GENERAL CHEMISTRY

202-NYA-205
Winter 2012
Joel Robichaud
Email: jrobichaud@champlaincollege.qc.ca
Office: f-228
Phone: x311
CHAMPLAIN COLLEGE
SAINT-LAMBERT
CHEMISTRY, R. Chang, McGraw-Hill, 10
th
edition, 2010.
Chemistry NYA Laboratory Manual (Winter 2012).
Ressources:
NYA, 202- 982 & 202-001 Option A Option B
Laboratory Experiments 15% 15%
Final Examination 40% 50%
Class Work 45% 35%
100% 100%
Evaluation:
Questions?
Introduction
Labcoats & security glasses are required!
Test 1* Thursday, February 23
rd
Test 2* Thursday, March 29
th
Test 3* Thursday, May 3
rd
*dates are tentative
Course Outline
nomenclature
empirical & molecular
formulas
stoichiometry
gas laws
molarity
UNIT 1:
Basics
UNIT 2:
Atomic Theory
history of atomic theory
the Bohr atom
the modern approach
(quantum theory)
quantum numbers
electron configurations
electron affinity
UNIT 3:
Periodicity &
Chemical Reactions
electron configuration & chemical
properties of elements
ionization energy
atomic and ionic size
electronegativity & electron affinity
reactions of the main group elements
writing molecular & net ionic equations
UNIT 4:
Chemical Bonding
analysis of ionic & covalent bonding
writing Lewis structures, resonance
structures formal charges
shapes of molecules bond angles
bond polarity
dipole moments
hybridization theory orbital diagrams
UNIT 5:
Intermolecular Forces
intermolecular forces intramolecular
bonds
dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces
hydrogen bonding
relationship of melting & boiling point
& solubility to intermolecular forces
classification of substances
UNIT 6:
Liquids & Solutions
properties of solids
phase changes & phase
diagrams
physical properties of
solutions
concentration units
colligative properties
Unit I: Basics
(Chang, Ch. 2 to 5)
calculate the molecular mass of a compound from its molecular formula using the periodic table. (3.3)
convert between moles, mass, and the number of particles of a given element or substance. (3.2)
calculate the percent composition of a compound by identifying the mass percent of its elements. (3.5)
calculate the empirical formula given the relevant information. (3.6)
obtain the molecular formula given the empirical formula and molar mass. (3.6)
name common elements and chemical compounds (nomenclature). (2.7)
balance a chemical equation and specify the quantity of each substance in moles. (3.7 & 3.8)
solve all types of stoichiometry problems. (3.9 and 3.10)
find the molarity of a solution. (4.5)
perform calculations on dilution and mixing of solutions. (4.5)
solve stoichiometry problems involving solutions. (4.5)
solve stoichiometry problems involving gases. (5.4 & 5.5)
solve problems associated with Daltons law of partial pressures. (5.6)
Objectives:
1.1 Significant Figures
(Chang, 1.8, Textbook Problems: 1.30; 1.34)
Each measurement involves a degree of uncertainty, and recording measurements to
their appropriate accuracy is extremely important in the labs (ex.).
Significant figures: reflect the accuracy (or uncertainty) for a given measurement.
Rules: 1. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.
3456 or 3.456 x 10
3
both have 4 s.f. Ex.
2. Zeros
a) Leading zeros dont count as s.f. (only indicate the magnitude of the #).
0.0486 has 3 s.f. Ex.
b) Captive zeros are always significant.
16.07 has 4 s.f. Ex.
c) Trailing zeros
9.300 has 4 s.f Ex.
i) When there is a decimal, they are always significant.
ii) When there is not a decimal, they may or may not be significant.
100 has 1, 2 or 3 s.f. Ex.
Exact numbers: numbers that you dont have to consider the significant figures.
If you take a solution & divide it in 8 vials. You may not be certain
of the amount of solution in each but because you can count them
(it isnt measured) you know there is 8 vials.
1.2 Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
(Chang, 1.8, Textbook Problems: 1.32; 1.34; 1.36)
Some exceptions:
When multiplying or dividing, the answer should contain the same # of significant
figures as the original # with the least amount of significant figures.
Multiplication & Division
Ex. 2.8 x 4.5039 = 13
6.85 112.04 = 0.0611
1.2 Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
Rounding Numbers
When the digit removed is less than 5, the preceding digit stays the same.
When the digit removed is equal or greater than 5, the preceding digit is increased by one.
Addition & Subtraction
When adding or subtracting, the final answer should contain the same amount
of decimal places as the original # with the least amount of decimal places.
89.332 + 1.1 = 90.4
2.097 0.12 = 1.98
Ex.
6.44 rounds to 6.4 with 2 s.f.
6.46 rounds to 6.5 with 2 s.f.
Ex.
Ex.
