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AtkinsonShiffrin memory model

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Note that in this diagram, sensory memory is detached from either form of memory, and
represents its development from short term and long term memory, due to its storage being
used primarily on a "run time" basis for physical or psychosomatic reference.
The AtkinsonShiffrin model (also known as the multi-store model is a model of memory
that has the advantage of being able to be broken down into sub-models of memory: the
multi-memory model and the Modal model is a psychological model proposed in !"#$ by
%ichard &tkinson and %ichard 'hiffrin
(!)
as a proposal for the structure of memory* +t
proposed that human memory involves a se,uence of three stages:
1. 'ensory memory ('-
2. 'hort-term memory ('T-
3. .ong-term memory (.T-
Contents
(hide)
! 'ummary
o !*! 'ensory memory
o !*/ 'hort-term memory
o !*0 .ong-term memory
o !*1 +ll defined
o !*2 .inearity
o !*# -onolithicity
/ .ater developments
0 'earch of &ssociative -emory
o 0*! 'hort-term 'tore
o 0*/ .ong-term 'tore
o 0*0 %ecency 3ffects
o 0*1 4roblems for the '&- -odel
1 'ee also
2 %eferences
o 2*! &dditional %eferences
# Further reading
5 36ternal links
[edit] Summary
The original /-stage model of the &tkinson7'hiffrin memory model8 lacking the 9sensory
memory9 stage, which was devised at a later stage in research
The multi-store model of memory is an e6planation of how memory processes work* :ou
hear, see, and feel many things, but only a small number are remembered* The model was
first described by &tkinson and 'hiffrin in !"#$* 'ince &tkinson and 'hiffrin originally
proposed their dual-store model, it has undergone numerous ad;ustments and improvements*
The most recent version of this model is called 'earch of &ssociative -emory ('&-
(%aai;makers < 'hiffrin, !"$!*
[edit] Sensory memory
The sense organs have a limited ability to store information about the world in a fairly
unprocessed way for less than a second* The visual system possesses iconic memory for
visual stimuli such as shape, si=e, colour and location (but not meaning, whereas the hearing
system has echoic memory for auditory stimuli* >oltheart et al* (!"51 have argued that the
momentary free=ing of visual input allows us to select which aspects of the input should go
on for further memory processing* +n this visual modality, information that enters the sensory
store will be eliminated from the store within several hundred milliseconds (?addeley, !"##*
The e6istence of sensory memory has been e6perimentally demonstrated by 'perling (!"#@
using a tachistoscope*
[edit] Short-term memory
+nformation is retained acoustically and visually long enough to use it, e*g* looking up a
telephone number and remembering it long enough to dial it* 4eterson and 4eterson (!"2"
have demonstrated that 'T- last appro6imately between !2 and 0@ seconds, unless people
rehearse the material, while -iller (!"2# has found that 'T- has a limited capacity of
around 5A or B/ CchunksD of information*
(/)
'T- also appears to mostly encode memory
acoustically (in terms of sound as ?addeley (!"## has demonstrated, but can also retain
visuospatial images* Eowever in many cases 'T- can be at a semantic level* +n addition to
using the short-term store ('T' as the primary memory device when desired for certain
tasks, such as remembering a telephone number after looking it up, the 'T' fulfills various
other functions* +nstead of the memory system having to pay moment-to-moment attention to
the environment to account for all environmental changes, the ('T' serves as a buffer and
separates the environment form the memory system* +t also functions as a working memory
in which alterations of information can occur* Eowever, these manipulations are only
temporary (?addeley, !"##*
[edit] Long-term memory
.T- provides the lasting retention of information, from minutes to a lifetime* .ong term
memory appears to have an almost limitless capacity to retain information, but it could never
be measured as it would take too long* .T information seems to be encoded mainly in terms
of meaning (semantic memory as ?addeley has shown, but also retains procedural skills and
imagery*
-emory may also be transported directly from sensory memory to .T- if it receives instant
attention, e*g* witnessing a fire in your house* This is known as a 9Flashbulb -emory9*
&nother e6ample of this is the fact that most people living in the Fnited 'tates at the time can
recall what they were doing on the day of 'eptember !!, /@@!, as it was the day of an
e6treme event* %ecent research has shown, however, that 9flashbulb memory9 is not as
reliable as it was once thought to be*
(citation needed)
&lso if information in the .T- is not rehearsed it can be forgotten through trace decay*
[edit] Ill defined
To obtain a ,ualitatively correct fit of the bowing four model concepts have to work together*
G.ong term memoryH is needed in the short term memory e6periment, conscious or
subconscious rehearsal of four items has to take place, this Grehearsal bufferH has to drop
items randomly rather than according to a first-in firstout model, and the rehearsal buffer has
to be empty before the e6periment starts* ?eyond the ,ualitative fit to the bowed recall
curves, other relationships in the data are not borne out by the model* First, the Gprimacy
strengthH, the ratio of the probability of recall of the first item to the smallest probability of
recall of an intermediate item, shows a significant e6perimental variation with presentation
rate but no such variation is predicted by theory* 'econd, randomly emptying the rehearsal
buffer predicts incorrectly that the number of recalled items should be the highest when the
first recalled item is the last list item* Third, a simplified &tkinson7'hiffrin model is found to
predict e6act relationships between the recall probabilities of the initial items which do not
seem to be borne out by the -urdock data* Fourth, the theory predicts a discontinuity in the
differences between free recall graphs with different presentation rates for early list items
which is probably not found in the -urdock data* 'ee Tarnow (/@@":
http:IIwww*webmedcentral*comIarticleJviewI!@/!
[edit] Linearity
'ome argue that the multi-store model is too linear
(citation needed)
, i*e*, that it cannot accommodate
subdivisions of 'T- and .T- memory stores
(citation needed)
*
The concept of the 9stream of memory9 in this model has been suggested to lack internal
consistency
(citation needed)
, as, by definition, the stream of memory often discarded for newer
information, often with little or emphasis on the salience on the new information
(citation needed)
* &
supposed e6ample of this was found in the asymptote of control data, revealing primacy and
recency effects (with information recalled better when presented early or late in the test
stream, overshadowing the asymptote
(citation needed)
* This suggests a need to e6plain decay
processes in memory
(citation needed)
* +t has been suggested that the idea of 0 separate areas for
memory storage may emerge from neuronal processes such as rates of firing
(citation needed)
, as
well as the idea of the 9ionised sodium gate9 model of action potentials
(citation needed)
*
+n the case of sensory memory, the model, which is psychological, does not provide a ready
e6planation for the observed asynchronous nature of neural activity occurring between
anatomical structures
(citation needed)
7 an e6ample of this would be the reference to sensory
memory being used to perform physical processes such as motor function, which suggests
that once an action is performed, it is remembered for 0 seconds and then begins a process of
rapid decay
(citation needed)
*
[edit] Monolithicity
The &tkinson7'hiffrin model distinguishes different forms of memory, but it does not take
into account what information is presented
(citation needed)
, nor does it take into account individual
differences in sub;ectKs performance including a cognitive ability, or previous e6perience with
learning techni,ues
(citation needed)
*
Whilst case studies of individuals (such as >live Wearing have been reported indicating that
memory can be severely damaged independent of at least some other cognitive
capacities
(citation needed)
, there is less support from case studies of developmental models for the
supposed tri-partite memory structure
(citation needed)
* 'ome have argued that autistic savant
performance may violate predictions from the model, based on an ability to recall precise
information without the need for rehearsal
(citation needed)
, and without evidence for decay
(citation
needed)
*
[edit] Later developments
The advent of the model provided a testable framework for subse,uent work, and a strong
stimulus for the e6periemental study of human memory
(citation needed)
* This has led to the model
being superseded
(citation needed)
* Lewer models include the possibility for cases where short-term
memory is impaired, but long-term memory is not (which is impossible in the basic model, as
information can only become encoded in long-term memory after passing through the unitary
short-term store*
-uch recent work has focussed on the model proposed by &lan ?addeley, which
distinguishes stores for phonological (speech-sound, and visuo-spatial information as well as
episodic material, and proposes the e6istence of central e6ecutive processes, accessing these
stores*
(0)
&tkinson and 'hiffrin also refrain from proposing any mechanisms or processes that might be
responsible for encoding memories and transferring them between the three systems* The
model is a hypothetical layout of the function of memory systems, but not in any way
representative of a physical or biological basis of memory* Lewer models have been created
that can better account for these other characteristics, and a tremendous body of research on
the physical layout of memory systems has emerged
(citation needed)
*
[edit] Search of Associative Memory
The '&- model uses a two-phase memory system: short-term store ('T' and long-term
store (.T'* Fnlike the revised version of the &tkinson-'hiffrin model, there is no sensory
store in the '&- model (%aai;makers < 'hiffrin, !"$!*
[edit] Short-term Store
'T' takes on the form of a buffer, which has a limited capacity* The model assumes a buffer
rehearsal system in which the buffer has a si=e, r* +tems enter the 'T' and accompany other
items that are already present in the buffer, until si=e r has been reached* Mnce the buffer is at
full capacity, when new items enter, they replace an item, r, which already e6ists in the buffer*
& probability of !Ir determines which already e6isting item will be replaced from the buffer
(%aai;kamers < 'hiffrin, !"$!* +n general, items that have been in the buffer for longer are
more likely to be replaced (4hillips et al*, !"#5*
[edit] Long-term Store
.T' is responsible for store relationships between different items and between items and their
conte6ts* The amount of time that an item remains in the buffer or 'T' is proportional to the
amount of item-conte6t information stored in .T'* Mn the other hand, the strength of the
item-item associations is proportional to the amount of time that two items simultaneously
e6isted in the buffer* >onte6t information refers to the situational and temporal factors
present at the time when an item is in 'T', such as emotional feelings or environmental
details (%aai;kamers and 'hiffrin, !"$!* Fntil 'irotin et al* demonstrated otherwise, this
original model assumes that items in a particular list are only weakly semantically related
before the e6periment and that the only significant associations are those formed during the
study portion of an e6periment* Eowever, more recent analyses of the model take into
account semantic similarity with an .T' that is broken down into two components: one
related to episodic memory and the other related to semantic memory ('irotin et al*, /@@2*
-emories stored in .T' are retrieved in a two-step process involving sampling and recovery
or recall* &n item is sampled by using conte6t as a retrieval cue, so the probability that an
item will be sampled is related to the strength of the association between that item and the
conte6t being presented* +tems that have already been immediately recalled from 'T' are not
possible candidates for sampling* Mnce an item is sampled as having the greatest association
between item and conte6t, it is then evaluated for recall (%aai;makers and 'hiffrin, !"$!*
[edit] ecency !ffects
The usefulness of the '&- model and in particular 'T' is often demonstrated by its
application to the recency effect in free recall* When serial-position curves are applied to
'&-, a strong recency effect is observed, but this affect is strongly diminished when a
