Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000

Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey Flax/Linum and Eruca, Important Oil Plants of
Anatolia
Author(s): Fsun Ertu
Source: Anatolian Studies, Vol. 50 (2000), pp. 171-185
Published by: British Institute at Ankara
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Linseed oil and oil mills in central
Turkey
Flax/Linum and
Eruca, important
oil
plants
of Anatolia*
Fuiisun
Ertug
Bodrum Research Centre for Useful Plants
Introduction
This article is a
preliminary case-study concerning
the
importance
of flax/Linum and Eruca as oil
plants
in
central Anatolia. Linseed oil
('beziryagi')
was
produced
from both Linum and Eruca seeds, and this oil was used
in Anatolian
culinary culture, in addition to olive,
sesame, cotton, poppy, sunflower, hazel, Cephalaria,
safflower and
hackberry
oils. Linseed oil was also used
in oil
lamps,
to oil wooden-wheeled carts and to rub on
the skins of water-buffalo. Both linseed oil and flax
seeds were
widely
used in folk medicine.
The
production
of linseed oil may
have started
thousands of
years ago
in central Anatolia. Both
plants
are native to Anatolia, and flax seeds have been found at
several Neolithic sites. The earliest historical documents
concerning
linseed oil mills
('bezirhane')
are Ottoman
tax records from 1500-1. Until the 1970s there were still
several oil mills in the
Aksaray
area
producing
linseed oil
during
the winter. The residue was used as fodder for
draft animals. With the modemisation of
agriculture,
and
the increased
availability
of
electricity
to
villages,
as well
as the
development
of the road
system
and trans-
portation,
linseed oil lost its
importance
and the oil mills
were abandoned.
The cultivation and
harvesting
of oil
plants
and the
production
of oil is
important
to
archaeology
because the
identification of oil
bearing plants,
oil
lamps
and the
interpretation
of various uses of
grinding
stones are all
still at an
early stage. Ethno-archaeological
studies
provide important
clues for the
interpretation
of both
archaeo-botanical remains and
equipment
found in
archaeological
excavations.
I
gathered
the basic information relevant to the
production
of linseed oil
during my ethno-archaeological
studies in
Aksaray province
in 1994-5.
Although
linseed
oil
production stopped
20 to 25
years ago,
sufficient
*
A version of this article was first
published
in Turkish in
TUBA-AR (Turkish Academy of
Sciences Journal
of
Archae-
ology) 1 (1998): 113-27, and has been
completely
revised.
information was
gathered
from informants who were still
available and had worked in the mills. In addition, I have
combined this information with the related archaeo-
logical, historical and
ethnographic
literature. More
information is needed from historians, archaeologists,
and
ethnographers
to
complete
this
case-study and to
answer the
questions
it raises.
Flax/Linum and Eruca
together
with other oil
plants
such
as olive, sesame, cotton, poppy, sunflower, hazel,
Cephalarial,
safflower2 and
hackberry3
were
important
in traditional Anatolian cuisine. In the
province of
Aksaray (fig 1),
central
Anatolia,
Linum usitatissimum L.
1
Cephalaria syriaca (L.) Schrader: 'pelemir' or 'melemir' is
an annual plant with blue flowers commonly seen as a weed in
fields in central Anatolia. Its seed contains 21 -6% of fixed oil,
used in the leather industry
for
rubbing on animals and as an
additive to linseed oil
(Baytop 1984: 351;
Oguz
1976). It was
commonly planted
in central Anatolia until the 1930s
(Morrison 1939), but is no longer cultivated. It was reported as
being planted
both in
Kayseri
and in Erzincan for its oily seeds,
and the residue was used as fodder
(Yazicioglu
et al 1978).
2
Safflower: Carthamus tinctorius L.:
'aspir'
is an annual plant
with
yellow
flowers. It was
planted
in central and western
Anatolia for its flowers, which were used as a source of red dye,
and for its
oily seeds. Its cultivation is now very rare in central
Anatolia. The seeds contain 28-40% fixed oil. Baytop
mentions that it was used as lamp oil in the dye industry and in
folk medicine as a
pain
reliever rubbed on externally (1984:
170), and suggests
that it was not used in
cooking because the
oil is bitter. Knowles reports
that he observed safflower oil
production
in Eskisehir in the 1960s, and the villagers reported
that its oil is
superior
to sunflower, linseed and
poppy
seed oils
when it is used immediately,
but that within a couple of months
the oil develops undesirable flavours (1967: 156). It was also
used as edible oil in
Egypt,
and in both these cases the residue
was used as fodder (Knowles 1967: 156).
3
Celtis: 'citlembik' fruits are also used for oil
(Oguz
1976: 624;
Erciyes et al 1989), but this is not reported
in central Anatolia.
In the aceramic Neolithic settlement of
A?ikli H6yiik
in
Aksaray, layers of desiccated Celtis fruit stones have been
found (Esin et al 1991), and they may have been used in oil
production.
171
Anatolian Studies 2000
Fig
la.
Map of Turkey.
Towns mentioned in the text
Fig
lb.
Map of
the
study
area, Aksaray. Villages
with 'bezirhane'
172
Ertug
('zeyrek')4 and Eruca sativa
(Lam.) Miller
('izgin'),
were cultivated for their
oily
seeds and for the
production
of oil. In times of
scarcity, Sinapis arvensis
('hardal
otu') seeds were also used to
produce oil. All three oils
were called 'bezir yagl' (linseed oil) in Anatolia. 'Bezr'
is Arabic for 'seed', but the word is used in Anatolia to
refer to oil from flax seeds as well as to the oil
produced
by
oil mills from the other two seeds.
Privately owned
oil mills in Anatolia were called 'bezirhane'.
Although linseed oil has
many
industrial uses5, it was
produced
in central Anatolia for
cooking,
for
lamp oil
and to
grease
the axles of wooden-wheeled carts, as well
as to lubricate the skins of water-buffaloes. The residual
oil cakes were used for animal
fodder, especially
for draft
animals. Linum and Eruca seeds were both used to
produce 'beziryagi',
but the oil
produced
from flax was
much
preferred for
cooking.