1.2.1 Exercises:
1. Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following
a) 12 b) 1098 c) 2001
d) 2.001 x 10
3
e) 0.000 010 1 f ) 1.01 x 10
-5
g) 22.040 30 h) 100 i) 100.
j) 0.0048 k) 0.004 80 l) 4.8 x 10
-3
m) 4.80 x 10
-3
2. Use the exponential notation to express the number 670 to:
a) Four significant figures
b) Three significant figures
c) Two significant figures
d) One significant figure
1.2.1 Exercises:
3. Perform the following mathematical operations, and express the result to the correct number of
significant figures:
a) 97.381 + 4.2502 + 0.099195 =
b) 21.901 13.21 4.0215 =
c) 4.0 x 10
4
x 5.021 x 10
-3
x 7.34993 x 10
2
d) 2.00 x 10
6
=
3.00 x 10
-7
e) 9.2 x 10.65 =
8.321 + 4.026
f ) (9.04 8.23 + 21.954 + 81.0) 3.1416
1.3 Dimensional Analysis
(Chang 1.9, Textbook Problems: 1.40; 1.42; 1.44; 1.46; 1.48; 1.50; 1.52)
Dimensional Analysis: a method used to convert from one unit to another.
Converting between days & weeks. You need to find the equivalency statement.
How many days are in a week or how many weeks are in a day?
Ex.
1 week = 7 days (this is the equivalence statement)
You can divide each side of the equivalence statement by 7 days:
1 week = 7 days = 1
7 days 7 days
To convert 12 days in weeks, you use this equivalence statement.
12 days x 1 week = 1.7 weeks
7 days
One equivalence statement (e.g. 1 week = 7 days) gives 2 conversion factors
(only the week unit is left)
1 week = 7 days
7 days 1 week
1. Convert 15 km/L to miles/gallon, when 1 gallon = 3.7854118 L and 1 km = 0.625 miles.
1.3.1 Exercise:
1.4 Density (Chang, Ch 1.6)
Density: the amount of matter in a given volume.
It is the ratio of an objects mass to its volume.
The common units are:
g/mL for liquids
g/cm
3
for solids
g/L for gases
Density varies with temperature, but at a specific temperature the
density of a pure substance will not vary (it is a property of the matter).
Density = mass
volume
Note: Something of lower density (ex. ice) will float over something of higher density (liquid water).
1. A waterbed has dimensions of 2.55 m x 2.53 dm x 230 cm.
What mass of water does this bed contain (density of water = 1.00 g/cm
3
)?
1.4.1 Exercise:
1.5 Nomenclature
(Chang, 2.7, Textbook Problems: 2.58; 2.60)
The IUPAC system (International Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry) is used.
You must first know the elements to properly name compounds (the alphabet).
In this course we will deal mainly with binary & ternary compounds:
Binary: compounds formed of 2 elements.
Ternary: compounds formed of 3 elements.
Ionic compounds consists of a cation & an anion (ex. table salt, NaCl):
Ions: charged species.
Cation: a positively charged species.
Anion: a negatively charged species.
Molecular compounds consists of uncharged species (ex. sugar).
List of Elements
*the original name is shown in parentheses so that you can see where the symbol comes from.
Element Symbol Element Symbol
Aluminum Al Lithium Li
Antimony (stibium) Sb Magnesium Mg
Argon Ar Manganese Mn
Arsenic As Mercury (hydrargyrum) Hg
Barium Ba Neon Ne
Bismuth Bi Nickel Ni
Boron B Nitrogen N
Bromine Br Oxygen O
Cadmium Cd Phosphorus P
Calcium Ca Platinum Pt
Carbon C Potassium (kalium) K
Cesium Cs Radium Ra
Chlorine Cl Silicon Si
Chromium Cr Silver (argentinum) Ag
Cobalt Co Sodium (natrium) Na
Copper (cuprum) Cu Strontium Sr
Fluorine F Sulphur S
Gold (aurum) Au Tin (stannum) Sn
Helium He Titanium Ti
Hydrogen H Tungsten (wolfram) W
Iodine I Uranium U
Iron (ferrum) Fe Zinc Zn
Lead (plumbum) Pb
Oxidation State of Anions
Anions are non-metals.
When non-metals form ions their charge in generally equal to the group # minus 8.
The oxidation state is the charge.
1.5 Nomenclature
1. Bromine is in group 7A, in most ionic compounds, bromine will have an oxidation
state of 7 8 = -1 Br
1-
2. Nitrogen is in group 5A, in ionic compounds nitrogen will have an oxidation state
of 5 8 = -3 N
3-
Examples:
Cations are mainly metals.
Sometimes various non-metals can combine to form a positively charged ion (ex. NH
4
+
).
(for now, only metals will be discussed)
1.5 Nomenclature
Oxidation State of Cations
1.5.1 Exercises:
When metals from groups 1A, 2A & 3A form ions their charge is equal to their group #.
When metals from other groups form ions their charge is harder to predict;
there is often more than one possible charge that the metal will adopt.
1. Determine the oxidation state of each element in the following compounds:
a) PbCl
2
b) PbCl
4
c) CuCl d) Al
2
O
3
e) CrCl
3
Binary Ionic Compounds Type I
Type I: Ionic compounds (metal & non-metal) where the metal only has 1 oxidation state.
1.5 Nomenclature
The cation is a metal: from group 1A, 2A or 3A
Zn which has a charge of +2
Ag which has a charge of +1
Naming rules:
First, name the cation then the anion (e.g. CaCl
2
).
The anion name is the root of the name of the non-metal plus the ending ide
(ex. Cl is chlorine, therefore its root is chlor + ide making chloride).
