16

Electric flux and electric flux density

We know that the flux of a vector field A through a surface S is defined as
Note that the direction of D is the same as that of electric field intensity E.
Now, we use (1) to define electric flux in terms of D as
(1)
S
d =

A s
Hence, the flux due to the electric field E can be calculated by using (1).
However, for practical reasons, this quantity is not usually considered to be
the most useful flux in electrostatics. Also, as we have studied earlier, the
electric field intensity E is dependent on the medium in which the charge is
placed. Therefore, we define a new vector field D as
(2) = D E
(3)
S
d =

D s
The vector field D is called electric flux density and is measured in coulombs
per square meter (C/m
2
). Note that all the formulas derived for E can be used
in calculating D, except that we have to multiply those formulas by
17
Gausss law
Gausss law is one of the fundamental laws of electromagnetism. It states
that the total electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to
the total charge enclosed by that surface
enclosed
Total charge enclosed (1)
S
d Q = = =

D s

The charge enclosed might be several point charges or could be

distributed along a line, across a surface, or over a volume of space. For
the volume charge distribution, Gausss law can be written as
v
(2)
S v
d dv = =

D s

By applying divergence theorem to (2), we get

v

S v v
d dv dv = =

D s D

Comparing the two volume integrals results in

v
(3) = D
18
Gausss law
Equation (3) is the point form of the first of the four Maxwells
equations
Equations (2) and (3) are basically stating Gausss law in different
ways. (2) is the integral form whereas (3) is the differential or point
form of Gausss law. The integral form is more general because it
applies over regions of space while the differential (point) form is only
valid at a point
Gausss law provides easy means of finding E or D for symmetrical
charge distributions such as a point charge, an infinite line charge, an
infinite cylindrical surface charge, and a spherical distribution of charge
When the charge distribution is not symmetric, we can not use Gausss
law to determine E or D. In that case, we must resort to Coulombs law
to determine E or D
19
Applications of Gausss law
Gausss law can be used to determine D or E due to a single isolated point
charge Q. Let the point charge be located at the origin and surrounded by a
closed spherical surface of arbitrary radius R centered at Q
Assuming the charge Q to be positive, the direction of D is everywhere
normal to the surface i.e. D = D
R
R. Applying Gausss law, we get
2 2

Thus, R R
4 4
Q Q
R R
=
D
D = E =
2

4
R
Q
D
R
=
Q
Gaussian surface
2
2 2
0 0

R R
sin 4
R R
S S S
R R
d D ds D ds
D R d d R D Q



= =
= =
= = =



D s

Note that the expression obtained for E is identical with the one obtained
using Coulombs law earlier
20
Applications of Gausss law
Gausss law can also be used to determine D or E due to an infinite sheet
of uniform charge density
s
lying on the z = 0 plane. Since the charge
density across the sheet is uniform, infinite in extent and residing on the z
= 0 plane, symmetry considerations dictate that D is everywhere normal to
the sheet i.e. D = D
z
z
To determine D at a point P, consider a rectangular box that is cut
symmetrically by the sheet of charge and has two of its faces parallel to
the sheet
21
Applications of Gausss law
top bottom
z
S
d D ds ds

= +

D s

s s
z z
2 2


= = =
D
D E
s

2
z
D

=
Applying Gausss law, we get
Note that Dds evaluated on the sides of the box is zero because D has no
components along x and y. Thus,
s s
( )
z
S
D A A Q ds A = + = = =

Note that the expression obtained for E is identical with the one obtained
using Coulombs law earlier