GE6162 - ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY MANUAL

Regulation- 2013
B.E. - I Semester
(Common to All Branches)
Prepared by
K. Karthikeyan, Assistant Professor / EEE
K. Ragavan, Assistant Professor / ECE
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering &
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
RAMCO INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
Rajapalayam 626 117
August 2014
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GE6162 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY L T P C
0 0 3 2
OBJECTIVES
To provide exposure to the students with hands on experience on various basic
engineering practices in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
GROUP B (ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS)
III ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE 10
1. Residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator, lamp and energy meter.
2. Fluorescent lamp wiring.
3. Stair case wiring
4. Measurement of electrical quantities voltage, current, power & power factor in RLC
circuit.
5. Measurement of energy using single phase energy meter.
6. Measurement of resistance to earth of electrical equipment.
IV ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE 13
1. Study of Electronic components and equipments Resistor, colour coding
measurement of AC signal parameter (peak-peak, RMS, period, frequency)using
CRO.
2. Study of logic gates AND, OR, EOR and NOT.
3. Generation of Clock Signal.
4. Soldering practice Components Devices and CircuitsUsing general purpose PCB.
5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR.
REFERENCES:
1. K.Jeyachandran, S.Natarajan& S, Balasubramanian, A Primer
onEngineeringPractices Laboratory, Anuradha Publications, (2007).
2. T.Jeyapoovan, M.Saravanapandian&S.Pranitha, Engineering Practices Lab
Manual, Vikas Puplishing House Pvt.Ltd, (2006).
3. H.S. Bawa, Workshop Practice, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited,
(2007).
4. A.Rajendra Prasad & P.M.M.S. Sarma, Workshop Practice, Sree Sai Publication,
(2002).
5. P.Kannaiah & K.L.Narayana, Manual on Workshop Practice, Scitech Publications,
(1999).
OUTCOMES
Ability to fabricate electrical and electronics circuits
SEMESTER EXAMINATION PATTERN
The Laboratory examination is to be conducted for Group A & Group B, allotting 90 minutes
for each group, with a break of 15 minutes. Both the examinations are to be taken together in
sequence, either in the FN session or in the AN session. The maximum marks for Group A and
Group B lab examinations will be 50 each, totalling 100 for the Lab course. The candidates
shall answer either I or II under Group A and either III or IV under Group B, based on lots.
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INDEX
Expt.
No
Name of the Experiment
Page
No.
General Guidelines to Students for Engineering Practices Laboratory 5
Safety Precautions for Electrical Engineering Practice 6
Preparation of Wiring Diagram 7
Tools and Accessories used for Electrical Wiring 8
Study of Symbols 10
1
Residential House wiring using Switches, fuse, indicator, lamp and energy
meter
17
2 Fluorescent lamp wiring 20
3 Staircase wiring 23
4
Measurement of electrical quantities - Current, Voltage, Power and Power
factor in RLC circuit
26
5 Measurement of energy using Single phase energy meter 29
6 Measurement of resistance to earth of an electrical equipment 32
7A Study of measurement of resistance using colour coding 38
7B Measurement of AC signal parameters using CRO 42
8 Study of basic logic gates 46
9 Half wave and full wave rectifier 52
10 Generation of Clock Signals 57
11 Study of Soldering and Desoldering 61
Viva-voce Questions 63
4
Expt.
No
Date of
Expt.
Name of the Experiment
Marks
Obtained
(10)
Signature
of
Staff
1
Residential House wiring using Switches, fuse,
indicator, lamp and energy meter
2 Fluorescent lamp wiring
3 Staircase wiring
4
Measurement of electrical quantities - Current,
Voltage, Power and Power factor in RLC
circuit
5
Measurement of energy using Single phase
energy meter
6
Measurement of resistance to earth of an
electrical equipment
7A
Study of measurement of resistance using
color coding
7B
Measurement of AC signal parameters using
CRO
8 Study of basic logic gates
9 Generation of Clock Signals
10
Half wave and full wave rectifier
11 Study of Soldering and Desoldering
5
GENERAL GUIDELINES TO STUDENTS FOR ENGINEERING
PRACTICESLABORATORY
1. Be punctual to the laboratory.
2. Once inside the lab, you should sign the attendance register. Failing to do so, will be
considered as absent to the lab.
3. You should occupy your allotted seat inside the lab and maintain absolute silence.
4. Bring the observation notebook, record notebook, copy of lab manual and calculator
compulsorily.
5. Read the upcoming experiments carefully and thoroughly to make sure that you
understand all the concepts and know how, before entering the lab. Lab preparation
includes reading the lab experiment and related textbook material.
6. Attend the laboratory classes wearing proper dress codes (prescribed uniform and
shoes).
7. Girls should put their plait inside their overcoat. Boys should tuck in their shirts.
8. Avoid wearing any metallic rings, bangles and other unnecessary costly jewels.
9. Avoid brining excessive things with you to the laboratory.
10. Keep in mind the location of first aid box and fire extinguisher.
11. If you need any assistance in case of sickness or accidents regardless how minor it is,
immediately report to faculty in charge or lab technician.
12. If any apparatus is broken, report immediately. It is individuals responsibility to either
pay or replace with the new ones.
13. Eating snacks is completely restricted inside the laboratory.
14. Avoid talking with other students during the practical session.
15. Prepare the list of tools required for the exercise and get the indent approved from the
faculty in-charge.
16. After the completion of every small step in the experimental procedure, get verified
from the faculty in charge.
17. You should get the observation notebook corrected as soon as you complete the
practical session.
18. If you miss any practical session due to inevitable reasons, inform the Faculty in charge
in advance. In that case you are supposed to carry out the experiment through additional
classes.
19. The students who fail to sustain a minimum of 80% attendance in the laboratory class
will not be permitted for the Anna University practical examination.
20. It is individuals duty to learn the experiment, procedure and concepts, in case he/she
misses the practical session whether add on classes provided or not.
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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE
While working with electricity, it is necessary that we take all basic safety precautions. A little
loss of concentration or a little carelessness can lead to severe shocks and fatal accidents. Some
of the precautions are given below:
1. Always wear leather shoes while working with electrical circuits.
2. The switch is always to be connected on the live conductor.
3. Never work on electric wires when the power is ON.
4. Do not touch bare conductors.
5. While working on a circuit, the corresponding Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) should
be kept off.
6. Use wooden or PVC insulated handle screw drivers when working on electrical circuits.
7. The earthing has to be maintained well.
8. Always unplug an appliance before cleaning, or whenever it is not in use. Ensure that
you pull by the plug and not the cord.
9. Never switch ON a circuit if you are not fully aware of control/operation.
10. Try to keep the screws, screw drivers, testers sharp tools etc. away from the shop floor.
Sometimes unknowingly one may step or slip on it and may cause injury.
11. Working tools should not be kept at the edge of the table.
12. Ensure that all safety guards and fenders (anything to defend or protect from injuries)
are available before switching the circuit ON.
13. Do not work in damp areas or in wet shoes or clothes. Always use an appliance on a
dry, level surface.