The cation name is that of the metal (ex. Ca
2+
= calcium).
Name of common monoatomic anions
Anion Name Anion Name
H
-
Hydride Se
2-
Selenide
F
-
Fluoride Te
2-
Telluride
Cl
-
Chloride N
3-
Nitride
Br
-
Bromide P
3-
Phosphide
I
-
Iodide C
4-
Carbide
O
2-
Oxide Si
4-
Silicide
S
2-
Sulfide
1. Supply the following names or formulas:
a) K
2
O c) Zn
3
N
2
c) BaS d) AlH
3
e) Silver oxide f ) Beryllium iodide
g) Lithium phosphide h) Calcium carbide
1.5 Nomenclature
1.5.2 Exercises:
Binary Ionic Compounds Type II
1.5 Nomenclature
Type II: Ionic compounds (metal & non-metal) where the metal has more than one
oxidation state.
named in the same fashion as type I except that the oxidation state must
be indicated by one of two methods.
Method 1: using Roman numerals (method used in this course & in newer textbooks).
The oxidation state is added in brackets in roman numeral, after the name of the
cation & before the name of the anion.
Ex. PbCl
2
where Pb
2+
is the cation
PbCl
2
= Lead (II) chloride
Method 2: using the Latin name (method not used anymore but in older textbooks).
The ion with the highest charge gets the ending ic.
The ion with the lowest charge gets the ending ous.
Ex. FeCl
3
= ferric chloride
FeCl
2
= ferrous chloride
Naming rules:
Common Type II Cations
Metal Possible Oxidation States Older Names (method 2)
Cr +2, +3 Chromic, chromous
Mn +2, +4 Manganic, manganous
Fe +2, +3 Ferric, ferrous
Co +2, +3 Cobaltic, cobaltous
Ni +2, +3 Nickelic, nickelous
Cu +1, +2 Cupric, cuprous
Hg +1*, +2 Mercuric, mercurous
Sn +2, +4 Stannic, stannous
Pb +2, +4 Plumbic, plumbous
*Hg with an oxidation state of +1 will always exist as its dimer, Hg
2
2+
1. Name the following compounds:
a) CuCl b) HgO c) Fe
2
O
3
d) MnO
2
e) PbCl
2
f ) CoBr
2
g) CaCl
2
h) Al
2
O
3
i) CrCl
3
1.5.3 Exercises:
Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Cations or Anions
1.5 Nomenclature
The only polyatomic cation that we will see is NH
4
+
= ammonium.
Oxyanions: a non-metal can be combined with various #s of oxygens which creates
different anions.
a oxyanion series has the same central non-metal but a various # of oxygens
(members of the same series will have the same charge).
If the series has 2 members (e.g. SO
4
2-
, SO
3
2-
):
The one with the smaller # of oxygen is written with the root of the
element plus the ending ite (ex. SO
3
2-
= sulfite).
The one with the larger number of oxygen is written with the root
of the element plus the ending ate (ex. SO
4
2-
= sulfate).
When the series has 4 members (X = Cl, Br & I):
XO
-
: hypo + root of element + ite
XO
2
-
: root of element + ite
XO
3
-
: root of element + ate
XO
4
-
: per + root of element + ate
Summary Flow Chart
Modifications:
If hydrogen is added to an oxyanion but the species remains an anion (e.g. SO
4
2-
to
HSO
4
-
) the name hydrogen must be added in front of the name of the oxyanion.
Ex. SO
4
2-
= sulfate
HSO
4
-
= hydrogen sulfate
If 2 hydrogens are added to an oxyanion but the species remains an anion (e.g. PO
4
3-
to H
2
PO
4
-
) the name hydrogen plus a # prefix is added in front of the name of the
oxyanion.
Ex. PO
4
3-
= phosphate
H
2
PO
4
-
= dihydrogen phosphate
Others:
OH
-
, CN
-
, C
2
O
4
2-
, SCN
-
, C
2
H
3
O
2
-
, MnO
4
-
, Cr
2
O
7
2-
, CrO
4
2-
, O
2
2-
, S
2
O
3
2-
Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Cations or Anions
1.5 Nomenclature
Ion Name Other ions derived
NO
3
-
Nitrate NO
2
-
= nitrite
SO
4
2-
Sulfate HSO
4
-
= hydrogen sulfate
SO
3
2-
= sulfite
HSO
3
-
= hydrogen sulfite
PO
4
3-
Phosphate HPO
4
2-
= hydrogen phosphate
H
2
PO
4
-
= dihydrogen phosphate
PO
3
3-
= phosphite
HPO
3
2-
= hydrogen phosphite
H
2
PO
3
-
= dihydrogen phosphite
CO
3
2-
Carbonate HCO
3
-
= hydrogen carbonate
ClO
3
-
Chlorate ClO
-
= hypochlorite
ClO
2
-
= chlorite
ClO
4
-
= perchlorate
BrO
3
-
Bromate BrO
-
= hypobromite
BrO
2
-
= bromite
BrO
4
-
= perbromate
IO
3
-
Iodate IO
-
= hypoiodite
IO
2
-
= iodite
IO
4
-
= periodate
OH
-
hydroxide
CN
-
cyanide
C
2
O
4
2-
Oxalate
SCN
-
Thiocyanate
C
2
H
3
O
2
-
Acetate
MnO
4
-
Permanganate
Cr
2
O
7
2-
Dichromate
CrO
4
2-
Chromate
O
2
2-
Peroxide
S
2
O
3
2-
Thiosulfate
Summary of
Polyatomic Anions
1.5.4 Exercises:
1. Name the following compounds:
a) KMnO
4
b) Ba(OH)
2
c) Fe(OH)
3
d) NaH
2
PO
4
e) (NH
4
)
2
Cr
2
O
7
f ) NaBrO
4
g) KIO
3
h) Ca(OCl)
2
i) Cr(NO
3
)
3
Binary Covalent Compounds Type III
1.5 Nomenclature
These compounds contain only non-metals.