distractor, usually arithmetic, is placed in between study and test trials* The recency effect
occurs because items at the end of the test list are likely to still be present in 'T' and
therefore retrieved first* Eowever, when new information is processed, this item enters the
'T' and displaces other information from it* When a distracting task is given after the
presentation of all items, information from this task displaces the last items from 'T',
resulting in a substantial reduction of recency (%aai;makers and 'hiffrin, !"$!*
[edit] "ro#lems for the SAM Model
The '&- model faces serious problems in accounting for long-term recency data (%* &*
?;ork and Whitten, !"51 and long-range contiguity data (Eoward < Nahana, !"""* While
both of these effects are observed, the 'T' cannot account for the effects* 'ince a distracting
tasks after the presentation of word pairs or large interpresentation intervals (+4+s filled with
distractors would be e6pected to displace the last few studied items from 'T', recency effects
are still observed* &ccording to the rules of 'T', recency and contiguity effects should be
eliminated with these distractors as the most recently studied items would no longer be
present in 'T'* >urrently, the '&- model competes with single-store free recall models of
memory, such as the Temporal >onte6t -odel (Eoward < Nahana, /@@/a
$addeley%s model of &orking memory
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Schematic of addeley!s "odel
&lan ?addeley and Oraham Eitch proposed a model of &orking memory in !"51, in an
attempt to describe a more accurate model of short-term memory*
?addeley < Eitch proposed their tripartite working memory model as an alternative to the
short-term store in &tkinson < 'hiffrinKs Kmulti-storeK memory model (!"#$* This model is
later e6panded upon by ?addeley and other co-workers and has become the dominant view in
the field of working memory* Eowever, alternative models are developing (see working
memory providing a different perspective on the working memory system*
The original model of ?addeley < Eitch was composed of three main components8 the
central executive which acts as supervisory system and controls the flow of information from
and to its slave systems: the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad* The slave
systems are short-term storage systems dedicated to a content domain (verbal and visuo-
spatial, respectively* +n /@@@ ?addeley added a third slave system to his model, the episodic
buffer*
?addeley < EitchKs argument for the distinction of two domain-specific slave systems in the
older model was derived from e6perimental findings with dual-task paradigms* 4erformance
of two simultaneous tasks re,uiring the use of two separate perceptual domains (i*e* a visual
and a verbal task is nearly as efficient as performance of the tasks individually* +n contrast,
when a person tries to carry out two tasks simultaneously that use the same perceptual
domain, performance is less efficient than when performing the tasks individually*
Contents
#hide$
1 %omponents
o 1.1 %entral e&ecutive
o 1.2 'honological loop
1.2.1 (vidence in Support of 'honological Short )erm Store
1.2.2 iology
o 1.3 *isuospatial sketchpad
1.3.1 +ogie!s ela,oration of the visuospatial sketchpad
o 1.- (pisodic ,u.er
2 *alidity of the model
3 /eferences
o 3.1 0otes
o 3.2 i,liography
- See also
[edit] Components
addeley!s "odel of Working "emory
[edit] Central e'ecutive
The central e6ecutive is a fle6ible system responsible for the control and regulation of
cognitive processes* +t has the following functions:
,inding information from a num,er of sources into coherent episodes
coordination of the slave systems
shifting ,et1een tasks or retrieval strategies
selective attention and inhi,ition
+t can be thought of as a supervisory system that controls cognitive processes and intervenes
when they go astray*
Fsing the dual-task paradigm, ?addeley and 3rses have found, for instance, that patients with
&l=heimerKs dementia are impaired when performing multiple tasks simultaneously, even
when the difficulty of the individual tasks is adapted to their abilities*
(!)
%ecent research on e6ecutive functions suggests that the KcentralK e6ecutive is not as central as
conceived in the ?addeley < Eitch model* %ather, there seem to be separate e6ecutive
functions that can vary largely independently between individuals and can be selectively
impaired or spared by brain damage*
(/)
[edit] "honological loop
addeley!s "odel of Working "emory 2 'honological +oop
The phonological loop (or 9articulatory loop9 as a whole deals with sound or phonological
information* +t consists of two parts: a short-term phonological store with auditory memory
traces that are sub;ect to rapid decay and an articulatory rehearsal component (sometimes
called the articulatory loop that can revive the memory traces*
&ny auditory verbal information is assumed to enter automatically into the phonological
store* Pisually presented language can be transformed into phonological code by silent
articulation and thereby be encoded into the phonological store* This transformation is
facilitated by the articulatory control process* The phonological store acts as an Kinner earK,
remembering speech sounds in their temporal order, whilst the articulatory process acts as an
Kinner voiceK and repeats the series of words (or other speech elements on a loop to prevent
them from decaying* The phonological loop may play a key role in the ac,uisition of
vocabulary, particularly in the early childhood years*
(0)
+t may also be vital for learning a
second language*
Five main findings provide evidence for the phonological loop:
1. )he e.ect of phonological similarity:
+ists of 1ords that sound similar are more di3cult to remem,er than
1ords that sound di.erent. Semantic similarity 4similarity of meaning5 has
comparatively little e.ect, supporting the assumption that ver,al
information is coded largely phonologically in 1orking memory.
#-$
2. )he e.ect of articulatory suppression:
"emory for ver,al material is impaired 1hen people are asked to say
something irrelevant aloud. )his is assumed to ,lock the articulatory
rehearsal process, there,y leaving memory traces in the phonological loop
to decay.
#6$
3. )ransfer of information ,et1een codes:
With visually presented items, adults usually name and su,2vocally
rehearse them, so the information is transferred from a visual to an
auditory code. 7rticulatory suppression prevents this transfer, and in that
case the a,ove mentioned e.ect of phonological similarity is erased for
visually presented items.
#8$
-. 0europsychological evidence:
7 defective phonological store e&plains the ,ehavior of patients 1ith a
speci9c de9cit in phonological short2term memory. 7phasic patients 1ith
dyspra&ia are una,le to set up the speech motor codes necessary for
articulation, caused ,y a de9ciency of the articulatory rehearsal process.
#:$
6. ;n the other hand, patients 1ith dysarthria, 1hose speech pro,lems are
secondary, sho1 a normal capacity for rehearsal. )his suggests that it is
the su,vocal rehearsing that is crucial.
#<$
[edit] Evidence in Support of Phonological Short Term Store
& accumulation of literature across decades has lent strong support to the theory of
phonological 'T'* +n a !"5! study, 'tephen -adigan demonstrated that a larger recency
effect is seen during forward serial recall when people are presented a list auditorally as
opposed to visually* (& smaller effect is seen in backwards serial recall*
(")
+n his study,
auditory presentation led to greater recall of the most recently studied items* >atherine
4enney e6panded on this discovery to observe that modality effects can also be found in the
case of free recall tasks*
(!@)
+n !"#2, Qallett had discovered that this observed modality effect
is greatly reduced by the addition of a 9suffi69 item to the presented list8 this suffi6 is a
distractor item that is not to be recalled*
(!!)
%obert Oreene utili=ed this observation in !"$5 to
discover that this suffi6 effect has a larger impact on lists learned auditorally as opposed to
visually*
(!/)
The culmination of all of these findings results in strong support of the theory that
there is a short-term store that phonologically stores recently learned items* +n addition,
?loom and Watkins found that the suffi6 effect is greatly diminished when the suffi6 is not
interpreted as linguistic sound, which agrees with the phonological short term store theory as
it would be largely unaffected by non-linguistic distractors*
(!0)
[edit] Biology
+n terms of genetics, the gene %M?M! has been associated with phonological buffer integrity
or length
(!1)
[edit] (isuospatial sketchpad
The visuospatial sketchpad is assumed to hold information about what we see* +t is used in
the temporary storage and manipulation of spatial and visual information, such as
remembering shapes and colours, or the location or speed of ob;ects in space* +t is also
involved in tasks which involve planning of spatial movements, like planning oneKs way
through a comple6 building* The visuospatial sketchpad can be divided into separate visual,
spatial and possibly kinaesthetic (movement components* +t is principally represented within
the right hemisphere of the brain*
(!2)
[edit] Logie's elaboration of the visuospatial sketchpad
.ogie has proposed that the visuospatial sketchpad can be further subdivided into two
components:
1. )he visual cache, 1hich stores information a,out form and color.
2. )he inner scri,e, 1hich deals 1ith spatial and movement information. =t
also rehearses information in the visual cache and transfers information to
the central e&ecutive.
#18$
Three main findings provide evidence for the distinction between visual and spatial parts of
the visuospatial sketchpad:
1. )here is less interference ,et1een visual and spatial tasks than ,et1een
t1o visual tasks or t1o spatial tasks.
#1:$
2. rain damage can in>uence one of the components 1ithout in>uencing
the other.
#1<$
3. /esults from ,rain2imaging sho1 that 1orking memory tasks 1ith visual
o,?ects activate mostly areas in the left hemisphere, 1hereas tasks 1ith
spatial information activate more areas in the right hemisphere.
#1@$
[edit] !pisodic #uffer
+n /@@@ ?addeley added a fourth component to the model, called the Kepisodic bufferK* This
component is a third slave system, dedicated to linking information across domains to form
integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information with time se,uencing (or
chronological ordering, such as the memory of a story or a movie scene* The episodic buffer
is also assumed to have links to long-term memory and semantic meaning*
(/@)
The main motivation for introducing this component was the observation that some (in
particular, highly intelligent patients with amnesia, who presumably have no ability to
encode new information in long-term memory, nevertheless have good short-term recall of
stories, recalling much more information than could be held in the phonological loop
ichard Shiffrin
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ichard Shiffrin is the .uther Qana Waterman 4rofessor of cognitive science for the
Qepartment of 4sychological and ?rain 'ciences at +ndiana Fniversity, ?loomington* 'hiffrin
has contributed a number of theories of attention and memory to the field of psychology* Ee
co-authored the &tkinson7'hiffrin model of memory in !"#$ with %ichard &tkinson,
(!)
who
was his academic adviser at the time* +n !"55, he published a theory of attention with Walter
'chneider*
(/)
With Jeroen O*W* %aai;makers in !"$@, 'hiffrin published the 'earch of
&ssociative -emory ('&- model,
(0)
which has served as the standard model of recall for
cognitive psychologists well into the /@@@s*
(1)
Ee e6tended the '&- model with the
%etrieving 3ffectively From -emory (%3- model in !""5 with -ark 'teyvers*
(2)
%ichard 'hiffrin is also an avid rock climber who has scaled walls in the Qolomites, 'mith
%ock, the +talian &lps, and many more* Eis community service involves volunteering at a
local rock climbing gym as a route setter
ichard C) Atkinson
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This #iographical article needs additional citations for verification* 4lease help by
adding reliable sources* >ontentious material about living persons that is unsourced or
poorly sourced must #e removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or
harmful* (May 2!"
ichard C) Atkinson
Si'th Chancellor *niversity of California+ San
,iego
-erm !"$@ 7 !""#
$orn
!" -arch !"/"
Mak 4ark, +llinois, F'&
Alma mater
Fniversity of >hicago
+ndiana Fniversity
Institutions
'tanford Fniversity
F*>* 'an Qiego
Fniversity of >alifornia
"rofession 4sychologist, professor, administrator
Spouse %ita &tkinson
ichard Chatham Atkinson
(!)