Both linseed oil and flax
seeds were
widely
used in folk medicine to relieve
pain,
heal wounds and as an
expectorant (Baytop 1984; Ertug-
Yara?
1997; Fujita
et al
1995).
In central Anatolia the
production
of
'beziryagi' may
have started several thousand
years ago.
Both
plants
are
native to Anatolia, and flax seeds have been found in
several Neolithic sites. Flax was used as a fibre in
prehistoric times
throughout Europe
and the Middle East
(Barber 1991; 1994). When
identifying
carbonised seeds
from several excavations, it is difficult to tell whether the
flax was
planted
for its fibre or for its
oil; and if for oil
whether for food or for
lamp
oil. To test these various
possibilities,
we must know how the seeds or the fibres
were
processed,
and what kind of tools were used.
Ethnographic
observations related to the cultivation,
harvesting
and
processing
of several
oil-bearing plants
may
contribute to a better
understanding
of their uses in
the
past.
Because of
rapid
modernisation in Anatolia
after the 1950s, opportunities
for
obtaining
this kind of
information are
becoming very
rare.
A brief
background
to the research
During my ethno-archaeological
fieldwork in
Aksaray
from 1994 to 1995
(Ertug-Yara? 1997),
I observed
various mills called 'bezirhane' and
'bulgurhane'.
The
latter are also called 'dink' or 'seten' in various
parts
of
4
'Zeyrek'
or
'zegrek'
is a name
commonly
used for flax seeds
throughout
central Anatolia
(TDK: 4363; Baytop 1994).
In
general,
flax is known as 'keten'.
5
Linseed oil is a drying oil, and forms a hard film on
exposure
to the air
(Renfrew 1985).
For this reason it is
widely
used in
the industrial
production
of various
dyes, varnishes,
linoleum
and inks.
Poppy
and safflower oils are also
drying
oils but in
Anatolia all three oils are used for
cooking.
Linseed oil,
in
small
quantities,
is use for
cooking
in
Iraq (Renfrew 1985).
Anatolia, and there are several notes about these
'bulgur'
(cracked wheat) mills in the
ethnographic literature
(Hillman 1984;
Ko?ay
1951; University Bern
1971). I
could not find
any
information about 'bezirhane',
although
until
very recently they played
an
important
role in local economies.
My interest increased when I
found the term 'bezirhane' in 16th
century historical
documents.
The earliest records
concerning linseed oil mills are
in the 1500-1 Ottoman tax records for Karaman
province
which at that time included
Aksaray
and
Konya. A
linseed oil mill was counted as
part of the financial assets
of the
Aksaray religious foundations ('Vakif') (Konyali
1974:
532). In the tax records for the
reigns
of Sultan
Selim I
(1512-20) and Kanuni Sultan
Siileyman (1520-
66),
oil mills were taxed in various
villages of the
Aksaray district6, as well as in the town of
Aksaray
(Konyali
1974:
645).
In the 1882 record of 'Salname' of
the
Konya region, there were 28 'bezirhane' in the
Aksaray district
(Konyali 1974: 102). However there is
no indication of 'bezirhane' in other central Anatolian
towns such as
Konya, Nigde, Nev?ehir
and
Kayseri
(Konyali 1964).
I have however been told that until the
1930s a 'bezirhane' was
operating
at
Karapinar
in
Konya
province (ca.
80km east of
Konya)7. There is also a
village named 'Bezirhane' on the
Aksaray-Ankara road,
30km from Ankara, which
probably took its name from
an
existing
oil mill.
Further to the east, a
guild of 'bezirci'
(linseed oil
producers or
traders)
in the town of Sivas is recorded in
the tax records of the
reign
of Mahmud II
(1808-38).
There were three 'bezirci'
shops,
one owned
by Muslims
and two
by non-Muslims.
According
to
Evliya Celebi's
travel records from the 1650s, a section of Sivas was
6
In towns such as Demirci, Agacli (new name:
Giilagac),
Eskinos (new name:
Uzunkaya) and Ihlara there are no records
of linseed oil mills in the times of Sultan Selim I (1512-20) and
Kanuni Sultan
Suleyman (1520-66). However, there is a tax
record for the
village of K6stiik/G6stuk (new name:
Dogantarla)
in the Selim I
period that '25
akge',
and '12
akge'
in the Kanuni
period, were taken from the 'bezirhane' as a tax.
Taxes of '25 ak9e' and '50
akge' were taken from Selime and
Kizilkaya villages after the Kanuni
period (Ba?bakanlik
Ottoman Archives, Istanbul, Books of 'Tahrir Defterleri' nos
40 and 55, read
by Professor
Nejat G6yiinq
and Professor
Engin
Akarli).
7
Naim
Aydinbelge (b. 1931)
in
Karapinar told me in 1997 that
they
called these mills
'dayhane',
and that
they
used to
play
on
the mill stones as children. The mill was
working
in his father's
time. Both flax and Eruca were
commonly cultivated in
Karapinar
until the 1970s, and sold to
Aksaray. Aydinbelge
remembers from his childhood that his mother made small
lamps
for linseed oil out of mud, and that these were used for
night
time illumination.
173
called 'bezirci tarlasl'
(field
of
'bezirci'),
which was also
reported
in the 1870s (Demirel 1998).
Some historical documents also indicate that linseed
oil production was
quite
common in and around Istanbul
in the 18th
century.
In a document dated 1726, regula-
tions were given for the oil
producers
in Galata, Uskiidar
and
Eyiip,
and
they were warned to
keep
the scales and
storage pots
of linseed oil
apart
from those used for other
oils (Kal'a 1998a: 183).
A court case in 1760, indicates
that there were at least two 'bezirhane' in
Kartal,
owned
by
non-Muslims
(Kal'a
1997a:
267).
