Proceedings of the 2

nd
International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014
17 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India
71













EFFECT OF SHORT GLASS FIBER AND FILLERS ON DRY SLIDING
WEAR BEHAVIOUR OF THERMOPLASTIC COPOLYESTER
ELASTOMER COMPOSITES


R. Hemanth
1
, Prakash Sam Thomas
2
, B. Suresha
3
, M. Sekar
4


1, 2, 4
Karunya School of Mechanical Science, Karunya University, Coimbatore, India
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Engineering, Mysore, India



ABSTRACT

The dry sliding wear behaviour of thermoplastic copolyester elastomer (TCE) reinforced with fibers and fillers
were slid against a steel counterface of a pin-on-disc tribometer. The filler and fiber reinforcements used are
polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE), short glass fiber (SGF), short carbon fiber (SCF), silicon carbide (SiC), and alumina
(Al
2
O
3
). The parameters like filler content, sliding velocity and sliding distance on the specific wear rate have been
investaigated. In this study, a plan of experiments based on the techniques of Taguchi was performed to acquire data in a
controlled way. An orthogonal array L
27
(3
13
) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were applied to study the influence of
process parameters on the specific wear rate of TCE based composites. The experimental results reveal that the effect of
filler content was the major parameter on specific wear rate, followed by the sliding distance. The sliding velocity,
however, was found to have a neglecting effect. The worn surface topographies show asssorted features like tendency of
the matrix to adhere towards the fiber, network of microcracks, less debris formation, agglomeration of debris and
broken fibers on the sliding distance and velocity employed.

Keywords: TCE Based Composites, Taguchis Design of Experiments, Specific Wear Rate, Worn Surface Morphology.

1. INTRODUCTION

Polymers and their composites possess a unique combination of physical properties that are either unattainable
or difficult to reproduce in metal and ceramic materials. Polymer composites occupy a considerable market share
nowadays as one of the most common engineering materials. They provide a combination of various advantages, such as
ease in manufacturing, cost effectiveness and excellent performance, which cannot be attained by metals, ceramics, or
polymers alone [1]. In recent years, polymer composites have been extensively used to replace metallic materials in
engineering applications involving friction and wear. The advantages of polymers such as self lubricity, light weight,
corrosion resistant and ease of processing have allowed them to be the best choice [2]. Thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs)
concern large industrial and commercial fields, as well as academic and applied research. They are novel constructional
polymers, which are physically cross-linked materials made up of a thermoplastic and an elastomer. Applications include
flexible couplings, ski boots, gears, high pressure hose lines, outer coverings for wire and optical fiber cables, seals, etc.
[3]. The choice of an appropriate matrix is of great importance in the design of wear resistant polymer composites. The
concept of adding particles of micro or nanoscale into polymers is one of the most intriguing subjects in the recent
decades. Fiber reinforcements like glass, carbon, and aramid fibers have frequently been applied in order to improve
mechanical properties. Solid lubricants (polytetrafluroethylene and graphite) are proved to be very helpful in developing
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
AND TECHNOLOGY (IJMET)


ISSN 0976 6340 (Print)
ISSN 0976 6359 (Online)
Volume 5, Issue 9, September (2014), pp. 71-80
IAEME: www.iaeme.com/IJMET.asp
Journal Impact Factor (2014): 7.5377 (Calculated by GISI)
www.jifactor.com
IJMET
I A E M E
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014
17 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India
72