(born !" -arch !"/" is an &merican professor of
psychology and academic administrator* Ee is the former president and regent of the
Fniversity of >alifornia system, and former chancellor of F*>* 'an Qiego
Short-term memory
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Short-term memory (or 9primary9 or 9active memory9 is the capacity for holding a small
amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time*
The duration of short-term memory (when rehearsal or active maintenance is prevented is
believed to be in the order of seconds* & commonly cited capacity is 5 R / elements* +n
contrast, long-term memory indefinitely stores a seemingly unlimited amount of information*
'hort-term memory should be distinguished from working memory which refers to structures
and processes used for temporarily storing and manipulating information (see more details
below*
Contents
(hide)
! 36istence of a separate store
/ ?iological basis
0 %elationship with working memory
1 Quration of short-term memory
2 >apacity of short-term memory
o 2*! >hunking
o 2*/ Factors affecting short term memory
# 'ee also
5 %eferences
o 5*! Lotes
o 5*/ ?ibliography
$ 36ternal links
[edit] !'istence of a separate store
The idea of a division of memory into short term and long term dates back to the !"th
century* & classical model of memory developed in the !"#@s, now known to be flawed,
(!)

assumed that all memories pass from a short-term to a long-term store after a small period of
time* This model is referred to as the 9modal model9 and has been most famously detailed by
'hiffrin*
(/)
The e6act mechanisms by which this transfer takes place, whether all or only some
memories are retained permanently, and indeed the e6istence of a genuine distinction
between the two stores, remain controversial topics among e6perts*
Mne form of evidence, cited in favor of the separate e6istence of a short-term store comes
from anterograde amnesia, the inability to learn new facts and episodes* 4atients with this
form of amnesia, have intact ability to retain small amounts of information over short time
scales (up to 0@ seconds but are dramatically impaired in their ability to form longer-term
memories (a famous e6ample is patient E-* This is interpreted as showing that the short-
term store is spared from amnesia and other brain diseases
Mther evidence comes from e6perimental studies showing that some manipulations (e*g*, a
distractor task, such as repeatedly subtracting a single-digit number from a larger number
following learning8 cf ?rown-4eterson procedure impair memory for the 0 to 2 most recently
learned words of a list (presumably still held in short-term memory, while leaving recall for
words from earlier in the list (presumably stored in long-term memory unaffected8 other
manipulations (e*g*, semantic similarity of the words affect only memory for earlier list
words,
(0)
but do not affect memory for the last few words in a list* These results show that
different factors affect short term recall (disruption of rehearsal and long-term recall
(semantic similarity* Together, these findings show that long-term memory and short-term
memory can vary independently of each other*
Lot all researchers agree that short-term and long-term memory are separate systems* 'ome
theorists propose that memory is unitary over all time scales, from milliseconds to years*
(1)

'upport for the unitary memory hypothesis comes from the fact that it has been difficult to
demarcate a clear boundary between short-term and long-term memory* For instance, Tarnow
shows that the recall probability vs* latency curve is a straight line from # to #@@ seconds (ten
minutes, with the probability of failure to recall only saturating after #@@ seconds*
(2)
+f there
were really two different memory stores operating in this time frame, one could e6pect a
discontinuity in this curve* Mther research has shown that the detailed pattern of recall errors
looks remarkably similar for recall of a list immediately after learning (presumably from
short-term memory and recall after /1 hours (necessarily from long-term memory*
(#)
Further evidence against the e6istence of a short-term memory store comes from e6periments
involving continual distractor tasks* +n !"51, %obert ?;ork and William ?* Whitten presented
sub;ects with word pairs to be remembered8 however, before and after each word pair,
sub;ects had to do a simple multiplication task for !/ seconds* &fter the final word-pair,
sub;ects had to do the multiplication distractor task for /@ seconds* +n their results, ?;ork and
Whitten found that the recency effect (the increased probability of recall of the last items
studied and the primacy effect (the increased probability of recall of the first few items still
remained* These results would seem inconsistent with the idea of short-term memory as the
distractor items would have taken the place of some of the word-pairs in the buffer, thereby
weakening the associated strength of the items in long-term memory* ?;ork and Whitten
hypothesi=ed that these results could be attributed to the memory processes at work for long-
term memory retrieval versus short-term memory retrieval*
(5)
Mvid J*.* T=eng (!"50 also found an instance where the recency effect in free recall did not
seem to result from the function of a short-term memory store* 'ub;ects were presented with
four study-test periods of !@ word lists, with a continual distractor task (/@-second period of
counting-backward* &t the end of each list, participants had to free recall as many words
from the list as possible* &fter free-recall of the fourth list, participants were asked to free
recall items from all four lists* ?oth the initial free recall and the final free recall showed a
recency effect* These results went against the predictions of a short-term memory model,
where no recency effect would be e6pected in either initial or final free recall*
($)
Noppenaal and Olan=er (!""@ attempted to e6plain these phenomena as a result of the
sub;ectsD adaptation to the distractor task, which therefore allowed them to preserve at least
some of the functions of the short-term memory store* &s evidence, they provided the results
of their e6periment, in which the long-term recency effect disappeared when the distractor
after the last item differed from the distractors that preceded and followed all the other items
(e*g* arithmetic distractor task and word reading distractor task* Thapar and Oreene
challenged this theory* +n one of their e6periments, participants were given a different
distractor task after every item to be studied* &ccording to NoppenaalDs and Olan=erDs theory,
there should be no recency effect as sub;ects would not have had time to adapt to the
distractor8 yet such a recency effect remained in place in the e6periment*
(")
Mne proposed e6planation of the e6istence of the recency effect in a continual distractor
condition, and the disappearance of it in an end-only distractor task is the influence of
conte6tual and distinctive processes*
(!@)
&ccording to this model, recency is a result of the
final itemsD processing conte6t being similar to the processing conte6t of the other items and
the distinctive position of the final items versus items in the middle of the list* +n the end
distractor task, the processing conte6t of the final items is no longer similar to the processing
conte6t of the other list items* &t the same time, retrieval cues for these items are no longer as
effective as without the distractor* Therefore, the recency effect recedes or vanishes*
Eowever, when distractor tasks are placed before and after each item, the recency effect
returns, because all the list items once again have similar processing conte6t*
(!!)
[edit] $iological #asis
+t is proposed by Tarnow that short term memory involves the firing of neurons which
depletes the %eadily %eleasable 4ool (%%4 of neurotransmitter vesicles at presynaptic
terminals*
(!/)
The pattern of depleted presynaptic terminals represents the long term memory
trace and the depletion itself is the short term memory* &fter the firing has slowed down,
endocytosis causes short term memory to decay* +f the endocytosis is allowed to finish (the
memory is not activated again, the pattern of e6hausted postsynaptic terminals becomes
invisible and the short term memory disappears* The long term memory remains as the
metastable pattern of the neuronal e6citations*
[edit] elationship &ith &orking memory
The relationship between short-term memory and working memory is described differently
by various theories, but it is generally acknowledged that the two concepts are distinct*
Working memory is a theoretical framework that refers to structures and processes used for
temporarily storing and manipulating information* &s such, working memory might also be
referred to as #orking attention* 'hort-term memory generally refers, in a theory-neutral
manner, to the short-term storage of information, and it does not entail the manipulation or
organi=ation of material held in memory* Thus while there are short-term memory
components to working memory models, the concept of short-term memory is distinct from
these more hypothetical concepts* Within ?addeleyKs influential !"$# model of working
memory there are two short-term storage mechanisms: the phonological loop and the
visuospatial sketchpad* -ost of the research referred to here involves the phonological loop,
because most of the work done on short-term memory has used verbal material* +n recent
years, however, there has been a surge in research on visual short term memory,
(!0)
and also
increasing work on spatial short term memory*
(!1)
[edit] ,uration of short-term memory
The limited duration of short-term memory immediately suggests that its contents
spontaneously decay over time* The decay assumption is part of many theories of short-term
memory, most notably ?addeleyKs model of working memory* The decay assumption is
usually paired with the idea of rapid covert rehearsal: +n order to overcome the limitation of
short-term memory, and retain information for longer, information must be periodically
repeated, or rehearsed S either by articulating it out loud, or by mentally simulating such
articulation* +n this way, the information will re-enter the short-term store and be retained for
a further period*
'everal researchers, however, dispute that spontaneous decay plays any significant role in
forgetting over the short term,
(!2)(!#)
and the evidence is far from conclusive*
(!5)
&uthors doubting that decay causes forgetting from short-term memory often offer as an
alternative some form of interference: When several elements (such as digits, words, or
pictures are held in short term memory simultaneously, their representations compete with
each other for recall, or degrade each other* Thereby, new content gradually pushes out older
content, unless the older content is actively protected against interference by rehearsal or by
directing attention to it*
(!$)
[edit] Capacity of short-term memory
Whatever the cause or causes of forgetting over the short term may be, there is consensus that
it severely limits the amount of new information that we can retain over brief periods of time*
This limit is referred to as the finite capacity of short-term memory* The capacity of short-
term memory is often called memory span, in reference to a common procedure of measuring
it* +n a memory span test, the e6perimenter presents lists of items (e*g* digits or words of
increasing length* &n individualKs span is determined as the longest list length that he or she
can recall correctly in the given order on at least half of all trials*
+n an early and highly influential article, The -agical Lumber 'even, 4lus or -inus Two,
(!")

the psychologist Oeorge -iller suggested that human short-term memory has a forward
memory span of appro6imately seven items plus or minus two and that that was well known
at the time (it seems to go back to the !"th century researcher Wundt* -ore recent research
has shown that this 9magical number seven9 is roughly accurate for college students recalling
lists of digits, but memory span varies widely with populations tested and with material used*
For e6ample, the ability to recall words in order depends on a number of characteristics of
these words: fewer words can be recalled when the words have longer spoken duration8 this is
known as the #ord-length effect,
(/@)
or when their speech sounds are similar to each other8 this
is called the phonological similarity effect*
(/!)