14. Replace or remove fuses only after switching OFF the circuit switches.
15. In case a person gets into contact with a live conductor, the main is to be put off
immediately.
16. Before attempting to disengage a person in contact with a live wire, one must insulate
oneself by standing on a dry rubber mat or wooden boards.
17. In the case of a fire, water should not be thrown on the live conductor.
18. In the case of an electric shock, after giving first aid, call a doctor. Continue first aid
till the doctor takes over.
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PREPARATION OF WIRING DIAGARAM
Wiring is the method of drawing or laying wires or cables and connecting accessories and
fitting s for the purpose of distributing electrical power to the various points or equipment from
the mains.
Durability Any wiring system must be able to withstand wear and tear due to
weather. The atmospheric action should not affect the wiring system.
Safety Safety is the most important point to be considered in the selection of any
wiring system. The wiring should be perfectly leak proof. Selection of the wire should
be according to the ISI standard and the wire sheet is of such a capacity that it can
withstand the total load of the whole installation.
Mechanical Protection The wiring should be mechanically sound. It should be
properly protected from damages of physical nature.
Appearance The appearance of the wiring has an important bearing on the
architectural beauty of an edifice from the aesthetic point of view. Normally conduct
wiring embedded under plaster is the proper choice for improving the appearance of a
wiring system.
Environmental Conditions In places where corrosive acids and alkalis are to come
in contact with wiring systems have to be protected against fumes and dampness.
Accessibility Facility for extension and renewal should be provided. The wiring
system adopted should be economical and should suit the individual. Consumer initial
cost is minimized.
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ACCESSORIES USED FOR ELECTRICAL WIRING
Fuses- Fuses protect electrical devices and components from over currents and short circuits
that occur in improperly operating circuits.
Fuse holders - Fuse holders are devices for containing, protecting and mounting fuses. Blown
fuses can be changed quickly and easily when used in conjunction with a fuse holder.
Electrical Conduit and Fittings - Electrical conduits and fittings are lengths of solid tubing
used to house, protect, and cover electrical wiring and cables in power distribution systems.
Cable Carriers - Cable carriers are constructed of flexible links and are used to organize and
manage cables and hoses for moving applications.
Switches - Switches are devices that allow electric current to flow when closed and prevent
current flow when opened.
Disconnect switches - Disconnect switches rapidly disconnect from power supplies in the
event of an emergency
Emergency stop switches - Emergency stop switches are devices that users manipulate to
initiate the complete shutdown of a machine, system, or process.
Power switches - Power switches are used to apply power to or remove power from
instruments such as large-scale factory equipment
Pushbutton switches - Pushbutton switches are mechanical switches defined by the method
used to activate the switch. The activation method is typically in the form of a plunger that is
pushed down to open or close the switch
Wires, Cables, and Accessories - Wires, cables, and accessories used to transmit electrical
power or signals.
Meters, Readouts and Indicators - Any type of equipment used to display information in
various formats including, digital readouts, indicator lights or panel meters
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Connectors - Components used to conduct and transfer signals (electrical, optical, RF, etc.) or
power from one cable to another.
Electrical Connectors - Electrical connectors are devices that join electrical circuits together.
Male connectors plug into receptacles, jacks, and outlets. Female connectors contain sockets
to receive other devices.
AC Power Connectors - AC power connectors transfer alternating current through a variety
of electronic devices. AC power connectors include simple AC inlets, outlets, and power entry
modules.
Batteries and Accessories - Devices that convert stored energy into electrical current; the two
main types are chemical batteries and physical batteries such as solar cells, nuclear energy and
thermal batteries.
Lighting Fixtures and Lamps - Lighting fixtures and lamps are used for illumination purposes
or to provide a source of light for a specific application. This category includes Halogen,
Incandescent, Fluorescent, and Lighting Fixtures.
Fluorescent Lamps - Fluorescent lamps are high-efficiency lamps that use electrical discharge
through low-pressure mercury vapour to produce ultraviolet (UV) energy, which is then
transformed into visible light.
Incandescent Lamps - Incandescent lamps generate light by passing an electric current
through a thin filament wire(usually of tungsten) until the wire is extremely hot.
Carrying Cases and Equipment Cases - Carrying cases and equipment cases protect contents
from impact, shock, vibration, rain, and dust.
Terminal and Junction Boxes - Terminal and junction boxes are used to house electrical
components and facilitate wiring. They are T-shaped or rectangular, made from a variety of
materials, and available in many different sizes, sealing configurations and mounting styles.
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STUDY OF SYMBOLS
Wires and connections
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Wire
To pass current very easily from one part of a
circuit to another.
Wires joined
A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are
connected (joined), but it is sometimes omitted.
Wires connected at 'crossroads' should be
staggered slightly to form two T-junctions, as
shown on the right.
Wires not joined
In complex diagrams it is often necessary to draw
wires crossing even though they are not connected.
I prefer the 'hump' symbol shown on the right
because the simple crossing on the left may be
misread as a join where you have forgotten to add
a 'blob'!
Power Supplies
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Cell
Supplies electrical energy.
A single cell is often wrongly called a battery, but
strictly a battery is two or more cells joined together.
Battery
Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more than
one cell.
DC supply
Supplies electrical energy.
DC = Direct Current, always flowing in one
direction.
AC supply
Supplies electrical energy.
AC = Alternating Current, continually changing
direction.
Fuse
A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the current
flowing through it exceeds a specified value.
Transformer
Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.
Transformers are used to step up (increase) and step
down (decrease) AC voltages. Energy is transferred
between the coils by the magnetic field in the core.
There is no electrical connection between the coils.
Earth
(Ground)
A connection to earth. For many electronic circuits
this is the 0V (zero volts) of the power supply, but for
mains electricity and some radio circuits it really
means the earth. It is also known as ground.
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Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Lamp (lighting)
A transducer which converts electrical energy to light. This
symbol is used for a lamp providing illumination, for
example a car headlamp or torch bulb.
Lamp (indicator)
A transducer which converts electrical energy to light. This
symbol is used for a lamp which is an indicator, for
example a warning light on a car dashboard.
Heater A transducer which converts electrical energy to heat.
Motor
A transducer which converts electrical energy to kinetic
energy (motion).
Bell A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.
Buzzer A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.
Inductor
(Coil, Solenoid)
A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field when current
passes through it. It may have an iron core inside the coil.
It can be used as a transducer converting electrical energy
to mechanical energy by pulling on something.
Switches
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Push Switch
(push-to-make)
A push switch allows current to flow only when the button is
pressed. This is the switch used to operate a doorbell.
Push-to-Break
Switch
This type of push switch is normally closed (on), it is open
(off) only when the button is pressed.
On-Off Switch
(SPST)
SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw.
An on-off switch allows current to flow only when it is in
the closed (on) position.
2-way Switch
(SPDT)
SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw.
A 2-way changeover switch directs the flow of current to one
of two routes according to its position. Some SPDT switches
have a central off position and are described as 'on-off-on'.
Dual On-Off
Switch
(DPST)
DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw.
A dual on-off switch which is often used to switch mains
electricity because it can isolate both the live and neutral
connections.