Another court case
indicates that in 1750 there were at least three
'bezirhane' in Silivri, a district of Istanbul
(Kal'a 1997b:
58; 1998b:
25).
Two 'bezirhane' were also mentioned in
other court cases, one in 1752 in
Tepeviran village
of
Yoros area (Anadolu Feneri), and the other in 1775 in
?eyhli village
of ile (Kal'a 1998c:
18, 51).
Although the
production of linseed oil
may not have
been limited to the
Aksaray
district it was one of the most
important production centres in Anatolia. The oil was
produced there for at least several hundred
years and
possibly
several thousand. Production
began
to decrease
in the late 1970s and
completely stopped
in the late
1980s. There are some scattered statistics for the
production
of flax, both for seeds and
fibre,
in other areas
of
Turkey,
but I have not found
any statistics for the
production
of linseed oil.
A brief
history
of flax
Flax
originated
in Anatolia and the Balkans. There are
38
species
of Linum, belonging
to the Linaceae
family,
in
Turkey, of which some are
perennial,
some are annual,
and several are endemic to
Turkey (Davis 1967: 425).
Linum bienne Mill. is the wild
progenitor of the
crop
Linum usitatissimum
(figs 2, 3),
and
grows extensively
in
central Anatolia, as well as other
parts
of
Turkey
(Herbarium specimen from
Aksaray
no FEY 387; fig 4).
Archaeological records indicate that flax is one of the
most ancient
crop-plant species,
and has been cultivated
since the seventh millennium BC
(van Zeist 1985:
37).
The earliest evidence
yet found is from Ramad in
western
Syria dating
to 7190-6700 BC
(van Zeist, de
Roller
1994). Carbonised flax seeds from the
early
Neolithic levels of
(ay6nii
in southeast
Turkey,
have
been dated to 8250-7750
BC,
but are considered to be
wild. It has been
suggested
that these wild flax seeds
may
have been used in oil
production (Stewart 1976),
although textiles made from flax were found both in
(Cay6nii
and in
(Catalh6yiik8.
8
Cloth residue was found on the handle of a bone tool from a
layer dated to ten thousand
years ago
in
Cay6nfi, Diyarbakir
The
palaeo-ethnobotanist Helbaek,
who worked on
the
history
of flax cultivation, pointed
out the
large
sizes
of seeds found in the settlements of
Arpachiyah
in
Iraq
and Brak in
Syria,
dated to 5000 BC.
These,
he said,
might
indicate the use of
irrigation (1970: 211-13).
Sumerian and Akkadian texts mention an 'oil
plant',
etymologically related to 'sesame', long
before evidence
of sesame itself occurs in the
archaeological
record
(Miller 1991). The Sumerian word
SE-GIS-i,
related to
the Akkadian SAMMASSAMMU, and the Hurrian word
sumisumi, has been used in Hittite texts as (GlS)sam
(m)
am
(m)
a
(Ertem 1987). According
to Helbaek, this word
was
probably originally applied to flax, and
only later
designated sesame. Archaeo-botanical evidence seems
to confirm this hypothesis, because the earliest sesame in
the Near East
appears probably
in the third millenium
BC9.
Bedigian (1985: 164) suggests
that the Sumerian
word SE-GIS-i
might have
applied initially
to whatever
crop was used for oil, and later, when sesame was intro-
duced, the name became affiliated with that
plant.
The Hittite words for oil, fat, lard, tallow or
grease
are derived from
Sumerian,
but as used
by the Hittites,
philologists
cannot
distinguish the referents to oil
types.
The Hittites used several kinds of oil: in the
preparation
of
food,
as fuel in
lamps
or
torches,
for
barter,
to anoint
body and hair, as
offerings
to the
gods, to
waterproof
baskets and caulk boats, and to rub down their horses
(Hoffner 1995:
112). Singer (1987: 185) adds that oil
was also used in the
funerary
rites of the Hittite
imperial
family.
The bones
remaining
after the cremation of the
deceased were anointed, then
wrapped
into linen cloths
and
placed into the stone-houses.
Although
it was
known that
they used olive
oil,
and oil extracted from
nuts, the use of sesame and/or flax as a source of oil is
still debated
among philologists (Hoffner 1995:
108-9).
Guiterbock (1968) does not mention flax
among
the oil
plants
in Hittite
Anatolia,
but further archaeo-botanical
evidence
may help
to
clarify
this situation.
In the Greco-Roman
world,
as well as in ancient
Mesopotamia
and
Egypt, the flax
plant was cultivated
mostly
for its fibre which was used to
produce linen and
its various derivative
products,
such as fish nets and
lamp
Vilayet. Analysis showed that it was flax (The NewYork Times,
13.7.1993). There are cloth residues dated to seven thousand
years ago
from
Catalh6yiik, Konya (Ryder 1965; Barber 1991:
10-11).
9
Until
recently the earliest sesame finds in the Near East were
from the seventh
century BC
(Renfrew 1985; Miller 1991).
However, about 15 sesame and a few flax seeds were found in
ca. 2500-2100 BC levels of the Abu-Salabikh excavations in
Iraq (Charles 1993). There is still some doubt
concerning this
identification of sesame seeds (pers comm Charles May 1999).
174
Ertug
Fig
2. Linum usitatissimum
(Flax/zeyrek) flowers
and
seed
pods (all photographs
taken by
the
author)
Fig
3. Pressed Linum
usitatissimum (Flax/zeyrek)
I I
i ,
J/
,
Fig
4. Pressed
sample of
Linum bienne
Fig
5. Eruca sativa
(Izgin)
in flower,
the seedpods are not
ripened
175
wicks. Flax seed was consumed, but linseed oil does not
seem to have been
important.
In ancient
Egypt,
linseed
oil was used only for
lighting, although today
it is a
seasoning
for vicia
faba
beans (Renfrew 1985).