-ore words can be recalled when the words are
highly familiar or occur fre,uently in the language*
(//)
%ecall performance is also better when
all of the words in a list are taken from a single semantic category (such as sports than when
the words are taken from different categories*
(/0)
&ccording to the available evidence, the best
overall estimate of short-term memory is about four pieces or 9chunks9 of information*
(/1)
+n
free recall it has been shown, to the contrary, that there is no such 9,uanti=ed9 limit, rather it
is a function of memory decaying with time*
(/2)
[edit] Chunking
>hunking is the process by which we can e6pand our ability to remember things in the short
term* >hunking is also a process by which a person organi=es material into meaningful
groups* &lthough the average person may only retain about four different units in short-term
memory, chunking can greatly increase a personKs recall capacity* For e6ample, in recalling a
phone number, the person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such
as /!2, then a three-digit chunk (!/0 and lastly a four-digit chunk (12#5* This method of
remembering phone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of !@
digits*
4ractice and the usage of e6isting information in long-term memory can lead to additional
improvements in oneKs ability to use chunking* +n one testing session, an &merican cross-
country runner was able to recall a string of 5" digits after hearing them only once by
chunking them into different running times (e*g* the first four numbers were !2!$, a three-
mile time*
(/#)
[edit] .actors affecting short term memory
+t is very difficult to demonstrate the e6act capacity of 'T- because it will vary depending
on the nature of the material to be recalled* There is currently no way of defining the basic
unit of information to be stored in the 'T- store* +t is also possible that 'T- is not the store
described by &tkinson and 'hiffrin* +n that case, the task of defining the task of 'T-
becomes even more difficult*
Eowever, capacity of 'T- can be affected by the following: +nfluence of long-term memory,
%eading aloud, 4ronunciation time and +ndividual differences
Iconic memory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
+conic memory is the visual sensory memory ('- register pertaining to the visual domain* +t
is a component of the visual memory system which also includes visual short term memory
(P'T- and long term memory (.T-* +conic memory is described as a very brief (T!@@@
ms, pre-categorical, high capacity memory store*
(!)(/)
+t contributes to P'T- by providing a
coherent representation of our entire visual perception for a very brief period of time* +conic
memory assists in accounting for phenomena such as change blindness and continuity of
e6perience during saccades* +conic memory is no longer thought of as a single entity but
instead, is composed of at least two distinctive components*
(0)
>lassic e6periments including
'perlingKs partial report paradigm as well as modern techni,ues continue to provide insight
into the nature of this '- store*
Contents
#hide$
1 ;vervie1
2 %omponents of =conic "emory
o 2.1 *isi,le 'ersistence
2.1.1 0eural asis of *isi,le 'ersistence
o 2.2 =nformational 'ersistence
2.2.1 0eural asis of =nformation 'ersistence
3 /ole of =conic "emory
o 3.1 )emporal =ntegration
o 3.2 %hange lindness
o 3.3 Saccadic (ye "ovement
- Aevelopment of =conic memory
6 Sperling!s 'artial /eport 'rocedure
o 6.1 Whole /eport
o 6.2 'artial /eport
8 *ariations of the partial report procedure
o 8.1 *isual ar %ue
o 8.2 )emporal *ariations
8.2.1 %ircle %ue B "asking
: /eferences
[edit] /vervie&
The occurrence of a sustained physiological image of an ob;ect after its physical offset has
been observed by many individuals throughout history* Mne of the earliest documented
accounts of the phenomenon was by &ristotle who proposed that afterimages were involved
in the e6perience of a dream*
(1)
Latural observation of the light trail produced by glowing
ember at the end of a ,uickly moving stick sparked the interest of researchers in the !5@@s
and !$@@s* They became the first to begin empirical studies on this phenomenon
(1)
which later
became known as visi#le persistence*
(0)
+n the !"@@s, the role of visible persistence in
memory gained considerable attention due to its hypothesi=ed role as a pre-categorical
representation of visual information in P'T-* +n !"#@, Oeorge 'perling began his classic
partial-report e6periments to confirm the e6istence of visual sensory memory and some of its
characteristics including capacity and duration*
(!)
+t was not until !"#5 that Flric Leisser
termed this ,uickly decaying memory store iconic memory*
(2)
&ppro6imatley /@ years after
'perlingDs original e6periments, two separate components of visual sensory memory began to
emerge: visual persistence and informational persistence* 'perlingDs e6periments mainly
tested the information pertaining to a stimulus, whereas others such as >oltheart performed
directs tests of visual persistence*
(0)
+n !"5$, Qi .ollo proposed a two-state model of visual
sensory memory*
(#)
&lthough it has been debated throughout history, current understanding of
iconic memory makes a clear distinction between visual and informational persistence which
are tested differently and have fundamentally different properties* +nformational persistence
which is the basis behind iconic memory is thought to be the key contributor to visual short
term memory as the precategorical sensory store*
(5)(0)
[edit] Components of Iconic Memory
The two main components of iconic memory are visible persistence and informational
persistence* The first is a relatively brief (!2@ ms pre-categorical visual representation of the
physical image created by the sensory system* This would be the 9snapshot9 of what the
individual is looking at and perceiving* The second component is a longer lasting memory
store which represents a coded version of the visual image into post-categorical information*
This would be the 9raw data9 that is taken in and processed by the brain* & third component
may also be considered which is neural persistence: the physical activity and recordings of
the visual system*
(0)($)
Leural persistence is generally represented by neuroscientific
techni,ues such as 33O and f-%+*
[edit] (isi#le "ersistence
Pisible persistence is the phenomenonal impression that a visual image remains present after
its physical offset* This can be considered a by-product of neural persistence* Pisible
persistence is more sensitive to the physical parameters of the stimulus than informational
persistence which is reflected in its two key properties*
(0)
:
1. )he duration of visi,le persistence is inversely related to stimulus
duration. )his means that the longer the physical stimulus is presented
for, the faster the visual image decays in memory.
2. )he duration of visi,le persistence is inversely related to stimulus
luminance. When the luminance, or ,rightness of a stimulus is increased,
the duration of visi,le persistence decreases.
#2$
Aue to the involvement of
the neural system, visi,le persistence is highly dependent on the
physiology of the photoreceptors and activation of di.erent cell types in
the visual corte&. )his visi,le representation is su,?ect to masking e.ects
1here,y the presentation of interfering stimulus during, or immediately
after stimulus o.set interferes 1ith oneCs a,ility to remem,er the stimulus.
#@$
Qifferent techni,ues have been used to attempt to indentify the duration of visible
persistence* The ,uration of Stimulus -echni0ue is one in which a probe stimulus (auditory
9click9 is presented simultaneously with the onset, and on a separate trial, with the offset of a
visual display* The difference represents the duration of the visible store which was found to
be appro6imately !@@-/@@ ms*
(")
&lternatively, the "henomenal Continuity and Moving Slit
-echni0ue estimated visible persistence to be 0@@ ms*
(!@)
+n the first paradigm, an image is
presented discontinuously with blank periods in between presentations* +f the duration is
short enough, the participant will perceive a continuous image* 'imilarly, the -oving 'lit
Techni,ue is also based on the participant observing a continuous image* Mnly instead of
flashing the entire stimulus on and off, only a very narrow portion or 9slit9 of the image is
displayed* When the slit is oscillated at the correct speed, a complete image is viewed*
[edit] eural Basis of !isible Persistence
Fnderlying visible persistence is neural persistence of the visual sensory pathway* &
prolonged visual representation begins with activation of photoreceptors in the retina*
&lthough activation in both rods and cones has been found to persist beyond the physical
offset of a stimulus, the rod system persists longer than cones*
(!!)
Mther cells involved in a
sustained visible image include - and 4 retinal ganglion cells* - cells (transient cells, are
active only during stimulus onset and stimulus offset* 4 cells (sustained cells, show
continuous activity during stimulus onset, duration, and offset*
(!/)(!!)
>ortical persistence of
the visual image has been found in the primary visual corte6 (P! in the occipital lobe which
is responsible for processing visual information*
(!!)(!0)
[edit] Informational "ersistence
+nformation persistence represents the information about a stimulus that persists after its
physical offset* +t is visual in nature, but not visible.
(5)
'perlingKs e6periments were a test of
informational persistence*
(0)
'timulus duration is the key contributing factor to the duration of
informational persistence* &s stimulus duration increases, so does the duration of the visual
code*
(!1)
The non-visual components represented by informational persistence include the
abstract characteristics of the image, as well as its spatial location* Que to the nature of
informational persistence, unlike visible persistence, it is immune to masking effects*
(")
The
characteristics of this component of iconic memory suggest that it plays the key role in
representing a post-categorical memory store for which P'T- can access information for
consolidation*
(5)
)he dorsal stream 4green5 and ventral stream 4purple5 are sho1n. )hey originate
from a common source in visual corte&
[edit] eural Basis of "nformation Persistence
&lthough less research e6ists regarding the neural representation of informational persistence
compared to visual persistence, new electrophysiological techni,ues have begun to reveal
cortical areas involved* Fnlike visible persistence, informational persistence is thought to rely
on higher-level visual areas beyond the visual corte6* The anterior superior temporal sulcus
('T', a part of the ventral stream, was found to be active in maca,ues during iconic memory
tasks* This brain region is associated with ob;ect recognition and ob;ect identity* +conic
memoryDs role in change detection has been related to activation in the middle occipital gyrus
(-MO* -MO activation was found to persist for appro6imately /@@@ms suggesting a
possibility that iconic memory has a longer duration than what was currently thought* +conic
memory is also influenced by genetics and proteins produced in the brain* ?rain-derived
neurotrophic factor (?QLF is a part of the neurotrophin family of nerve growth factors*
+ndividuals with mutations to the ?QLF gene which codes for ?QLF have been shown to
have shortened, less stable informational persistence*
(!2)
[edit] ole of Iconic Memory
+conic memory provides a smooth stream of visual information to the brain which can be
e6tracted over an e6tended period of time by P'T- for consolidation into more stable forms*
Mne of iconic memoryKs key roles is involved with change detection of our visual
environment which assists in the perception of motion*
(!#)
[edit] -emporal Integration
+conic memory enables integrating visual information along a continuous stream of images,
for e6ample when watching a movie* +n the primary visual corte6 new stimuli do not erase
information about previous stimuli* +nstead the responses to the most recent stimulus contain
about e,ual amounts of information about both this and the preceding stimulus*
(!0)
This one-
back memory may be the main substrate for both the integration processes in iconic memory
and masking effects* The particular outcome depends on whether the two subse,uent
component images (i*e*, the GiconsH are meaningful only when isolated (masking or only
when superimposed (integration*
[edit] Change $lindness
The brief representation in iconic memory is thought to play a key role in the ability to detect
change in a visual scene* The phenomenon of change blindness has provided insight into the
nature of the iconic memory store and its role in vision* >hange blindness refers to an
inability to detect differences in two successive scenes separated by a very brief blank
interval, or interstimulus interval (+''*
(!5)
When scenes are presented without an +'', the
change is easily detectible* +t is thought that the detailed memory store of the scene in iconic
memory is erased by each +'', which renders the memory inaccessible* This reduces the
ability to make comparisons between successive scenes*
(!5)
[edit] Saccadic !ye Movement
+t has been suggested that iconic memory plays a role in providing continuity of e6perience
during saccadic eye movements*
(!$)
These rapid eye movements occur in appro6imately 0@ ms
and each fi6ation lasts for appro6imately 0@@ ms* %esearch suggests however, that memory
for information between saccades is largely dependent on P'T- and not iconic memory*
+nstead of contributing to trans-saccadic memory, information stored in iconic memory is
thought to actually be erased during saccades* & similar phenomenon occurs during eye-
blinks whereby both automatic and intentional blinking disrupts the information stored in
iconic memory*
(!")