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Reversing
Switch
(DPDT)
DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw.
This switch can be wired up as a reversing switch for a motor.
Some DPDT switches have a central off position.
Relay
An electrically operated switch, for example a 9V battery
circuit connected to the coil can switch a 230V AC mains
circuit.
NO = Normally Open, COM = Common,
NC = Normally Closed.
Resistors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Resistor
A resistor restricts the flow of current, for example to
limit the current passing through an LED. A resistor is
used with a capacitor in a timing circuit.
Variable Resistor
(Rheostat)
This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts (a
rheostat) is usually used to control current. Examples
include: adjusting lamp brightness, adjusting motor
speed, and adjusting the rate of flow of charge into a
capacitor in a timing circuit.
Variable Resistor
(Potentiometer)
This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a
potentiometer) is usually used to control voltage. It can
be used like this as a transducer converting position
(angle of the control spindle) to an electrical signal.
Variable Resistor
(Preset)
This type of variable resistor (a preset) is operated
with a small screwdriver or similar tool. It is designed
to be set when the circuit is made and then left without
further adjustment. Presets are cheaper than normal
variable resistors so they are often used in projects to
reduce the cost.
Capacitors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Capacitor
A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor is used
with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as
a filter, to block DC signals but pass AC signals.
Capacitor,
polarised
A capacitor stores electric charge. This type must be
connected the correct way round. A capacitor is used
with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as
a filter, to block DC signals but pass AC signals.
Variable Capacitor A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.
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Trimmer
Capacitor
This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is operated
with a small screwdriver or similar tool. It is designed
to be set when the circuit is made and then left without
further adjustment.
Diodes
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Diode
A device which only allows current to flow in one
direction.
LED
Light Emitting Diode
A transducer which converts electrical energy to light.
Zener Diode
A special diode which is used to maintain a fixed voltage
across its terminals.
Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.
Transistors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Transistor NPN
A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other
components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.
Transistor PNP
A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other
components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.
Phototransistor A light-sensitive transistor.
Audio and Radio Devices
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Microphone A transducer which converts sound to electrical energy.
Earphone A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.
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Loudspeaker A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.
Piezo Transducer A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.
Amplifier
(general symbol)
An amplifier circuit with one input. Really it is a block diagram
symbol because it represents a circuit rather than just one
component.
Aerial
(Antenna)
A device which is designed to receive or transmit radio signals.
It is also known as an antenna.
Meters and Oscilloscope
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Voltmeter
A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
The proper name for voltage is 'potential difference', but most
people prefer to say voltage!
Ammeter An ammeter is used to measure current.
Galvanometer
A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter which is used to
measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or less.
Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance. Most multimeters
have an ohmmeter setting.
Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of electrical signals
and it can be used to measure their voltage and time period.
Sensors (input devices)
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
LDR
A transducer which converts brightness (light) to resistance (an
electrical property).
LDR = Light Dependent Resistor
Thermistor
A transducer which converts temperature (heat) to resistance
(an electrical property).
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Logic Gates
Logic gates process signals which represent true (1, high, +Vs, on) or false (0, low, 0V, off).
There are two sets of symbols: traditional and IEC (International Electro-technical Commission).
Gate
Type
Traditional
Symbol
IEC Symbol Function of Gate
NOT
A NOT gate can only have one input. The 'o' on the
output means 'not'. The output of a NOT gate is the
inverse (opposite) of its input, so the output is true when
the input is false. A NOT gate is also called an inverter.
AND
An AND gate can have two or more inputs. The output
of an AND gate is true when all its inputs are true.
NAND
A NAND gate can have two or more inputs. The 'o' on
the output means 'not' showing that it is a Not ANDgate.
The output of a NAND gate is true unless all its inputs
are true.
OR
An OR gate can have two or more inputs. The output of
an OR gate is true when at least one of its inputs is true.
NOR
A NOR gate can have two or more inputs. The 'o' on the
output means 'not' showing that it is a Not OR gate. The
output of a NOR gate is true when none of its inputs are
true.
EX-OR
An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs. The output of
an EX-OR gate is true when its inputs are different (one
true, one false).
EX-
NOR
An EX-NOR gate can only have two inputs. The 'o' on
the output means 'not' showing that it is a Not EX-OR
gate. The output of an EX-NOR gate is true when its
inputs are the same (both true or both false).
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
RESIDENTIAL WIRING DIAGRAM:
17
EX.NO: 1 RESIDENTIAL HOUSE WIRING USING SWITCHES,
DATE: FUSE, INDICATOR, LAMP AND ENERGY METER
AIM
To implement residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator, lamp and energy
meter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.No. Components Required Range Quantity
1. Switch SPST, 5A 3
2. Incandescent lamp 40W 3
3. Batten Holder - 3
4. Wires - As per required
TOOLS REQUIRED
S. No Tools Quantity
1 Tester 1
2 Electrician Knife 1
3 Wire Cutter 1
4 Screw Driver 1
THEORY
Any conductor which is composed of a conducting material, and is uniform in diameter
and circular in cross section is called wire. A length of single insulated conductor or two or
more such conductors each provided with its own insulation which are laid up together is called
a cable. Conductors, switches and other accessories should be of proper capable of carrying the
maximum current which will flow through them. Conductors should be of copper or aluminium.
In power circuit, wiring should be designed for the load which it is supposed to carry current.
Power sub circuits should be kept separate from lighting and fan sub circuits.
Wiring should be done on the distribution system with main and branch distribution
boards at convenient centres. Wiring should be neat, with good appearance. Wires should pass
through a pipe or box, and should not twist or cross. The conductor is carried in a rigid steel
conduit conforming to standards or in a porcelain tube.
A switch is used to make or break the electric circuit. It must make the contact finely.
Under some abnormal conditions it must retain its rigidity and keep its alignment between
switch contacts. The fuse arrangement is made to break the circuit in the fault or overloaded
conditions. The energy meter is used to measure the units (KWh) consumed by the load.
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PROCEDURE
1. Study the given wiring diagram
2. Make the location points for main switch box, switchboard, and lamp.
3. Draw the lines for wiring on the wooden board.
4. Place the wires along with the line and fix.
5. Fix the bulb holder, Switches, Socket in marked positions on the wooden board.
6. Connect main switch box in marked positions on the wooden board.
7. Give a supply to the wires circuit.
8. Test the working of light and socket.
RESULT
Thus the simple house wiring by using switches, fuse, indicator, filament lamps and energy
meter was studied.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
19
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
20
EX.NO: 2 FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING
DATE:
AIM
To make connections of a fluorescent lamp wiring and to study the accessories of the
same.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S. No Components Range/Type Quality
1. Fluorescent Lamp fixture 4 ft 1
2. Fluorescent lamp 40W 1
3. Choke 40W, 230V 1
4. Starter - 1
5. Connecting wires - As required
TOOLS REQUIRED
S. No Tools Quantity
1 Tester 1
2 Electrician Knife 1
3 Wire Cutter 1
4 Screw Driver 1
5 Combination Plier 1
THEORY
1. The electrode of the starter which is enclosed in a gas bulb filled with argon gas cause
discharge in the argon gas with consequent heating.
