiplied by 1.26 ( 11
,6
with T
o
to calculate T.
&or e(ampleG if the relative permeability /T
r
0 of a material is 111$ the ") value of T can be
calculated as followsG
E0a,("e #% magnetic material has a T
r
511. 9alculate the absolute permeability T /a0 in 9A"
units$ and /b0 in ") units.
422
E0a,("e : &or T K 631 ( 11
,6
in ") units$ calculate the flu( density B that will be produced by
the field intensity > e+ual to 1111 %t*m.
423
424
ELECTRO9A8NETS - SOLENOID
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. e(plain the construction of a typical solenoid
2. e(plain the principle of working of a solenoid
3. list a few uses of a solenoid
4. list the points to be noted while making solenoids
5. e(plain the use of solenoids in motor starter circuits.
425
SOLENOID
%s already discussed solenoids are nothing but electro,magnets. !he word solenoid is
usually applied to those devices that have thin coils wound on a air core former with a
movable iron core acting against an internal spring as shown in &ig 1. !he air core and coil
may be rectangular or circular in shape as shown in &ig 1a.
% solenoid is constructed by winding enameled copper wire on a hollow fiber or plastic
former. !he core$ more commonly called a plunger is made of such a material that is easily
magnetied but does not retain its magnet,ism when the current no longer flows through the
coil. % solenoid enables an electric current to control a mechanical part. !he movable iron
core or plunger can be used to operate$ for e(ample$ water valves /to control water flow0$ a
mechanical brake$ a clutch and so on. "olenoids are generally made to operate on 39
supply. But solenoids can be made to operate on %9 supply also. !he %9 operated solenoids
are commonly used in door chimes.
P#inci("e !' !(e#ati!n
%s already discussed$ when current flows through a coil$ the coil becomes a magnet. !he coil
concentrates the magnetic field inside the coil$ and acts like a bar magnet. )t will have 2orth
and "outh poles similar to a bar magnet. )f a core of soft iron is placed along the a(is of the
coil$ it will be attracted by the coil as shown in &ig 2a. !he core will be drawn into the centre
of the coil. !he movement of the core will stop when the forces at each end of the coil are
balanced. !his balance occurs when the core has centered itself in the coil as shown in &ig
2b where the magnetic fields are strongest.
426
P)""in% (!$e# !' a s!"en!i
!he pulling force or power of the solenoid on the core depends on the magnetic properties of
the core material. )n general$ increasing the mmf /%t0 or decreasing the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit$ increases the pulling power of the solenoid. !he pulling power of a given
solenoid can be found by making a small Cig. !he setup of such a test Cig is given in e(ercise
5.14. !he pulling power is generally found in terms of weight /grams0. By increasing the mmf$
i.e. by increasing the current through the coil or*and the number of turns of coil$ the pulling
power of a solenoid can be increased for a given core material. !he pulling power can also be
improved by choosing a core material having low reluctance or high permeability.
P!ints t! be n!te $&i"e ,a.in% s!"en!is
1. ?se a thin wire gauge to accommodate more number of turns for a given length of the
former. !his increases the mmf for lesser value of current.
2. ;nsure that the hollow portion of the solenoid is friction,free to avoid unwanted waste
of energy while pulling the plunger.
3. 9hoose a core material having high permeability and very low retentivity. !his reduces
the reluctance of the magnetic circuit and improves the pulling power of the solenoid
and fre+uency of operation.
4. 9hoose the dimensions of the core such that it is not abnormally heavy and large. %
heavy core reduces the net pulling power of the solenoid.
5. ;nsure a firm fi(ing of the solenoid coil to some base to get ma(imum benefit of the
core movement.
A(("icati!n !' s!"en!i in ,!t!# sta#te#s
% typical application of solenoid connected to an automobile starter is given below# !he
starting system is used to start the engine in all four wheel vehicles. % typical starting system
is shown in &ig 3.
427
'hen the starter switch /%0 is pressed or turned$ battery/B0 gets connected to solenoid/90
and current flows through the solenoid. !he solenoid plunger/30 is attracted and the plunger
shorts the terminals/;0 connecting the battery to the starting motor/&0. 2ow the starter motor
shafts rotates. !he shaft of the starter motor coupled to the engine flywheel turns 52 the
engine by rotating the engine flywheel till the engine starts working. 5nce the engine starts
working$ switch/%0 is released. !he current through the solenoid is cut,off and the plunger/30
is released and the terminals/;0 become open$ switching 5&& the starting motor.
428
PRINCIPLE O3 OPERATION AND T:PES O3 RELA:S
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the difference between solenoid and relays
2. e(plain the general function of relays
3. parts of a typical relay
4. describe terms 4ull,in and 3rop,out
5. e(plain the functions of relay parts
6. e(plain the terms 5perating current$ >olding current$ 7elease current
7. list the classification of relays
-. list the specifications of a relay coil
.. list the different types of contacts in relays
11. list a few common relay contact and spring defects.
429
INTROD1CTION
)n addition to solenoids$ one other most popular application of electromagnets is in what are
called electromagnetic relays.