[edit] ,evelopment of Iconic memory
The development of iconic memory begins at birth and continues as development of the
primary and secondary visual system occurs* ?y 2 years of age, children have developed the
same unlimited capacity of iconic memory that adults posses* The duration of informational
persistence however increases from appro6imately /@@ ms at age 2, to an asymptotic level of
!@@@ ms as an adult (U!! years* & small decrease in visual persistence occurs with age* &
decrease of appro6imately /@ ms has been observed when comparing individuals in their
early /@Ks to those in their late #@Ks*
(/@)
Throughout oneDs lifetime, mild cognitive impairments
(->+s may develop such as errors in episodic memory (autobiographical memory about
people, places, and their conte6, and working memory (the active processing component of
'T- due to damage in hippocampal and association cortical areas* 3pisodic memories are
autobiographical events that a person can discuss* +ndividuals with ->+s have be found to
show decreased iconic memory capacity and duration* +conic memory impairment in those
with ->+s may be used as a predictor for the development of more severe deficits such as
&l=heimerDs disease and dementia later in life*
Teori pembelajaran (pendidikan)
Aari Wikipedia, ensiklopedia percuma
ergegas: pelayaran, mencari
Aalam psikologi dan pendidikan, penga?ian ,iasa dide9nisikan se,agai satu
proses yang menyatukan kognitif, emosional , dan pengaruh persekitaran dan
pengalaman2pengalaman untuk memperoleh, mempertingkatkan, atau mem,uat
peru,ahan dalam pengetahuan seseorang, kemahiran2kemahiran, nilai2nilai , dan
pendapat seluruh dunia 4=lleris, 2DD-E ;rmrod, 1@@65. 'enga?ian apa,ila satu
proses menumpukan pada apa yang ter?adi apa,ila penga?ian mengam,il
tempat. 'en?elasan2pen?elasan apa ,erlaku mem,entuk teori2teori pem,ela?aran.
Satu teori pem,ela?aran ialah satu percu,aan menggam,arkan ,agaimana orang
dan ,inatang2,inatang ,ela?ar , dengan itu mem,antu kami faham proses yang
memang kompleks penga?ian. )eori2teori pem,ela?aran mempunyai dua nilai
utama menurut Fill 42DD25. Satu ,erada dalam menyediakan kami dengan
per,endaharaan kata dan satu rangka konsep untuk tafsir contoh2contoh ,ela?ar
yang kita memerhatikan. Gang lain ,erada dalam mencadangkan di mana
mencari penyelesaian untuk masalah praktik. )eori2teori tidak mem,eri kami
penyelesaian, tetapi mereka perniagaan langsung perhatian kami ,agi
pem,olehu,ah2pem,olehu,ah itu yang genting dalam mencari penyelesaian.
)erdapat tiga kategori utama atau rangka2rangka falsafah di mana ke?atuhan
teori2teori pem,ela?aran: ,ehaviorisme, cognitivism , dan constructivism.
ehaviorisme menumpukan hanya pada aspek2aspek yang secara o,?ektif dapat
dilihat penga?ian. )eori2teori kognitif melihat di se,alik tingkah laku men?elaskan
penga?ian ,erasaskan otak. Aan constructivism memikirkan penga?ian se,agai
satu proses di mana pela?ar giat mem,ina atau mem,ina idea2idea ,aru atau
konsep2konsep.
"erriam and %a.arella 41@@15 menekankan empat pendekatan atau orientasi2
orientasi terhadap pem,ela?aran: ehaviouist, %ognitivist, 'enganut
Fumanisme , dan Sosial H Situasional. 'endekatan2pendekatan ini meli,atkan
idea2idea ,erkontras se,agai ,agi tu?uan dan proses penga?ian dan pendidikan 2
dan peranan yang penga?ar2penga?ar ,oleh mengam,il.
$ehaviorisme
%encana utama: ?ehaviorisme
?ehaviorisme sebagai suatu teori pada mulanya dima;ukan oleh ?* F* 'kinner* +a dengan
longgar merangkumi ker;a orang seperti 3dward Thorndike, Tolman, Outhrie , dan Eull* &pa
menyatakan penyiasat-penyiasat ini ialah andaian-andaian yang menekan mereka tentang
proses penga;ian* Qalam intipati, tiga andaian asas diadakan untuk men;adi benar*
(penyelidikan asalV) 4ertama, penga;ian menun;ukkan oleh satu perubahan dalam tingkah
laku* Nedua, persekitaran membentuk tingkah laku* Qan ketiga, prinsip-prinsip kedekatan
(bagaimana menutup dalam tempoh dua acara mesti adalah untuk suatu bon untuk dibentuk
dan peneguhan (apa-apa cara bertambah kemungkinan yang satu acara akan diulang pusat
men;elaskan proses pembela;aran* Fntuk behaviorisme, penga;ian ialah pemerolehan tingkah
laku baru melalui penyesuaian*
Terdapat dua ;enis penyesuaian mungkin:
! >lassical penyesuaian , di mana tingkah laku men;adi satu gerak balas pantulan untuk
perangsang sebagai dalam kes itu Qogs 4avlov* 4avlov meminati bela;ar refleks, apabila dia
melihat yang an;ing-an;ing melelehkan tanpa perangsang sesuai* Walaupun tiada makanan
berada dalam penglihatan, liur mereka masih meleleh* +a men;adi yang an;ing-an;ing
memberikan reaksi terhadap kot-kot makmal* 'etiap masa an;ing-an;ing telah disa;ikan
makanan, orang yang berkhidmat makanan memakai satu kot makmal* .antarannya, an;ing-
an;ing bertindak balas seolah-olah makanan ialah pada ;alannya bila-bila masa mereka
melihat sebuah makmal coat*+n satu siri u;ian, 4avlov ketika itu cuba untuk cuma memahami
bagaimana fenomena ini telah disambung* -isalnya, dia melanda sebuah loceng apabila
an;ing-an;ing diberi* Jika loceng kedengaran dalam hubungan rapat dengan makanan mereka,
an;ing-an;ing mempela;ari untuk mengaitkan bunyi loceng bersama makanan* Qalam sedikit
mass, di bunyi kecil loceng, mereka membalas dengan melelehkan*
/ Mperant penyesuaian di mana terdapat peneguhan tingkah laku oleh satu anugerah atau
satu hukuman* Teori pela=iman operan telah dibangunkan oleh ?*F* 'kinner dan dikenali
sebagai %adical ?ehaviorism* 4erkataan KoperanK meru;uk kepada cara di mana tingkah laku
Kberoperasi atas persekitaranK* 'ecara ringkas, satu kelakuan boleh menyebabkan salah satu
dalam peneguhan, yang meningkatkan kemungkinan tingkah laku berulang, atau hukuman,
yang mengurangkan kemungkinan tingkah laku berulang* +a penting perhatikan bahawa, satu
hukuman bukan dianggap untuk men;adi boleh digunakan ;ika ia tidak mengakibatkan
pengurangan tingkah laku, maka hukuman syarat-syarat dan peneguhan ditentukan akibat
tindakan-tindakan* Qalam rangka ini, behaviorists terutama meminati perubahan boleh diukur
dalam tingkah laku*
'e;ak behaviorists melihat proses pembela;aran sebagai satu perubahan dalam tingkah laku,
penga;ar-penga;ar menyusun persekitaran mencungkil sambutan yang diingini melalui alat-
alat sedemikian sebagai ob;ektif-ob;ektif tingkah laku, kecekapan pendidikan berasaskan ,
dan pembangunan kemahiran dan latihan*(!)
4endekatan-pendekatan pendidikan seperti analisa tingkahlaku beraplikasi, berdasarkan
kurikulum ukuran , dan arahan langsung telah muncul dari sebegini contoh 4endekatan-
pendekatan pendidikan seperti analisa tingkahlaku beraplikasi, berdasarkan kurikulum ukuran
, dan arahan langsung telah muncul dari sebegini contoh
Constructivism
/encana utama: %onstructivism 4teori pem,ela?aran5
)eori2teori pem,ela?aran Jean 'iaget, Jerome runer, +ev *ygotsky dan John
Ae1ey ,erkhidmat se,agai asas teori pem,ela?aran konstruktivis.#<$
%onstructivism memikirkan penga?ian se,agai satu proses di mana pela?ar giat
mem,ina atau mem,ina idea2idea ,aru atau konsep2konsep ,erasaskan semasa
dan lepas pengetahuan atau pengalaman. Aengan kata lain, Ipenga?ian
meli,atkan mem,ina satu sendiri pengetahuan dari satu sendiri pengalaman2
pengalaman.I 'enga?ian konstruktivis oleh itu, ialah usaha yang terlalu peri,adi ,
di mana ter,atin konsep2konsep, peraturan2peraturan , dan prinsip umum ,oleh
oleh itu digunakan dalam konteks realiti praktikal. =ni ?uga dikenali se,agai
constructivism sosial 4melihat constructivism sosial5. Sosial constructivists
mengan?urkan yang pengetahuan di,ina apa,ila individu2individu terli,at dari
segi sosial dalam ceramah dan kegiatan tentang masalah2masalah yang dikongsi
atau tugas2tugas. 'enga?ian dilihat se,agai proses yang mana individu2individu
ialah diperkenalkan kepada satu ,udaya oleh le,ih ,anyak ahli2ahli mahirI.#@$
%onstructivism sendiri mempunyai ,anyak peru,ahan, seperti 7ctive penga?ian,
pem,ela?aran penemuan , dan pengetahuan mem,ina. )anpa mengira
kepel,agaian, constructivism memperkenalkan pen?ela?ahan ,e,as seorang
pela?ar dalam satu rangka ker?a dianugerahkan atau struktur.#1D$ 7kta2akta guru
)he se,agai seorang fasilitator yang menggalakkan pela?ar2pela?ar menemui
prinsip2prinsip untuk diri mereka dan mem,ina pengetahuan oleh ,eker?a untuk
menyelesaikan masalah2masalah realistik. 7spek2aspek constructivism ,oleh
di?umpai di pem,ela?aran sendiri, penga?ian transformasi, pem,ela?aran
,erasaskan pengalaman, pengenalan kedudukan , dan amalan re>ektif dan
amalan keagamaan.
Cognitivism
/encana utama: %ognitivism 4psikologi5
%a,aran tera1al ,agi ,ehaviorists masuk se,uah pener,itan dalam 1@2@ oleh
ode, ahli psikologi gestalt#3$ . Aia mengkritik ,ehaviorists kerana men?adi
terlalu ,ergantung kepada pada tingkah laku nyata men?elaskan penga?ian. 7hli2
ahli psikologi gestalt mencadangkan lihat corak2corak daripada peristi1a2
peristi1a terasing. Jestalt memikirkan penga?ian telah diga,ungkan ke dalam
apa telah datang men?adi dila,elkan teori2teori kognitif. Aua andaian utama
men?adi asas pendekatan yang kognitif ini: 415 yang sistem ingatan ialah satu
pemproses terancang aktif maklumat dan 425 yang pengetahuan se,elumnya
,ermain satu tugas penting dalam pem,ela?aran. )eori2teori kognitif melihat di
se,alik tingkah laku men?elaskan penga?ian ,erasaskan otak. %ognitivists
mempertim,angkan ,agaimana ingatan manusia ,eker?a untuk menggalakkan
pem,ela?aran. "isalnya, proses2proses psikologi pengisihan dan mengekod
maklumat dan peristi1a2peristi1a ke dalam ingatan ?angka pendek dan ingatan
?angka pan?ang penting kepada para pendidik ,eker?a di ,a1ah teori kognitif#-$ .