According
to Pliny, the peasants
of north Italy
often ate a
porridge
made of
ground linseed,
and the Spartan
warriors ate ground
linseed mixed with honey during
the
Peloponnesian
War. Galen adds that linseed was
consumed with fish
sauce,
and spread
on bread, but was
hard to
digest
and provided
little nourishment (Gallant
1985). Due to the fact that flax seed is usually
roasted for
human
consumption,
there is a
greater probability
that it
will be carbonised and found in an archaeological
context. Indeed flax seed can be toxic if it is not roasted
or boiled in water. Sesame
seeds,
on the other hand, need
only
to be soaked in water before
grinding
or
boiling
(Gallant 1985: 155; Renfrew 1985).
Cultivation of flax
Flax
grown
for linseed and flax grown for fibre are the
same
species,
but the plant
cultivated for linseed is
shorter (25-30cm),
with more branches and more seeds.
When
grown
for fibre it was
planted
in winter and the
seed sown very densely,
so that the stands had few
branches and more individual stocks. Flax for linen was
commonly planted along
the Black Sea coast, especially
around Kandira, Bartin, Eregli, Ayancik
and
Sinop,
less
frequently
in the Marmara
region (Kocaeli, Sakarya,
Balikesir)
and rarely in the coastal areas of the Mediter-
ranean
(Icel, Hatay, Antalya) (TTO;
Ziraat Vekaleti
1937). Fibre production
of flax has decreased rapidly
in
the last few decades and information on spinning,
weaving
and
rope making
is not sufficient for ethno-
archaeological comparisons.
Flax for seed was also
planted
in central Anatolia and
in the zone from Marmara to inner Anatolia
(Eski?ehir,
Kiitahya, UJak, Afyon, Amasya), as well as in south-
eastern Anatolia
(Gaziantep, Urfa, Mara?, Malatya,
Adiyaman) (TTO).
Flax thrives in moderate, cool temperatures.
Although
it will
produce
in rainfall
regimes
of 300-
50mm
per year,
the best
yields
are in areas
receiving
450-
750mm
(Renfrew 1985;
Bedigian 1985).
In central
Anatolia, flax was
planted
on river banks. In the western
part
of
Aksaray province (over
1 000m in
altitude),
it was
sown at the end of March or in
April10, and the bluish-
purple
flowers
(fig 2)
bloomed in June. The roundish
10
Bedigian (1985) says
that 'se-gis-i' could be sesame because
it is planted
in the spring while all other oil plants
are winter
crops. However, flax and Eruca are also planted
in the
spring
in central Anatolia. Her observation may be true for other
areas, but it also shows that we must be careful in making inter-
pretations based on one area.
seed pods (called 'kelle')
were about 8-10 mm in
diameter and ripened
in
July.
Each
pod
contained about
ten seeds 3-5mm
long
and 2-3mm wide
(fig 3), the
brownish, shiny seeds weighed
about 3-9mg.
Flax seeds
contain approximately
32-4% oil and 20-5% protein
(Renfrew 1985).
In the
Aksaray area, I was told that harvesting
was
done with sickles. As the seed
pods
have a
mucilaginous
coating
and stick together, only
the
tops
of the plants
with the
pods
were harvested. The harvested pods
were
piled up,
and at the end of the harvest carried to the
threshing floor where they
were
processed
with a
threshing sledge ('diiven')
and then sieved11.
Cultivation of Eruca
('izgm')
as an oil
plant
The genus
Eruca belongs to the Brassicaceae
(=Cruciferae) family.
Of the 14
species,
five are
commonly
found in the Mediterranean area.
Only
Eruca
sativa is
planted,
and about seven cultivars are known12. It
has also been cultivated as an oil
plant
in Iran, Afghanistan
and India since
antiquity (Schuster
1992: 49).
It has been
known as a medicinal
plant
in
Europe
since the Greco-
Roman era, but was not usually sown there as an oil
plant"3. Zhukovsky,
the Russian botanist who made
extensive plant
collections and detailed observations on
farming techniques
in Anatolia in
1925-7, pointed
out that
E.sativa was commonly
sown
together
with flax for the
production
of oil
(Zhukovsky
1951: 523).
'This is true if flax is cultivated for its oily seeds, when the top
parts
are harvested
by
sickle. If it is cultivated for fibre, then
there is no need to wait until the seeds ripen,
and it is
uprooted
while the plant
is still green.
Some sources indicate that it can
be used for both after the seeds have
ripened,
when it is also
uprooted by hand (TTO: 23). Renfrew says that flax is
harvested with sickles in Iraq and uprooted
in
Egypt, but does
not specify
which use was intended (1985: 63). McCorriston
(1997: 522) further
explains
the uprooting process
for flax, an
arduous task in ancient Mesopotamia.
12
Baytop (1948; 1984; 1994)
calls
'lzgm'
Eruca
cappadocica
Reut. or E. sativa var. cappadocia
and says 'Roka is Eruca
sativa Miller'. In the Flora of Turkey (Davis 1965: 1:1:269)
both names are
reported
as the synonyms
of E. sativa. While
rocket ('roka') is known as a salad plant, cultivated commonly
and sold in markets, another cultivar
('lzgm'), planted for its
oily seeds in central Anatolia, has bitter leaves and was not
eaten by the local
people.
A recent study
on the biodiversity
of
E.sativa in Israel
(Yaniv
et al
1998) indicates a
significant
biodiversity
in the
species
related to its geographic origin.
This
biodiversity
within the various cultivars of E.sativa may be one
of the factors in the variation in the taste of the green foliage
when
planted
in different geographic regions.
13
Eruca sativa cultivation as an oil
plant
started in Germany
after the 1936 Hindu Kush expedition, but was not very
efficient and so was not
planted
in large areas. In the last few
decades, a new use for it as an
engine oil has increased interest
(Schuster 1992: 49-50).
176
Ertug
Fig
6.
Dry samples of
Linum
(bottom)
and Eruca sativa
E. sativa is an annual
plant, about 20-60cm tall with
yellow flowers (fig 5). Its seeds are much smaller than
flax and form
pods (called 'kavuz') which are 2-2.5cm
long and 3-5mm wide. In the
Aksaray area Eruca was
planted more
commonly and more
consistently
than flax.