2. Due to heating, the bimetallic strip bends and causes in the starter to close. After this,
the choke, the filaments (tube ends) to tube and starter becomes connected in series.
3. When the current flows through the tube end filaments the heat is produced. During the
process the discharge in the starter tube disappears and the contacts in the starter move
apart.
4. When sudden break in the circuit occur due to moving apart of starter terminals, this
causes a high value of e.m.f to be induced in the choke.
5. According to Lenzs law, the direction of induced e.m.f in the choke will try to oppose
the fall of current in the circuit.
6. The voltage thus acting across the tube ends will be high enough to cause a discharge to
occur in the gas inside the tube. Thus the tube starts giving light.
7. The fluorescent lamp is a low pressure mercury lamp and is a long evacuated tube. It
contains a small amount of mercury and argon gas at 2.5 mm pressure. At the time of
21
switching in the tube, mercury is in the form of small drops. Therefore, to start the tube,
filling up of argon gas is necessary. So, in the beginning, argon gas starts burning at the
ends of the tube; the mercury is heated and controls the current and the tube starts giving
light. At each end of the tube, there is a tungsten electrode which is coated with fast
electron emitting material. Inside of the tube is coated with phosphor according to the
type of light.
8. A starter helps to start the start the tube and break the circuit.
9. The choke coil is also called blast. It has a laminated core over which enamelled wire is
wound. The function of the choke is to increase the voltage to almost 1000V at the time
of switching on the tube and when the tube starts working, it reduces the voltage across
the tube and keeps the current constant.
PROCEDURE
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Fix the tube holder and the choke in the tube.
3. The phase wire is connected to the choke and neutral directly to the tube
4. Connect the starter in series with the tube.
5. Switch on the supply and check the fluorescent lamp lighting.
RESULT:
Thus the fluorescent lamp circuit was studied and assembled.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
22
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULATION
Position of switches
Condition of lamp
S1 S2
23
EX.NO: 3 STAIRCASE WIRING
DATE:
AIM
To construct and control the status of lamp using two way switch by Stair Case wiring.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Sl. No Components Range Quantity
1 Incandescent Lamp 230V, 40W 1
2 Batten holder 1
3 Two way switches 230V, 5A 2
4 Connecting Wires As required
TOOLS REQUIRED
S. No Tools Quantity
1 Tester 1
2 Electrician Knife 1
3 Wire Cutter 1
4 Screw Driver 1
5 Combination Plier 1
THEORY
1. A two way switch is installed near the first step of the stairs. The other two way
switch is installed at the upper part where the stair ends.
2. The light point is provided between first and last stair at an adequate location and
height if the light is switched on by the lower switch. It can be switched off by the
switch at the top or vice versa.
3. The circuit can be used at the places like bed room where the person may not have
to travel for switching off the light to the place from where the light is switched
on.
4. Two numbers of Two-way switches are used for the purpose. The supply is given
to the switch at the short circuited terminals.
5. The connection to the light point is taken from the similar short circuited terminal
of the second switch. Other two independent terminals of each circuit are
connected through cables.
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PROCEDURE
1. First the layout diagram of the electrical circuit is made.
2. The connections are made as per the wiring diagram.
3. The connections are verified.
4. The output table is verified by switching ON the switches.
RESULT:
Thus the stair case wiring was constructed and output was verified.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
25
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULATION:
MF = Multiplication factor =
Voltage Current
Wattmeter Reading (Watts)
Power factor
S. No Obs. Reading Act. Reading
(V) (A) Cos
=(OR) Watts =(OR x MF) Watts
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EX.NO: 4 MEASURMENT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITES VOLTAGE,
DATE: CURRENT, POWER AND POWER FACTOR IN RLC
CIRCUIT
AIM
To measure electrical quantities - voltage, current, power and to calculate power factor
for RLC load.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S. No. Components Range Quantity
1. Voltmeter (0-300)V, MI type 1
2. Ammeter (0-10)A, MI type 1
3. Wattmeter 300V, 10A, UPF 1
4. Autotransformer 1KVA, 230/(0-270)V 1
5.
Resistive, inductive &
capacitive load
- 1
6. Connecting wires - Required
THEORY
Power in an electric circuit can be measured using a wattmeter. A wattmeter consists of
two coils, namely current coil and pressure coil or potential coil. The current coil is marked as
ML and pressure coil is marked as CV. The current coil measures the quantity that is
proportional to current in the circuit and the pressure coil measures quantity that is
proportional to voltage in the circuit. An ammeter is connected in series to the wattmeter to
measure current. A voltmeter is connected in parallel to wattmeter to measure voltage. The
power consumed by the load is measured using the wattmeter.
The power factor of the circuit is calculated using the relation given below:
FORMULAE
Actual power = OR x Multiplication factor;
Where OR Observed wattmeter reading
Apparent power = VI watts;
Where V Voltmeter reading, I Ammeter reading
Power Factor, cos = Actual Power / Apparent Power
27
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the supply and vary the auto transformer to build the rated voltage.
3. Observe the readings of ammeter, voltmeter & power for various load values.
4. After taking all the readings, bring the voltage to minimum in the autotransformer.
Switch off the power supply.
5. Calculate the power factor by the given formula.
MODEL CALCULATION
RESULT
Thus the electrical quantities voltage, current and power are measured for RLC load
and corresponding power factor is calculated.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
28
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULATION
Energy Meter Constant =
Sl.
No.
Voltage
(V)
Current
(A)
Power
(W)
Time
(Sec)
Number of
Revolutions
Actual
Energy
(kWh)
True
Energy
(kWh)
%
Error
Model Graph
29
EX.NO: 5 MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE
DATE: PHASE ENERGY METER
AIM
To measure the Energy consumed by a Single Phase Resistive Load by using Single
Phase Energy Meter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S. No. Apparatus Type / range Quantity
1 Ammeter (0 10A) MI 1
2 Voltmeter (0 300V) MI 1
3 Single Phase Energy Meter 1
4 Stop Watch Analog 1
5 Single Phase Resistive Load 3 KW, 230 V 1
6 Connecting Wires Required
FORMULA USED
1. =
( )
( )

2. =
3. =


4. =
( )

100
THEORY
Energy meters are integrating instruments and are used for measurement of energy in a
circuit over a given time. Since the working principle of such instruments is based on
electromagnetic induction, these are known as induction type energy meters.
An induction type energy meter consists of two magnets, the upper and lower magnets.
The upper magnet carries a pressure coil, which is made up of a thin wire and has large number
of turns. This coil has to be connected in parallel with the supply. The lower magnet carries the
current coil which is made up of a thick wire and has only few turns. This coil is to be connected
in series with the load. An aluminium disc mounted on the spindle is placed between the upper
and lower magnets. The disc can rotate freely between the magnets.
Another permanent magnet called as brake magnet is used for providing breaking
torque on the aluminium disc. The power consumed is measured in terms of number rotations
of the disc. For example 1800 revolutions of the disc means 1 KWH power consumed by the
load connected to the energy meter.