)mportant similarities and differences between a solenoid and a relay is illustrated in &ig 1.
E"ect#!,a%netic #e"a*s
!he term relay was used for the first
time$ to describe an invention made by
"amuel <orse in 1-36. !he device
invented by <orse was a !elegraph
%mplifying ;lectro,magnetic 3evice. !his
device enabled a small current flowing in
a coil to switch,52 a large current in
another circuit$ and thus helped in
relaying of telegraph signals. )n any
application$ the obCect of a relay is
generally to act as a remote switch or as
a electrical multiplier switch. !his means$
a relay enables a comparatively weak
current to bring into operation a much
stronger current or currents as shown in
&ig 2a and &ig 2b. )n &ig 2a$ a 151m%
relay current can switch,52 or switch,
5&& a high power motor which draws 15
430
%mperes. )n &ig 2b$ by operating the relay$ multiple circuits can be switched, 52 or switched,
5&&.
C!nst#)cti!n an !(e#ati!n !' a si,("e #e"a*
;lectromagnetic relay is basically a switch or a combination of switches operated by
magnetic force generated by a current flowing through a coil.
;ssentially$ a typical relay shown in &ig 3 consists of the following partsG
an electromagnet comprising of a core and coil
a movable armature$ pivoted and held in tension by a spring
a set of contacts
a frame to mount all these components.
%s shown in &ig 3$ a typical relay consists of a core surrounded by a coil of wire. !his is
mounted on a metal frame. !he movable part of the relay is the armature. 5ne end of the
armature is hinged and connected to a spring. 5n the armature is mounted a contact arm
carrying movable contacts. !he fi(ed relay contacts and its terminals are mounted on an
insulated terminal board. 'hen the relay is 5&& or not energied$ the contact arm touches
the top contact. 'hen the relay is energied by applying voltage to the coil terminals$ the
metallic armature is attracted. !he armature and contact arm assembly move downward so
that the contact arm mounted on the armature touches the bottom contact. !hus$ the relay is
doing the function of a single pole$ double throw /"43!0 switch. 5n removing the voltage
applied to the coil$ the spring attached to one end of the armature returns the armature to its
original position and the contact arm touches the top contact.
431
!he constructional details of a commercially available$ most common type of relay known as
a clapper type relay is shown in &ig 4. !he working principle of this relay is same as
e(plained for the relay as shown in &ig 3.
O(e#atin% e"a* !' #e"a*s
'hen an energiing voltage is applied to a relay coil$ the relay does not work instantaneously.
)t takes some time$ usually a few milliseconds to operate. 7easons for this delay are given
below#
3ue to inductance of the relay coil$ current grows slowly and takes some time to reach
the re+uired current value.
3ue to inertia$ the armature takes sometime to move from one position to another.
'hen rated voltage is applied to terminals of a relay coil$ the gradual build up of current in the
coil is due to the initial opposition to the current flow by the self,inductance of the coil. %fter
some delay$ when sufficient magnetiation is built up and when the force of attraction is
sufficient to overcome the opposition of the tension due to return spring plus$ tension of
contact springs$ the armature is attracted and it closes the relay contacts. !he relay is then
432
said to be energied or pulled,in or picked. 5nce the relay is energied then$ only a small
amount of energy is re+uired to maintain it in energied condition. !he rest of the electrical
energy is wasted as heat. 'hen the current through the coils falls below a certain value$ the
relay gets de,energied and the return spring pulls the armature back. !his is called as relay
drop,out. &rom above it can be seen that$ very little amount of electrical power is consumed
for the switching of relay whereas most of the power is consumed while holding.
PARTS O3 A RELA:
;ach part of a relay is as important as the other in the overall performance of the relay.
3etails of the parts of a relay and their purpose are given belowG
3#a,e an c!#e : 5ne of the main function of the relay frame is to provide a base for
mounting other relay parts. But$ the most important function is$ the frame forms a part of the
complete magnetic path between the armature and core. !he core$ frame and armature are
made of an easily magnetiable material such as iron.
Hin%es : !he hinges connect the armature to the frame. % good hinge must be as free from
friction as possible. !hey must also be strong enough to support the weight of the armature
and contacts. !he hinges must provide low reluctance to the magnetic flu( in its path from the
core through the frame and the armature.
Ret)#n s(#in%s : !he springs are usually very thin and cannot concentrate any large amount
of flu(. "pring steel$ which has a lower reluctance than other materials acts to retain its
magnetism and remain attracted to the core after the relay is de,energied. "prings also have
a disadvantage of being stiff and are likely to break after a few operations.
Re"a* c!i" : !he coil is usually wound on a former and slipped over the magnetic core in the
relay frame. !his permits easy replacement of damaged coils by new ones.
COIL SPECI3ICATIONS
Aenerally relays are made to operate at different voltages such as$ 6$ 12$ 1-$ 24$ 4-$ 111 or
241 volts %9 or 39. % coil resistance chart is usually given with relays which helps in
calculating the coil current and power dissipation. <a(imum wattage$ ma(imum permissible
temperature and the wattage for satisfactory operation$ are specified along with relays.