a transfer film between the two counterparts and could drastically reduce the frictional coefficient of the composites [4].
Polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) possesses low coefficient of friction, low stickslip and high levels of anti-adhesive
properties, which make it a potential candidate for adhesive wear process. Unfortunately, PTFE has the following
drawbacks: low Youngs modulus, high visco-elasticity and poor wear resistance [5]. While, short fibre reinforcements,
such as carbon, glass and aramid fibers, could effectively improve the wear resistance of polymer composites by
undergoing most of the load during sliding processes. Short glass fiber (SGF) exhibited better adhesive wear
performance in severe operating conditions (applied load, sliding velocity, and sliding distance) [6]. Short carbon fiber
(SCF), is widely advocated as a decisive reinforcement component, show a remarkable capability to increase the wear
resistance [7]. Silicon carbide (SiC) particles have shown an increased wear resistance in dry sliding (adhesive) wear of
polymer composites [6]. The alumina (Al
2
O
3
) particles in polymer would strengthen the mechanical properties of
polymer composites [8].
The objective of this research work is to evaluate the influence of fibers and fillers on wear rate and influence of
independent parameters such as sliding distance, filler content, and sliding velocity on wear performance of
thermoplastic copolyester elastomers (TCE) reinforced composites using design of experiments (DOE). The fibers and
fillers reinforcements used in TCE are SGF, SCF, PTFE, silicon carbide (SiC), and Al
2
O
3
. DOE was applied to study the
various parameters affecting the specific wear rate. The information generally comprises the relationship between
product and process parameters and the desired performance characteristic. In any process, the desired testing parameters
were either determined based on experience or by use of a handbook. It, however, does not provide optimal testing
parameters for a particular situation. Thus, numerous mathematical models based on statistical regression techniques
have been constructed to select the proper cutting or testing conditions. The Taguchis design can further simplify by
expending the application of the traditional experimental designs to the use of orthogonal array. This method is a simple,
efficient and systematic approach to optimize designs for performance, quality and cost [9].
Majority of research studied detailed experimental work i.e., the effect of one factor by keeping all other factors
fixed, this approach is not advisable because in an actual environment there will be combined effects of interacting
factors influencing the abrasive wear. Hence in this investigation an attempt is being made to study the interacting effects
of factors along with the main effect. In this paper, influence of filler content, sliding distance and sliding velocity on the
specific wear rate of TCE based composites was explored using Taguchis design of experiments. Dry slidng wear tests
were carried out on a pin-on-disc tribometer. Tribological tests were carried out at room temperature, adopting L
27

ortogonal array. The experimental results were analyzed by using analysis of means and variance of the influence of
factors.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Materials
In the present research work, the materials used for making polymer composites are TCE as matrix material,
SGF as fiber reinforcement, PTFE, SCF, SiC and Al
2
O
3
as filler reinforcement. The sources of these materials are listed
in Table 1.

2.2 Fabrication of composites
The polymer granules, fibers and fillers were dried at 75 C for 10 h in an oven before compounding. Selected
compositions were mixed and extruded in Barbender co-rotating twin-screw extruder (Make: CMEI, Model: 16CME,
SPL, chamber size 70 cm
3
). The mixing speed of 100 rpm was maintained for all the compositions. The extrudates from
the die were quenched in cold water and then pelletized. In the melt blending, the temperature profile of the extrusion
were zone1 (200 C), zone 2 (210 C), zone 3 (220 C), zone 4 (240 C) and zone 5 (260 C) respectively. The extrudates
of the compositions were pelletized using pelletizing machine. The details of the composites fabricated for present
investigation are given in Table 2. The pellets of the extrudates were pre-dried at 100 C in vacuum oven for 24 h and
injection moulded in a reciprocating screw injection moulding machine (Windsor, 50 T), to produce test specimens. The
processing temperature at zone 1 (220 C) and zone 2 (250 C) were maintained respectively. The mould temperature
was maintained at 35 C.

Table 1: Supplier details of the materials procured
Polymer/Filler Source and supplier
TCE Gargi Enterprises, Bengaluru
PTFE Du Pont Co. Ltd.
SGF Fine organics, Mumbai
SCF Fine organics, Mumbai
SiC Carborundum India Ltd.
Al
2
O
3
Triveni groups
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014
17 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India
73

2.3 Wear testing
The dry sliding wear tests were performed on a pin on disc tribometer (Magnum Engineers, Bengaluru) setup as
per ASTM G 99-05 standard. The photograph of the test apparatus is shown in Fig. 1.