'er,eKaan ,esar antara gestaltists and ,ehaviorists ialah lokus ka1alan atas
aktiviti pem,ela?aran: pela?ar individu le,ih utama kepada gestaltists daripada
persekitaran yang ,ehaviorists menegaskan.
Se,aik saha?a teori2teori ingatan seperti model ingatan 7tkinson2Shi.rin#6$ dan
ingatan ker?a addeley model#8$ telah ,ertapak se,agai satu kerangka teoretis
dalam psikologi kognitif, rangka2rangka kognitif ,aru penga?ian ,ermula untuk
muncul semasa 1@:Ds, <D2an , dan @D2an. Fari ini, penyelidik2penyelidik
menumpukan pada topik2topik seperti ,e,an kognitif dan teori pemprosesan
maklumat. )eori2teori ini ,ela?ar main satu peranan dalam mempengaruhi reka
,entuk penga?aran.#:$ 7spects of cognitivism ,oleh di?umpai di ,ela?ar
,agaimana untuk ,ela?ar, pemerolehan peranan sosial, perisikan, penga?ian , dan
ingatan se,agai ,erkaitan dengan umur.
'enga?ar2penga?ar mengam,il ,eker?a pendekatan cognitivist terhadap
pem,ela?aran akan mempertim,angkan penga?ian se,agai proses mental
dalaman 4termasuk 1a1asan, pemprosesan maklumat, ingatan, tanggapan5 di
mana supaya mem,angunkan keupayaan pela?ar dan kemahiran2kemahiran
meningkatkan pem,ela?aran, kandungan struktur2struktur pendidik itu aktiviti2
aktiviti pem,ela?aran untuk memfokuskan pada mem,ina perisikan dan kognitif
dan meta perkem,angan kognitif
http:HHen.1ikipedia.orgH1ikiH+earningLtheoryLM2<educationM2@
$A1AIMA2A 1** M!2!A"3A2 -!/I
"!M/S!SA2 I2./MASI 4
oleh 4%+-&'TFQ: - 3ducation, Training < >onsultancy pada pada !5hb Mktober /@@"
pukul 1*2$ ptg
Mleh : 'inggih 4rihadi
&* 4endahuluan
&sumsi yang mendasari teori ini adalah bahwa pembela;aran merupakan faktor yang sangat
penting dalam perkembangan* 4erkembangan merupakan hasil kumulatif dari pembela;aran*
-enurut Oagne bahwa dalam pembela;aran ter;adi proses penerimaan informasi, untuk
kemudian diolah sehingga menghasilkan keluaran dalam bentuk hasil bela;ar* Qalam
pemrosesan informasi ter;adi adanya interaksi antara kondisi-kondisi internal dan kondisi-
kondisi eksternal individu* Nondisi internal yaitu keadaan dalam diri individu yang
diperlukan untuk mencapai hasil bela;ar dan proses kognitif yang ter;adi dalam individu*
'edangkan kondisi eksternal adalah rangsangan dari lingkungan yang mempengaruhi
individu dalam proses pembela;aran*
-enurut Oagne tahapan proses pembela;aran meliputi delapan fase yaitu, (! motivasi8 (/
pemahaman8 (0 pemerolehan8 (1 penyimpanan8 (2 ingatan kembali8 (# generalisasi8 (5
perlakuan dan ($ umpan balik* Teori pemrosesan informasi adalah teori kognitif tentang
bela;ar yang men;elaskan pemrosesan, penyimpanan, dan pemanggilan kembali pengetahuan
dari otak ('lavin, /@@@: !52* Teori ini men;elaskan bagaimana seseorang memperoleh
se;umlah informasi dan dapat diingat dalam waktu yang cukup lama* Mleh karena itu perlu
menerapkan suatu strategi bela;ar tertentu yang dapat memudahkan semua informasi diproses
di dalam otak melalui beberapa indera*
?* 4embahasan
Nomponen pertama dari sistem memori yang di;umpai oleh informasi yang masuk adalah
registrasi penginderaan* %egistrasi penginderaan menerima se;umlah besar informasi dari
indera dan menyimpannya dalam waktu yang sangat singkat, tidak lebih dari dua detik* ?ila
tidak ter;adi suatu proses terhadap informasi yang disimpan dalam register penginderaan,
maka dengan cepat informasi itu akan hilang* Neberadaan register penginderaan mempunyai
dua implikasi penting dalam pendidikan* 4ertama, orang harus menaruh perhatian pada suatu
informasi bila informasi itu harus diingat* Nedua, seseorang memerlukan waktu untuk
membawa semua informasi yang dilihat dalam waktu singkat masuk ke dalam kesadaran,
('lavin, /@@@: !5#*
+nterpretasi seseorang terhadap rangsangan dikatakan sebagai persepsi* 4ersepsi dari stimulus
tidak langsung seperti penerimaan stimulus, karena persepsi dipengaruhi status mental,
pengalaman masa lalu, pengetahuan, motivasi, dan banyak faktor lain* +nformasi yang
dipersepsi seseorang dan mendapat perhatian, akan ditransfer ke komponen kedua dari sistem
memori, yaitu memori ;angka pendek* -emori ;angka pendek adalah sistem penyimpanan
informasi dalam ;umlah terbatas hanya dalam beberapa detik* 'atu cara untuk menyimpan
informasi dalam memori ;angka pendek adalah memikirkan tentang informasi itu atau
mengungkapkannya berkali-kali* Ouru mengalokasikan waktu untuk pengulangan selama
menga;ar* -emori ;angka pan;ang merupakan bagian dari sistem memori tempat menyimpan
informasi untuk periode pan;ang*
Tin;auan 4endekatan 4emrosesan +nformasi
Teori kognisi men;elaskan tentang bagaimana proses mengetahui ter;adi pada manusia* &da
beberapa model yang digunakan untuk men;elaskan proses mengetahui pada manusia* -odel
pemrosesan informasi membahas tentang peran operasi-operasi kognitif dalam pengolahan
informasi (Eetherington < 4arke, !"$#* Qalam model ini manusia dipandang sebagai sistem
yang memodifikasi informasi sendiri secara aktif dan terorganisir* 4erkembangan seseorang
dalam pemrosesan informasi berkaitan dengan perubahan-perubahan kuantitatif dan kualitatif
dalam aspek ini serta pengaruh-pengaruh genetis dan lingkungan* +nti dari perkembangan
dalam pemrosesan informasi adalah terbentuknya sistem pada diri seseorang yang semakin
efisien untuk mengontrol aliran informasi (-iller, !""0*
'aat ini ada dua model yang dapat digunakan untuk men;elaskan teori pemrosesan informasi,
yaitu model penyimpanan (storeIstructure model dan model tingkat pemrosesan (level of
processing* -odel penyimpanan dikembangkan oleh &tkinson < 'hiffrin (dalam -iller,
!""0, sedangkan model tingkat pemrosesan dikembangkan oleh >raik dan .ockhart (dalam
-iller, !""0* Qalam model pemrosesan informasi yang dikembangkan oleh &tkinson <
'hiffrin, kognisi manusia dikonsepkan sebagai suatu sistem yang terdiri dari tiga bagian,
yaitu masukan (input, proses dan keluaran (output* +nformasi dari dunia sekitar merupakan
masukan bagi sistem* 'timulasi dari dunia sekitar ini memasuki reseptor memori dalam
bentuk penglihatan, suara, rasa, dan sebagainya* 'elan;utnya, input diproses dalam otak* Mtak
mengolah dan mentransformasikan informasi dalam berbagai cara* 4roses ini meliputi
pengkodean ke dalam bentuk-bentuk simbolis, membandingkan dengan informasi yang telah
diketahui sebelumnya, menyimpan dalam memori, dan mengambilnya bila diperlukan* &khir
dari proses ini adalah keluaran, yaitu perilaku manusia, seperti berbicara, menulis, interaksi
sosial, dan sebagainya (Pasta, dkk*, !""/*
'ecara rinci, 4ressley, (!""@ memaparkan pemrosesan informasi sebagai berikut : 4ertama-
tama, manusia menangkap informasi dari lingkungan melalui organ-organ sensorisnya (yaitu
mata, telinga, hidung, dan sebagainya* ?eberapa informasi disaring (diabaikan pada tingkat
sensoris, kemudian sisanya dimasukkan ke dalam ingatan ;angka pendek (kesadaran* +ngatan
;angka pendek mempunyai kapasitas pemeliharaan informasi yang terbatas sehingga
kandungannya harus diproses sedemikian rupa (misalnya dengan pengulangan atau
pelatihan, ;ika tidak akan lenyap dengan cepat* ?ila diproses, informasi dari ingatan ;angka
pendek (short-term memory dapat ditransfer ke dalam ingatan ;angka pan;ang (long-term
memory* +ngatan ;angka pan;ang (.ong-Term -emory merupakan hal penting dalam proses
bela;ar* -enurut &nderson (dalam 4ressley, !""@, tempat penyimpanan ;angka pan;ang
mengandung informasi faktual (disebut pengetahuan deklaratif dan informasi mengenai
bagaimana cara menger;akan sesuatu (disebut pengetahuan prosedural*
-enurut pandangan model pemrosesan informasi yang dikembangkan oleh &tkinson <
'hiffrin, se;ak kecil seorang anak mengembangkan fungsi kontrol dalam mengolah informasi
dari lingkungannya* -enurut Eetherington < 4arke (!"$#, pada usia antara 0 hingga !/
tahun, fungsi kontrol seseorang menun;ukkan perkembangan yang pesat* Fungsi tersebut
mencakup pengaturan informasi yang diperlukan, termasuk memilih strategi yang digunakan
dan memonitor keberhasilan penggunaan strategi tersebut* Qalam pandangan model ini, anak
merupakan pengatur yang aktif dari fungsi-fungsi kognitifnya sendiri* Mleh karena itu, dalam
menghadapi suatu masalah, anak memilih masalah yang akan diselesaikannya, memutuskan
besar usaha yang akan dilakukannya, memilih strategi yang akan digunakannya, menghindari
hal-hal yang mengganggu usahanya, serta mengevaluasi kualitas hasil usahanya*
-odel pemrosesan informasi berasumsi bahwa anak-anak mempunyai kemampuan yang
lebih terbatas dan berbeda dibanding orang dewasa* &nak-anak tidak dapat menyerap banyak
informasi, kurang sistematis dalam hal informasi apa yang diserap, tidak mempunyai banyak
strategi untuk mengatasi masalah, tidak mempunyai banyak pengetahuan mengenai dunia
yang diperlukan untuk memahami masalah, dan kurang mampu memonitor ker;a proses
kognitifnya (Eetherington < 4arke, !"$#* -engingat perkembangan anak yang optimal
adalah tu;uan para psikolog perkembangan, maka sangat relevan ;ika individu-individu yang
berkecimpung di bidang ini melakukan penelitian yang tu;uannya bermuara pada
meningkatkan kemampuan pemrosesan informasi*
-odel kedua yang dapat digunakan untuk men;elaskan teori pemrosesan informasi adalah
model tingkat pemrosesan (level of process-ing* -odel tingkat pemrosesan yang