30
PROCEDURE
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Rated Voltage is set in the voltmeter, by gradually varying the Single Phase Variac.
3. Resistive load is switch ON.
4. Load is gradually increased and the Ammeter, Voltmeter & Energy meter readings
are noted.
MODEL CALCULATION
RESULT:
Thus the Energy consumed by a single phase resistive load was measured.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
31
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULATION:
Sl. No Voltage Reading (V) Resistance Reading ()
Avg. Resistance=
32
EX.NO:6 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF
DATE: ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
AIM
To measure the resistance to earth / insulation resistance of the order of mega ohms
using Megger.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S. No. Components Range Quantity
1. Insulation Tester (Megger) 500V, 0-200M 1
2. Voltmeter
(0 600)V, MC
type
1
3.
Any electrical equipment
(Transformer, cable)
- 1
THEORY
For this experiment we have to use the Megger. It is an instrument for testing the
insulation resistance of the order of mega ohms. It consists of a hand-driven DC generator and
a direct reading ohm meter. A simplified circuit diagram of the instrument is shown in Figure.
The moving element of the ohm meter consists of two coils, A and B, which are rigidly
mounted to a pivoted central shaft and are free to rotate over a C-shaped core(C on Figure 1).
These coils are connected by means of flexible leads. The moving element may point in any
meter position when the generator is not in operation.
As current provided by the hand-driven generator flows through Coil B, the coil will
tend to set itself at right angles to the field of the permanent magnet. With the test terminals
open, giving an infinite resistance, no current flows in Coil A. Thereby, Coil B will govern
the motion of the rotating element, causing it to move to the extreme counter -clockwise
position, which is marked as infinite resistance.
33
Coil A is wound in a manner to produce a clockwise torque on the moving element.
With the terminals marked "line" and "earth" shorted, giving a zero resistance, the current
flow through the Coil A is sufficient to produce enough torque to overcome the torque of Coil
B. The pointer then moves to the extreme clockwise position, which is marked as zero
resistance. Resistance (R
l
) will protect Coil A from excessive current flow in this condition.
When an unknown resistance is connected across the test terminals, line and earth, the
opposing torques of Coils A and B balance each other so that the instrument pointer comes to
rest at some point on the scale. The scale is calibrated such that the pointer directly indicates
the value of resistance being measured.
PROCEDURE
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The required voltage is generated with the help of hand driven generator.
3. The value of resistance of electrical equipment is directly read from the display
of the insulation tester.
4. Take the value of resistance at different voltages and find the average value of
resistance.
RESULT
Thus the measured value of the resistance to earth / insulation resistance of the unknown
material is = ----------- M

Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
34
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE
35
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Resistor
Capacitor
PN Diode
36
Integrated Circuit (IC)
37
38
EX.NO:7A STUDY OF MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
DATE: USING COLOR CODING
AIM:
To study and measure the value of resistance using colour coding.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
1. Assorted Resistors
2. Analog/Digital Multimeter
RESISTOR COLOUR CODING:
Color
First-band
Digit
Second-band
Digit
Third-band
Multiplier
Fourth-band
Tolerance
Black 0 0 10
0
= 1
Brown 1 1 10
1
= 10 1%
Red 2 2 10
2
= 100 2%
Orange 3 3 10
3
= 1000 3%
Yellow 4 4 10
4
= 10000 4%
Green 5 5 10
5
= 100000
Blue 6 6 10
6
= 1000000
Violet 7 7 10
7
= 10000000
Gray 8 8 10
8
= 100000000
White 9 9 10
9
= 1000000000
Gold 5%
Silver 10%
None 20%
39
TABULATION:
Example:
You are given a resistor whose stripes are coloured from left to right as brown, black, orange,
gold. Find the resistance value.
1. The gold stripe is on the right so go to Step Two.
2. The first stripe is brown which has a value of 1. The second stripe is black which has a
value of 0. Therefore the first two digits of the resistance value are 10.
3. The third stripe is orange which means x 1,000.
4. The value of the resistance is found as 10 x 1000 = 10,000 ohms (10 kilo ohms = 10
kohms).
The gold stripe means the actual value of the resistor mar vary by 5% meaning the actual value
will be somewhere between 9,500 ohms and 10,500 ohms. (Since 5% of 10,000 = 0.05 x 10,000
= 500)
S.
No
Resistance Value by Colour Coding()
Resistance
Value by
Multimeter()
Band1 Band 2 Band 3
toler
ance
Resistan
ce
Value
col
our
value
col
our
value
Col
our
value
40
THERY:
A resistor is a passive component. It introduces resistance in the circuit. A resistor is a
limiter of the electrical current that flows through a circuit. Resistance is the restriction of
current. Often in a resistor the electrons that pass through the resistor are changed to various
kinds of energy. The most common forms of energy that electrons are converted to are heat
and light. For example, in a light bulb there is a resistor made of tungsten which converts the
electrons into light.
We have a number of type of resistors such as carbon composition, metal film, carbon
film wire wound and variable resistors.
In our laboratory carbon resistors are used. For resistance of the order of mega ohms,
we use powdered carbon mixed with a suitable building material in the proper proportion.
Carbon resistors are quite cheap, but the value of resistance may be easily affected by
atmospheric changes and is also susceptible to high tolerance.
Resistance is measured in terms of units called "Ohms" (volts per ampere), which is commonly
abbreviated with the Greek letter ("Omega"). The variable most commonly used to represent
resistance is "r" or "R".
Resistance is defined as:
where is the resistivity of the material, L is the length of the resistor, and A is the cross-
sectional area of the resistor.
PROCEDURE:
To calculate the value of a resistor using the colour coded stripes on the resistor, use
the following procedure.
1. Turn the resistor so that the gold or silver stripe is at the right end of the resistor.
2. Look at the colour of the first two stripes on the left end. These correspond to the first
two digits of the resistor value. Use the table given below to determine the first two digits.
3. Look at the third stripe from the left. This corresponds to a multiplication value. Find the
value using the table below.
4. Multiply the two digit number from step two by the number from step three. This is the
value of the resistor n ohms. The fourth stripe indicates the accuracy of the resistor. A gold
stripe means the value of the resistor may vary by 5% from the value given by the stripes.
RESULT:
Thus the value of resistor using colour coding was studied and measured.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
41
MODEL GRAPH: (Using CRO)
AC input Voltage:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Measurement of AC Voltage Amplitude and Frequency
AFO CRO
42
EX.NO:7B MEASUREMENTS OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETERS
DATE: USING CRO
AIM:
To observe sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and ramp waveforms on the C.R.O.
and to measure the AC signal parameters of Amplitude (peak-peak), RMS period, and frequency of
the waveforms.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO Name of the equipment Type Range
Quantity
1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
Analog 30Hz 1
2 Audio Frequency Oscillator Digital 2MHz
1
3 Connecting Probes 2
FORMULA USED:
VRMS = V(P-P) / 2(volts)
F= 1 / T (Hz)
= 2 f (radian)
INTRODUCTION:
C.R.O. (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) is the instrument which is used to observe signal
waveforms. Signals are displayed in time domain i.e. variation in amplitude of the signal with
respect to time is plotted on the CRO screen. X-axis represents time and Y-axis represents
amplitude. It is used to measure amplitude, frequency and phase of the waveforms. It is also
used to observe shape of the waveform. C.R.O. is useful for troubleshooting purpose.