Table 2: Constituents of TCE based composites



Fig. 1: Photograph of the Pin on Disk apparatus showing 1) steel counterface, 2) sample holder and 3) load cell

Wear test samples of size 6 mm 6 mm 2.5 mm are glued to steel pin of 6 mm diameter and 30 mm length
and comes in contact with (EN31 grade, 62 HRC, 1.6 Ra) rotating disc. Prior to testing, the samples were polished
against medium grade sand paper (600 grit size) to ensure proper contact with counter face. Test parameters are given
below in Table 3. Normal load throughout the experiment is kept constant at 40 N; the pin along with the specimen was
then weighted in an electronic balance (0.1mg accuracy). Before and after wear testing, samples were cleaned with the
acetone to remove wear debris.

Table 3: Test conditions for the present study










Weight loss of the test samples gives the measure of sliding wear loss. Volume loss was calculated from
measured weight loss using density data of the test specimen.

Sl. No.
Matrix material (wt %) Composition (wt %)
TCE Particulate fillers
1 80 20 PTFE
2 68 12 PTFE + 20 SGF
3 60 10 PTFE + 17.5 SGF + 2.5 SCF + 5 SiC + 5 Al
2
O
3

Parameters Units Tested values
Sliding velocity m/s 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5
Sliding distance m 2000, 4000 and 6000
Normal load N 40 constant
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014
17 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India
74

The specific wear rate (W
s
) was calculated using equation (1).

D L
V
W
s

= (1)

where, V the volume loss in mm
3
, L the load in Newton, D the sliding distance in m.

2.4. Experimental Design
Design of experiments (DOE) is the powerful analysis tool for modelling and analyzing the influence of the
control factors on the performance output. The most important stage in the design of experiment lies in the selection of
the control factors [9]. Taguchi uses a special design of orthogonal arrays to study the entire process parameter space
with only a small number of experiments [10]. The Taguchi design of experiment approach eliminates the need for
repeated experiments and thus saves time, material and cost. The most important stage in the design of experiment lies in
the selection of the control factors. The Taguchi approach to experimentation provides an orderly way to collect, analyze,
and interpret data to satisfy the objectives of the study. In the design of experiments, one can obtain the maximum
amount of information for the amount of experimentation. Taguchi parameter design can optimize the performance
characteristics through the setting of design. Three parameters namely filler content (A), sliding velocity (B), and sliding
distance (C). The Table 4 given below indicates the factors and level. The experiments were conducted as per the
orthogonal array with level of parameters given in each array row.
The experimental observations are transformed into signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. There are several S/N ratios
available depending on the type of characteristic, which can be calculated as logarithmic transformation of the loss
function.

Table 4: Control factors and levels used in the experiment












For lower is the better performance characteristic S/N ratio is calculated as per the given formula: -

n
y
n
s
=
2
log 10 (2)

Where n is the number of observations and y is the observed data. Smaller is the better characteristic, with
the above S/N ratio transformation, is suitable for minimization of wear rate. The sliding wear test results were subject to
the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The purpose of ANOVA is to investigate parameters which significantly affect the
performance characteristic. With DOE and ANOVA analysis; the optimal combination of wear parameters is predicted to
acceptable level of accuracy. The optimal process parameters obtained from the parameter design [11]. The use of
ANOVA is to analyze the influence of wear parameters like (A) filler content, (B) sliding velocity, and (c) sliding
distance.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Analysis of control factor
Analysis of the influence of each control factor (A, B, and C) on the specific wear rate was performed with a so-
called S/N response table, using a Minitab 16 computer package.
Table 5 shows the experimental plan and their results with calculated S/N ratios for the specific wear rate of
TCE based composites. The right side of the table included the results of the specific wear rate and the calculated S/N
ratio. Overall mean for S/N ratio was found to be 224.1818 dB. The response table of the specific wear rate is presented
Control factors
Level
I II III Units
A : Filler content 15 32 40 %
B : Sliding velocity 0.5 1 1.5 m/s
C : Sliding distance 2000 4000 6000 m
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014
17 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India
75

in Table 6. It indicates the S/N ratio at each level of control factor and how it was changed when settings of each control
factor were changed from level 1 to level 2 and level 2 to level 3. The control factor with the strongest influence was
determined by differences values. The higher the difference, the more influential was the control factor. It can be seen in
Table 6 that the strongest influence was exerted by filler content (factor A), followed by sliding velocity (factor B) and
sliding distance (factor C), respectively.