dikembangkan oleh >raik dan .ockhart ini memiliki prinsip dasar bahwa informasi yang
diterima diolah dengan tingkatan yang berbeda* 'emakin dalam pengolahan yang dilakukan,
semakin baik informasi tersebut diingat* 4ada tingkat pengolahan pertama akan diperoleh
persepsi, yang merupakan kesadaran seketika akan lingkungan* 4ada tingkat pengolahan
berikutnya akan diperoleh gambaran struktural dari informasi* 4ada tingkat pengolahan
terdalam akan diperoleh makna (meaning dari informasi yang diterima (>raik dan .ockhart,
dalam -organ et al*, !"$#*
-enurut model tingkat pemrosesan, berbagai stimulus informasi diproses dalam berbagai
tingkat kedalaman secara bersamaan bergantung kepada karakternya* 'emakin dalam suatu
informasi diolah, maka informasi tersebut akan semakin lama diingat* 'ebagai contoh,
informasi yang mempunyai ima;i visual yang kuat atau banyak berasosiasi dengan
pengetahuan yang telah ada akan diproses secara lebih dalam* Qemikian ;uga informasi yang
sedang diamati akan lebih dalam diproses daripada stimuli atau ke;adian lain di luar
pengamatan* Qengan kata lain, manusia akan lebih mengingat hal-hal yang mempunyai arti
bagi dirinya atau hal-hal yang men;adi perhatiannya karena hal-hal tersebut diproses secara
lebih mendalam daripada stimuli yang tidak mempunyai arti atau tidak men;adi perhatiannya
(>raik < .ockhart, /@@/*
4engulangan (rehearsal - yang memegang peranan penting dalam pendekatan model
penyimpanan - ;uga dianggap penting dalam pendekatan model tingkat pemrosesan* Lamun,
menurut pandangan model tingkat pemrosesan, hanya mengulang-ngulang sa;a tidak cukup
untuk mengingat* Fntuk memperoleh tingkatan yang lebih dalam, aktivitas pengulangan
haruslah bersifat elaboratif* Qalam hal ini, pengulangan harus merupakan sebuah proses
pemberian makna (meaning dari informasi yang masuk* +stilah elaborasi sendiri mengacu
kepada se;auh mana informasi yang masuk diolah sehingga dapat diikat atau diintegrasikan
dengan informasi yang telah ada dalam ingatan (>raik dan .ockhart, dalam -organ et al*,
!"$#*
Telah disebutkan bahwa prinsip dasar model tingkat pemrosesan informasi adalah semakin
besar upaya pemrosesan informasi selama bela;ar, semakin dalam informasi tersebut akan
disimpan dan diingat* 4rinsip ini telah banyak diaplikasikan dalam penyusunan setting
penga;aran verbal, seperti mengingat daftar kata, ;uga penga;aran membaca dan bahasa
(>ermak < >raik, dalam >raik < .ockhart, /@@/*
-anfaat teori pemrosesan informasi antara lain :
!* membantu ter;adinya proses pembela;aran sehingga individu mampu beradaptasi pada
lingkungan yang selalu berubah
/* men;adikan strategi pembela;aran dengan menggunakan cara berpikir yang berorientasi
pada proses lebih menon;ol
0* kapabilitas bela;ar dapat disa;ikan secara lengkap
1* prinsip perbedaan individual terlayani
Eambatan teori pemrosesan informasi antara lain :
!* tidak semua individu mampu melatih memori secara maksimal
/* proses internal yang tidak dapat diamati secara langsung
0* tingkat kesulitan mengungkap kembali informasi-informasi yang telah disimpan dalam
ingatan
1* kemampuan otak tiap individu tidak sama
>* Nesimpulan
4emahaman dan penerapan yang benar mengenai pemrosesan informasi dalam hal ini di
dunia pendidikan, maka diharapkan di masa yang sekarang dan yang akan datang ada
perubahan yang berarti dalam pendidikan negara kita, antara lain (! 4endidikan yang bersifat
open access sehingga siapa sa;a dapat menikmati proses pendidikan dengan beragam media
teknologi informasi yang ada, (/ Terbentuknya ker;asama yang sinergis antar lembaga
penyelenggara pendidikan, lembaga penyelenggara industri media untuk meningkatkan mutu
pendidikan, (0 Tersedianya akses bersama terhadap sumber informasi pengetahuan sehingga
terwu;ud sharing knowledge, dan (1 Terwu;udnya masyarakat Gramah mediaH*
http:HH111.face,ook.comHnotesHprimastudy2education2training2
consultancyH,agaimana2guru2menerapkan2teori2pemrosesan2
informasi2H16<-6D@2@<@3
Model Pengajaran Pemprosesan Maklumat
Sejarah Model Pemprosesan Maklumat
Sejak komputer pertama, psikologi selari antara komputer dan fikiran manusia.
Secara dasarnya adalah model memori. Model memori yang mendominasi tahun
1970-an dan 0-an adalah tiga komponen sistem maklumat memproses iaitu ingatan
sensori, ingatan jangka pendek dan ingatan jangka panjang. !ntara pelopor lain "agi
teori ini ialah #o"ert Mills $agne %191&', $eorge !. Miller %19(0' dan Alan
Baddeley.
)anyak hasil kajian telah menunjukkan "e"erapa kele"ihan memori kerja. Secara
umum dipercayai "aha*a memori kerja manusia sangat ter"atas. +ita hanya "oleh
mengingat sesetengah maklumat sahaja dalam satu-satu masa sekaligus.
Pemprosesan maklumat "ermaksud akti,iti mental manusia yang "erkaitan dengan
menerima maklumat, menyimpan dan mengeluarkannya semula untuk digunakan
%-oolfolk, 199'. Model memproses maklumat sama seperti model komputer iaitu
terdiri daripada ingatan deria %sensory memory', ingatan jangka pendek atau ingatan
kerja %short-term. *orking memory' dan ingatan jangka panjang %long-term memory'.
%a' /ngatan 0eria
/ngatan deria merupakan ingatan jangka pendek yang *ujud pada deria manusia.
Masa simpanan maklumat ialah antara 1 hingga 1 saat. 2ika maklumat ini tidak
diproses, ia akan hilang serta merta.
%"' /ngatan 2angka Pendek
+apasiti ingatan jangka pendek adalah kecil. 3empoh simpanan maklumat adalah
antara 4 hingga (0 saat. Maklumat diproses, ditapis, disusun atau disintesis untuk
dihantar ke stor ingatan jangka panjang untuk disimpan. Salah satu cara untuk
menyimpan maklumat "aru ialah secara ulang se"ut "erkali-kali %rehearsal'.
5ontohnya, dalam pengajaranpem"elajaran, guru "erhenti se"entar, tanya soalan
tentang fakta yang telah diterangkan6 selepas pelajar respon, ulang semula
penerangan.
%c' /ngatan 2angka Panjang
/ngatan jangka panjang mempunyai kapasiti "esar. /a menyimpan maklumat le"ih
lama, iaitu le"ih daripada "e"erapa minit hingga ke "e"erapa tahun. /ngatan jangka
panjang, dari segi kandungan "oleh di"ahagikan kepada 1, iaitu ingatan episodik,
semantik dan prosedural7
8 Ingatan episodik
/ngatan episodic adalah ingatan tentang peristi*a yang dialami seseorang
sepanjang hayatnya, lengkap dengan masa dan tempat. 5ontohnya, mengingat
peristi*a 9jatuh "asikal:.
8 Ingatan semantik
/ngatan semantik adalah ingatan tentang 9makna:, iaitu menyimpan konsep, fakta,
hukum, skema atau imej. 5ontohnya, mengingat makna 9semantik:.
8 Ingatan prosedural
/ngatan prosedural adalah ingatan tentang "agaimana melakukan sesuatu,
terutamanya yang meli"atkan akti,iti fi;ikal yang "erurutan. 5ontohnya, mengingat
"agaimana menaiki "asikal, sekiranya anda telah lama tidak menaiki "asikal.
M!+<=M!3 <>?$+!P M@0>< P>MP#@S>S!? M!+<=M!3
%M>?$/+=3 P!?0!?$!? 3@+@A'
Model pengajaran pemerosesan maklumat mengikut teori $agne
Maklumat ditafsirkan dalam stor ingatan B jangka pendek.panjang.
mengemukakan jenis pem"elajaran untuk memperoleh maklumat
#angsangan - rangsangan dari persekitaran luar diterima melalui deria( manusia.
Pengalaman disimpan dalam stor ingatan panjang adalah penting utk dikaitkan
dgn pengalaman "aru B memudahkan pem"elajaran "aru "erlaku.
Model pengajaran pemerosesan maklumat mengikut Baddeley (1990)
/ngatan jangka masa panjang
B #uang ingatan yang menyimpan semua kenangan atau maklumat yang lama
/ngatan jangka masa pendek
B #uang yang memproses maklumat se"elum memasuki ruang ingatan jangka masa
panjang
/ngatan deria atau sensori
B )ahagian ingatan yang yang "erkaitan dengan segala "entuk input atau
penerimaan maklumat daripada manusia
Model pengajaran pemerosesan maklumat mengikut George Miller (1956)
+onsep Cmagical num"er 7D - %7 E ('
0alam satu masa ingatan jangka masa pendek manusia dapat mengingati 4
hingga 9 perkara.
mem"erikan dua idea teori dalam rangka proses maklumat dan psikologi kognitif
yang le"ih umum
+onsep pertama adalah F chunking G dan kapasiti jangka pendek % kerja' memori .
memori jangka pendek hanya "oleh mempertahankan 4-9 potongan maklumat
% tujuh plus atau minus dua '
Seperti komputer , fikiran manusia memerlukan maklumat , melakukan operasi di
atasnya untuk menukar "entuk dan kandungan , dan menghasilkan tindak "alas.
Menurut pandangan ini , ada tiga jenis memori 7 Sensory register % se"ahagian
daripada memori yang menerima semua maklumat' ,
memori jangka pendek % S3M ' % juga dikenali se"agai memori kerja ,
memori jangka panjang % <3M ' % se"ahagian daripada memori yang mempunyai
kapasiti terhad dan "oleh menyimpan maklumat tanpa had ' .
asa Moti!asi" #angkaan
- fasa pertama yang "erlaku dalam sesuatu proses pem"elajaran. <a;imnya,
manusia "elajar kerana didorong oleh moti,asi tertentu.
- 3anpa moti,asi, proses pem"elajaran tidak akan "ermakna dan "erkesan..
Manusia "erusaha "elajar kerana mempunyai motif tertentu.
- Moti,asi merupakan tindakan yang menim"ulkan motifnya supaya "elajar. 2adi
moti,asi digunakan untuk menggalakkan murid-murid supaya "erusaha "elajar.
$) asa %anggapan & Per'atian
- meli"atkan akti,iti pemerhatian dan pemilihan rangsangan yang tepat dan rele,an.
- seseorang akan menumpukan perhatian terhadap sesuatu rangsangan yang
dimoti,asikan dan memilih serta mem"e;akan rangsangan-rangsangan melalui
organ derianya.