Covalent bonds hold the atoms together (not ionic).
Since there are no ions, we cannot determine the ratio of atoms by their charges.
These can combine in a variety of ratios.
Number prefixes will be used
to identify the relative # of each
atomin the formula.
Prefix Number it
indicates
Mono- 1
Di- 2
Tri- 3
Tetra- 4
Penta- 5
Hexa- 6
Hepta- 7
Octa- 8
Nona- 9
Deca- 10
The first element in the formula is named as the element:
The prefix mono is not used.
All other number prefixes are used.
The second element is named by using the root of the element plus the ending ide
Exceptions:
1. Name the following molecules:
a) N
2
O b) NO
c) NO
2
d) N
2
O
3
e) N
2
O
4
g) N
2
O
5
Binary Covalent Compounds Type III
1.5 Nomenclature
1.5.5 Exercises:
Mono is not used for hydrogen halide (HF, HCl, HBr or HI).
In oxides, when the # prefix ends with an a or o vowel, it is omitted.
Summary Flow Chart
Molecular Compounds Containing Hydrogen
1.5 Nomenclature
For these compounds non-systematic names are used,
the following common names must be memorized:
NH
3
ammonia
H
2
O water
PH
3
phosphine
H
2
S hydrogen sulfide
CH
4
methane
SiH
4
silane
B
2
H
6
diborane
Acids
1.5 Nomenclature
Acid: a substance that will yield H
+
when dissolved in water (other definitions will
be seen in the NYB course). The cation is hydrogen!
Type 1:
Type 2:
The anion doesnt contain oxygen & is dissolved in water:
it is named: hydro + root of element + ic acid
The anion contains oxygen:
if the anion name ends in -ate, the ate is replaced by ic acid
if the anion name ends in ite, the ite is replaced by ous acid
Type 3: Organic acids (usually have the CO
2
H functionality:
Ex. HCO
2
H (formic acid, also H
2
CO
2
)
CH
3
CO
2
H, acetic acid (HC
2
H
3
O
2
, C
2
H
4
O
2
, CH
3
COOH or)
1.5.6 Exercises:
1. Name the following compounds:
a) HCl (aq) b) HNO
3
c) HNO
2
d) HF (aq)
e) HBr (aq) f ) H
2
SO
4
g) H
2
SO
3
h) HI (aq)
i) HCN (aq) j) H
3
PO
4
k) H
2
S (aq) l) HC
2
H
3
O
2
Summary Flowchart
Hydrates: compounds that have a specific # of water molecules trapped in their
crystals.
Hydrates
1.5 Nomenclature
Number prefixes are used to denote the # of water molecules.
1. Name the following:
a) CuSO
4
5H
2
O
b) Na
2
CO
3
10H
2
O
c) MgSO
4
7H
2
O
1.5.7 Exercises:
Ex. ZnSO47H2O
zinc sulfate heptahydrate
1.5.8 Exercises:
N
2
O
3
Mg(OH)
2
(NH
4
)
2
CO
3
Fe
3
(PO
4
)
2
CoBr
3
CaI
2
PCl
5
P
2
O
5
FeCl
2
NaNO
3
Na
2
CrO
4
HBrO
CuSO
3
Ca
3
N
2
Li
2
SO
4
HgS
KNO
2
LiH
FeCr
2
O
7
N
2
O
NaHCO
3
Ba(NO
3
)
2
KHSO
4
Ba(ClO
3
)
2
Cu
2
O AlPO
4
Ba(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
2
NaIO
3
Cu(CN)
2
K
2
SO
3
SO
3
Mg(ClO
4
)
2
H
3
PO
4
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4
N
2
O
5
NaC
2
H
3
O
2
HNO
2
KMnO
4
1. Name the following compounds:
Magnesium sulfide Tin (II) bromide
Calcium hydroxide Lithium hydrogen carbonate
Hydroiodic acid Calcium fluoride
Aluminum nitrate Ammonium hydrogen sulfate
Copper (I) cyanide Sodium sulfide
Iron (II) sulfate Phosphorous acid
Perbromic acid Carbon monoxide
Iron (III) bromide Potassium chromate
Zinc permanganate Hydrogen peroxide
Potassium nitrate Calcium nitride
Iron (III) chromate Dinitrogen trioxide
Sulfurous acid Magnesium chloride
Magnesium chlorate Ammonium carbonate
Cobalt (II) hydroxide Nitric acid
Sodium hydroxide Diphosphorus pentasulfide
Lithium sulfite Sodium hypochlorite
Ammonium dichromate Mercury (II) nitrate
Diphosphorus pentoxide Sulfuric acid
Iron (III) carbonate Calcium acetate
Nickel (II) perchlorate Potassium sulfite
Magnesium hydrogen sulfite Tin (IV) bromide
Sulfur hexafluoride Iron (III) cyanide
Ammonium carbonate Phosphoric acid
Lithium dichromate Iron (II) hydroxide
1.5.8 Exercises:
2. Write the formulas for the following compounds:
1.6 The Mole & Molar Mass
(Chang, 3.2, Textbook Problems: 3.14; 3.16; 3.18; 3.20; 3.22 )
Atoms are extremely small therefore it isnt useful to count individual atoms.