It helps us to find out gain of amplifier, test oscillator circuits. We can measure
amplitude and frequency of the waveforms at the different test points in our circuit. Thus, it
helps us for fault finding procedure. In dual channel C.R.O. X-Y mode is available which is
used to create Lissajous patterns
Latest digital storage oscilloscope display voltage and frequency directly on the LCD
and does not require any calculations. It can also store waveform for further analysis. More
detailed study on C.R.O. will be covered in EMI laboratory (SEM-V). In this practical, we will
measure amplitude and frequency of the different waveforms like sine wave, square wave,
triangular wave and ramp wave.
43
TABULATION:
Function
I/P
Freq
I/P
volta
ge
Vertical
Division
(a)
Vol/
Div
(b)
Amplitude
(p-p)
V=a*b
Vrms=0.707*V
(Volts)
Horizontal
Div
(c)
Time/
Div
(d)
Time
T=c*d
Freq
F=1/T
(Hz)
Sine
Wave
Square
wave
Triangle
Wave
44
PROCEDURE:
Connect function generator output at the input of C.R.O. at channel 1 or at channel 2
Select proper channel i.e. if signal is connected to channel 1 select
CH1 and if signal is connected to channel 2 select CH2
Adjust Time /Div knob to get sufficient time period displacement of the wave on
the CRO screen.
With fine tuning of time/Div make the waveform steady on screen.
Use triggering controls if waveform is not stable
Keep volt/div knob such that waveform is visible on the screen without
clipping
Measure P-P reading along y-axis. This reading multiplied with volt/div gives
peak to peak amplitude of the ac i/p wave.
Measure horizontal division of one complete cycle. This division multiplied
by time/div gives time period of the i/p wave.
Calculate frequency using formula f = 1/T.
Note down your readings in the observation table
Draw waveforms of sine, square, ramp and triangular in the given space.
RESULT:
Thus the sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and ramp waveforms on the C.R.O
was observed and the AC signal parameters of Amplitude (peak-peak), RMS period, and
frequency of the waveforms were measured.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
45
AND GATE OR GATE
LOGIC DIAGRAM:
PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7408 :
TRUTH TABLE:
S.No
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y=A.B
1 0 0 0
2 0 1 0
3 1 0 0
4 1 1 1
LOGIC DIAGRAM:
PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7432 :
TRUTH TABLE:
S.No
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y=A+B
1 0 0 0
2 0 1 1
3 1 0 1
4 1 1 1
46
EX: NO: 8 STUDY AND VERIFICATION OF LOGIC GATES
DATE:
AIM:
To verify the truth table of the logic gates AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR & EX-OR
using 74XX ICs.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity
1 AND IC7408 1
2 OR IC7432 1
3 NOT IC7404 1
4 NAND IC7400 1
5 NOR IC7402 1
6 EX-OR IC7486 1
7 Digital IC Trainer Kit - 1
8 Bread Board - 1
9 Power Supply 0-5V 1
10 Connecting Wires As required
INTRODUCTION:
Boolean functions may be practically implemented by using electronic gates. The following
points are important to understand.
Electronic gates require a power supply.
Gate INPUTS are driven by voltages having two nominal values, e.g. 0V and 5V
representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively.
The OUTPUT of a gate provides two nominal values of voltage only, e.g. 0V and 5V
representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively. In general, there is only one output to a
logic gate except in some special cases.
There is always a time delay between an input being applied and the output responding.
47
NOT GATE NAND GATE
LOGIC DIAGRAM
PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7404
TRUTH TABLE:
S.No
INPUT OUTPUT
A Y=A
1 0 1
2 1 0
LOGIC DIAGRAM:
PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7400
TRUTH TABLE:
S.No
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y=(A.B)
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 1
3 1 0 1
4 1 1 0
48
THEORY:
a. AND gate:
An AND gate is the physical realization of logical multiplication operation. It
is an electronic circuit which generates an output signal of 1 only if all the input
signals are 1. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. (Y=A.B). Bear in mind
that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. (Y=AB)
b. OR gate:
An OR gate is the physical realization of the logical addition operation. It is
an electronic circuit which generates an output signal of 1 if any of the input signal
is 1. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation (Y=A+B).
c. NOT gate:
A NOT gate is the physical realization of the complementation operation. It is
an electronic circuit which generates an output signal which is the reverse of the input
signal. A NOT gate is also known as an inverter because it inverts the input. This is also
shown as(Y= A'), or A with a bar over the top (Y= A )
d. NAND gate:
A NAND gate is a complemented AND gate. The output of the NAND gate will
be 0 if all the input signals are 1 and will be 1 if any one of the input signal is 0.
This is also shown as (Y= B A . or (A.B)).
e. NOR gate:
A NOR gate is a complemented OR gate. The output of the OR gate will be 1
if all the inputs are 0 and will be 0 if any one of the input signal is 1. This is also
shown as (Y= B A + or (A+B)).
f. EX-OR gate:
An Ex-OR gate performs the following Boolean function,
A B = (A. B) + (A. B)
It is similar to OR gate but excludes the combination of both A and B being equal to
one. The exclusive OR is a function that give an output signal 0 when the two input
signals are equal either 0 or 1.
49
NOR GATE EX-OR GATE
LOGIC DIAGRAM
PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7402
TRUTH TABLE:
S.No
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y=(A+B)
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 0
3 1 0 0
4 1 1 0
LOGIC DIAGRAM
PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7486
TRUTH TABLE:
S.No
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y=(A.B + B.A)
1 0 0 0
2 0 1 1
3 1 0 1
4 1 1 0
50
PROCEDURE:
1. Fix the ICs on breadboard and give the input supply.
2. Connect the positive terminal of supply to pin 14 and Negative to pin 7.
3. Give input at pin 1, 2 and take output from pin 3. It is same for all except NOT and
NOR gate
4. For NOR, pin 1 is output and pin 2 and 3 are inputs.
5. For NOT, pin 1 is input and pin 2 is output.
6. Note the values of output for different combination of inputs and draw the TRUTH
TABLE.
RESULT:
Thus the logic gates of AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR & EX-OR using 74XX ICs were
studied and their truth tables were verified.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
51
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:
TABULATION:
Rectifier Input Without Filter With Filter
Voltage Time Voltage Time Voltage Time
Charging Discharging
HWR
FWR
52
EX.NO:9 HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
DATE:
AIM:
To obtain the output of half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier and to plot the
characteristics.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity
1 Diode IN 4001 2
2 Resistor 1K 1
3 Transformer Step Down 230V/(12-0-12)V 1
4 CRO Analog 30MHz 1
5 Capacitor 100F 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires and
Probes
As Required
FORMULAE:
FWR
2
m
RMS
V
V =
and

m
ds
V
V
2
=
and Ripple Factor =
1
2

dc
RMS
V
V
HWR
2
m
RMS
V
V =
and

m
ds
V
V =
and Ripple Factor =
1
2

dc
RMS
V
V
INTRODUCTION:
One of the very important applications of diode is in DC power supply as a rectifier to
convert AC into DC. DC Power supply is the important element of any electronic equipment.