Although
flax cultivation ended in the 1970s, I found a
few fields of Eruca in the
Aksaray area in 1995, where it
was still
grown for fodder. It was
planted at the same
time as flax, in the
spring,
but because it was more
drought-resistant,
it could be
planted
in drier fields. The
seeds of both are
quite small
(fig 6) and for sowing they
were mixed with sand, and then broadcast
by hand. The
amount of seed for one 'donuim'
(1600m2) is about one
handful (ca. 150-200gr), mixed with a sieve ('kalbur')
full of sand
(about 15-20kg).
Both flax and Eruca were
sown broadcast in late March or in
April and harvested in
July.
Since the seed
pods spread along
the branches,
harvesting
of Eruca was done
by uprooting.
In
July
or
August
it was threshed, winnowed and stored until
linseed oil production began
in winter. I was told that
most farmers
previously planted 3-5 'donuiim' of one or
the other of these
crops.
Linseed oil
('beziryali')
use in
cooking
In the
Aksaray
area linseed oil
-
especially flax seed oil
-
was used to
fry
certain foods. Until the 1970s it was
used to
fry
two
types
of
dough, locally
called 'civirtma/
civirtmaq'
or 'katmer'. 'Civirtma' was
prepared
with
leavened wheat
dough mixed with water and the
fairly
liquid mixture was
spooned into
very
hot linseed oil. The
fried balls turned red and were eaten warm. 'Katmer'
dough
was made with wheat flour, milk, yoghurt, eggs
and salt. The balls were
shaped by hand, and fried in
linseed oil. Sherbet was
put
on the warm rolls. It was
also used to
fry
onions and
potatoes.
Due to its
strong
odour, linseed oil was not
usually
used to cook
vegetables or
soups.
I have heard from several
informants that in the town of
Aksaray
and its
villages
of
Ihlara, Demirci, Selime and
Kizilkaya, 'beziryagi' was
used to
fry
'civirtma'.
I had
thought
that the use of linseed oil in
cooking
was
specific to the
Aksaray
area because linseed oil was
the main
vegetable oil
produced to the exclusion of other
oils such as olive and sesame. On a recent
trip
to the
Black Sea coast'4 however, I was informed that linseed
oil was used in the same
way
in the northern
regions
of
Kastamonu
province.
Until 30 or 40
years ago
the
villagers of
Azdavay used linseed oil
especially to
fry
'cizleme', so much so that the
neighbouring villagers
called them 'bezirli', referring
to the distinctive odour of
linseed oil. The Azdavay villagers did not
produce
linseed oil themselves, but
bought
it in the
Agli
market.
In another area of Kastamonu, in
Kayikqc village,
near
the town of
S6giitpinar,
I was told that linseed oil was
used to
fry
a different kind of leavened
dough,
'gozleme'. They bought linseed oil
only to use for
cooking, either from the Inebolu or
$enpazar
markets on
the Black Sea coast or from Istanbul.
Linseed oil for
lamps
Linseed oil, especially
that made of Eruca, was used as
lamp
oil in small home-made ceramic
lamps, called
'bezir clrasl'
(fig 7). One side of these
lamps
was
pressed by hand and the wick of hand
spun
cotton was
added to this
tip (called 'liiliik' in the local dialect). In
the
Cappadocia area, several caves and carved rooms
have small niches
dug
out of the walls, and the
ceilings
are covered with a thick
layer
of soot from the use of
linseed oil
lamps. Small
lamps made of tin and/or
pottery
called 'bezirlik'
(linseed oil
lamp)
are also
reported for eastern Anatolia
(Kosay
1977: 11).
Use of linseed oil in animal
husbandry
Linseed oil was
important to the health of water-
buffaloes. It was rubbed into their hides to
protect
them
from insects and from cracked skin
during
cold winters.
In the autumn, everyone applied slightly heated linseed
oil with a
piece
of cloth to the whole
body
of the animal.
When the
villagers
wanted to
provoke
their water-
buffaloes to wrestle
(called
'camiz
kaki?tirma'), they
mixed red
pepper
in a small ball of
dough,
kneaded it
with linseed oil, and fed them this ball (called 'bezir
topu')15.
14
The information about
Azdavay
was
given by Habibe Eker
(b. 1958)
in Mancilik
village,
about 40km north of Kastamonu.
The information about
Kaylk4l village was
given by
Elife
Kayikqi (b. 1922) in
August
1998.
15
This information was
given by
Gazi
Guiqliier
in Ihlara in
August
1998. He
says
that water-buffalo
wrestling
was
very
famous in Ihlara and that it continued until 20-5
years ago.
A
saying
about
eating
'bezir
topu'
is still used
among
the elders
for
people
who show bad
temper.
177
> ::..::.:d.?Si......... -'''
... .......
Fig
:
7a. Tw'
: ,
o.a la*m
r
'd
:
ofptty
i'
vlg
Aksara
Fig
7a. Two linseed oil
lamps
made
of pottery, Kzzllkaya village, Aksaray
Fig
8a. Oil container
for
ox-carts made
of
water-buffalo
horn
178
0
5cm
I I I I I I
Fig
7b. Oil
lamp (by Ay,e Ozkan)
Fig
8b. Oil container
(by Ayse Ozkan)
Ertug
Fig
9. Atalar Bezirhanesi from
the outside. The arched
entrance leads to the 'harman daml' section
of
the
linseed oil mill. The building
on the
left
would have been
used as the
guest
house
of
the mill
It was also used in Aksaray to oil the axles of
wooden-wheeled carts ('kagni')
in order to reduce
friction. Linseed oil was mixed with
ground greensoap,
put
into containers made of buffalo horn (fig 8), and hung
on the back of the cart
(Ertug-Yara?
1997: 346).
This
practice may go
back to the Hittites in Anatolia.