Table 5: Test conditions and output results using orthogonal array
Sl.
No.
Filler
content
(wt. %)
Sliding
Velocity
(m/s)
Sliding
distance
(m)
Specific wear
rate x e
-12

(mm
3
/Nm)
S/N
ratio
(db)
1 15 0.5 2000 22.6250 212.98
2 15 0.5 4000 20.3625 213.82
3 15 0.5 6000 15.8375 216.00
4 15 1.0 2000 21.4930 213.35
5 15 1.0 4000 15.8375 216.00
6 15 1.0 6000 9.0500 220.86
7 15 1.5 2000 12.0660 218.36
8 15 1.5 4000 6.7875 223.36
9 15 1.5 6000 3.3937 229.38
10 32 0.5 2000 9.0000 220.91
11 32 0.5 4000 6.9000 223.22
12 32 0.5 6000 4.6000 226.74
13 32 1.0 2000 7.9850 221.95
14 32 1.0 4000 5.3300 225.46
15 32 1.0 6000 3.0160 230.41
16 32 1.5 2000 7.0000 223.09
17 32 1.5 4000 4.0000 227.95
18 32 1.5 6000 1.3300 237.52
19 40 0.5 2000 6.2100 224.14
20 40 0.5 4000 6.0370 224.38
21 40 0.5 6000 2.9000 230.75
22 40 1.0 2000 8.6250 221.28
23 40 1.0 4000 3.5800 228.92
24 40 1.0 6000 2.8750 230.82
25 40 1.5 2000 6.9000 223.22
26 40 1.5 4000 3.4500 229.24
27 40 1.5 6000 1.1500 238.78

Fig. 2 shows the main effect plots for S/N ratio. Highest S/N ratio will give the minimum specific wear rate.
From the plots it is clear that factor combination of A3B3C3, gives minimum specific wear rate. Thus minimum specific
wear rate is obtained when filler content, sliding velocity and sliding distance is at maximum level. It is evident that
increasing the filler content of the matrix material the specific wear rate is decreasing. It is observed that increase in the
level of both filler content and sliding distance causes specific wear rate to decrease with the effect of filler content
dominating the effect of sliding distance on wear rate [11]. In the case of specimen TCE filled with SGF, SCF and
ceramic fillers addition of ceramic materials i.e. SiC will help to detach the material from the specimen. The material
detached from specimen forms wear debris. The ceramic material forms wear path on the disc. The debris engages
between the specimen and the counter face helps to reduce the wear rate. It is understandable that increase in sliding
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014
17 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India
76

distance causes the transfer film formation on the wear disc and this contributes to reduce the wear rate under longer
duration of sliding. Addition of PTFE to the polymer will cause the film formation this will decrease the wear rate [12].

40 32 15
230.0
227.5
225.0
222.5
220.0
1.5 1.0 0.5
6000 4000 2000
230.0
227.5
225.0
222.5
220.0
filler content
M
e
a
n

o
f

S
N

r
a
t
i
o
s
sliding velocity
sliding distance
Main Effects Plot for SN ratios
Data Means
Signal-to-noise: Smaller is better

Fig. 2: Main effect plot for S/N ratio

Table 6: Response table for S/N ratio - smaller is better
Level Filler
content
Sliding
velocity
Sliding
distance
1 218.2 223 221.5
2 226.4 223.2 223.6
3 229.5 227.9 229.0
delta 11.3 4.9 7.5
rank 1 3 2

Fig. 3 illustrates the interaction effects of control parameters. It is well known that interactions do not occur when
the lines on the interaction plots are parallel and strong interactions occur between parameters when the lines cross. In
order to find out the correlation of the interaction factor and wear rate ANOVA analysis carried out.