- 5ontohnya, semasa "elajar di "ilik darjah, seorang murid menumpukan perhatian
terhadap akti,iti pengajaran guru dan menolak gangguan yang lain seperti "unyi
per"ualan daripada rakan sekelas yang lain.
() asa Penyimpanan" )od
- !pa"ila seseorang telah "erjaya memilih rangsangan yang rele,an dan
mempersepsikannya denga tepat, maka rangsangan itu akan di"a*a oleh sistem
saraf ke dalam stor ingatan jangka pendek.
- 0i situ, rangsangan terse"ut akan dikodkan dengan suatu cara yang ringkas dan
tersendiri seperti merekodkan isi-isi penting dalam "entuk yang mudah disimpan.
d) asa Pena'anan" *tor Ingatan
- Selepas rangsangan yang dipilih dan dikodkan dalam stor ingatan jangka pendek,
se"ahagian atau keseluruhanya akan disalurkan dan disimpan dalam stor ingatan
jangka panjang.
- +od-kod yang disimpan dalam stor jangka panjang akan ditransformasikan dan
disusun semula dengan satu sistem yang le"ih kekal dalam ingatan dan le"ih mudah
dikeluarkan. Hasa ini dinamakan fasa penahanan, iaitu menyimpan maklumat,
peristi*a atau pengalaman yang diperoleh dengan cara yang sistematik.
e) asa Mengingat )em$ali" Men(ari
- merupakan tindakan mencari maklumat atau pengalaman yang telah disimpan
dalam stor ingatan jangka panjang.
- 3indakan ini "iasanya digerakkan oleh rangsangan luaran atau motif dalaman.
- Misalnya seorang murid "erusaha mengingat kem"ali apa yang telah dipelajarinya
untuk menja*a" soalan guru.
+) asa Generalisasi" Pindaan
- fasa pemindahan pem"elajaran atau fasa aplikasi di mana seseorang indi,idu
"oleh mengingat kem"ali maklumat dalam stor ingatan jangka panjang dan
menggunakannya untuk situasi yang sama atau serupa.
- Misalnya, seorang murid telah mengetahui "entuk segiempat tepat, segiempat
sama sisi, rom"us yang masing-masing mempunyai empat sisi, maka murid itu akan
mem"uat generalisasi "aha*a "entuk-"entuk terse"ut "oleh diklasifikasikan dalam
kategori sisi empat.
g) asa Prestasi" Gerak Balas
- dikenali se"agai fasa perlakuan.
- Hasa prestasi "erlaku apa"ila seseorang "ertindak "alas dengan peru"ahan
tingkah lakunya se"aik sahaja isyarat ransangan di"erikan. Murid "ertindak "alas
dengan menja*a" soalan guru secara lisan.
') asa Maklum Balas"Penegu'an
- Hasa maklum "alas ini "erlaku selepas seseorang indi,idu telah "ertindak "alas
dengan prestasi atau peru"ahan tingkah laku yang tepat.
- 3indakan maklum "alas mempunyai fungsi peneguhan seperti mem"eri galakan
kepada orang yang telah menunjukkan prestasi yang tepat. 5ontohnya, seseorang
murid yang dapat mem"eri ja*apan yang harus di"erikan pujian oleh guru.
Peringkat"peringkat ,o$ert Gagne (19-5) adala' seperti $erikut.
%a' Pem"elajaran /syarat
Seseorang indi,idu mempelajari gerak "alas terhadap sesuatu isyarat. 5ontohnya,
apa"ila seseorang menguap, kita dapat isyarat dia mengantuk. !pa"ila ayah pulang
ke rumah dengan *ajah masam atau muram, anak-anaknya dapat isyarat ayah
mereka tidak suka diganggu. Pem"elajaran "erlaku melalui pela;iman tingkah laku.
5ontohnya, "ila guru masuk ke "ilik darjah, semua murid akan "erdiri dan mem"eri
ucapan, 9Selamat sejahtera, cikguI:. 0alam hal ini, murid-murid telah dila;imkan
dengan tingkah laku
terse"ut.
%"' Pem"elajaran $erak )alas
Proses peneguhan penting untuk memperkuatkan pertalian antara rangsangan
dengan gerak "alas. Peneguhan mesti di"eri secara konsisten dan tekal supaya
gerak "alas yang positif dapat dikekalkan. 5ontohnya, !li menunjukkan kerja
sekolah yang dia dapat 0J. /"unya mem"eri pujian, 9)agus, !li pandai I:. !li akan
mengulang tingkah laku itu lagi %mem"uat kerja sekolah dengan "aik' untuk
mendapat pujian daripada i"unya.
%c' Pem"elajaran #angkaian Motor
Pem"elajaran rangkaian motor digunakan dalam pem"elajaran kemahiran seperti
permainan, mu;ik, elektronik, mekanikal dan lain-lain. #angkaian merupakan satu
siri tingkah laku yang "erkaitan untuk melengkapi tugasan yang dijalankan.
%d' Pem"elajaran Pertalian )ahasa
=ntuk menyatakan sesuatu prinsip, pelajar memerlukan kemahiran "ahasa untuk
mengaitkan fakta, data dan konsep. Pertalian "ahasa merupakan satu rangkaian
"er"ahasa. /a memerlukan kemahiran "er"ahasa yang telah dipelajari dahulu.
%e' Pem"elajaran 0iskriminasi
)elajar mem"e;akan "enda-"enda yang dipelajari mengikut ciri-ciri tertentu, untuk
memudahkan proses mengkategori dan menyimpannya dalam ingatan. Pada masa
yang sama, pelajar dapat mem"e;akan rangsangan atau maklumat penting
"er"anding maklumat tidak penting dan mem"eri gerak "alas "erlainan untuk
rangsangan yang "erlainan. Pem"elajaran diskriminasi adalah sangat penting dalam
proses pem"elajaran. Pelajar dapat menapis maklumat penting daripada maklumat
tidak penting dan ini memudahkan proses pengkodan maklumat untuk disimpan
dalam ingatan jangka panjang.
%f' Pem"elajaran +onsep
Pem"entukan konsep "ermula dengan pertalian "er"ahasa dan diskriminasi, iaitu
mengenali ciri-ciri sesuatu konsep secara tepat. Pelajar dapat mem"entuk konsep
yang "aik setelah mem"uat persepsi dan pengamatan terhadap o"jek, orang dan
peristi*a. Pelajar perlu didedahkan dengan "anyak contoh-contoh yang jelas supaya
dia dapat mem"entuk konsep yang "etul dan tepat.
%g' Pem"elajaran Aukum
Pem"elajaran ini meli"atkan ga"ungan dua atau le"ih konsep yang "erkaitan dalam
sesuatu urutan atau rangkaian. Pem"elajaran ini meli"atkan penggunaan rumus,
prinsip dan generalisasi.
%h' Pem"elajaran Penyelesaian Masalah
Pem"elajaran ini meli"atkan penggunaan prinsip, rumus, generalisasi, konsep dan
hukum untuk menyelesaikan masalah dalam sesuatu situasi "aru. 3erdapat
"e"erapa langkah dalam penyelesaian masalah, iaitu mengenal masalah, mencari
maklumat, mem"uat hipotesis, mem"uat pilihan, mem"uat rumusan.
3>+?/+ S-@3
http:HH,ack2dafurNan.,logspot.comHpHmodel2penga?aran2pemprosesan2
maklumat.htmlOK&P<@d-:,dDf,cD62cf
Model pengajaran pemerosesan maklumat mengikut Baddeley (1990)
/ngatan jangka masa panjang
B #uang ingatan yang menyimpan semua kenangan atau maklumat yang lama
/ngatan jangka masa pendek
B #uang yang memproses maklumat se"elum memasuki ruang ingatan jangka masa
panjang
/ngatan deria atau sensori
B )ahagian ingatan yang yang "erkaitan dengan segala "entuk input atau
penerimaan maklumat daripada manusia
*ejara' Model Pemprosesan Maklumat
Sejak komputer pertama, psikologi selari antara komputer dan fikiran manusia.
Secara dasarnya adalah model memori. Model memori yang mendominasi tahun
1970-an dan 0-an adalah tiga komponen sistem maklumat memproses iaitu ingatan
sensori, ingatan jangka pendek dan ingatan jangka panjang. !ntara pelopor lain "agi
teori ini ialah #o"ert Mills $agne %191&', $eorge !. Miller %19(0' dan Alan
Baddeley.
)anyak hasil kajian telah menunjukkan "e"erapa kele"ihan memori kerja. Secara
umum dipercayai "aha*a memori kerja manusia sangat ter"atas. +ita hanya "oleh
mengingat sesetengah maklumat sahaja dalam satu-satu masa sekaligus.
Pemprosesan maklumat "ermaksud akti,iti mental manusia yang "erkaitan dengan
menerima maklumat, menyimpan dan mengeluarkannya semula untuk digunakan
%-oolfolk, 199'. Model memproses maklumat sama seperti model komputer iaitu
terdiri daripada ingatan deria %sensory memory', ingatan jangka pendek atau ingatan
kerja %short-term. *orking memory' dan ingatan jangka panjang %long-term memory'.
%a' /ngatan 0eria
/ngatan deria merupakan ingatan jangka pendek yang *ujud pada deria manusia.
Masa simpanan maklumat ialah antara 1 hingga 1 saat. 2ika maklumat ini tidak
diproses, ia akan hilang serta merta.
%"' /ngatan 2angka Pendek
+apasiti ingatan jangka pendek adalah kecil. 3empoh simpanan maklumat adalah
antara 4 hingga (0 saat. Maklumat diproses, ditapis, disusun atau disintesis untuk
dihantar ke stor ingatan jangka panjang untuk disimpan. Salah satu cara untuk
menyimpan maklumat "aru ialah secara ulang se"ut "erkali-kali %rehearsal'.
5ontohnya, dalam pengajaranpem"elajaran, guru "erhenti se"entar, tanya soalan
tentang fakta yang telah diterangkan6 selepas pelajar respon, ulang semula
penerangan.
%c' /ngatan 2angka Panjang
/ngatan jangka panjang mempunyai kapasiti "esar. /a menyimpan maklumat le"ih
lama, iaitu le"ih daripada "e"erapa minit hingga ke "e"erapa tahun. /ngatan jangka
panjang, dari segi kandungan "oleh di"ahagikan kepada 1, iaitu ingatan episodik,
semantik dan prosedural7
8 Ingatan episodik
/ngatan episodic adalah ingatan tentang peristi*a yang dialami seseorang
sepanjang hayatnya, lengkap dengan masa dan tempat. 5ontohnya, mengingat
peristi*a 9jatuh "asikal:.
8 Ingatan semantik
/ngatan semantik adalah ingatan tentang 9makna:, iaitu menyimpan konsep, fakta,
hukum, skema atau imej. 5ontohnya, mengingat makna 9semantik:.
8 Ingatan prosedural
/ngatan prosedural adalah ingatan tentang "agaimana melakukan sesuatu,
terutamanya yang meli"atkan akti,iti fi;ikal yang "erurutan. 5ontohnya, mengingat
"agaimana menaiki "asikal, sekiranya anda telah lama tidak menaiki "asikal.

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