The first block of DC power supply is rectifier. Essentially rectifier needs unidirectional device.
Diode has unidirectional property hence suitable for rectifier. Rectifier broadly divided into
two categories: Half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier.
53
MODEL GRAPH:
54
Working principle of half wave rectifier:
In half wave rectifier only half cycle of applied AC voltage is used. Another half cycle
of AC voltage (negative cycle) is not used. During positive half cycle of the input voltage
anode of the diode is positive compared with the cathode. Diode is in forward bias and current
passes through the diode and positive cycle develops across the load resistance RL. During
negative half cycle of input voltage, anode is negative with respected to cathode and diode is
in reverse bias. No current passes through the diode hence output voltage is zero.
Half wave rectifier without filter capacitor convert AC voltage into pulsating DC
voltage. Filter capacitor is used to obtain smooth DC voltage.
Working principle of full wave rectifier:
Full wave rectifier utilizes both the cycle of input AC voltage. Two or four diodes are
used in full wave rectifier. If full wave rectifier is designed using four diodes it is known as
full wave bridge rectifier. Centre tapped transformer is used in this full wave rectifier. During
the positive cycle diode D1 conducts and it is available at the output. During negative cycle
diode D1 remains OFF but diode D2 is in forward bias hence it conducts and negative cycle is
available as a positive cycle at the output as shown in the following figure. Note that direction
of current in the load resistance is same during both the cycles hence output is only positive
cycles.
55
PROCEDURE:
1. Circuit connections were given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Input waveforms magnitude and frequency was measured with the help of CRO.
3. Supply is switched ON and the output waveform was obtained in the CRO.
4. Output waveforms magnitude and time period was measured.
5. Graphs were plotted for half wave and full wave rectifier outputs.
RESULT:
Thus the output of half wave and Full wave rectifiers were obtained and the curves were
plotted.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
56
PIN DIAGRAM:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
57
EX: NO: 10 GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL
DATE:
AIM:
To generate a clock signal of 1 KHz (square waveform) by an astable multi-
vibrator using IC555 timer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity
1
Power Supply (0-30) V 1
2
Resistors
1
3
Capacitors 0.01F
1
4
CRO
30MHz 1
5 IC 555 Timer - 1
6 Bread Board - 1
7 Probes and Connecting Wires - As Required
THEORY:
The 555 timers is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delay or oscillation.
A single 555 timer can provide time delay ranging from microseconds to hours whereas counter
timer can have a maximum timing range of days.
The 555 timer is a very popular and versatile integrated circuit that includes
23transisters, 2 diodes and 16 resisters on in an 8-pin DIP (Dual In-line Package).
It has two main operating modes:
Monostable Mode the 555 functions as a one-shot. Applications include timers, missing
pulse detectors, bounce free switches and touch switches.
Astable Mode the 555 functions as an oscillator. This mode is used for circuits such as LED
and lamp flashers, pulse generators, logic clocks, tone generators and security alarms.
An astable multi vibrator is a square waveform generator. Forcing the Op-amp to
operate in the saturation region generates square waveform. It is a free running symmetrical
multi-vibrator because it does not require any external trigger.
DESIGN EQUATIONS:
Charge time (output high) : 0.693*(R1+R2)*C
Discharge time (output low): 0.693*(R2)*C
Period : 0.693*(R1+2*R2) *C
58
MODEL GRAPH:
TABULATION
Amplitude TON TOFF T F=1/T Hz
59
Frequency : 1.44 / ((R1+2*R2)*C)
Duty cycle: Time High / Time Low: (R1+R2) / (R1+2R2)
PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are given as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The square waveform is obtained at output pin of Op-amp.
3. Note the amplitude & Time period of the waveform & Plot it in the graph.
4. Duty cycle is calculated using the formula given.
RESULT:
Thus IC555 timer was operated in Astable mode to generate square wave.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
60
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
61
EX: NO: 11 SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING
DATE:
AIM
To study and verify soldering and desoldering methods for a given circuit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.No Name of the apparatus Quantity
1 Printed Circuit Board 1
2 Soldering Iron 1
3 Soldering Flux 1
4 Soldering Gun 1
5 Resistor As Required
6. capacitor As Required
7 Connecting Wires As Required
INTRODUCTION:
Once a defective component needs to be isolated from the given faulty equipment, it is
required to remove the defective component from the PCB & all this require a good practice
of soldering & desoldering.
SOLDERING PROCESS:
Soldering is the process of joining two or more metals at temperature below their
melting points using filler metal (solder) having melting point below 450`c. The solder binds
the metal together by chemical & physical processes. Chemically solder reacts with small part
of each metal to be joined or soldered, thus forming a new compound. Physically the liquid
solder alloy then enters the exposed pores of the metals. Solder on cooling solidifies and forms
a continuous metallic bond. If the metals are not heated properly, solder will not penetrate into
the metal pores. As a result solder will solidify over the top of the pores in the metal & this
result in defective joint known as cold solder joint.
DESOLDERING:
This operation is frequently required during maintenance for replacing a component. It
consists of removal of solder from a previously soldered joint.
62
PROCEDURE:
SOLDERING
1. The given electronic circuit is studied.
2. The PCB board is cleaned.
3. The tip of the soldering iron is cleaned before heating and also the resistors and capacitor
which is to be soldered is cleaned.
4. The soldering iron is heated and the solder is applied to the tip of it.
5. The resistor (R) leads are bent to fit the holes on the board and they are inserted in the holes
of the board as per the circuit diagram.
6. The hot tip is applied to the joints and the solder is applied.
7. The soldering tip is removed and the resistor is hold tightly till the solder is cooled and set.
8. The excess component lead is trimmed with side cutter.
9. The above steps are repeated to fix the other resistor and capacitor in the circuit
DE-SOLDERING
1. The tip of the soldering iron is placed on the resistor- board joint until the solder is melt.
2. When the solder is melted the resistor is removed with a tweezers and the molten solder is
removed.