Fig 3: Interaction plot for S/N ratio
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014
17 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India
77

3.2 ANOVA
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to investigate which design parameters significantly affect the
quality characteristic. It was accomplished by separating the total variability of the S/N ratios, which is measured by sum
of the squared deviations from the total mean S/N ratio, into contributions by each of the design parameters and the
errors.
The percentage contribution of each control factor is employed to measure the effect over W
s
. Table 5 shows the
results of the ANOVA with the specific wear rate. This analysis was undertaken for a level of significance of 5% that is,
for level of confidence 95%. Examination of the calculated values of Fishers (F) for all control factors also showed a
very high influence of factor A and low influence of factor B on specific wear rate of TCE based composites (Table 7).
The interaction between A x B (7.50%) have got the significant influence, A x C and B x C have got least significance in
dry sliding wear behaviour of TCE composites. The present analysis indicates that dry sliding wear test parameters and
their interactions have both statistical and physical significance in TCE composites.

3.3 Worn surface morphology
The worn surface morphology was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to study the effect of
increase in filler content, sliding distance and sliding velocity.

Table 7: ANOVA response table for W
s

Source D S JS JM P%
Filler content (A) 2 5.88801 5.88801 2.94400 55.10
Sliding velocity (B) 2 1.47654 1.47654 0.73827 13.80
Sliding distance (C) 2 2.01698 2.01698 1.00849 18.90
(A x B) 4 0.80196 0.80196 0.20049 7.50
(A x C) 4 0.32160 0.32160 0.08040 3.00
(B x C) 4 0.08519 0.08519 0.02130 0.80
Error 8 0.09630 0.09630 0.01204 0.90
Total 26 10.68658 100

S = 0.109715, R-Sq = 99.10% and R-Sq (adj) = 97.07%.
D: DOF, degrees of freedom; S: Seq SS, sequential sum of squares; JS: Adj SS, adjusted sum of squares; JM: Adj MS,
adjusted mean squares; P%: percentage of contribution.

The SEM micrographs are shown in Fig. 4. The arrows show the direction of the adhesive wear. Fig. 4a and 4b
shows the worn surface micrograph of TCE + PTFE filled composite, and Fig. 4c, 4d and 4e shows the worn surface
micrograph of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers reinforced composite with different magnifications. The circles show the
wear debris. P stands for debonding of PTFE particulate and SGF stands for short glass fiber. From the micrographic
pictures we can infer that the detachment of the particles from the specimen cause wear debris. This wear debris
entrapped between the specimen and the counter face. This will cause the reduction of the wear rate. Ray and
Gnanamoorthy [13] explained three mechanisms namely (i) matrix material loss, (ii) filler wear, and (iii) debonding at
the interface are operative in filled polymer composites and dominance of one factor over the other control the wear
behaviour of composites.
In the case of specimen with TCE and PTFE wear debris is more. In the case of specimen with TCE, PTFE and
SGF i.e. short glass fiber is easily detached from the surface, since the glass fiber is harder than the steel material. It will
cause wear to the disc. So wear rate decreases. In the case of specimen with TCE, PTFE, SGF, SCF, SiC, and Al
2
O
3

ceramic material cause wear on the counter face. The wear debris trapped inside the wear path and cause decrease in the
wear rate.



Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014
17 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India
78


















Fig. 4a: SEM micrographs of TCE + PTFE composite slid at 6000 m, 0.5 m/s



Fig. 4b: SEM micrographs of TCE + PTFE composite slid at 6000 m, 1 m/s

















Fig. 4c: SEM micrographs of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers filled composite slid at 6000 m, 0.5 m/s




Cracks
P
P
Deep fragmentation
Severe damage
P
Micro cracks
Void
Micro cracks
Fragmentation
Furrows and ridges
Void
Micro crack
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014
17 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India
79

















Fig. 4d: SEM micrographs of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers filled composite slid at 6000 m, 1 m/s


Fig. 4e: SEM micrographs of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers filled composite slid at 6000 m, 1.5 m/s

4. CONCLUSIONS

Experimental investigation carried out on TCE composites to study the effect of filler content, sliding distance
and sliding velocity on specific wear rate. The following conclusions could be drawn from the results of the dry sliding
wear behaviour of fiber and filler filled TCE composites.