5perate current S is the minimum current re+uired to energie a relay.
>old current S is the minimum coil current re+uired to continue to hold the relay energied.
7elease current S is the ma(imum current which re, leases the relay.
7elay coils are always insulated from the frame of the relay. !he electrical resistance
between the coil and the body is a measure of the isolation of energiing voltage from the
ground. "imilarly$ the electrical resistance between the coil and the contacts is a measure of
the electrical isolation between the energiing driving and the driven circuits. !hese
resistances will be of the order of hundreds or thousands of megohms.
433
Re"a* c!ntacts
!he contacts on a relay are the parts that actually perform the electrical switching of the
controlled circuits. %lso$ these contacts are the ones that cause most trouble and re+uire
fre+uent maintenance as compared to any other part of a relay.
C!ntact ,ate#ia"s an esi%n
!he relay contacts are made of material which are very good conductors as well as
corrosion,resistant.
%n arc is created when the contacts open and close. !his arc burns and o(idies the
contacts. %n o(ide coating make the contacts either poor conductors or non,conductors. &or
this reason$ contacts are made of silver$ palladium and palladium,iridium alloys$ gold alloys$
gold plated silver$ tungsten and alloys of other highly corrosion, resistant materials that do not
o(idie easily. ;ven with these materials$ some o(idation still takes place. !o get rid of the
o(ide$ the contacts are designed to have a wiping action. %s the contacts close and open$ the
surfaces rub together. !his action rubs off any o(ide or dirt which might cause poor contact.
9ontacts come in many shapes and sies$ and in a variety of contact arms. !hese contact
arms are generally called contact springs because they maintain good contact pressure. !he
contact arms or springs are made thick and wide enough to carry the current for which the
contacts are rated. !hey are also made spongy enough to ensure good contact. )f the springs
are too soft they may vibrate when the relay opens$ causing contact bounce when the
contacts open and close repeatedly. !his bounce can also occur on closing. !he bouncing of
contacts is always undesirable. 9ontact de,bouncing circuits are used to overcome the
undesirable effects of contact bouncing in sensitive circuits such as digital electronic circuits.
"witching circuits with switching speed of 11 to 25 msec re+uire gold contacts. %lso the
contacts should be made of similar metals or alloys to avoid temperature differential which
will introduce uncompensated thermocouple voltages.
T*(es !' #e"a* c!ntacts
!here are several types of relay contacts of which a few basic types of contacts are shown in
9hart 1 at the end of this lesson.
!he simplest and most common forms of contacts are#
&orm %# 2ormally 5pen 9ontact /abbreviated as 2*50 which closes when the relay gets
energied.
&orm B# 2ormally 9losed 9ontact /abbreviated as 2*90 and the contact gets broken when the
relay is energied.
&orm 9# 9hange 5ver 9ontact /Break before make0
&orm 3# <ake before break contact , the long arm is contacted first$ then it is pushed away
from the short arm. )n practice this type of contact is very useful as it decides the switching
se+uence.
&orm ;# )t is basically a type 3 contact combined with a type B contact.
&orm &$A$> and D are pile,ups where multiple contacts are made or broken when the relay
picks up.
% single relay can have a pile of contacts and operate all of them simultaneously as shown in
&ig 5. !he contact assembly can contain a variety of contact types shown in 9hart 1.
434
C!,,!n #e"a* c!ntact e'ects
3ue to continuous switching the relay contacts and springs develop defects. "ome of these
defects are illustrated in 9hart 2 at the end of this lesson. )n most relays$ the contact spring
assembly can be replaced if they are found defective.
CLASSI3ICATION O3 RELA:S
;- 7elays can be classified according to the type of mechanism used to operate the contacts.
;(amples clapper$ ratchet$ stepper$ solenoid$ meter$ reed and thermal relays.
<- 7elays can also be classified based on their applications as given belowG
C!ntact!#s - relays with contacts that normally carry 31 or more amperes of current.
9!t!# sta#te# #e"a*s - relays used in motor circuits to control the starting current.
Ci#c)it b#ea.e#s - relays used as protective devices to interrupt circuits when they become
overloaded.
8ene#a" ()#(!se #e"a*s - relays used for general appli,cations.
Te"e(&!ne t*(e #e"a*s - relays used by telephone departments for switching lines and other
metering purposes.
9iniat)#e #e"a*s - relays used for mounting on printed circuit boards/49Bs0 as component of
electronic circuit.
=- 7elays can also be classified asG
V!"ta%e !(e#ate #e"a*s ,these relays usually will have high coil resistance and draw small
amount of current at the rated voltage for its operation. !hese are usually connected in
parallel with the voltage sources.
C)##ent !(e#ate #e"a*s - these relays usually have low coil resistance and are connected
in series with other circuits.
435
9a#%ina" #e"a*s - these relays are used when it is re+uired to operate a relay from a wide
range of power such as output of an amplifier which may have a varying input signal strength.
!hese relays permit adCustment of operation and release points within very close limits.
436
437