One mole of a substance is equal to 6.022 x 10
23
units of that substance
(ex. analogy with a dozen).
1 mole = 6.022 x 10
23
(known as Avogadros number)
Molar mass:
Molar mass (M) = mass (g)
moles (mol)
We can also add the masses of the individual atoms in a molecule
or compound & find the molar mass of that species.
the mass of one mole of an atomas indicated in the periodic table.
1.6.1 Exercises:
1. Calculate the molar mass of calcium carbonate.
2. A certain sample of calcium carbonate contains 4.86 moles. What is the mass (in grams) of the
sample? What is the mass of carbonate ions present?
3. Convert 4.80 g of KHC
8
H
4
O
4
to the number of moles of KHC
8
H
4
O
4
.
1.6.1 Exercises:
4. Convert 0.01132 mol of MgSO
4
7H
2
O to its number of grams.
5. What is the mass of water in 0.01132 mol of MgSO
4
7H
2
O?
6. Convert 362 g of H
2
SO
4
to the number of molecules of H
2
SO
4
.
7. Convert 9.0 x 10
15
molecules of KHC
8
H
4
O
4
to the number of moles of KHC
8
H
4
O
4
.
1.6.1 Exercises:
8. For aspartame, C
14
H
18
N
2
O
5
a) How many hydrogen atoms are present in 10.0 g of aspartame?
b) What is the mass in grams of one molecule of aspartame?
9. Isopentyl acetate (C
7
H
14
O
2
) is a compound responsible for the scent of bananas. Interestingly, bees
release about 1 g of this compound when they sting. The resulting scent attracts other bees to join in
the attack.
a) How many molecules of isopentyl acetate are released in a typical bee sting?
b) How many carbon atoms are present?
1.7 Percent Composition
(Chang, 3.5, Textbook Problems: 3.40; 3.42)
There is an analytical machine that can find the % composition
of each element in a compound.
This information can then be used to find the empirical formula.
The mass % of an atom in a compound is:
Mass % = mass of element in compound x 100%
mass of compound
Mass % = n x molar mass of element x 100%
molar mass of compound
1.7.1 Exercises:
1. Calculate the mass percent (with 4 s.f.) of each element in:
a) Carvone, C
10
H
14
O
b) Ca(H
2
PO
4
)
2
c) Penicillin F, C
14
H
20
N
2
SO
4
1.8 Empirical and Molecular Formula
(Chang, 3.5, Textbook Problems: 3.44; 3.50; 3.52; 3.54)
Molecular formula: indicates the # of atoms of each element in a compound.
Empirical formula: the simplest ratio between the # of atoms of the elements
making up the compound.
The reason the empirical formula is called empirical is because it can be obtained
by an analytical instrument.
From this one can obtain the molecular formula if you know the molar mass.
Molecular formula = (empirical formula) x n
Benzene:
Molecular formula = C
6
H
6
Empirical formula = CH
(where n is an integer)
Ex.
1.8.1 Exercises:
1. Analysis of the hydrocarbon C
x
H
y
reveals a hydrogen content of 11.84% by mass. What is the
empirical formula?
2. Consider the following reaction: Li
2
CO
3
(s) + Co
2
O
3
(s) CO
2
(g) + black compound
The black compound contains 7.09% Li, 60.2% Co and 32.7% O. Identify the empirical formula of
the product.
1.8.1 Exercises:
3. A caffeine sample contains 0.624 g C, 0.065 g H, 0.364 g N and 0.208 g O.
What is the empirical formula of caffeine? The molecular weight of caffeine is 194.2 g/mol.
What is the molecular formula of caffeine?
4. The antibiotic sulphanilamide has the following percent composition: 41.9% C, 4.65% H, 18.6%
S, 16.3% N and 18.6% O. Find the empirical formula of sulphanilamide. The molecular weight of
sulphanilamide is 172 g. What is the molecular formula?
1.9 Chemical Equations
(Chang, 3.7, Textbook Problems: 3.60)
When representing a chemical equation, certain conventions are followed:
Reactants are on the left & products on the right; they are separated by an arrow.
The physical state of the reactants & products are added.
C
2
H
5
OH
(l)
+ 3 O
2(g)
2 CO
2(g)
+ 3 H
2
O
(l)
Ex.
State Symbol
Solid (s)
Liquid (l)
Gas (g)
Dissolved in water
(aqueous)
(aq)
The reaction coefficients, representing the ratio of each reactant, are indicated
(in a reaction no atoms are created or destroyed therefore all atoms in the reactants
must be accounted for in the products).