Specific wear rate is least in TCE composite reinforced with fiber and ceramic fillers, in comparison to that of
TCE + PTFE and TCE + PTFE + SGF reinforced composites. A synergistic effect of the fibers and fillers on
improving the wear resistance was reported.
Specific wear rate decreases with increase in sliding distance. As the filler content of the specimen increases the
specific wear rate also decreases. From Taguchi analysis it is concluded that control factors cause significant effect
on specific wear rate and they are ranked as filler content > sliding distance > siding velocity.
Ananlysis of variance provides the effect of interaction of control factors on specific wear rate. Filler content has
more significant effect on the specific wear rate of TCE composites followed by sliding distance and sliding
velocity. Interaction between sliding distance and sliding velocity possess more significant effect followed by
filler content and sliding velocity on the specific wear rate of TCE composites.

5. REFERENCES

[1] M. Palabiyik and S. Bahadur, Tribological studies of polyamide 6 and high-density polyethylene blends filled
with PTFE and copper oxide and reinforced with short glass fibers, Wear, 253(34), 2002, 369376.
[2] H. L. Stein, Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), Engineered Materials Handbook 1999,
167171.
Furrows and ridges
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014
17 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India
80

[3] S. Amin and M. Amin, Thermoplastic elastomeric (TPE) materials and their use in outdoor electrical insulation,
Advances in Material Sciences, 29, 2011, 1530.
[4] L. Chang and Z. Zhang, Tribological properties of epoxy nano composites Part II. A combinative effect of short
carbon fibre with nano-TiO2, Wear, 260, 2006, 869878.
[5] Guijun Xian and Zhong Zhang, Sliding wear of polyetherimide matrix composites I. Influence of short carbon
fibre reinforcement, Wear, 258, 2005, 776782.
[6] B. Suresha, P. Chandramohan, P. R. Sadananda Rao, P. Sampathkumaran, S. Seetharamu and Vartha
Venkateswarlu, Friction and slide wear characteristics of glass-epoxy and glass-epoxy filled with SiCp
composites, Indian Journal of Engineering Materials and Science, 13, 2006, 535-541.
[7] C. Lhymn and J. Bozolla, Friction and wear of fiber reinforced PPS composites, Advances in Polymer
Technology, 7(4), 1987, 45161.
[8] Y. Wang, S. Lim, J. L. Lu and Z. H. Xu, Tribological and corrosion behaviour of Al2O3/polymer
nanocomposite coatings, Wear, 206, 2006, 976-983.
[9] M. Sudheer, Ravikantha Prabhu, K. Raju, and Thirumaleshwara Bhat, Optimization of Dry Sliding Wear
Performance of Ceramic Whisker Filled Epoxy Composites Using Taguchi Approach, Advances in Tribology,
2012, 1-9
[10] K. M. Subbaya, B. Suresha, N. Rajendra and Y. S. Varadarajan, Grey-based Taguchi approach for wear
assessment of SiC filled carbonepoxy composites, Materials and Design, 41, 2012, 124130.
[11] S. Bahadur, The development of transfer layers and their role in polymer tribology, Wear, 245(1-2), 2000,
9299.
[12] Guijun Xian, Rolf Walter and Frank Haupert, Friction and wear of epoxy/TiO
2
nano composites: Influence of
additional short carbon fibers, Aramid and PTFE particles, Composites Science and Technology, 66, 2006,
31993209.
[13] D. Ray and R. Gnanamoorthy, Friction and wear behaviour of vinyl ester resin matrix composites filled with fly
ash particles, Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 26(1), 2007, 5-13.