The cakes ('karayem')
formed from the residue of
linseed oil production
were used as fodder, especially
for
draft animals such as oxen and buffalo'6. This was a
very
important end-product
of the process
because the residue
contains 33-43% protein
and fat. It was as valuable as
wheat. Linseed oil
production
was timed in accordance
with its use as fodder. While the harvest of the plants
took
place
in July
and August, processing
was delayed
until January
or February
because the cakes were not
storable and had to be fed to the animals as soon as
possible. During
the summer, especially
after the
harvest, there was always enough fodder (e.g. straw,
grasses)
to nourish the animals. However, when the
tilling
fields for
spring crops began
in February-March,
the villagers
needed strong
fodder to enable their draft
animals to do the heavy ploughing.
This is a
good
example
of interconnections among
several
aspects
of
the older rural economy.
With the introduction of
electricity,
new
agricultural machinery
and
cheaper
margarine oils, linseed oil
production
lost its
importance.
As a result, traditional animal husbandry
and
agricultural
practices,
as well as local medicinal usage, changed.
16
According
to the literature (Renfrew 1985: 64; Charles 1985:
52) if linseed oil is produced by
'cold pressing',
it contains
cyanogenetic glucoside, resulting
in the
production
of
hydrogen
cyanide (prussic acid)
and cannot be given
to animals. In
Anatolia seeds are either pre-processed by roasting
or boiling
and then cold
pressed,
the cakes were fed to animals. It is
possible
that this
pre-heating
detoxified the chemical content of
the seeds.
A case study of an oil mill:
Atalar Bezirhanesi, Demirci/Aksaray
Among
the five linseed oil mills in the town of Demirci,
the best preserved
is Atalar17, named after its owner. It
produced
oil until 1978 and the whole
process
was
described to me by its owner and two previous
workers.
The mill, completed
in 1936, is
partly
carved out of tufa,
and
partly
constructed from stone a construction
technique typical throughout Cappadocia.
The mill-
stone and the wooden parts
were installed in 1938 and it
began
to
produce
oil the same
year,
confirmed by
an
inscription
on its wall. The adjacent building
also
belongs
to the same family
and was used as the mill's
guest-house.
The
guest-house inscription
is dated 1912
(see fig 9).
This oil-mill has two sections (fig 10):
the first
contains the large
mill-stone ('harman ta?l')
from which
it takes its name 'harman daml' (fig 11); the second
section contains the
pressing
beams
('kiri,')
and the
vertical wooden screw
('ig'),
and is called the 'kirin
daml' (fig 12).
In the first section, a seed-roasting oven, a cooling
section and a sieve are situated on the left of the entrance.
In the centre is the big mill-stone, about 2m in diameter
and about 50cm
high.
The vertical upper
stone is about
Im in diameter, 30cm thick and is carved out of local
tufa. It rests on the concave surface of the lower
horizontal mill stone. A wooden centre post passes
through
a hole in the horizontal stone and is firmly
embedded in a
ceiling
beam. A horizontal axle beam
attaches the
upper
stone to the central
post
and an ox or
buffalo with a draw harness is hitched to the end of this
beam to turn the
upper
stone. The animal walks around
the mill-stone, turning
the
upper
stone which crushes the
seeds as a worker brushes them towards it. This mill-
stone is basically
similar to bulgur-mill
stones in
Anatolia and to oil mills in Iran (Wullf
1966: 297).
17
On
my
last visit to the Atalar Bezirhanesi in
August 1998, the
internal wooden structures had all been removed, probably by
the owner. On my previous
visit in 1997 these wooden struc-
tures had still been intact which is a good
indication of how
rapidly
the material evidence of the past
can disappear.
There
are the remains of two more 'bezirhane' in Demirci. Haci
Hasanlar, just
a few houses away
from Atalar and (;angallar
in
the Kalealti district of Demirci. In Ihlara the largest
and best
maintained bezirhane is 'Tekke 6nii Bezirhanesi'. It was
restored in 1990 by
the local municipality
but is not yet open to
the public.
It is a multi-room subterranean factory dug
out of
the tufa in the usual Cappadocian
fashion. Dr Peter Kuniholm
from Cornell University kindly
took a
sample (BEZ 1)
from
one of its
large
vertical tree-trunks (estimated length 15m,
diameter ca. 35cm).
The
sample gives
a date of 1842. The
log
was identified as Pinus
sylvestris by
Dr Werner Schoch of the
Labor fir Quartaeme
Hoelzer (pers
comm from Dr Kuniholm
1998).
179
* ..* ii.
GIR1S
ENTRANCE B-B KESlTI/SECTION
B
A
-A- ..
A-A KESITI
/ SECTION
0 1 5M
Fig
10. Plan and the section of
the Atalar Bezirhanesi, Demirci, Aksaray
June 1995
(by
the architect S Bebekoglu
and the restoration
specialist
G Duru)
180
Ertug
The two sections of the 'bezirhane' are connected by
an
opening. Entering
the second section, one sees four
vertically placed beams, each about 30-40cm thick and
10-12m long.
These beams (possibly willow) are
connected to an
impressive
wooden screw, 6-7m high,
thought
to be made of oak. This screw rests in a mortar-
like stone, also carved from local tufa. A wooden piece,
called
'agir~ak',
holds the screw and connects it to four
beams. Two beams pass to the
right
of the screw and two
other sets pass
to the left, and while the screw turns, the
'agir,ak' presses
onto the beams. The other ends of the
beams are attached to the back wall of the
building,
secured by
another
piece
of wood called a 'bestirek'.
The oil baskets are
placed
in a
special pit
at the end of the
four beams. The screw is lowered with the
help
of an
animal, or by several men, and the beams apply pressure
to the baskets, causing
oil to flow from them. One turn
of the animal is about
equal
to one thread of the screw. It
needs four people or one ox to raise the screw but only
two men to lower it. While the
ceiling
of the mill is
constructed on arches, the top part
of the screw is closed
with wooden beams, preventing
it from tearing down the
arches if the screw should fly
from its socket.