3. The above steps are repeated to remove the other resistor and capacitor.
4. The resistors and capacitors are cleaned.
RESULT:
Thus the Soldering and Desoldering methods was studied and output was verified for
a given circuit.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
63
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
64
EXP: 1 RESIDENTIAL HOUSE WIRING USING SWITCHES, FUSE, INDICATOR,
LAMP AND ENERGY METER
1. What is the purpose of neutral in the circuit?
2. What kind of supply is given to the circuit?
3. What is the supply for single phase?
4. What is the purpose of fuse in a circuit?
5. What is series and parallel connection of components?
6. What is DPSTS?
7. What is the difference between direct current and alternating current?
8. What is frequency?
9. What is AC supply?
10. Name the three pins in a three pin socket?
11. What are the types of wiring used in residential buildings?
EXP: 2 FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING
1. What are the gases filled in the fluorescent tube.
2. What is a fluorescent lamp?
3. What is the use of choke?
4. Why is starter used in fluorescent tube?
5. Will the tube light glow if the starter is removed after the tube light is on?
6. What is the material used for coating the tube light?
EXP: 3 STAIRCASE WIRING
1. What is the type of switch using in this experiment?
2. What are the applications?
3. What is the difference between 1-way and 2-way switch?
4. What is the use of this wiring?
5. Name some good conductors of electricity.
6. What do you mean by an open circuit and short circuit?
EXP: 4 MEASUREMENTS OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES - CURRENT,
VOLTAGE, POWER AND POWER FACTOR IN RLC CIRCUIT
1. Define Voltage and Current? Give its unit.
2. Define power and power factor?
3. What is an auto-transformer?
4. Define multiplication factor?
5. What is the use of wattmeter?
6. How is a wattmeter connected in an electrical circuit?
7. What is the difference between transformer and an auto transformer?
8. Name some measuring instruments and their uses.
9. What do you understand by the term power factor in reference to AC circuits?
10. What do you mean by a lagging / leading power factor?
65
EXP: 5 MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER
1. Define Energy meter?
2. What is the use of Energy meter?
3. What are the two coils used in Energy meter?
4. What is pressure coil?
5. What is current coil? Why it is used?
6. What is Actual power? Give the formula.
7. What is the use of auto transformer?
8. Give the difference between auto transformer & ordinary transformer?
9. Define power? Give formula for power consumed.
10. What will happen when a permanent magnet moving coil instrument is connected in an
AC circuit?
EXP: 6 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT
1. Define Resistance and give its unit.
2. Define earthing.
3. What is the purpose of earthing?
4. What is the instrument used for finding earth resistance?
5. What is meant by megger?
6. From where power is generated for megger?
7. What is meant by defection coil?
8. What is meant by current coil?
9. Which type of wattmeter is generally used for measuring power in AC circuit?
10. What do you mean by a wiring diagram? Name some tools used in wiring.
66
EXP: 7A STUDY OF MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE USING COLOUR CODING
Band Color Code Numeric Value
1
st
Band Brown 1
2
nd
Band Black 0
3
rd
Band Orange 10
3
4
th
Band Gold 5%
The Resistor Value is 10K The tolerance is 5%
Table 1
Band Color Code Numeric Value
1
st
Band Orange
2
nd
Band Orange
3
rd
Band Orange
4
th
Band Silver
The Resistor Value is ____________ The Tolerance is ______%
Table 2
Band Color Code Numeric Value
1
st
Band Orange
2
nd
Band Orange
3
rd
Band Red
4
th
Band Silver
The Resistor Value is____________ The Tolerance is ______%
Table 3
Band Color Code Numeric Value
1
st
Band Yellow
2
nd
Band Violet
3
rd
Band Red
4
th
Band Gold
The Resistor Value is____________ The Tolerance is ______%
Table 4
Band Color Code Numeric Value
1
st
Band Red
2
nd
Band Red
3
rd
Band Red
4
th
Band Gold
The Resistor Value is____________ The Tolerance is ______%
Table 5
Band Color Code Numeric Value
1
st
Band Red
2
nd
Band Violet
3
rd
Band Brown
4
th
Band Gold
The Resistor Value is____________ The Tolerance is ______%
67
Table 6
Band Color Code Numeric Value
1
st
Band Brown
2
nd
Band Brown
3
rd
Band Red
4
th
Band Gold
The Resistor Value is____________ The Tolerance is ______%
Table 7
Band Color Code Numeric Value
1
st
Band Yellow
2
nd
Band Violet
3
rd
Band Red
4
th
Band Silver
The Resistor Value is____________ The Tolerance is ______%
Table 8
Band Color Code Numeric Value
1
st
Band Yellow
2
nd
Band Violet
3
rd
Band Orange
4
th
Band Gold
The Resistor Value is____________ The Tolerance is ______%
Table 9
Band Color Code Numeric Value
1
st
Band Brown
2
nd
Band Black
3
rd
Band Orange
4
th
Band Gold
The Resistor Value is____________ The Tolerance is ______%
Table 10
Band Color Code Numeric Value
1
st
Band Red
2
nd
Band Black
3
rd
Band Red
4
th
Band Gold
The Resistor Value is____________ The Tolerance is ______%
1. What is a resistor and give its unit.
2. What is the function of a resistor?
3. How will you find out the resistor value?
4. What is tolerance?
68
EXP: 7B MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETERS USING CRO
1. What is a CRO?
2. What are the uses of CRO?
3. What is meant by AC supply?
4. What is peak to peak voltage?
5. What is rms voltage?
6. What is maximum voltage?
7. What is Frequency?
8. How is the time period measured?
9. What is a function generator?
10. What is a regulated power supply?
11. What are the basic components of a regulated power supply?
12. Name some measuring instruments and their uses.
EXP: 8 STUDY OF BASIC LOGIC GATES
1. Define logic gates.
2. Define IC?
3. Write the logical equation for AND gate.
4. Draw the truth table of AND gate.
5. Under what conditions the output of a two input AND gate is one?
6. Write the logical equation for OR gate.
7. Draw the truth table of OR gate.
8. What are the universal gates
9. When will the output of a NAND Gate be 0?
10. Draw the truth table of NOT gate.
11. How many no. of input variables can a NOT Gate have?
12. How many gates will be there in an IC 7404 chip?
13. What gate does the IC 7408 consist of?
14. What are the 7th and 14th pins in all the gates?
EXP: 9 HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
1. What do you mean by a conductor and name some conductors?
2. What do you mean by diode?
3. What is rectifier?
4. What is Half-Wave Rectifier?
5. What type of output we get from H-W Rectifier?
6. What is the value of Ripple factor for H-W Rectifier?
7. What is the formula for Vrmsfor HW Rectifier?
8. What is the formula for Vdc for HW Rectifier?
9. What is Full-Wave Rectifier?
10. What type of output we get from F-W Rectifier?
11. What is the value of Ripple factor for F-W Rectifier?
69
EXP: 10 GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNALS
1. Draw the pin diagram of 555 timers.
2. List important features of IC 555?
3. What is a clock signal?
4. What are the applications of clock signal?
5. Can we generate clock signal without using 555 timers
6. What is the use of triggering signal, threshold and control voltage?
7. What is a multivibrator?
8. What is the purpose of multivibrator?
9. Give some examples of multivibrator.
10. What is an astable multivibrator ?
11. What is an astable multivibrator called so?
12. What is the disadvantage of an astable multivibrator?
EXP: 11 STUDY OF SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING
1. What is Soldering and De-Soldering?
2. What is the need of soldering?
3. What are the steps involved in soldering?
4. What do you mean by de-soldering?
5. What are the steps involved in de-soldering?
6. What are the uses of soldering and de-soldering?
7. What is a continuity tester?
8. What is the principal of continuity tester?
9. What are the parts of the continuity tester?
10. What is Printed Circuit Board (PCB)?
11. State the use of PCB?