Balancing Chemical Equations
1.9 Chemical Equations
1. Determine what reaction is occurring: write down the reactants, products &
physical states.
2. Balance all atoms other than hydrogen & oxygen (never change the actual formula
of the reactant, only the coefficient in front of the formula).
3. Balance hydrogen.
4. Balance oxygen.
5. Double check your work making sure the equation is balanced.
1.9.1 Exercises:
1. Balance the following equations
a) CH
4
(g) + O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) + H
2
O (l)
b) (NH
4
)
2
Cr
2
O
7
(s) Cr
2
O
3
(s) + N
2
(g) + H
2
O (l)
c) NH
3
(g) + O
2
(g) NO (g) + H
2
O (l)
d) Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
(s) + H
2
SO
4
(aq) CaSO
4
(s) + H
3
PO
4
(aq)
e) NaOH (aq) + H
3
PO
4
(aq) Na
3
PO
4
(aq) + H
2
O (l)
1.10 Stoichiometry
(Chang, 3.8, Textbook Problems: 3.64; 3.66; 3.68; 3.70; 3.72; 3.74; 3.76; 3.78)
Coefficients in the balanced equation represent the ratio with moles (or molecules);
it is not a ratio of masses.
In chemistry, all stoichiometric calculations require units to be in moles
(convert masses to moles using the molar mass).
Steps to follow to solve a problem using stoichiometry:
1. All chemical equations need to be balanced.
2. Convert unit (i.e. mass) to moles.
3. Set up a mole ratio.
4. Use the mole ratio to calculate the moles of the desired substance.
5. Convert moles to desired unit (i.e. mass).
1.10.1 Exercises:
1. In the combustion of propane (C
3
H
8
), what mass of oxygen will react with 96.1 g of propane?
C
3
H
8
(g) + O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) + H
2
O (l)
2. Baking soda (NaHCO
3
) is often used as an antacid. It neutralizes excess HCl in your stomach:
NaHCO
3
(aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H
2
O (l) + CO
2
(g)
Milk of magnesia (Mg(OH)
2
), is also used as an antacid:
Mg(OH)
2
(s) + HCl (aq) H
2
O (l) + MgCl
2
(aq)
Which is more effective per 1.00 g of antacid?
1.11 Limiting Reagent & Percent Yield
(Chang, 3.9 & 3.10,Textbook Problems: 3.82; 3.84; 3.86; 3.90; 3.92; 3.94)
Limiting reagent: the reactant that is consumed first
(limits the amount of products formed).
Percent yield: indicates the efficiency of a particular reaction.
% yield = actual yield x 100%
theoretical yield
1.11.1 Exercises:
1. Consider the following reaction: HNO
3
(aq) + Ca(OH)
2
(s) Ca(NO
3
)
2
(aq) + H
2
O (l)
What weight of calcium nitrate can be produced by the reaction of 18.9 g of nitric acid with 7.4 g
of calcium hydroxide? How many moles of which reagent will remain unreacted?
1.11.1 Exercises:
2. Consider the following reaction: P (s) + S (s) P
4
S
3
(s)
How many grams of tetraphosphorus trisulfide (used in manufacturing matches) can be produced
from 62.0 g of phosphorus and 38.6 g of sulfur? How many grams of which reagent will remain
unreacted?
3. Consider the following reaction: HBr (aq) + Fe(OH)
3
(s) FeBr
3
(aq) + H
2
O (l)
What weight of iron (III) bromide can be produced by the reaction of 30.0 g of hydrogen bromide
with 10.0 g of iron (III) hydroxide? Given that the percentage yield is 66%, how many grams of iron
(III) bromide are obtained?
1.12 Solutions
(Chang, 4.5, Textbook Problems: 4.60; 4.62; 4.64; 4.66)
Solution: a homogeneous mixture between a solvent & solute(s).
Solvent: the dissolving substance (the substance in greatest quantity).
Solute: the substance dissolved (present in smaller amount in the solution).
Molarity
It is possible to describe a solutions concentration by using its molarity:
Molarity (M) = moles of solute
volume of solution (l)
Stoichiometry problems can be performed with solutions as well as with masses
(molarity is used to convert volume to moles).
1.12.1 Exercises:
1. A solution can be prepared by mixing 1.00 g of ethanol (C
2
H
5
OH) with 100.0 g of water to give a final
volume of 101 mL. Calculate the molarity of ethanol in the solution.
2. A sulphuric acid solution of density 1.802 g/mL contains 88.0% H
2
SO
4
by weight. Find the weight of
H
2
SO
4
per liter of solution. Find the molarity of the solution.
1.12.1 Exercises:
3. A 325 mL sample of a solution contains 25.3 g CaCl
2
(111 g/mol). Calculate the molarity of Cl
-
ions in
solution. How many grams of Cl
-
are there in 0.100L of this solution?
4. Find the weight percent of calcium carbonate in a 2.00 g sample of rock if it reacts with 30.0 mL of
0.60 M H
2
SO
4
according to the following reaction:
CaCO
3
(s) + H
2
SO
4
(aq) CaSO
4
(s) + H
2
O (l) + CO
2
(g)
5. What volume of a 0.200 M solution of AgNO
3
is required to react with 12.2 g of K
3
PO
4
?