In
general,
one master and three workers are needed
to work an oil mill. It has been said that in the
past
(before 1922)
most of the masters were Greeks
('Rum')18.
Workers have a room over the entrance to rest
and eat which can be reached by the stairs next to the
entrance. This
space
has a
fire-place
with a
chimney
and
two windows. The workers rest on
platforms
covered
with woven mats. In addition, behind the mill stone there
is a stable for the animals water buffalo or oxen
used in the oil mill, as well as other villagers'
animals
bringing
seeds to
process.
The
production
of linseed oil
The
process
of linseed oil
production
was as follows.
The seeds were first roasted, then
ground
on the mill-
stone and the flour-like
product
was mixed with water to
prepare
a
dough.
This
dough
was
packed
into
special
baskets which were stacked under
heavy
wooden beams
and
pressed by turning
the wooden screw. The baskets
stayed
under
pressure
for about 24 hours, during
which
time the oil drained from them.
18
Some elders remembered that these masters came from the
Greek villages
of
Cappadocia
for a few months during
the
winter and then, when the oil pressing season was over, they
went back to their villages. Only
one record could be found
about this fact, saying
that some Greeks from Sinasos (new
name:
Mustafapa?a)
in
Nev?ehir
were
earning
their
livelyhood
by pressing
flaxseeds and sesame oils
(Augustinos
1997:
40).
Fig 11. The oven and the
large
mill-stone 'harman tail'
in the 'harman daml' section
of
the Atalar Bezirhanesi,
Demirci, Aksaray
I was told that at the beginning
of the process
the
seeds were
poured
down from the roof
through
a
chimney
into the oven. Then the oven was lit with
branches of
'ketegen'
(Salsola ruthenica)
and vine
cuttings (Vitis vinifera).
For one
day's roasting
about 15-
20 carts of Salsola were needed. About 30kg
of seed19
were roasted in the oven on a furiously burning
fire for
about half an hour. One worker maintained the fire
by
carrying
fuel and the master stirred the seeds with an iron
shovel, called a
'qek'.
When all the seeds were evenly
roasted, the master poured
them into the
cooling section,
called an 'alirt'. The cooled seeds were then sieved
(cleaned
from the
ashes)
and carried to the mill-stone.
To shorten the
process
at the peak
of the
production,
the mill-crew roasted the seeds one
day
and
ground
them
the next. Ten to 12
roasting sessions could be completed
in one
day
and about half of the total
190-200kg
of
roasted seeds- could be ground
on the mill stone at one
time. This was called one 'direk' as it was sufficient to
produce
one pillar ('direk') or vertical stack of baskets
(two pillars
went into the oil
pit
at one time).
It took
about an hour with the
help
of draft animals to
grind
this
quantity
of seed and then it was screened with a
large
fine-meshed sieve. If the powder
was not fine
enough,
it
was
ground again
until
everything passed through
the
sieve. After the
powder
was screened and
put
back on
the mill stone about 1-1.5 tins (20-30kg)
of water was
added. This mixture was
ground
on the mill-stone with
the
help
of an ox or a male buffalo until it became a hard
dough.
Several shifts of animals and several hours were
required
before the mixture became hard
enough,
'not to
19
The people use local measurements called 'kile' and
'?inik':
1 kile is
equal
to 4
?inik
and about
30-2kg
of seed. In
every
roasting session they pour
4
~inik
and in
every grinding
6 kile
(=
24
?inik)
of roasted seeds are processed.
181
4
Fig 12. The wooden screw and the
large beams in the
Fig
13. An old master
of
the linseed oil mill shows the
'kirin
dami' section
of
the bezirhane baskets made
of
Juncus
inflexus (kova otu),
Demirci
stick to the stone', as the master said. Then the
dough
was
packed
into baskets by hand. The baskets
(fig 13)
were made of a local
plant,
'kova otu' (Juncus
inflexus)
and each of these containers (50cm
in diameter) took
about
8kg
of
dough.
About
35-50kg
of linseed oil were
produced
from 20 baskets.
When all the baskets were filled, they were taken to
the second
part
of the mill
('kiri? dami'). Twenty
or 24
of them were stacked in two
pillars
in the
pit
and
heavy
wooden
pieces,
called
'a?lk'
or
'yag
tahtasl', were
placed
on
top
of them.
Finally,
the wooden screw was turned
down to
squeeze
the baskets under the
weight
of the four
beams. It took about 24 hours of
pressing
to
produce
two
or three tins, a total of
35-50kg
oil.
During
this time the
screw was released a few times and the baskets were
repositioned.
The residue within the baskets was cracked and
ground again
on the mill-stone. Some bran, barley
or
rye
was added before it was
given
to the animals. From 20
baskets about
200kg
of fodder are
produced.
In 1950-60 an oil mill worked about three to four
months in the winter to
process
about 14 tons of
Linum/Eruca, producing about 3 tons of linseed oil and
about 1.5 tons of fodder20. When all the mills were
working,
the local seed yield was not sufficient and the
mill owners brought
seed from other
places
such as
Konya
and Adana. The
importance
of linseed oil
production
becomes clear when one realizes that there
were 18 'bezirhane' within an area of 20-5km2.
20
Production yields
are
given by Abdullah Ata (b. 1931), the
owner and master of the Atalar linseed oil mill. He said that he
started to work in the mill when he was seven
years
old and for
40 years
-
until 1978
-
he worked in the 'bezirhane'.
During
the 1950-60s, in addition to the five linseed oil mills in
Demirci, there were one in each of the
following
towns: Ibrasar
(new
name:
Yaprakhisar), Selime, Belisirama, Gelveri (new
name: Giizelyurt), Kizilkaya, Agahll, Ihlara, Ilisu, Camili6ren,
Kitreli, Suvermez, Helvadere and in the
Aksaray
Kallnlar/Kireqlik
district. Camel caravans of 20-30 camels
were used to transport Eruca from Konya, Nigde
and
Keqikalesi
until 1955. Information on
production
was
provided
by ?ehabettin
Can (b. 1944)
who worked as a master at the
Atalar mill from 1963 to 1978.