AgNO
3
(aq) + K
3
PO
4
(aq) Ag
3
PO
4
(s) + KNO
3
(aq)
6. What mass of Fe(OH)
3
would be produced by reacting 75.00 mL of 0.105 M Fe(NO
3
)
3
with 125.0 mL
of 0.150 M NaOH? NaOH(aq) + Fe(NO
3
)
3
(aq) Fe(OH)
3
(s) + NaNO
3
(aq)
1.12.1 Exercises:
7. The percentage of sodium chloride in a mixture was determined by adding 0.0811 M AgNO
3
to a
0.300 g sample of the mixture dissolved in water. It was found that 27.30 mL of AgNO
3
solution was
required for a complete reaction: NaCl (aq) + AgNO
3
(aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO
3
(aq)
a) What was the percent by mass of sodium chloride in the mixture?
b) How many grams of AgCl precipitated?
c) Given that the final volume of the solution is 50.00 mL, calculate the molarity of sodium nitrate in
that solution.
8. A sample of magnesium metal reacted completely when allowed to stand in 0.100 L of 0.1000 M HCl.
The excess acid was neutralized by titration with 32.0 mL of 0.125 M KOH. What was the mass of the
sample of magnesium? Mg (s) + HCl (aq) MgCl
2
(aq) + H
2
(g)
HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) KCl (aq) + H
2
O (l)
1.12.1 Exercises:
9. Stomach acid, a dilute solution of HCl in water, can be neutralized by reaction with sodium
hydrogen carbonate. How many millilitres of 0.125 M NaHCO
3
solution are needed to neutralize 18.0
mL of 0.100 M HCl? HCl (aq) + NaHCO
3
(aq) NaCl (aq) + H
2
O (l) + CO
2
(g)
10. What volume of 0.250 M H
2
SO
4
is needed to react with 50.0 mL of 0.100 M NaOH?
H
2
SO
4
(aq) + NaOH (aq) Na
2
SO
4
(aq) + H
2
O (l)
1.12.1 Exercises:
1.13 Dilutions
(Chang, 4.5, Textbook Problems: 4.70; 4.72; 4.74)
Sometimes quantities needed to make a solution are very small (difficult to weigh);
dilutions are used to create the solution with the right concentration.
Water is added to the concentrated solution (i.e. stock solution)
to create a dilute solution.
Since only water is added in a dilution, the initial moles of solute is equal to the final
moles of solute, hence:
mol
initial
= mol
final
M
i
V
i
= M
f
V
f
C
1
V
1
= C
2
V
2
1.13.1 Exercises:
1. You have 505 mL of a 0.125 M HCl solution and you want to dilute it to 0.100 M.
How much water should you add?
2. Describe how to prepare 1.500L of 0.8460 M HBr solution starting with a 2.000 M solution
Gases
Gases have the property of being fluid & elastic. With the slightest force, air molecules
are set in motion, creating sound waves (ex. the simple rubbing of a crickets legs
produces a molecular turbulence that can be heard up to 2 Km away).
Gas molecules are in continual motion, travelling at great speeds and colliding with
one another and with the walls of the container. The collisions are however elastic
and the molecules bounce back without loosing any energy.
Convinced that air has a consistency, an early Greek
philosopher (5
th
century B.C.) proposed that air has a mass.
A century later, Aristotle declared that no vacuum
can exist in nature: Nature abhors a vacuum.
Galileo (17
th
century) proved that air possesses a mass by
equilibrating a sealed flask under vacuum with a certain amount
of sand. After allowing air to enter the flask, he observed that the
flask was now heavier than the amount of sand.
Boyles Law
This required 76 cm of Hg and, since Boyle knew
that 76 cm of Hg equals the atmospheric pressure,
the conclusion is that doubling the pressure
reduces by half the volume.
He then added mercury on the
open end until the volume
was reduced by half.
Robert Boyle studied the relationship
between the pressure of a gas & its volume.
He marked a scale on each side of a U-shaped
tube and filled it with mercury and trapped
a certain volume of air.
When the temperature is held constant, the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas
is inversely proportional to the pressure of this gas.
pV = k
1
To compare a given mass of an ideal gas in 2
different states we can write the following
equations if the temperature is kept constant:
(pV)
initial
= (pV)
final
p
1
V
1
= p
2
V
2
Volume (l)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
b
a
r
)
Pressure as a function of volume.
The product of Pressure Volume is
constant for a given mass of a gas (k is a constant
for a given sample of air at a specific temperature).
Boyles Law
Charles Law
At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of gas varies proportionally to the
absolute temperature (give example). So, at constant pressure:
k
2
= V
T
_V_ = _V_
T T
( ) ( )
initial final
V
1
= V
2
T
1
T
2
(T
1
and T
2
are absolutes temperatures)
So, comparing a given mass of gas at
2 different states we can write the following
equations (at constant pressure):
Volume as a function of temperature
(for several gases).
-273
o
C = 0 Kelvin
Gay-Lussacs Law
At constant volume, the pressure of a given mass of gas
varies proportionally to the absolute temperature.
k
3
= p
T
P
1
= P
2
T
1
T
2
So, comparing a given mass of gas in 2
different states we can give the following
equation (at constant volume):
Temperature (K)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
P
a
)
Pressure as a function of temperature.
(T
1
and T
2
are absolutes temperatures)
_P_ = _P_
T T
( ) ( )
initial final
Avogadros Law (Volumes & Moles)
V
1
= V
2
n
1
n
2
a = V
n
a = proportionality
constant
Avogadros Law: for a gas at constant temperature & pressure, the volume is directly
proportional to the # of moles (regardless of its molar mass).
Pressure as a function
of the # of moles
_V_ = _V_
n n
( ) ( )
initial final
The Ideal Gas Law (Putting it all together!)
Ideal Gases obey these simple laws at sufficiently low pressures & high temperatures.
The laws only apply to gases that do not undergo chemical reactions (ex. dimerization of NO2 to N2O4).
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
T
1
T
2
R = universal gas constant = 0.08206 Latm/Kmol
PV = nRT
Pressure, volume & temperature:
Pressure, volume , temperature & moles:
By incorporating the # of moles:
a = V (constant T & P: Avogadros Law)
n
We can bring all of these laws together into one comprehensive law:
k = PV (constant T & n: Boyles Law)
k2 = V (constant P & n: Charles Law)
T
k3 = P (constant V & n: Gay-Lussacs Law)
T
STP = standard temperature & pressure = 0 C and 1 atm.
1.14 Gas stoichiometry
(Chang, 5.3 5.5, Textbook Problems: 5.32; 5.34; 5.52; 5.54; 5.56; 5.58; 5.60)
Physical properties of gases are defined with 4 variables:
P = pressure
V = volume
T = temperature (in Kelvin)
n = # of moles
Things to remember about gases:
Boyles Law:
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
Charles Law:
V
1
= V
2
T
1
T
2
(at constant P & n)
(at constant T & n)
Avogadros Law:
Ideal Gas Law:
V
1
= V
2
n
1
n
2
(at constant P & T)
Using the ideal gas, any mole of ideal gas at STP has a volume of 22.4L.
PV = nRT
R = 0.08206 Latm/molK
STP: standard temperature & pressure (T = 273 K (0
o
C) & P = 1 atm)
Important conversion factors:
1.000 atm= 760.0 mm Hg = 760.0 torr = 101.325 kPa
Ideal Gas Law:
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
T
1
T
2
1.14.1 Exercises:
1. Consider the following reaction: CH
3
OH (l) + O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) + H
2
O (g)
If 40.0 g of methanol (CH
3
OH) is placed in a reaction vessel with 46.0 g of oxygen gas, a total of 19.3
liters of CO
2
is actually obtained at STP. What is the % yield of CO
2
? How many grams of CO
2
were
formed?
2. Consider the following reaction: CCl
4
(l) + SbF
3
(l) CCl
2
F
2
(g) + SbCl
3
(l)
If 150 g of CCl
4
are mixed with 200 g of SbF
3
, how many grams of CCl
2
F
2
can be formed?
Calculate the volume of CCl
2
F
2
gas at 30 C and 0.90 atm.
1.14.1 Exercises:
3. How many liters of gaseous hydrogen at 150 C and 1.34 atmwill be produced when 55.0 g of
aluminum metal are reacted with 425 mL of 6.00 M sulphuric acid?
Al (s) + H
2
SO
4
(aq) Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
(aq) + H
2
(g)
4. Consider the following reaction: MnO
2
(s) + HCl (aq) MnCl
2
+ Cl
2
(g) + H
2
O (l)
Calculate the expected volume of chlorine gas, measured at 812 mm Hg and 24 C, when 1.44 g of
MnO
2
reacted with 50.0 mL of 1.25 M HCl solution. If 278 mL of chlorine gas was collected at the same
temperature and pressure, find the percentage yield.
5. A sample of diborane gas, B
2
H
6
, has a pressure of 345 mm Hg at a temperature of -15 C and a
volume of 3.48 L. If conditions were changed so that the temperature is 36 C and the pressure is
468 mm Hg, what will be the volume of this sample?
6. Hydrogen gas is often produced by the reaction of magnesium and hydrochloric acid:
Mg (s) + HCl (aq) MgCl
2
(aq) + H
2
(g)
If sufficient acid were used to react completely with 7.000 g Mg, what volume of hydrogen would be
collected on a day when the temperature was 28 C and the pressure was 765 mm Hg?
1.14.1 Exercises:
1.15 Daltons Law of Partial Pressures
(Chang, 5.6, Textbook Problems: 5.64; 5.66; 5.68; 5.70; 5.72)
The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases in a container (at constant V & T)
equals the sum of the pressures of each individual gas:
P
total
= P
1
+ P
2
+ P
3
+ ...
1.15.1 Exercises:
1. Mixtures of helium and oxygen are used in scuba diving tanks to help prevent the bends. For a
particular dive, 46 L of O
2
at 25 C and 1.0 atm, and 12 L of He at 25 C and 1.0 atmwere pumped into a
tank with a volume of 5.0 L. Calculate the partial pressure of each gas and the total pressure in the tank
at 25 C.
2. For a mixture of 2.41 g of He & 2.79 g of Ne in an evacuated 1.04 L contained at 25 C, what will be the
partial pressure of each gas & the total pressure in the container?