182
Ertug
Different techniques
of oil
production
Diversity
in the oil
production process
at other towns in
Anatolia, as well as in some other countries, may be due
to the use of different oil
plants
and also to differences in
local knowledge,
as well as the local
requirements
and
local technical
capacity.
For
example,
in the Keban area
of eastern Anatolia linseed oil is called
'gingircek yagl'.
The seeds are roasted, pounded
on a stone, boiled in
water and the oil on the surface is collected (Ansan-
Giinay
1980: 28). Linseed oil was
probably produced
from flax but the
technique
was different because only
small amounts were produced
at a time.
Knowles (1967: 157) observed safflower oil
production
in a
workshop
in
Eski?ehir
in the 1960s. He
reports
that the seeds were first crushed, then heated and
pressed.
In
Egypt
safflower oil (Knowles 1967: 161), and
in Iran linseed oil, as well as
poppy, cotton, castor, rape
and mustard oils were
produced
in the same
way
as in
central Anatolia, namely roasted, ground
and
pressed
(Wulff
1966: 296).
The
techniques
and the tools were
also similar. In the Deccan area of India a different
technique
was observed. Carthamus tinctorius
(safflower) seeds were placed
in an earthen
pot, and a
perforated
lid was sealed to it with wet
clay.
Then the
pot
was inverted and
placed
on a smaller
pot
buried in soil. A
fire of dried
dung
was
kept burning around the
upper pot
overnight.
This melted about two thirds of the oil in the
seeds. It was used as axle grease
and as
waterproofing
for
leather buckets (Knowles 1967: 158).
A similar
process
of
extracting
hot-drawn oil from safflower seeds was also
recorded in
Iraq
which
yields
a thick, black, viscous
material used for
waterproofing (Charles 1985: 52).
Results and discussion
Flax and Eruca were two plants cultivated
especially
for
oil
production
in central Anatolia. It is known that
linseed oil mills were
present
in this area for at least the
last 500
years. However, the several centuries or
perhaps
millennia- of
dependence
on this oil have now
ended and the local oil
industry
has
disappeared. Hydro-
genated
solid
vegetable
fats and tasteless, odorless
vegetable
oils are now used instead of linseed oil in
culinary
culture. Mechanisation has
greatly
affected
local
agriculture
and animal
husbandry practices.
When
electricity
became common there was no need for oil
lamps. Nowadays,
no one misses the
flickering light
of
oil
lamps
and their
soot, or the odor that covered the
whole
village
when linseed oil was used for
frying,
or the
wooden-wheeled oxcarts
greased
with linseed oil. Yet
linseed oil is still needed in urban
industry.
In
fact, some
linseed oil producers in Istanbul told me that they import
raw oil or seeds from abroad as there is so little in
Anatolia. The cultivation of flax and its production
in
some of the old 'bezirhane' could still be
important,
if
not for local
consumption,
then for industrial and for
touristic purposes.
Archaeological
evidence indicates that flax fibre has
been used from
prehistoric times, but we do not know
when its use as an oil
plant began.
If we want to know
which
plants
were used for their
oily
seeds in the distant
past
and how
they
were processed, we need to know how
they
were cultivated, harvested and processed
in the
recent
past.
In this
study
I note the various uses of linseed oil as
food, as fuel and in animal
husbandry. Ethnographical
observations show that oil
production
needs the concen-
trated use of both human and animal
power by
means of
quite simple techniques and tools. The most common
technique
seems to be crushing
the seeds between two
stones after
roasting, mixing
the
powder
with water,
filling
sacks or baskets with the resultant
dough
and then
pressing
it. In small-scale production, seeds can be
roasted on a metal plate or in an oven, they
can be
crushed in mortars or hand-mills, put
into mats, baskets
or sacks and then
pressed between two
heavy stones. Oil
can also be produced by boiling
the seeds in water. In all
cases but one that of India the seeds are crushed
and lose their
shape, and, as the resultant
pulp
is used for
animal fodder or fertiliser, we
may
not find
any archaeo-
logical evidence. Still, in the
process
of
roasting
and
grinding, seeds may
be lost in and around the oven and
the mill stones. To check archaeological mortars and
grinding
stones for residues or other indications of oil
production may
be a
promising archaeological research
topic.
Plant residue
analysis
on these stone tools, as well
as in
possible oil
storage pots and
lamps, may
also
produce
valuable results.
During
this
study
I have discussed oil
plants
from an
archaeological point
of view, but there are other facets of
this
topic. Some cultivars such as Linum and Eruca have
probably been cultivated in Anatolia for thousands of
years,
but with recent
rapid changes
cultivation has
ended. In
relatively isolated areas of the
country these
cultural forms
(cultivars) probably changed genetically,
and became more
adapted
to climate, soil and
pathogens.
As a limited number of major cultivars became dominant
throughout
the
country
almost all these diverse cultural
(genetic?)
forms
may
well have been lost. Older
cultivars are related to a
great variety
of handicrafts, folk
medicine and local
culinary practices which are
rapidly
being forgotten.
These
aspects might
well be as
important
as the
efficiency of newer cultivars.
I think of this
paper
as a
preliminary case-study
in a
limited area of Anatolia. More information is needed
from
historians,
social
anthropologists
and
ethnogra-
phers,
as well as
archaeologists,
to
complete
this
puzzle.
183
Acknowledgements
I am extremely grateful
to Patty
Jo Watson, Josephine
Powell and Mark Nesbitt for their corrections to the
manuscript
of this
paper,
and to Rene
Cappers,
Naomi
Miller, Mike Charles, Omer Demirel and
~evket
Pamuk
for
providing
valuable references. I am also grateful
to
Ay~e Tuncay
for redrawing
the maps
of the area.
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